Empathy and Alfred Adler: An Integral Perspective
Arthur J. Clark
The Journal of Individual Psychology, Volume 72, Number 4, Winter 2016,
pp. 237-253 (Article)
Published by University of Texas Press
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jip.2016.0020
For additional information about this article
https://muse.jhu.edu/article/640292
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Empathy and Alfred Adler: An Integral Perspective
Arthur J. Clark
Abstract
Empathy and empathic understanding are prominent in the theoretical orientation
of Alfred Adler. He recognized the common occurrence of empathy in the lives of
people and the critical role of the process in counseling and psychotherapy. From a
contemporary perspective, an integral model of empathy encompasses three ways of
knowing: subjective, interpersonal, and objective. In each modality, Adler’s empathic
sensibility is possible to discern through a range of written accounts pertaining to
his work. Subjective and interpersonal empathy involve experiential functions, and
the objective mode relates to theoretically-informed perspectives. The article helps
clarify Adler’s theoretical conceptualizations and therapeutic practices in the context
of an integral model of empathy.
Keywords: Individual Psychology, Alfred Adler, empathy
When a person accidently drops a glass, or a speaker loses presence of
mind, most people observing these occurrences empathize with the distress
of each individual. At exciting football games, whole groups of spectators
empathically arch their bodies in the direction of their favorite team as the
players catch passes or run down the field. In the theater, when viewing
plays or films, patrons identify with the joys and sorrows of the performers.
Alfred Adler (1927) mentioned each of these common human experiences
as illustrations of empathy in social interactions of everyday life. Empathy
also assumed a prominent role in Adler’s theoretical orientation of Individual
Psychology (Clark, 2007). In his treatment practices and conceptual formulations, empathy is notable as a key factor in understanding the feelings
and meanings of a diverse range of clients. For Adler, empathy provided
a means for experientially grasping the immediate functioning of an individual. At the same time, Adler utilized empathy from a broader perspective
when employing such theoretical constructs as the lifestyle and holism in
the service of understanding clients through conceptual knowledge. Early in
the 20th century, Adler made explicit reference to empathy in a number of
his writings, and various individuals documented accounts of his empathic
style in therapy and interpersonal contexts. Consequently, Adler should be
considered the first theorist to explicate the developmental and therapeutic
significance of empathy.
The Journal of Individual Psychology, Vol. 72, No. 4, Winter 2016
©2016 by the University of Texas Press
Editorial office located in the College of Education at Georgia State University.
Published for the North American Society of Adlerian Psychology.
238 Arthur J. Clark
In defining empathy, Adler (1930/1963) made reference to a quotation
from an anonymous English author, “One must see with the other person’s
eyes, hear with his ears, and feel with his heart” (p. 164). The ability to identify with a person is essential in Adler’s view for empathically understanding
what it is like to be that particular individual. Although there is ambiguity
and debate in the counseling and psychotherapy literature about the precise
meaning of empathy, a broad consensus exists pertaining to its value as a
therapeutic variable (Wampold & Imel, 2015). Diverse psychotherapies recognize the importance of empathy and empathic understanding in fostering
open communication and trust, involvement and satisfaction in the therapy
process, and successful treatment outcomes (Bohart, Elliott, Greenberg, &
Watson, 2002; Norcross, 2010).
Among the numerous meanings of empathy in the literature, a relatively
new definition conceptualizes the process from multiple perspectives in
therapeutic treatment (Clark, 2007). Integral empathy involves an attune­
ment with the feelings and meanings of an individual through the engagement of subjective, interpersonal, and objective modalities. In a framework
that utilizes the three knowledge channels, integral empathy is compatible
with Adler’s holistic orientation. This article helps clarify Adler’s theoretical conceptualizations and therapeutic practices with respect to an integral
model of empathy.
An Integral Model of Empathy in Counseling and Psychotherapy
In the treatment relationship, an integral model encompasses subjective,
interpersonal, and objective empathy (Clark, 2004, 2007, 2009, 2010a). As
a reciprocal process, subjective empathy relates to a practitioner’s internal
reactions in dialogue with a client. When attempting to empathically under­
stand an individual, there is a potential for counselors to momentarily engage
their subjective empathy capacities of identification, imagination, intuition,
and embodiment. In each of these functions the counselor experiences, for
a fleeting period, what it is like to be the client. A correspondence of experiencing with a client by a practitioner is often sufficient to trigger a degree of
identification (Ridge, Campbell, & Martin, 2002). When assuming a creative
and exploratory posture, counselors are in a position to utilize their imagination and evoke mental images and emotional states similar to those of a
client (Clark & Simpson, 2013). Another subjective empathy response occurs
when the counselor, employing intuition, generates hunches and flashes of
insight when reacting to a client’s experiencing (Rea, 2001). At times, a practitioner may also experience embodied sensations that emerge when listening to evocative narrations of an individual (Cooper, 2001; Shaw, 2004).
Empathy and Adler 239
As a way of knowing that is conceptually more familiar to most counselors, interpersonal empathy focuses on the internal frame of reference of
a client through a relational process (Ivey, Ivey, Myers, & Sweeney, 2005).
Drawing from the verbal and nonverbal communications of the client, the
counselor endeavors to express an empathic understanding of the phenomenological experiencing back to the individual. From an objective empa­
thy stance, a counselor utilizes theoretically informed material in order to
empathically discern a client’s functioning from a broader referential perspective. This may include such conceptions as the lifestyle and holism that
characterize an individual’s uniqueness in comparison to other people.
In counseling practice, a practitioner triangulates among the three empathy modalities depending on the particular treatment context with a client
(Rothbauer, 2008).
An Integral Model of Empathy and Adler
The multiple modalities of an integral model of empathy are possible
to align with Adler’s theoretical conceptualizations and treatment practices
given their holistic focus (Adler, 1929/1969; Clark, 2007). With respect to a
subjective modality, Adler believed that the capacity to identify with people
and engage intuition are universal human endowments for empathically
under­standing others (Adler, 1927, 1933/1964b). In Adler’s view, a person’s
imagination has the potential to stimulate vivid mental images of the life
experiences of other individuals (Adler, 1931/1958). Also implicit in Adler’s
treatment approach is his recognition of the potential for a practitioner to
empathically understand clients through an awareness of internal sensations
that are grounded in the body (Adler, 1927).
From an interpersonal empathy perspective, Adler’s therapeutic approach reflects a phenomenological way of empathically understanding a
client. Written accounts of his style of interacting with numerous individuals suggest an attentive and receptive quality that is intrinsic to empathy
and empathic functioning (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, 1979; Manaster,
Painter, Deutsch, & Overholt, 1977). Relating to objective empathy, there
is an inherent relationship between empathy and the central Adlerian constructs of lifestyle, social interest, and holism. In order to comprehensively
understand another person it is necessary to empathically grasp the lifestyle
of the individual (Adler, 1927, 1929/1969). The presence or lack of empathy
manifested in a person’s functioning is suggestive of a qualitative degree of
social interest. When viewing the human personality holistically, patterns
are possible to detect which clarify an individual’s uniqueness at more comprehensive and inclusive levels.
240 Arthur J. Clark
Subjective Empathy and Adler
In his written works Adler made reference to identification, imagination,
intuition, and the embodiment process in the context of discussions relating to empathy. Commentary pertaining to the four internal referents will
contribute to clarifying Adler’s thinking as it relates to subjective empathy
in the therapeutic process (Adler, 1927, 1929/1969). Additionally, particular
individuals have acknowleged Adler’s ability to vicariously grasp the experiencing of a range of persons in various contexts (Manaster et al., 1977).
Identification. Adler recognized identification as a fundamental factor
for empathically understanding another person across the spectrum of social
interactions (May, 1939). Adler (1927) pointed out that, “Empathy occurs in
the moment one human being speaks with another. It is impossible to understand another individual if it is impossible at the same time to identify oneself with him” (pp. 60–61). In observing the essential nature of empathy for
purposeful communication, Adler (1927) contended that identification is an
inherent endowment of people. Relating to this point, Adler (1927) stated,
“We call this faculty identification, or empathy. It is extraordinarily developed in human beings. Its extent is so great that one finds it in every corner
of the psychic life” (p. 60). From a treatment perspective, Adler frequently
referred to clinical cases in his writings (Adler, 1929/1964a, 1929/1969,
1930/1963), and it is reasonable to speculate that he would employ his own
capacity for identification in order to gain an empathic understanding of
clients. As an example, Adler (1929/1969) discussed the plight of an early
adolescent female who began acting out upon entering high school and felt
isolated and unappreciated within her family and community. With respect
to his therapeutic approach, Adler (1929/1969) noted, “In treating a case of
this sort, identification—the ability to place oneself empathically in the situation of a person—is all-important” (p. 109).
As a facet of subjective empathy, identification involves a counselor’s
momentary resonance of commonality with a client in a treatment context
(Beres & Arlow, 1974; Ehmann, 1971; Ridge et al., 2002). When engaging
identification in a counseling setting, a practitioner briefly senses what it is
like to be the client by drawing on similarities of experience (McWilliams,
2004; Stewart, 1955). Specifically relating to the assessment process, Adler
routinely employed early recollections as a projective technique in o
­ rder
to empathically understand clients. Regarding this approach, Adler (1929/­
1969) stated, “The art of understanding early recollections involves a high
degree of empathy, an ability to identify with the child in his childhood situation” (p. 14). In making reference to clients with limitations in the ability to
empathize, Adler recognized disturbances in their relationships with other
living beings. Adler (1927) observed, “There are manifestations which are
Empathy and Adler 241
intimately related to a deficient degree of empathy. The inability to identify
oneself with another may lead so far that an individual refuses entirely to
cooperate with his fellow men” (p. 62). In this regard, Adler believed that
a lack of empathy potentially contributed to interpersonal difficulties and
mental health problems.
Imagination. The imaginative faculty of Adler for empathically understanding human beings has been compared to that of an artist (Rattner,
1983; Way, 1950). Accordingly, Way (1950) made reference to Adler: “It
was always his view that to understand the unique individuality of a person requires more than the ability to analyse like the scientist; it requires
the artist’s ability to grasp with the imagination” (p. 55). Yet, in order to
comprehend Adler’s imaginal engagement and to appreciate how the function relates to subjective empathy, it is necessary to clarify the process in a
treatment context. In a representative case, Adler (1931/1958) described the
situation of a 10-year-old male who was referred for treatment as a result of
having threatened other children. In his home, the boy slept on a daybed in
the dining room and his sister slept on a cot in her parents’ room. Adler felt
that the sleeping arrangement was troubling to the boy because he sought
his mother’s attention. Adler (1931/1958) went on to state: “We are trying to
think, feel, and see through the boy’s mind” (p. 113).
When a practitioner envisions a daybed, a cot, or a myriad of other objects and situations, the empathic function involves imagining widely varying experiences in the lives of clients (Freedman & Combs, 1996). Beyond
evoking visual images, Adler (1933/1964b) also recognized that the imaginative mode has a potential to trigger affective reactions on the part of an
empathic counselor or therapist, “by rousing expectant feelings and emotions” (p. 249). Adler drew an analogy to the imaginal process by relating
its effect to opening the throttle of an automobile and increasing emotional
activity. In listening to the narratives of individuals in treatment, it is a creative endeavor to imaginatively grasp situations that may be puzzling or
even remote from the counselor’s experiencing (Powers & Griffith, 1987).
Through a posture of curiosity and discovery, it is possible to envision actions and aspirations that are unique to a particular individual (Vanaerschot,
1997; Margulies, 1989). In addition to receptively listening to clients share
their life experiences, Adler engaged his imagination as an internal response
when clients recounted their dreams and early recollections (Adler, 1936,
1937; Clark, 2002, 2013; Pomeroy & Clark, 2015). Successful efforts to empathically understand a client’s dreams and early childhood memories can
only be done by evoking mental images and sensory impressions that are a
product of the counselor’s imagination (Clark & Simpson, 2013).
Intuition. As another internal referent, Adler believed that intuition is an
indispensable faculty in the everyday lives of people (Adler, 1933/1964b).
242 Arthur J. Clark
Relating to the intuitive process, Adler (1933/1964b) stated, “Many people
call this gift ‘intuition,’ and believe that it is the special possession only of
the loftiest spirits. As a matter of fact, it is the most universal of all human
gifts” (p. 33). Intuitive functioning on the part of the counselor or therapist
occurs rapidly and entails hunches and flashes of insight (Rea, 2001). As an
example, in a counseling session with a late-adulthood client, a counselor
experiences an impulse to ask a question that has a probability for therapeutic gain, but is also potentially threatening. The counselor senses that
unless she immediately renders the question, an opportunity would be lost
to clarify the client’s functioning. As an implicit capacity, a practitioner’s
intuition also involves drawing inferences, recognizing whole patterns, and
forming impressions of clients (Eisengart & Faiver, 1996). Intuition as a way
of knowing draws from a counselor’s fund of theoretical knowledge and
practical experience (Eisengart & Faiver, 1996). Given these aspects of intuition, it is highly probable that Adler utilized intuitive processing in his
treatment approach considering his incisive discernment of human nature,
receptive emotional attunement with clients, and comprehensive grasp of
psychotherapeutic conceptual material.
Even with an understanding of its properties, however, the intuitive modality may seem to be somewhat vague and obscure in the counseling process (Sweeney, 2009). At the same time, intuition does not occur in isolation,
and in an integral model of empathy, more explicit knowledge channels can
augment intuitive functioning. Rattner (1983) addressed this concern about
intuition in the context of Adlerian psychology: “Individual psychology postulates an intuitive understanding of human nature, but it has also provided
aids to support intuition with scientific apparatus” (p. 103). Further, although
Adler’s ability to rapidly, and at times dramatically, capture the essence of
an individual’s way of being was exceptional; it was his observation that
intuition is a universal human capacity that is a gift to all.
Embodiment. In the context of a discussion on empathy, Adler (1927)
cited an example of what it is like for individuals on the ground to watch
a person wash windows near the top of a tall building. For most observers,
they are likely to experience sinking and tingling sensations in their stomach
as they peer far up at the worker. In this instance, an empathic response to
the window washer goes beyond that of feelings and extends to the realm of
physiological or embodied reactions. In the therapeutic process, a practitioner
may also resonate with internal sensations when empathically attuning to the
narratives of a client (Shaw, 2004). As an example, a single parent with three
young children plaintively expresses worries about falling behind on the rent
for her one-bedroom apartment and paying other mounting bills. Listening
to the client’s distressful story, the counselor is aware of a tightening sensation in her own face and chest. As a consequence, the counselor’s visceral
Empathy and Adler 243
response provides a deeper grasp of what it is like to be the client in an embodied way (Cooper, 2001; Corcoran, 1981; Gendlin, 1961; Shaw, 2004).
Although there is an emerging awareness of the importance of a sensitivity to the physical reactions of counselors (Corcoran, 1981; Sawyier, 1975;
Vanaerschot, 1997), Adler, as is the case with most practitioners of his era,
rarely referred to his own embodied experiencing in therapeutic contexts.
At the same time, however, considering Adler’s holistic orientation, it is reasonable to assume that he used his internal bodily cues in the service of
empathically understanding clients (Adler, 1927). From a developmental
perspective, Adler (1931/1958) recognized that influences of human potentialities include how individuals perceive environmental experiences and
somatic reactions. Specifically, Adler (1931/1958) observed, “The path he
chooses to follow will depend on the impressions and sensations he receives
from his environment and from his own body, and on the interpretation he
makes of these impressions and sensations” (p. 169). Expanding on this perspective, Sawyier (1975) made the point that because an individual’s awareness of the environment arises out of physical sensations, and that the person
who is a focus of empathic understanding exists in an external context, it
follows that the dynamic structure of empathy rests on sensory processing.
Importantly, when a counselor engages the subjective modality there
is a potential for crossing or merging personal boundaries with a client,
and this conflation may contribute to countertransference reactions. In these
instances, distinguishing between the purposeful and transitory qualities of
subjective empathy and the conflictive nature of countertransference is essential (McWilliams, 2004; Zepf & Hartmann, 2008). Another useful consideration for a counselor to keep in mind when employing subjective empathy
is the distinction between sympathy and empathy (Clark, 2010b). The two
processes are subject to confusion, and failing to differentiate empathy from
sympathy contributes to therapeutic misdirection. Among other concerns
that can occur when communicating sympathy rather than empathy, a counselor may side with a client and thus restrict or preclude the exploration of
alternative and potentially constructive perspectives.
Interpersonal Empathy and Adler
As a complement to the internal processing of subjective empathy, a
counselor’s interpersonal manifestation of empathy involves attempting to
grasp overt expressions of a client’s phenomenological experiencing (Clark,
2007). Through a relational process, a counselor strives to comprehend the
internal frame of reference and the feelings and meanings of a client (Egan,
2014; Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2014). Drawing from the verbal and nonverbal communications of a client, the counselor seeks to capture and express an understanding of an individual’s world (Carlson, Watts, & Maniacci,
244 Arthur J. Clark
2006; Dinkmeyer & Sperry, 2000). Most practitioners are familiar with inter­
personal empathy as a way of knowing because the modality constitutes a
major training focus across counselor education programs and in the counseling and psychotherapy literature (Clark, in press; Dyche & Zayas, 2001;
Greason & Cashwell, 2009; Nerdrum & Ronnestad, 2002). In training initiatives, counselors traditionally practice improving their ability to accurately
employ interpersonal empathy through didactic instruction and observable
therapeutic transactions. Carl Rogers (1975) was instrumental in advancing
the prominence of interpersonal empathy and extending its training potential
through the use of audio and cinematic recordings of counseling sessions.
With the availability of verbatim accounts of client-counselor dialogues,
the influence and accuracy of a counselor’s engagement of an interpersonal
mode of empathy have become a major focus of practice in terms of skill
development (Ivey et al., 2014).
Although Adler’s professional work preceded the availability of recorded
counseling transcriptions, an engagement of interpersonal empathy is possible to infer through written accounts of his treatment interactions and observations of individuals familiar with his psychotherapeutic style. In discussing
his general approach to the counseling process, Adler emphasized the use
of tact and patience in developing an empathic alliance. Adler (1920/1968)
stated, “Every therapeutic treatment and certainly every clumsy and tactless
attempt to tell the patient the truth, deprives the patient of the very source
of his irresponsibility and must expect to encounter the most violent resistance” (p. 236). Adler also suggested that only after establishing a positive
relationship and empathically understanding a client is it a sound treatment
direction to disclose insights to the individual about his or her functioning.
In a further development of this point, Adler (1933/1964b) observed, “It is
preferable to keep one’s views to oneself, so that later on, after the case has
been understood, they may be used in a suitable way without injuring the patient’s hypersensitiveness, which is always in evidence” (p. 287). Even when
the therapeutic process reaches the time for a counselor to disclose observations about a client, Adler believed that this should be done in a tactful and
empathic way. Specifically, Adler (1933/1964b) related, “When mistakes are
discovered they should always be explained in a friendly manner, patiently
and without threats” (p. 304). After Adler made progress in developing trust
and rapport with a client, he often became more overtly persuasive and
direct (Adler, 1929/1969; Grey, 1998). Yet even then, Adler continued to
maintain an empathic sensibility in his interactions with an individual.
Empathic engagement from an interpersonal stance involves grasping the
essence of a client’s phenomenological state of being (Dinkmeyer & Sperry,
2000; Hanna, 1996). In seeking to empathically understand individuals,
Adler (1933/1964b) made reference to the influence of phenomenological
Empathy and Adler 245
experiencing. Adler (1933/1964b) related, “It is very obvious that we are
influenced not by ‘facts’ but by our interpretations of facts” (p. 26). In a
similar line of reasoning, Ansbacher and Ansbacher (1956) stated, “Although
Adler did not use the term phenomenology, he consistently used the method
in that he emphasized the unprejudiced approach to the patient, and based
his understanding on empathy” (p. 14).
Involving inherent aspects of empathy and phenomenology, the counseling intervention of encouragement is prominent in Adler’s treatment approach
(Adler, 1930, 1931/1958, 1930/1963; Carlson et al., 2006; Dinkmeyer &
Sperry, 2000). With respect to encouragement, Rattner (1983) made the observation, “To encourage a person is a skill that can be learned through the
techniques of individual psychology, but only training and the most sensitive
fellow feeling can develop to the degree of subtlety that is required in psycho­
therapy” (p. 89). Watts and Pietrzak (2000) stated that essential aspects of
encouragement in a counseling relationship involve a counselor’s expression
of concern for a client through empathy, and active or reflective listening.
Addressing the use of encouragement with children, Adler (1930) related,
“Children who lose confidence in themselves and faith in the future must be
encouraged. They must be treated gently, patiently, and tolerantly” (p. 157).
Adler’s communication of interpersonal empathy is also possible to infer
through accounts and commentaries of individuals who had occasions to
observe him when interacting with others. Adler frequently utilized a therapeutic approach of meeting with clients in front of public and professional
assemblies. As a frequent observer of the treatment sessions, Hertha Orgler
recalled, “I shall always remember the happy expression on the face of a
child who, when brought before Adler, was either shy or defiant at first, but
suddenly changed in its whole bearing. This change was brought about by
Adler’s gentle, kind and understanding way of speaking to the child. One
secret of his success was that he saw with the eyes of the other person, heard
with the ears of the other, and felt with the heart of the other” (Orgler, 1963,
pp. xiv–xv). On another occasion, at the age of 15, Robert Plank attended
an evening school course in Vienna on Individual Psychology conducted by
Adler (Manaster et al., 1977). Although the presentations did not take place
in a clinical setting, Adler’s manner as an instructor suggested aspects of an
empathic communication style. Plank (Manaster et al.) stated, “He gazed
at everybody and everything with the same penetrating and benign glance;
he listened as though he was weighing every word you uttered, and his response showed that he understood all you said and all that was behind it”
(p. 60). Various other individuals have made reference to Adler’s gentle, attentive, patient and perceptive way of listening in personal and professional
contexts (May, 1939; Orgler, 1963; Rattner, 1983; Sperber, 1974; Stone &
Drescher, 2004).
246 Arthur J. Clark
Objective Empathy and Adler
Some counselors and therapists may be skeptical about conceptualizing
an objective perspective of empathy in counseling contexts. Primarily focusing on theoretical formulations and assessment data, an objective stance
may even seem antithetical to a traditional conception of empathy with its
phenomenological emphasis. At the same time, access to particular conceptualizations and normative findings has the potential for empathically
understanding individuals at a deeper and more inclusive level (Clark, 2007,
2010a). As a counselor experientially interacts with a client through subjective and interpersonal modalities, the practitioner’s attention may at times
shift or traverse to a more objective posture. In these instances, the counselor
is in a position to draw from referential material for empathically understanding a client. For example, Adler’s conceptions of degree of activity and safeguarding tendencies provide structures to uniquely know a client through
frameworks that are relevant for all individuals (Clark, 1999, 2000; Clark &
Butler, 2012). A counselor may also enhance an empathic understanding of
a client by employing normed self-report inventories, multicultural research,
and behavioral observations. What is most important, however, when giving consideration to such data, is for a practitioner to assume an empathic
position of what the lived experience is like for the individual. For example,
what is daily existence like for a person who obtains a highly elevated score
on a depression inventory, or what is it like to be a child who is repeatedly
ignored or bullied on the school playground?
Adler’s holistic stance included several theoretically-informed conceptions that have a potential for empathically understanding individuals from an
objective perspective. In particular, the constructs of lifestyle, social interest,
and holism enable a counselor to engage theoretical reasoning in order to
extend an empathic understanding of a client (Clark, 2007). For instance, estimating a client’s level of social interest is possible; however, in order to enhance clinical utility, the construct may be evaluated in comparison with other
individuals in treatment contexts (Mozdzierz, Greenblatt, & Murphy, 2007).
Lifestyle. According to Adler (1927, 1929/1969, 1933/1964b), individuals develop enduring convictions about life in their first four or five
years. This style of life or lifestyle is a unique pattern relating to ingrained
assumptions about oneself, other people, and events (Clark, 2002; Pomeroy
& Clark, 2015; Sweeney, 2009). In Adler’s view, the conception epitomizes
what life is like or about for a person, and the art of understanding a client
relates to comprehending the individual’s style of life. With respect to the
lifestyle, Adler stated, “Insight into the meaning of this plan is best obtained
through artistic and intuitive empathy with the essential nature of the patient”
(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 328). For Adler, the lifestyle provided a
Empathy and Adler 247
conceptual framework for making inferences about an individual’s enduring
personality pattern. Various appraisal methods contribute to evaluating a client’s lifestyle, such as the exploration of early recollections, day and night
dreams, birth order positions, childhood behavior problems, and adaptations to developmental challenges (Adler, 1933/1964b). With specific reference to early recollections, Adler believed that people remember those early
life experiences which relate to the formulation and expression of their style
of life (Clark, 2002, 2013; May, 1939). Most individuals recall a relatively
small number of early childhood memories and the recollections provide
an essential method for understanding one’s lifestyle (Adler, 1931/1958).
In this regard, Adler (1931/1958) related, “Early recollections have especial
significance. To begin with they show the style of life in its origins and in its
simplest expressions” (p. 74). Relatedly, Olson (1979) thought that the interpretation of early recollections “is an exercise in empathy” (p. 78).
Social Interest. From Adler’s perspective, empathy is a facet of an individual’s emotional connection and identification with other people (Adler,
1933/1964b; Oberst & Stewart, 2003; Terner & Pew, 1978). Referring to
this function as social interest, Adler gave prominence in his theoretical approach to the quality of an individual’s kinship with humanity and a desire
to belong to a community. Adler asserted, “Individual Psychology may claim
as its contribution to have pointed out that empathy and understanding are
facts of social feeling, of being in harmony with the universe” (Ansbacher &
Ansbacher, 1979, p. 43). In Adler’s view (1927), social interest is an inborn
capacity that is necessary to nurture in childhood in order for a person to
identify oneself with others and strive to contribute to the welfare of the
larger community. At the same time, according to Adler (1927), a deficit of
social interest relates to an insensitivity to the emotions and experiences of
others and a relative lack of empathy. Adler (1927) related “Just as there are
various degrees of the social feeling so there are various degrees of empathy”
(pp. 61–62). In a counseling context, Adler (1927, 1933/1964b) recognized
that empathic understanding has a key role in promoting the development
of an individual’s sense of belonging and identification with others (Curlette
& Kern, 2010; Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
Holism. Recognizing the unique and indivisible quality of a person’s
holistic functioning contributes to a deeper level of empathic understanding (Brown, 1972; Sweeney, 2009). Comparing Adler’s treatment approach
to that of an artist, Rattner (1983) drew a relationship between empathy
and holism by stating: “Although Adler’s understanding of human nature is
formulated in scientific terms, it also has significant artistic aspects. This is
clearly revealed in the demand that the personality be grasped as a unity,
with empathy similar to that which an artist grasps his object before depicting it” (p. 89). In an integral empathy model, weaving together observations
248 Arthur J. Clark
and impressions of a client from multiple perspectives contributes to holistically knowing an individual. In an artful way, the counselor blends perspectives from the various knowledge channels in order to grasp the unity of a
client’s personality from a broader vantage point (Hazler, 2001). This totality of an individual’s functioning is particularly evident in thematic patterns
that emerge from multiple early recollections of an individual (Clark, 2002,
2013; Dreikurs, 1967). Dreikurs (1967) observed this holistic orientation:
“From all the millions of experiences to which we are exposed in our early
childhood, we remember only those which coincide with our outlook on
life. All early recollections show, therefore, the same pattern; and where they
differ, they supplement but never contradict each other” (p. 87).
Conclusions
In utilizing an integral model of empathy, Adler’s prominent employment of empathic understanding is apparent in his therapeutic orientation.
A multiple perspective view of empathy advances the theoretical understanding of Adler’s treatment approach as it relates to the critical variable in
counseling and psychotherapy. Importantly, there are implications for educational and training pursuits when considering the employment of integral
empathy in treatment contexts (Clark, in press). From a subjective empathy
stance, Adler thought that the internal referents were universal human capacities that contribute to empathically understanding individuals. With this
in mind, cultivating a practitioner’s faculties of identification, imagination,
intuition, and embodiment has a potential to enhance therapeutic progress.
Adler demonstrated essential qualities of interpersonal empathy in his
tactful interactions with clients, and this focus is a well-established training
pursuit in contemporary counselor education programs (Sommers-Flanagan
& Sommers-Flanagan, 2009). Interpersonal empathy focuses on grasping the
feelings and meanings of a client and expressing an empathic understanding back to the individual. Adler had a gift for developing a therapeutic
relationship with clients, and his interpersonal skills in this pursuit deserve
to be an object of study in training endeavors. With respect to objective
empathy, Adler’s conceptual formulations provide vehicles for empathic
understanding. In particular, Adler’s constructs of lifestyle, social interest,
and holism are essential frameworks for knowing clients from broader and
deeper perspectives. Many years ago, Adler gave consideration to the essential nature of empathy in human relationships and its function in therapeutic contexts. Today, an integral model brings prominence to empathy
and empathic understanding in Adler’s theoretical orientation in counseling
and psychotherapy.
Empathy and Adler 249
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Arthur J. Clark is a professor emeritus at St. Lawrence University, Canton,
NY. He is the author of Defense Mechanisms in the Counseling Process,
Early Recollections: Theory and Practice in Counseling and Psychotherapy,
Empathy in Counseling and Psychotherapy: Perspectives and Practices, and
Dawn of Memories: The Meaning of Early Recollections in Life.