CROSS-CULTURAL
MANAGEMENT
Super vised by:
PHD. WAHABI
Objectives
◦ Identify the similarities and the differences across cultures in
various management practices and organizational contexts.
◦ Emphasis on the main core elements of culture in general.
◦ Having a basic strategy for managing cultural differences.
Be able to
◦ Understand the importance of culture in business and general
management.
◦ Use a basic strategy to manage businesses in different
countries.
◦ Work effectively in a multi-cultural working environment.
The outline
• The definition of cross-cultural
management.
• Cross-cultural communication.
(Definition, Involves, Nonverbal
com, verbal com, Nature of
• Models approaching culture Onion
model, Philippe d’IRIBANE model) language, Cultural differences
influence, ICC).
• A reminder of the dimensions of
• Cultural dimensions.
culture:
• Edward T. Hall’s dimensions.
 Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.
 Trompenaars’s cultural dimensions.
• Cultural diversity.
• Values in cultures.
• Confucius dimensions about culture.
• Motivation.
• Cross-cultural negotiation styles.
• Cross-cultural leadership styles.
The definition of cross-cultural
management
Cross-cultural management is a new field that is based on
theories and research from:
◦ Cross Cultural Psychology
◦ International Business
◦ Organizational Behaviour
◦ Human Resources
◦ Anthropology
This field seeks to:
◦ Understand how national cultures affect management practices.
◦ Identify the similarities and differences across cultures in various
management practices and organizational contexts.
◦ Increase effectiveness in global management.
6
MODELS
APPROACHING
CULTURE
Onion and iceberg model
The Onion Model
The iceberg Model
The onion model
There are many ways to visualise the concept of culture, but
one of the most popular models is based on an onion. The
Onion Model of Culture shows how culture has a number of
layers. There are three key layers :
-Outer layer
-Middle layer
-Core
The onion model
◦ Outer layer : The outer layers represent cultural artefacts or
symbols such as flags, architecture or traditional clothing. Heroes
make up the next layer, such as Winston Churchill in the UK, and
tend to represent many of the culture’s values and beliefs.
◦ Middle layer : It’s the underlying values and cultural assumptions
which influence all of the other layers. These beliefs, norms and
attitudes are much harder to recognise without a deeper analysis
and thorough understanding of each of these layers and how they
interact.
◦ Core : It’s how people try to adapt to their environnement
The iceberg model
Hall developed the iceberg analogy of culture.
If the culture of a society was an iceberg,
there are some aspects visible, above the water, but there is a
larger portion hidden beneath the surface.
The iceberg model
◦ The external, or conscious, part of culture is what we can see and is the tip of
the iceberg andincludes behaviors and some beliefs. The internal, or
subconscious, part of culture is below thesurface of a society and includes
some beliefs and the values and thought patterns that underlie behavior.
◦ There are major differences between the conscious and unconscious culture.
◦ Internal
◦ Implicitly Learned
◦ Unconscious
◦ Difficult to Change
◦ Subjective Knowledge
versus
External
Explicitly Learned
Conscious
Easily Changed
Objective Knowledge
Schwartz’s culture Model
The israeli sociologist shalom schwartz
developed in the '90es a model for cultural
values and a map of where different parts of
the world belong in this context.
Schwartz’s culture Model
◦ Mastery vs. Harmony
Hierarchy vs. Egalitarianism
Embeddedness vs. Autonomy
PHILIPPE D’IRIBARNE
Philippe d’Iribarne
Born 7 March 1937, Casablanca, French Morocco is a French author and director
of research at CNRS. He works within a research centre called LISE (Laboratoire
interdisciplinaire en sociologie économique or "interdisciplinary laboratorium on
economic sociology").
He graduated from École polytechnique of France and from Institut d'études
politiques de Paris
Iribarne's interest is on the influence of national cultures on the way organisations
function. He and his team within the LISE have so far surveyed organisations in
40-odd countries in Europe, Africa, America and Asia. Jorion has also published in
the Revue de Mauss, a French anti-utilitarian journal.
Cultural dimensions
1.
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.
2.
Trompenaars’s cultural dimensions.
3.
Geert Hofstede: 6 Dimensions
1. Power Distance Index (PDI)
Small Power Distance
Large Power Distance
Use of power should be legitimate and is
subject to criteria of good and evil
Power is a basic fact of society antedating good
or
evil: its legitimacy is irrelevant
Parents treat children as equals
Parents teach children obedience
Older people are neither respected nor feared
Older people are both respected and feared
Student-centered education
Teacher-centered education
Hierarchy means inequality of roles,
established for convenience
Hierarchy means existential inequality
Subordinates expect to be consulted
Subordinates expect to be told what to do
Pluralist governments based on majority vote
and changed peacefully
Autocratic governments based on co-optation
and
changed by revolution
Corruption rare; scandals end political careers
Corruption frequent; scandals are covered up
Income distribution in society rather even
Income distribution in society very uneven
Religions stressing equality of believers
Religions with a hierarchy of priests
2. Individualism Vs Collectivism
Individualism
Collectivism
Everyone is supposed to take care of him- or
herself and his or her immediate family only
People are born into extended families or clans
which protect them in exchange for loyalty
"I" – consciousness
"We" –consciousness
Right of privacy
Stress on belonging
Speaking one's mind is healthy
Harmony should always be maintained
Others classified as individuals
Others classified as in-group or out-group
Personal opinion expected: one person one
vote
Opinions and votes predetermined by in-group
Transgression of norms leads to guilt feelings
Transgression of norms leads to shame feelings
Languages in which the word "I" is
indispensable
Languages in which the word "I" is avoided
Purpose of education is learning how to learn
Purpose of education is learning how to do
Task prevails over relationship
Relationship prevails over task
3. Masculinity Vs Femininity
Femininity
Masculinity
Minimum emotional and social role
differentiation between the genders
Maximum emotional and social role differentiation
between the genders
Men and women should be modest and caring
Men should be and women may be assertive and
ambitious
Balance between family and work
Work prevails over family
Sympathy for the weak
Admiration for the strong
Both fathers and mothers deal with facts and
feelings
Fathers deal with facts, mothers with feelings
Both boys and girls may cry but neither should
fight
Girls cry, boys don’t; boys should fight back, girls
shouldn’t fight
Mothers decide on number of children
Fathers decide on family size
Many women in elected political positions
Few women in elected political positions
Religion focuses on fellow human beings
Religion focuses on God or gods
Matter-of-fact attitudes about sexuality; sex is a
way of relating
Moralistic attitudes about sexuality; sex is a way of
performing
4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)
Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Strong Uncertainty Avoidance
The uncertainty inherent in life is accepted and
each day is taken as it comes
The uncertainty inherent in life is felt as a
continuous threat that must be fought
Ease, lower stress, self-control, low anxiety
Higher stress, emotionality, anxiety, neuroticism
Higher scores on subjective health and wellbeing
Lower scores on subjective health and well-being
Tolerance of deviant persons and ideas: what is
different is curious
Intolerance of deviant persons and ideas: what is
different is dangerous
Comfortable with ambiguity and chaos
Need for clarity and structure
Teachers may say ‘I don’t know’
Teachers supposed to have all the answers
Changing jobs no problem
Staying in jobs even if disliked
Dislike of rules - written or unwritten
Emotional need for rules – even if not obeyed
In politics, citizens feel and are seen as
competent towards authorities
In politics, citizens feel and are seen as
incompetent towards authorities
In religion, philosophy and science: relativism
and empiricism
In religion, philosophy and science: belief in
ultimate truths and grand theories
5. Long term orientation Vs Short term orientation
Short-Term Orientation Long-Term Orientation
Most important events in life occurred in
the past or take place now
Personal steadiness and stability: a good
person is always the same
There are universal guidelines about what is
good and evil
Traditions are sacrosanct
Most important events in life will occur in
the future
A good person adapts to the circumstances
Family life guided by imperatives
Family life guided by shared tasks
Supposed to be proud of one’s country
Trying to learn from other countries
Service to others is an important goal
Thrift and perseverance are important goals
What is good and evil depends upon the
circumstances
Traditions are adaptable to changed
circumstances
Large savings quote, funds available for
investment
Students attribute success and failure to luck Students attribute success to effort and
failure to lack of effort
Slow or no economic growth of poor
Fast economic growth of countries up till a
countries
level of prosperity
Social spending and consumption
6. Indulgence Vs Restraint
Indulgence
Restrained
Higher percentage of people declaring
themselves very happy
Fewer very happy people
A perception of personal life control
A perception of helplessness: what happens to me
is not my own doing
Freedom of speech seen as important
Freedom of speech is not a primary concern
Higher importance of leisure
Lower importance of leisure
More likely to remember positive emotions
Less likely to remember positive emotions
In countries with educated populations, higher
birthrates
In countries with educated populations, lower
birthrates
More people actively involved in sports
Fewer people actively involved in sports
In countries with enough food, higher
percentages of obese people
In countries with enough food, fewer obese people
In wealthy countries, lenient sexual norms
In wealthy countries, stricter sexual norms
Maintaining order in the nation is not given a
high priority
Higher number of police officers per 100,000
population
Examples of Cultural Dimensions
Country
Power
Distance
Individualism*
Masculinity**
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Long-term
Orientation***
China
High
Low
Moderate
Moderate
High
France
High
High
Moderate
High
Low
Germany
Low
High
High
Moderate
Moderate
Hong Kong
High
Low
High
Low
High
Indonesia
High
Low
Moderate
Low
Low
Japan
Moderate
Moderate
High
Moderate
Moderate
Netherlands
Low
High
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Russia
High
Moderate
Low
High
Low
United States
Low
High
High
Low
Low
West Africa
High
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Low
* A low score is synonymous with collectivism
** A low score is synonymous with masculinity
*** A low score is synonymous with a short-term orientation
Trompenaars’s cultural dimensions
Research produced five cultural dimensions that are based on
relationship orientations and attitudes toward both time and the
environment
◦ Universalism vs. Particularism
*Universalism - belief that ideas and practices can be applied
everywhere in the world without modification
Focus on formal rules and rely on business contacts
*Particularism - belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and
practices should be applied and something cannot be done the same
everywhere
Focus on relationships, working things out to suit the parties
24
◦ Individualism vs. Communitarianism
*Individualism - people regard themselves as individuals
Rely on individuals to make decisions
*Communitarianism - people regard themselves as part of a group
Seek consultation and mutual consent before making decisions
◦ Neutral vs. Emotional
*Neutral - culture in which emotions are held in check
People try not to show their feelings
*Emotional - culture in which emotions are expressed openly and
naturally
People smile, talk loudly, greet each other with enthusiasm
25
◦ Specific vs. Diffuse
*Specific - culture in which individuals have a large public space they
readily share with others and a small private space they guard closely
and share with only close friends and associates
People often are open and extroverted
Work and private life are separate
*Diffuse - culture in which both public and private space are similar
in size and individuals guard their public space carefully, because
entry into public space affords entry into private space as well
People often appear indirect and introverted, and work and
private life often are closely linked
26
◦ Environment
* Inner-directed
People believe in controlling environmental outcomes
* Outer-directed
People believe in allowing things to take their natural course
◦ Cultural Patterns or Clusters
* Defined groups of countries that are similar to each other in
terms of the five dimensions and the orientations toward time and
the environment
27
Trompenaars’s Cultural Groups
Anglo cluster
Relationship
Individualism
United States
United Kingdom
x
x
x
x
x
x
Communitarianism
Specific relationship
Diffuse relationship
Universalism
Particularism
Neutral relationship
x
Emotional relationship
x
Achievement
x
x
Ascription
28
Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups
Asian cluster
Relationship
Japan China Indonesia Hong Kong Singapore
Individualism
Communitarianism
x
x
x
x
x
Specific relationship
Diffuse relationship
x
x
x
x
x
Particularism
x
x
x
x
x
Neutral relationship
x
x
x
x
Universalism
Emotional relationship
x
Achievement
Ascription
x
x
x
x
x
29
Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups
Latin American cluster
Relationship
Argentina
Mexico
Venezuela
Brazil
Individualism
x
x
x
x
x
x
Particularism
x
x
x
x
Neutral relationship
x
x
x
x
Communitarianism
Specific relationship
Diffuse relationship
Universalism
Emotional relationship
Achievement
Ascription
x
x
x
x
x
30
Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups
Latin-European cluster
Relationship
France
Belgium
Individualism
x
x
x
x
x
Diffuse relationship
Universalism
x
x
x
x
Neutral relationship
x
x
x
Achievement
Ascription
x
x
Particularism
Emotional relationship
Italy
x
Communitarianism
Specific relationship
Spain
x
x
x
x
x
31
Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups
Germanic cluster
Relationship
Individualism
Austria Germany Switzerland Czechoslovakia
x
Communitarianism
Specific relationship
x
x
Diffuse relationship
Universalism
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Particularism
Neutral relationship
x
Emotional relationship
Achievement
Ascription
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
32
GLOBE Cultural Variable Results
Variable
Highest
Ranking
Medium
Ranking
Assertiveness
Spain, U.S.
Egypt, Ireland
Future orientation
Denmark, Canada Slovenia, Egypt
Russia, Argentina
Gender differentiation
South Korea,
Egypt
Sweden Denmark
Uncertainty avoidance
Austria, Denmark Israel, U.S.
Power distance
Russia, Spain
England, France Demark, Netherlands
Collectivism/Societal
Denmark,
Singapore
Egypt, China
Hong Kong, U.S. Greece, Hungary
In-group collectivism
Italy, Brazil
Lowest
Ranking
Sweden, New
Zealand
Russia, Hungary
England, France Denmark,
Netherlands
Performance orientation U.S., Taiwan
Sweden, Israel
Russia, Argentina
Human orientation
Hong Kong,
Sweden
Germany, Spain
Indonesia, Egypt
CULTURAL
DIVERSITY
Management Approaches Affected by Cultural
Diversity
Centralized vs.
Decentralized
decision making
Cultural
Diversity
Informal vs.
formal procedures
Safety vs. risk
Individual vs.
group rewards
Sort-term vs.
long-term horizons
High vs. low
organizational
loyalty
Cooperation vs.
competition
Stability vs.
innovation
35
A Synthesis of Country Cultures
36
VALUES IN
CULTURE
Priorities of Cultural Values
some examples
Japan
1. Belonging
2. Group harmony
3. Collectiveness
4. Age/seniority
5. Group consensus
6. Cooperation
7. Quality
8. Patience
9. Indirectness
10. Go-between
United States
1. Freedom
2. Independence
3. Self-reliance
4. Equality
5. Individualism
6. Competition
7. Efficiency
8. Time
9. Directness
10. Openness
Arab Countries
1. Family security
2. Family harmony
3. Parental guidance
4. Age
5. Authority
6. Compromise
7. Devotion
8. Patience
9. Indirectness
10. Hospitality
A model of culture: concentric circles
Explicit artifacts and
products of the society
Norms and values
that guide the society
Implicit, basic
assumptions that guide
people’s behavior
Outer layer: observable,
e.g. language, food,
buildings, art.
Middle layer: helps people
understand how they
should behave.
Inner layer: intangible,
helpful for problem-solving
and well interactions with
other people.
39
CROSS CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
◦ Definition of communication:
Communication is the exchange of information and ideas from
one person to another, it involves a sender transmitting an idea,
information, or feeling to a receiver.
(U.S. Army, 1983)
Involves of communication
Time
Space
Non verbal
Eye contact
Smell
Touch
Posture and
stand
Silence
Communication
verbal
Language
Nonverbal Communication
◦ Chronemics
Monochronic time schedule
◦ Things are done in a linear fashion.
◦ Manager addresses Issue A first and then moves on to Issue B
◦ Time schedules are very important and time is viewed as something that can
be controlled and should be used wisely
Polychronic time schedules
◦ People tend to do several things at the same time
◦ People place higher value on personal involvement than on getting things
done on time
◦ Schedules are subordinated to personal relationships
Non verbal Communication
◦ Chronomics ( time)
Attitudes towards time vary from culture to culture:
• Countries with Monochronic time do only one activity at a time.
( England, Germany..)
• Example : Swiss and Germans are interesting by punctuality and have time
conscious
• Countries with Polychronic time work on several activities
simultaneously. (Latin America, Arabs,..)
• Example : Arabs are not regarded by punctuality , and have a cusual attitude
toward time
◦ Proxemics
The study of the way that people use physical space to convey messages
◦
◦
◦
◦
Intimate distance is used for very confidential communications
Personal distance is used for talking with family and close friends
Social distance is used to handle most business transactions
Public distance is used when calling across the room or giving a talk to a
group
◦ Proxemics (Space)
◦ U.S. people need more space than other cultures.
◦ The Japanese stand even farther away than do U.S. persons.
•Example : Space zone in the U.S.
The Intimate zone : less than 18 inches and is reserved for very close friends.
The Personal zone: 18 inches to 4 feet is for giving instructions to others or
working closely with another person.
The Social zone: 4 to 12 feet is used in business situations in which people
interact in a more formal way.
The Public distance is over the 12 feet.
◦ Oculesics (Eye Contact)
• People in the U.S. favor direct eye contact .
• Other cultures, such us the Japanese, the reverse is true.
• In the middle east, the eye contact is more intense than U.S
people are comfortable with.
But:
• A prolonged gaze in the U.S. is considered rude.
• And in the most cultures, men do not stare at women as this
may be interpreted as sexually suggestive.
◦ Olfactics (Smell)
• The U.S people respond negatively to body odors.
• Arabs are comfortable with natural body odors.
• Other cultures in which smell plays an important role
include Japanese.
◦ Haptics (Touch)
Touch when used properly may create feelings of trust, but
when used improprely it may betray trust.
Examples of Haptics
« Don’t Touch »
« Touch »
◦ Japan
◦ Latin Americain countries
◦ U.S. and Canada
◦ Italy
◦ England
◦ Greece
◦ Scandinavia
◦ Spain and Portugal
◦ Middle Ground Countries
◦ Russian Federation
◦ Some Asian countries
Personal Space in the U.S.
Intimate distance
Personal distance
Social distance
Public distance
18”
18” to 4’
4’ to 8’
8’ to 10’
◦ Posture and Stance
• Posture can convey self-confidence, status and interest.
• Confident people have a relaxed posture, and walk with
assurance.
• Walking slow, hesitating gait projects negative messages of
lack of confidence.
Examples:
« The posture of U.S. person is casual, including sitting in a relaxed manner
and slouching when standing ( which is rude in Germany)
« Avoid showing the sole of your shoe or pointing your foot at someone in
the Arab world »
◦ Silence
• U.S. people are uncomfortable with silence.
• From the middle east people are quite comfortable with silence.
• Japanese also like periods of silence and do not like to be
hurried. Japanese proverb: « those who know do not speak –
those who speak do not know »
• In Italy and Arabian countries, there is very little silence.
Verbal communication
Language can be :
Parable
• A story told to convey a truth or
moral lesson
Proverb
• A saying that expresses a common
truth
Verbal Communication Styles
◦ Verbal communication styles
◦ Context is information that surrounds a communication
and helps convey the message
◦ Messages are often highly coded and implicit in highcontext societies, such as Japan and many Arab countries
◦ The message is explicit and the speaker says precisely what
he or she means in low-context societies such as the United
States and Canada
Explicit and Implicit Communication
High-context/implicit
communication
cultures
Japanese
Arabs
Latin Americans
Italians
English
French
North Americans
Scandinavians
Germans
Swiss Germans
Low-context/explicit
communication
cultures
Adapted from Figure 7–1: Explicit/Implicit Communication: An International Comparison
Characteristics of verbal styles
Verbal Style
Major
Variation
Indirect vs.
direct
Indirect
Direct
Implicit messages
Explicit messages
Collective, high context
Individualistic, low context
Succinct vs.
elaborate
Elaborate
High quantity of talk
Exacting
Moderate amount of
talk
Low amount of talk
Moderate uncertainty
avoidance, high context
Low uncertainty avoidance,
low context
High uncertainty avoidance,
high context
Succinct
Interaction Focus
and Content
Cultures in Which
Characteristic It
Is Found
Major Characteristics of Verbal Styles
Verbal Style
Contextual vs.
personal
Affective vs.
instrumental
Major
Variation
Interaction Focus
and Content
Cultures in Which
Characteristic It
Is Found
Contextual
Focus is on the speaker
and role relationships
High power distance,
collective, high context
Personal
Focus is on the speaker
and personal
relationships
Low power distance,
individualistic, low context
Affective
Language is process
oriented and receiver
focused
Collective, high context
Instrumental
Language is goal
oriented and sender
focused
Individualistic, low context
Verbal Communication Styles
Indirect and direct styles
◦ In high-context cultures, messages are implicit and indirect
◦ Voice intonation, timing, and facial expressions play important
roles in conveying information
◦ In low-context cultures, people often meet only to accomplish
objectives and tend to be direct and focused in their
communications
Verbal Communication Styles
Elaborate and succinct styles
◦ Three degrees of communication quantity— elaborate,
exacting, and succinct.
◦ The elaborating style is more popular in high-context cultures
that have a moderate degree of uncertainty avoidance
◦ The exacting style focuses on precision and the use of the right
amount of words to convey the message and is more common
in low-context, low-uncertainty-avoidance cultures
◦ The succinct style is more common in high-context cultures
with considerable uncertainty avoidance where people tend to
say few words and allow understatements, pauses, and silence to
convey meaning.
Contextual and personal styles
◦ Contextual style is one that focuses on the speaker and
relationship of the parties
◦ Contextual style is often associated with high-powerdistance,
collective, high-context cultures
◦ Personal style focuses on the speaker and the reduction of
barriers between the parties
◦ Personal style is more popular in low-power-distance,
individualistic, low-context cultures
Affective and instrumental styles
◦ Affective style is common in collective, high-context cultures
and is characterized by language that requires the listener to
note what is said and to observe how the message is presented
◦ The meaning is often nonverbal and requires the receiver to use
his or her intuitive skills to decipher the message
◦ Instrumental style is goal oriented and focuses on the sender
who clearly lets the other party know what he or she wants the
other party to know.
◦ The instrumental style is more commonly found in
individualistic, low-context cultures
Summary of Verbal Styles
Communication Epigrams
Adapted from Figure 7–2: Communication Epigrams
Nature of language
◦ Semanticists: are concerned with the meaning of words.
◦ Grammarians: see language as a series of grammatical
forms.
◦ Novelists: believe that language is a series of words arranged
to produce a harmonious or logical effect.
◦ Linguists: focus on the phonetic aspects of language,
defining language as a series of sounds produced by speakers
and received by listeners.
Intercultural Communication
◦
Intercultural communication is defined as situated
communication between individuals or groups of
different linguistic and cultural origins .
Cultural differences influenced
communication
◦ Perception : Our perceptions are culturally determined and
in turn influence the way we communicate with others.
◦ Beliefs : We are taught very early on what to believe based on
what our culture considers worthy and true. Subsequently, our
belief systems form the basis of our values, which determine
in large measure how we behave and relate to others.
◦ Values : When we interpret behaviour, an object, or an event,
we are applying value judgments, which reflect our particular
culture.
Intercultural communication
competence (ICC)
◦ Intercultural communication competence (ICC) is the ability to
communicate effectively and appropriately in various cultural contexts.
There are numerous components of ICC. Some key components include
motivation, self- and other knowledge, and tolerance for uncertainty.
CULTURAL
DIMENSIONS
GEERT
HOFSTEDE
Power Distance
Low Power Distance : US
High Power Distance : Morocco

Society members view themselves as
equals.

Society handles inequalities among
people.

Strive to equalise the distribution of
power and demand justification for
inequalities of power .

Society accepts an unequal distribution
of power, and that people understand
"their place" in the system.

Flatter organizations.


Centralized companies.
Strong hierarchies.

Supervisors and employees are
considered almost as equals.

Large gaps in compensation authority,
and respect.
Individualism Vs collectivism
Individualism : US
•
Individuals of these cultures are loosing
cultures , the having a lack of
interpersonal relationships .
Collectivism : Morocco


•
Little sharing of responsibility beyond
family
•
High valuation on people's time and
their need for freedom.

•
An enjoyment of challenges, and an
expectation of rewards for hard work.

•
Respect for privacy


Individuals from these cultures having
strong group cohesion, and they have a
respect for members of the group
Individuals can expect their relatives or
members of a particular in-group to look
after theme exchange for unquestioning
loyalty .
The group itself is also larger and people
take more responsibility for each other's
well being.
Emphasis on building skills and becoming
masters of something.
Work for intrinsic rewards.
Harmony more important than honesty.
Masculanity Vs Femininity
Masculinity : Morocco
•
•
•
•
Achievement, assertiveness and
material rewards for success.
Men are masculine and women are
feminine.
Masculine countries they are more
assertive and more competitive.
These countries show a gap
between men's values and women's
values.
Femininity : Northland




Quality of life , maintaining warm
personal relationship service ,
caring and solidarity .
A woman can do anything a man
can do.
Powerful and successful women
are admired and respected.
The women in feminine countries
have the same modest, caring
values as the men
Uncertainty avoidance
Unstructured Ucomfortable : Morocco
Unstructured Comfortable : US

Comfortable cultures , are enjoying news and 
unusual situation and try to discover it .
Uncomfortable cultures try to avoid ambiguous
situations whenever possible .

Weak uncertainty avoidance societies maintain 
a more relaxed attitude in which practice
counts more than principles .

Uncertainty accepting cultures, are more
tolerant of opinions different from what they
are used to.
Society deals with unknown, surprising, different
from usual situations .


People within these cultures are more
phlegmatic and contemplative, and not
expected by their environment to express
emotions.

Countries minimize the possibility of such
situations by strict laws and rules, safety and
security measures, and on the philosophical and
religious level by a belief in absolute Truth.
Countries are also more emotional, and motivated
by inner nervous energy .
Short-term orientation/ long-term orientation
(LTO)
Short term orientation : Morocco
•
•
•
•
Long term orientation : US
Short-term oriented societies foster •
normative virtues related to the past and
present such as national pride, respect for
tradition, preservation of "face", and
fulfilling social obligations.
•
Family is the basis of society.
•
Parents and men have more authority
than young people and women.
•
Promotion of equality.
High creativity, individualism.
Treat others as you would like to be
treated.
Strong work ethic.
•
•
Long- term oriented societies foster
pragmatic virtues oriented towards future
rewards, in particular saving, persistence,
and adapting to changing circumstances.
High value placed on education and
training.
Self-actualization is sought.
Indulgence versus Restraint
Indulgence : Sweeden
Restraint : Morocco
•Society
that allows relatively free • Society that suppresses gratification of
gratification of basic and natural human needs and regulates it by means of strict
drives related to enjoying life and having social norms.
fun
EDWARD T. HALL’S
DIMENSIONS
Context:
◦ High context cultures:In a high-context culture, there are many
contextual elements that help people to understand the rules. As a result,
much is taken for granted.This can be very confusing for person who
does not understand the 'unwritten rules' of the culture.
◦ Low context cultures:In a low-context culture, very little is taken for
granted. Whilst this means that more explanation is needed, it also means
there is less chance of misunderstanding particularly when visitors are
present.
Cultural context dimension
High-context
• Establish social trust first
• Value personal relations
• Agreement by general trust
Low-context
• Get down to business first
• Value expertise and performance
• Agreement by specific, legalistic contract
Factor
Overtness of messages
High-context culture
Many covert and implicit messages,
with use of metaphor and reading
between the lines.
Locus of control and contribution Inner locus of control and personal
for failure
acceptance for
failure
Use of non-verbal communication Much nonverbal communication
Low context-culture
Many overt and explicit messages
that are simple and clear.
Outer locus of control and blame of
others for failure
More focus on verbal
communication than body language
Reserved, inward reactions
Visible, external, outward reaction
Cohesion and separation of
groups
Strong distinction between ingroup
and outgroup. Strong sense of
family.
Flexible and open grouping patterns,
changing as needed
People bonds
Strong people bonds with affiliation
to family and community
Fragile bonds between people with
little sense of loyalty.
High commitment to long-term
relationships.
Relationship more important than
task.
Low commitment to relationship.
Task more important than
relationships.
Time is open and flexible.
Process is more important than
product
Time is highly organized.
Product is more important than
process
Expression of reaction
Level of commitment to
relationships
Flexibility of time
Space (leading to « proxemics »)
◦ Intimate space: the closest "bubble" of space surrounding a person.
Entry into this space is acceptable only for the closest friends and
intimates.
◦ Social and consultative spaces: the spaces in which people feel
comfortable conducting routine social interactions with acquaintances as
well as strangers.
◦ Public space: the area of space beyond which people will perceive
interactions as impersonal and relatively anonymous.
Time:
Anthropologist Edward T. Hall’s concept of polychronic
versus monochronic time orientation describes how cultures
structure their time.
• The monochronic time concept follows the notion of “one
thing at a time”.
• The polychronic concept focuses on multiple tasks being
handled at one time, and time is subordinate to interpersonal
relations.
The following table gives a brief overview of the two different
time concepts, and their resultant behaviour.
Monochronic time culture
Polychronic time culture
Actions
Do one thing at a time
Do many things at once
Focus
Concentrate on the job at hand
Are easily distracted
Attention to time
Think about what will be achieved
Priority
Think about when things must be
achieved
Put the job first
Respect for property
Seldom borrow or lend things
Timeliness
Emphasize promptness
Borrow and lend things often and
easily
Base promptness relationship
factors
Interpersonal Relations
Interpersonal relations are
subordinate to present schedule
Schedule co-ordinates activity;
appointment time is rigid.
One task at a time
Activity Co-ordination
Task Handling
Breaks and Personal Time
Temporal Structure
Work/personal time separability
Organisational Perception
Breaks and personal time are
sacrosanct regardless of personal
ties.
Time is inflexible; time is tangible
Work time is clearly separable from
personal time
Activities are isolated from
organisation as a whole; tasks are
measured by output in time
(activity per hour or minute)
Put relationships first
Present schedule is subordinate
to interpersonal relations
Schedule co-ordinates activity;
appointment time is rigid.
Many tasks are handled
simultaneously
Breaks and personal time are
subordinate to personal ties.
Time is flexible; time is fluid
Work time is not clearly separable
from personal time
Activities are integrated into
organisation as a whole; tasks
are measured as part of overall
organisational goal.
CONFUCIUS
DIMENSIONS ABOUT
CULTURE
Confucius dimensions about
culture
 A very ancient school of thought in philosophy, moral, politics, and religion.
 Ethical teachings for everyday life
 The fifth dimension of culture
Principales and concepts :
 The stability of the society is based on unequal relationships between people.
 The family is the prototype of all social organizations.
 “Do not treat people in a way you would not want to be treated yourself” = golden rule
 To acquire skills and education, to work hard, not to spend more than necessary, to
be patient, and to be persistent.
Short-term orientation characteristics (non
confucian society) UK
Long-term orientation characteristics (confucian
society) Morocco
Personal survival/security
Social order
Personal respect/dignity
Hierarchical respect
Individual face-saving
Collective face-saving
Short- to medium-term planning
Long-term planning
Respect for tradition
Thrift centered
Reciprocation of greetings, favors, and gifts
Short- to medium-term outcomes
Long-term outcomes
Respect for obligations (social, status) regardless of
what it costs
Spending is everywhere ; “thrift” is not a value
Adaptation of traditions to a modern context
Sensitivity to social trends in consumption
Respect for obligations (social, status) within limits
Huge income differences in the society
Pakistan
Canada/USA
UK
Zimbabwe
Thrift
Less unequal incomes
China/ Taiwan
Japan
South Korea
Brazil
In the work place/ business
Confucian society
- Order relationships by status and keep
that order
Non confucian society
- Relatively flat relationships
- Consumption
- The importance of thrift/saving
- Quick results expected
- Perseverance towards slow results
- More frequent job change
- Less frequent job change
CROSS CULTURAL
NEGOCIATION
STYLES
Negotiation Styles from a Cross-Cultural
Perspective
Cross-cultural negotiation styles
Managing Cross-Cultural Negotiations
Negotiation: The process of bargaining with one or more
parties to arrive at a solution that is acceptable to all
Planning
1. identify the objectives negotiators would like to
attain and explore the possible options for reaching
these objectives
2. Set limits on single-point objectives
3. Divide issues into short- and long-term
considerations and decide how to handle each
4. Determine the sequence in which to discuss the
various issues
Negotiation: The process of bargaining with one or more
parties to arrive at a solution that is acceptable to all
Planning
Impersonal Relationship
Building
•
Get to know the people on the other side
•
“Feeling out” period is characterized by the desire to
identify those who are reasonable and those who are
not
Negotiation: The process of bargaining with one or more
parties to arrive at a solution that is acceptable to all
•
Each group sets forth its position on the critical
issues
•
These positions often change later in the
negotiations
•
Participants try to find out what the other party
wants to attain and what it is willing to give up
Planning
Impersonal Relationship
Building
Exchanging TaskRelated Information
Negotiation: The process of bargaining with one or more
parties to arrive at a solution that is acceptable to all
•
Planning
Impersonal Relationship
Building
Exchanging TaskRelated Information
Success of the persuasion step depends on
•
How well the parties understand each other’s
position
•
The ability of each to identify areas of similarity and
differences
•
The ability to create new options
•
The willingness to work toward a mutually
acceptable solution
Persuasion
Negotiation: The process of bargaining with one or more
parties to arrive at a solution that is acceptable to all
•
Grant concessions and hammer out a final
agreement
•
This phase may be carried out piecemeal, and
concessions and agreements may be made on issues
one at a time.
Planning
Impersonal Relationship
Building
Exchanging TaskRelated Information
Persuasion
Agreement
• Have a sense of pride
sometimes interpreted
as supremacy
• French logic
("Cartesian" logic)
proceeds from what is
known in a point-bypoint fashion until
agreement is reached
• Protocol, manners,
status, education,
family, and individual
accomplish-ments are
keys to success with the
French
Germany
France
China
• Reserved; known for
hospitality and good
manners
• Give small, inexpensive
presents
• Do not like to be
touched
• Consider mutual
relationships and trust
very important
• Technical competence
of negotiators
necessary
• Prefer to use an
intermediary
• Rarely use lawyers
• Ample room for
compromise
• Protocol is important and
formal
• Dress is conservative; correct
posture and manners are
required
• Use titles when addressing
members of the negotiating
team; use please and thank you
often
• Prefer to keep a distance
between themselves and the
other team negotiators
• Have technical people as part
of the negotiation team as
Germans are detail oriented
• Punctuality is expected
• Contracts are firm guidelines to
be followed exactly
• In the past,
negotiation sessions
have been long, with
Russians controlling
the agenda
• Are concerned with
age, rank, and
protocol
• Tend to be formal
• Friendships are not
crucial to business
• Contracts interpreted
rigidly
• Concerned with
maximizing their
profits
Latin America
Russia
India
• Bribery is common; having
connections is important
• Avoid using the left hand in
greetings and eating
• Request permission before
smoking, entering, or sitting
• Building relationships is
important; an introduction is
necessary
• Intermediaries are common
• Use titles to convey respect
• Knowledge of local affairs is
important
• Negotiation process can be
long
• Relationships are important
• Bribery is common
• Government is very involved in
business
• Negotiators chosen based on family
connections, political influence,
education, and gender (females should
be in the background)
• Latinos are very individualistic but
group oriented concerning family and
friends
• Social competence is important; will ask
about one's health and well-being of
family
• Most agreements are consummated
over lunch
• Numerous meetings is the norm; time
is not seen as important
• Avoid gestures
Japan
Nigeria
• Nigerians are skillful negotiators; they
view negotiation as a competitive process
• When selecting negotiators, consider age
(equated with wisdom), gender, cultural
background, and educational credentials
• Developing a personal relationship is
important
• Time is not particularly important so
negotiations may be lengthy
• Use titles and last names
• Use an intermediary to make initial
introductions
• Being well dressed is important; courtesy
and consideration are also expected
• Contracts considered flexible; they may
be oral or written
• A bribe may be needed to expedite
business
• Business etiquette is very important
• Meeting should be arranged by an intermediary who
has a relationship with both parties
• Negotiating parties usually consist of five people
• Business card exchange is common
• Subtle and complex verbal and nonverbal cues are
used to avoid having someone lose face or lose the
group harmony
• Negotiating practices are based on the keiretsu system
(a company group formed by the principal company
and the partner companies that supply parts,
equipment, financial support, or distribution of the
final products); a keiretsu group is viewed as a longterm commitment
• The Japanese use more silence and less eye contact
than U.S.
• Consider contracts as flexible instruments
• Are suspicious of a negotiating team that includes
lawyers
Effective Negotiation Characteristics
(examples of different cultures)
Adapted from Table 7-10: Culture-Specific Characteristics Needed by International Managers for Effective Negotiations
Adapted from Table 7-10: Culture-Specific Characteristics Needed by International Managers for Effective Negotiations
CROSS CULTURAL
LEADERSHIP
STYLES
Definition of leadership
Rost (1993) defines Leadership as "a power and value laden relationship between
leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes
and goals" (
Joseph C. Rost)
102
Leadership Theories X, Y
103
Management Vs Leadership
Management
Leadership
Creating an agenda
Planning and budgeting –establishing detailed
steps and timetables for achieving needed results,
and then allocating the resources necessary to
make that happen.
Establishing direction – developing a vision of the
future, often the distant future, and strategies for
producing the changes needed to achieve that vision
Developing a human
network for
achieving the agenda
Organizing and staffing – establishing some
structure for accomplishing plan requirements,
staffing that structure with individuals, delegating
responsibility and authority for carrying out the
plan, providing policies and procedures to help
guide people, and creating methods or systems to
monitor implementation
Aligning people – communicating the direction by
words and deeds to all those whose cooperation may
be needed so as to influence the creation of teams
and coalitions that understand the vision and
strategies, and accept their validity,
104
Management Vs Leadership
Management
Leadership
Execution
Controlling and problem –solving –
monitoring results vs. plan in some detail,
identifying deviations, and then planning and
organizing to solve these problems
Motivating and inspiring – energizing people to
overcome major political, bureaucratic, and resource
barriers to change by satisfying very basic, but often
unfulfilled human needs.
Outcomes
Produces a degree of predictability and
order, and has the potential of consistently
producing key results expected by various
stakeholders(e.g. for customers, always being
on time; for stockholders, being on budget
Produces change, often to a dramatic degree, and has the
potential of producing extremely useful change (e.g. new
products that customers want, new approaches to labor
relations that help make a firm more competitive.
105
Leadership styles
◦ In 1939, Kurt Lewin identified three broad categories of leadership
styles an :
Autocratic
• Autocratic leaders plan, control, and make decisions by their
own and they expect the subordinates to work towards the
goals they set and obey the rules they placed.
Democratic
• Democratic leaders collaborate with the followers, guide
them and use a collective approach in planning, control, and
decision making
LaissezFaire
• Laissez-Faire leaders offer very little guidance to
subordinates and expect them to plan and control their work
themselves and let others to take their own decisions
106
Leadership in Morocco according to
Hofstede’s
dimensions
High power distance culture
Low power distance culture
(Morocco)






The more powerful authority the executives and leaders
can have.
Large gaps in compensation, authority, and respect
between leaders and employees.
The strong hierarchy brings power to leaders on the top
of organizations.
Subordinates in high power distance countries are
typically more reluctant to challenge their supervisors and
more fearful of expressing disagreement with their
managers
Autocratic leadership is more acceptable and effective in
high power distance societies
people want and expect more guidance in societies





It makes leadership in organizations more likely to be
decentralized, but executives are highly independent and
qualified.
Leaders and employees are considered almost as equals.
Flatter organizations.
Democratic leadership is more acceptable and effective in
high power distance societies
Independence and autonomy
107
Leadership in Morocco according to
Hofstede’s dimensions
Individualism




Leaders take into their consideration employees
need for freedom.
Respect for privacy.
An enjoyment of challenges, and an expectation of
rewards for hard work from the organization.
Leaders promote team performance
Collectivism
(Morocco)




Leaders focus on building professional skills of
employees among the team.
Work for intrinsic rewards.
In the team, harmony is more important than
honesty.
Leaders promote individual performance
108
Leadership in Morocco according to
Hofstede’s dimensions
Masculinity
(Morocco)












There is a well defined distinction between men's work and
women's work.
Organizations success rely on masculine leadership and
how far a male contingence can go.
Emotional discussions or emotionally based arguments are
avoided on making decisions
In male culture, men are assertive and decisive
Management as manége: decisive and aggressive
Resolution of conflict by letting the strongest win
Rewards are based on equity
Preference for larger organizations
Careers are compulsory for men, optional for women
There is a lower share of working women in professional
jobs
Male leaders are more directive and autocratic
Male leaders display more task oriented behaviors
Feminity







Feminine leadership traits are more conductive.
Women tend to endorse the people-oriented style.
Leaders take decisions based on consensus and diversity of
ideas.
In the women's culture, leaders adopt a participatory
leadership
Management as ménage: intuition and consensus Careers
are optional for both genders
Women leaders are more participative and democratic
Strong commitement to values and a preference of
collaboration over competition and discuss over debating
Female leaders shom more concern with the maintenance
of interpersonnal relationship
Women leaders encourage participation , share power
information enhance the self worth of others and energize
109
followers
Leadership in Morocco according to
Hofstede’s dimensions
High Uncertainty Avoidance (Morocco)









Leaders tend to give clear directions to subordinates
Leaders use formality in interactions with others.
Motivation by security and esteem or belonging
Rely on formalized policies and procedures.
Emotional need for rules – even if not obeyed
Take moderate, carefully calculated risks.
Show strong resistance to change: Differences are avoided.
Leaders are concerned with daily operations
Leaders tend to give clear instructions to their subordinates
in order to reduce ambiguity regarding professional
expectations.
Low Uncertainty Avoidance






Members tend to be more person-oriented and
nondirective
They use informality in interactions with others.
Motivation by achievement and esteem or belonging.
Dislike of rules - written or unwritten
They are concerned with strategy
Leaders prefer the flexibility, autonomy and freedom,
because this culture employs fewer regulations, rules and
supervision. The members of this culture also tend to be
more person-centered and non-directive.
110
Leadership in Morocco according to
Hofstede’s dimensions
Indulgence
(Morocco)




Leaders have a strong perception of a severe
control of their team.
Maintaining order in the team is not given a high
priority.
- More employees are getting actively involved in
decision making process.
The leader satisfies the immediate needs and
personal desires of its members. The leader
considers proposals from members.
Restraint




Leaders have a perception of helplessness, what
happens to me is not my own doing.
Higher pressure and authority to maintain order in
the team.
Less employees are involved in decision making
process
The leader has strict social rules and norms under
which satisfaction of drives is regulated and
discouraged. -The leader is involved in every matter
and makes every decision. -the correct propositions
are those of the leader.
111
Japan’s leadership style
Less power of control because
leaders are expected to have warm
and good relationships with their
followers.
China’s leadership style
Team work
Decision making concentration
Collective decision making
Limited partnership
Fidelity of the inferior to the
Job rotations
superior is a virtue. The superior
should allow the inferior to express
his fidelity and it is expected that
Flexibility in work
leader rely on his follower to
remove his weak points.
Dominance of « secondary
groups » on the « primary groups »
The highest efficiency of leader is
associated with his ability to
understand the followers and to
attract their attentions.
Long-term employment
Administrative corruption
Mutual emotional relationship
between employer and employee
Supervisors are assumed to control
affairs and don’t allow the inferiors
to participate effectively
System of promotion on the basis
of superiority
Importance of face and face-toface conduct
Group assessment and group
bonus
Special attitude to time
Decision about the major issues
are made by considering the
interest of the decion makers
« secondary groups »
Europe’s leadership
style
Arab countries
leadership style
Expertise : their level of
Hierarchical power
technical expertise and
orientation toward detail and in- Compliance of regulations and
depth analyses.
laws with personalities
Competitiveness: theu generally Priority of relation on order
look for win-win solutions vs.
Behaving competitively.
Instability and hesitance in
decision making
Paternalism system in
ledaership
Setting standards of excellence : Nepotism in high
seting expectations for
organizationallevels
themselves and their
Open doors policies
organizations and their
willingness to work hard to
USA leadership style
Categorising human being as
good or bad
Noncompulsory thinking and
believe in performance of work
and change rather than
acceptance of fate
Dominance on nature (solution
are made based on structure,
strategy and system)
Individualism (japan and china
are collectivist societies).
Employing family and friend is
considered a destructive act.
Functionalism
Attention to present and future
instead of past
Sources
◦ http://fr.slideshare.net/MingLi1/cross-cultural-management-14532203
◦ http://www.etsu.edu/ahsc/documents/leadership_theories.pdf
◦ http://fr.slideshare.net/preciousssa/hofstede-cultural-differences-in-internationalmanagement
◦ http://www.austingme.com/templates/GraduateMedicalEducation/Assets/com
munication-skills.pdf
◦ http://www.iegd.org/spanish800/adjuntos/distefano5.pdf
◦ https://faculty.unlv.edu/phelan/.../Lecture%205.ppt