UNIT 69
SOCIETY AND CULTURE. STEREOTYPES AND
EMBLEMS OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES.
ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTURAL
INFLUENCE.
OUTLINE
1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.
2. SOCIETY AND CULTURE.
2.1. Misleading concepts.
2.1.1. Great Britain vs. the United Kingdom.
2.1.2. Society vs. Culture.
2.2. Language: a cultural and social means.
2.3. Society: issue typology.
2.4. Culture: issue typology.
2.5. Society and culture in English-speaking countries.
2.4.1. In the United Kingdom.
2.4.2. Out of the United Kingdom.
3. STEREOTYPES AND EMBLEMS OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES.
3.1. Definition: stereotypes and emblems.
3.2. Typology.
3.2.1. Main stereotypes.
3.2.2. Main emblems.
3.3. Stereotypes and emblems in English-speaking countries.
4. ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTURAL INFLUENCE.
4.1. Definition and typology
4.2. English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence
4.2.1. Through the media.
4.2.2. Through education.
5. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
6. CONCLUSION.
7.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
The present unit, Unit 69, aims to provide a useful introduction to society and culture within the
scope of stereotypes and emblems of English-speaking countries. Moreover, within this general
overview, we shall address the question of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence. So,
the unit is to be divided into three main chapters which correspond to the main tenets of this
unit.
Thus, Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to the concepts of society and culture in
relation to the English language since there is a link between these three terms within a sociocultural context or beyond its boundary. So, we shall start by (1) redefining certain concepts that
may be misleading within this framework, such as that of addressing (a) Great Britain as the
United Kingdom and (b) society vs. culture. Then, we shall offer (2) the cultural and social
connection to the English language as a cultural and social means; (3) a typology of issues to
deal with when we refer to society; and similarly, (4) a typology of issues regarding culture.
Finally, we shall discuss what common features are shared by different (5) societies and cultures
in the English-speaking countries by analysing (a) the countries in the United Kingdom and (b)
out of it at international level.
Next, Chapter 3 shall analyse the phenomenon of stereotypes and emblems in the main Englishspeaking countries. In doing so, we shall provide (1) a definition of both stereotypes and
emblems; (2) typology of the main (a) stereotypes and (b) emblems, and (3) an analysis of the
main stereotypes and emblems within the different English-speaking countries. And finally,
with this background in mind, Chapter 4 shall address the phenomenon of English songs as a
vehicle of cultural influence by providing (1) definition and typology and then, stating the
relevance of (2) English songs as as a vehicle of cultural influence (a) through the media and (b)
through education.
Chapter 5 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 6 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 7 will include all the bibliographical
references for further information.
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1.2. Notes on bibliography.
An general introduction to society and culture within English-speaking countries is namely
based on the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004); The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2003);
McLean, Profile UK (1993); and Vaughan-Rees, In Britain (1995). Specific information about
stereotypes and emblems is drawn from Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain (1962); and the
reliable sources of www.wikipedia.org (2004); www.bbc.co.uk (2004); and www.britannica.com
(2004).
The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative
competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2002) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; and the Council of Europe,
Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of
reference (1998).
2. SOCIETY AND CULTURE.
Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to the concepts of society and culture in relation to
the English language since there is a link between these three terms within a socio-cultural
context or beyond its boundary. So, we shall start by (1) redefining certain concepts that may be
misleading within this framework, such as that of addressing (a) Great Britain as the United
Kingdom and (b) society vs. culture. Then, we shall offer (2) the cultural and social connection
to the English language as a cultural and social means; (3) a typology of issues to deal with
when we refer to society; and similarly, (4) a typology of issues regarding culture. Finally, we
shall discuss what common features are shared by different (5) societies and cultures in the
English-speaking countries by analysing (a) the countries in the United Kingdom and (b) out of
it at international level.
2.1. Misleading concepts.
2.1.1. Great Britain vs. the United Kingdom.
There is some confusion about the meaning of these two concepts, and some more, since they
are referred to in several different ways: Britain, Great Britain, the British Isles, the U.K., and
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. What do these names mean?
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Let us start by the distinction between Britain vs. Great Britain . In fact, there is no difference,
just a nuance in meaning since Britain is the ancie nt name of modern Great Britain . Yet, Great
Britain is often referred to as ‘the British Isles,’ but this is innacurate since Great Britain makes
reference to the island lying off the western coast of Europe, comprising England, Scotland,
Wales, and Northern Ireland (the main territory of the United Kingdom) whereas the British
Isles is the name given to England, Scotland, Wales, the whole of Ireland, and the Isle of Man in
the geography books. Actually, the island of Great Britain is the largest of the British Isles, the
largest island in Europe, and the eighth in the world.
In political terms, the term ‘Great Britain’ is used to describe the combination of England,
Scotland and Wales, as well as distant outlying islands such as the Isles of Scilly, the Hebrides,
and the island groups of Orkney and Shetland, but does not include (in this sense) the Isle of
Man and the Channel Islands. Yet, following Bromhead (1962:195), “the political unit, for
government and administration, is properly called ‘the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland’. This does not include the southern part of Ireland, which is now an
independent republic and not even a member of the Commonwealth, and to be quite accurate it
does not include the Channel Islands of Jersey, Guernsey and others, which lie off the coast of
Normandy, or the Isle of Man, which lies between England and Ireland. These islands have their
own legislatures and administrations and financ ial systems, but are more closely attached to the
United Kingdom than the independent countries of the Commonwealth in other parts of the
world.” Despite that fact that the UK became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland in the 1920s, ‘Great Britain’ is often used as a synonym of the UK in certain
contexts (i.e. the UK competes in the Olympic Games as Great Britain).
Also, the terms ‘Britain’ and ‘British’ refer to the whole of the UK or its predecessors, or
institutions associated with them, and not just Great Britain. For example, United Kingdom
monarchs are often called ‘British monarchs’; United Kingdom Prime Ministers are often called
‘British Prime Ministers’. Such usage is generally seen as correct. However, the use of the term
English for British, as in ‘Queen of England’ is clearly inaccurate. Note that England in a sense
of a separate state has not existed since 1707.
2.1.2. Society vs. culture.
As stated above, society and culture are closely related to language, for our purposes, English.
Imagine the world is a global village where the understanding of the complex and subtle
relationship between these three elements becomes an essential condition for peaceful co-
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existence among its villagers. On the basis of this assumption, society and culture are
interrelated, but play important different roles within the socio-cultural context.
For instance, the term ‘society’ is defined by the website wikipedia (2004) as “a group of
individuals that form a semi-closed system, in which most interactions are with other
individuals belonging to the group.” This means that a ‘society’ is a network of relationships
between people living together in an interdependent and ordered community under physical
borders (versus ‘culture’ which has symbolic ones). Within the field of social sciences, the term
‘society’ is used as synonymous of citizenry of a country as directed through national
institutions concerned with civic welfare (state, government and politics, health and welfare,
education, family). Hence, French society, Spanish society, German society, and so on.
On the other hand, late nineteenth-century anthropologists defined the term ‘culture’ as the
human nature that could apply to a wide variety of societies. Yet, what does this exactly mean?
Culture has its roots in the universal human capacity to classify experiences, and encode and
communicate them symbolically, that is, people develop common ways of understanding when
living together through the use of symbolic values (to express their ideas), norms (to behave),
and artifacts (to cohabitate with material things). So, values are defined as ideas about what in
life is important; norms, as expectations of how people will behave in different situations.
Note that each culture has different methods that enforce the norms, such as ‘santions’ or ‘laws;’
finally, the third component of culture, artifacts, is derived from the culture’s values and norms
(i.e. housing, clothes, food and drink, sports, music). As a result, people living together will
develop a unique culture and viceversa (people living apart from one another develop different
cultures), but it is worth noting that elements of different cultures can easily spread from one
group of people to another. Hence, we can find British clothes in the United States, or Indian
food in Canada.
2.2. Language as a cultural and social means.
When approaching the cultural dimension of the English language out of the Commonwealth,
we deal with a widespread phenomena: English as a common means to communicate all over
the world. Actually, namely spoken in the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and
103 other countries, “English is the second most popular ‘first’ language (native speakers), with
around 402 million people in 2002” (wikipedia, 2004). Also, “it is the most widely used
‘second’ and ‘learning’ language in the world, and as such, many linguists believe, it is no
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longer the exclusive cultural emblem of ‘native English speakers’, but rather a language that is
absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it grows in use. Others theorise that there are limits
to how far English can go in suiting everyone for communication purposes.”
The fact is that English has become the most important and the most spoken language in the
world due to two main reasons: first, in the past, because of the highest number of colonies at
the beginning of the century and, second, nowadays, because of its status as a lingua franca, due
to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the United Kingdom and
later the United States. In fact, it has become the official language of international organisms
such as the European Parliament, the EU Committee, the UNESCO, and NATO, among others.
This overall influence of the United States throughout the modern world has made English
become by far the dominant language of contemporary science and technology, multinational
industry and commerce, and of computerized information networks. Where possible, virtually
all students worldwide are required to learn some English, and knowledge of English is virtually
a prerequisite for working in many fields and occupations. Higher academic institutions, for
example, require a working command of English. Yet, nowadays, recent figures show that over
320 million people speak English as a mother tongue and further 400 million people use it as a
foreign language. In short, over 700 million people use English nowadays as a first, second or
foreign language and have become international users of English.
Hence English has a lot of varieties which depend on regional, educational, ethnic, attitudinal,
medium and subject matter aspects. In particular, varieties according to the region are called
‘dialects,’ which are namely distinguished in phonological terms since we generally recognize a
different dialect from a speaker’s pronunciation before we notice differences in grammar or
vocabulary. For instance, the main dialects1 of the English language are American English,
Australian English, British English, Canadian English, Caribbean English, Filipino English,
Hiberno-English, Indian English, Jamaican English, Liberian English, Malaysian English, New
Zealand English, Scottish English, Singapore English, and South African English (wikipedia,
2004).
So, figures regarding the use of the English language around the world have been continuously
increasing during the twentieth and twenty-first century. Actually, we may find people who
1
Note that “these varieties may, in most cases, contain several subvarieties, such as Cockney within
British English, Newfoundland English within Canadian English and African American Vernacular
English within American English” (wikipedia, 2004).
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speak English as a native, second and foreign language. Yet, let us clarify the difference
between these similar but confusing concepts. For instance, a mother tongue is considered to be
the first language (L1) one learns as a child whereas a second language (L2) is acquired under
the need of learning the language of another country. On the other hand, when languages are
acquired in school, it is considered as a foreign language. The acronyms ESL and EFL stand for
the learning of English as a Second and as a Foreign Language.
So, these concepts will help us to establish the three main parametres under which we shall
examine the way the English language is used in countries out of the Commonwealth, for
instance, (a) as a native language in the United States, (b) as a second language in India, and (c)
as a foreign language in Spain (so as to prepare the ground for next chapters on the distinction
between British English and American English; and the presence of English in Spain).
•
English as a native language.
Regarding the countries that use English as their native language or mother tongue, it is worth
noting that most of those 402 million people (mentioned above) who speak English as their
native language are citizens of the United States (est. 287,602,000 by 2002). Moreover,
regarding its geographic distribution English is regarded as the first language in Australia, the
Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, New Zealand, Antigua, Saint Kitts and Nevis,
Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom and the United States of America (wikipedia, 2004).
“English is also one of the primary languages of Belize (with Spanish), Canada (with French),
Cameroon (with French and African languages), Dominica, St. Lucia and Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines (with French Creole), the Federated States of Micronesia, Ireland (with Irish),
Liberia (with African languages), Singapore and South Africa (with Afrikaans and other African
languages).”
•
English as a second language.
Regarding English as a second language it is worth noting that the estimated number of English
speakers are possibly between 350 and 1,000 million. The reason is that English is not used as a
native language, but as a practical or educated first language within a largely bilingual society or
due to the necessity to use it for some practical purposes due to administrative, professional,
educational or commercial reasons. So, English as a second language is an official language in
Fiji, Ghana, Gambia, Hong Kong, India, Kiribati, Lesotho, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, Malta, the
Marshall Islands, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon Isla nds, Samoa,
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Sierra Leone, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Moreover, “it is the most
commonly used unofficial language of Israel and an increasing number of other countries such
as Switzerland, Norway and Germany” (wikipedia, 2004).
•
English as a foreign language.
Recent figures show that the number of people who speak English as a foreign language
nowadays exceeds 400 million or even more. English has become one of the main aims in
teaching foreign languages so grammars, dictionaries, and manuals on it proliferate nowadays.
There is also a general raising of consciousness, with new language courses in schools,
regarding the learning of a foreign language, namely English, so as to help people keep pace
with current developments (scientific, technological, educational); and this is to be achieved
predominantly by means of the media (popular programmes on radio and television, songs,
documentaries, press). Current figures show that English is the language “most often studied as
a foreign language in Europe (32.6%) and Japan, followed by French, German and Spanish”
(wikipedia, 2004).
2.3. Society: issue typology.
In this section we shall introduce a typology of issues within the concept of ‘society’ taking into
account that they deal with national institutions and civic welfare. Moreover, implicit in the
meaning of society is that its members share some mutual concern or interest in a common
objective: collective citizenry. This is the reason why peoples of many nations become united
by common politic al and cultural traditions, beliefs, or values which, sometimes, are also said to
be part of society. Yet, when used in this context, the term is being used as a means of
contrasting two or more ‘societies’ whose representative members represent alternative
conflicting and competing worldviews.
Then, since social sciences (also called social studies) comprise the scientific study of the
human aspects of the world, we namely distinguish the following topics: history, state,
government, politics, law, economics, business, and finally, communication and the media .
•
History is often used as a generic term for information about the past, though sometimes
it is used as the name of a field of study, that is, human history, which is the recorded
memory of past human societies. There are two main ways of classifying it: (1) by
location (Africa, America, Asia, Europe, Oceania, Antarctica); (2) by date (centuries,
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decades, periodization); by academic classification (prehistory, ancient history, modern
history, early modern history); and miscellaneous classifications (history of literature,
history of art, history of cinema, military history).
•
The state is defined as a sovereign political entity in international law and international
relations, that is, not being subject to any higher political authority (in casual language,
a ‘country’) as well as in terms of domestic conditions, specifically in relation to the
role of the monopolization of force, political philosophies, and ideal roles within a
country. The definition of state comprises the political subdivisions of some countries
(confederation, federal, regime). Finally, it is worth mentioning that the legal criteria for
statehood are not obvious, but a document quoted on the matter (Montevideo
Convention, 1933, artic le 1) states that “the state as a person of international law should
possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory;
(c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states.”
•
Hence, next element to be included is government, which is defined as “an organization
that has the power to make and enforce laws for a certain territory” (wikipedia, 2004).
This means that it is the dominant decision-making arm (the policy elite) of the state so
as to create, enforce and control a territory via bureaucratic hierarchy (police, military
forces, justice). This control is exerced through such activities as “collecting taxes,
controlling entry and exit to the state, preventing encroachment of territory by
neighbouring states and preventing the establishment of alternative governments within
the country.”
Typical methods of maintaining support and legitimacy include providing infrastructure
for justice, administration, transport, social welfare; holding ele ctions for important
posts within the state; limiting the power through laws and constitutions. Hence
governments are related to the fields of economics, education, health, science, territory
and war and have various forms of government. Actually, a government in a developed
state is likely to have sub-organisations known as offices, departments, or agencies,
which deal with the mentioned fields, and are “headed by politically appointed officials,
often called ministers or secretaries. Ministers may in theory act as advisors to the head
of state, but in practice have a certain amount of direct power in specific areas.”
•
Politics, then, deal with the “process and conduct of decision-making for groups
[Labour vs. Conservative Party in UK; Democrats vs. Republicans in US]. Although it
is usually applied to governments, political behavior is also observed in corporate,
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academic, religious, and other institutions.” The political behavior of a given policy,
leader or party is studied by political sciences, which examines the acquisition and
application of power, that is, the ability to impose one’s will on another.
•
Laws are concerned with politics and jurisprudence, that is, rules of conduct which
proscribe specified relationships among people and organizations, as well as
punishments. In short, law is the formal codification of customs within the legislative
bodies through legislation, regulation of statues and resolution of disputes (British
Educational Laws; Statue of Westminster).
•
Economics, a term coined in around 1870 by Alfred Marshall, is defined as the social
science that deals with “the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services, in terms of trade offs between competing alternatives as observed through
measurable quantities such as price and output. Political economy explicitly brings
political considerations into economic analysis and therefore tends to be more
normative. Some mainstream universities (such as the University of Toronto and many
in the United Kingdom) have a political economy department rather than an economics
department.”
•
business refers to commercial activities and interests through the figure of enterprises,
and is usually defined as ‘industry’ (hence ‘fishing’ business or ‘fishing’ industry).
Similarly, the word ‘trade’ may be used to refer to ‘business’ and ‘industry’. Actually,
people establish businesses in order to perform economic or industrial activities. “With
some exceptions (such as cooperatives, corporate bodies, non-profit organizations and
institutions of government), businesses exist to produce profit. In other words, the
owners and operators of a business have as one of their main objectives to receive or
generate a financial return for their time, effort and capital.” Businesses are classified
into service businesses (transport, shops), distributors, manufacturers, partnerships,
corporations (limited companies), sole proprietorhips. Hence the famous Time Warner,
Walt Disney Company, Twentieth Century Fox, News Corporation and Hollywood
Planet, among others.
•
communication and the media . Communication is the process of exchanging
information usually via a common system of symbols. This process is usually carried
out by the mass media, which comprises radio, television, movies, magazines,
newspapers and, more recently, the World Wide Web. Since the media reaches a mass
audience, techniques such as advertising and propaganda have been increasingly
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developed by companies to make vast fortunes (BBC, Nike, Coca-Cola companies,
among others).
2.4. Culture: issue typology.
Since the term ‘culture’ refers to values, norms and elite consumption of goods and activities,
culture is often identified with ‘civilization’, as a complex web of shifting patterns that link
people in different regions, and link social formations of different scales. So, a typology of
issues regarding culture is likely to include all the elements that reflect the stratified character of
a society in terms of religion, visual arts and design, literature, fashion, housing, hobbies, and
entertainment, among others.
•
We shall start by the issue of religion since it deals with values. Actually, religion is
defined as the “belief in the divine, supernatural, or sacred that results in worship.” This
phenomenon often provokes a conflict between ‘relig ion’ and ‘anti-religion’ advocates
(hence the conflict in Northern Ireland between Catholics and Protestants; and more
recently, between ‘islamism’ and ‘Western societies’).
•
The field of visual arts and design is extremely broad, but essentially it is any art that
you can see, excluding performance. Actually , we divide both categories into
subcategories, so visual arts are classified into three main types: (1) ‘traditional’ or ‘fine
arts’ such as batik, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, film,
ceramics, textile art; (2) ‘contemporary art’, which includes: avant garde, comic books
and strips, computer generated art (digital or electronic), conceptual art, depliage, email art, found art, graffiti (also called DAIM, Street Art or Taging), installation art,
interactive art, internet art, mail art, media art, pop art, public art, transfer art, and video
art; and (3) ‘body art’ which comprises tattoo, body modification, body piercing, and
scarification (wikipedia, 2004). On the other hand, design is classified into architecture,
cabinet making, commercial art (visual communication), fashion design, graphic design
(marketing), heraldry (design of coats-of-arms or armorial achievements), illustration,
industrial/product design, interior design/decoration, art stencils, or web design.
•
Literature is often defined as the historical account of the world (sometimes explicitly,
others implicitly) through the vision of learned writers. Hence literature is traditionally
presented through authors (Shakespeare, Dickens, Hemingway, Greene), a period
(Medieval literature, modern literature) or timeline classification (Elizabethan literature,
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Georgian literature, Victorian literature) so as to give an account of the main historical
events worldwide, for our purposes, in English-speaking countries.
Other well-known literary figures include the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, Anne and
Emily), Agatha Christie, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Geoffrey Chaucer, Dr Samuel
Johnson, George Orwell, and J.R.R. Tolkien. Among important poets we shall mention
Robert Burns, Thomas Hardy, John MIlto, Rudyard Kipling, Alfred Tennyson, Dyland
Thomas, and finally, William Wordsworth.
•
Fashion is also included in the list of cultural elements, since different societies are
distinguished by means of clothes (national, regional, local), customs (Hindu’s
hairband, uniforms in UK public schools), trends (American youth in the 1960s and
hippy clothes), luxury items (Miami Vice and fast cars), catwalks (Naomi Campbell), or
even the lack of clothes (Australian aborigins).
•
Housing also marks the difference between cultures depending on the geographical site
of the country we refer to (north, south) and other factors, such as climate (British vs.
Spanish houses), location (city centre vs. countryside), and lifestyle (American country
house vs. modern London flat). For instance, broadly speaking New York is
characterized by the well-known skyscrapers whereas the Hindu city centre is not;
similarly, Hollywood Boulevard is related to mansions whereas the industrial
Manchester is related to red-brick semi-detached houses; and so on.
•
Hobbies, also called, spare-time pursuits, are practised for interest and enjoyment,
rather than financial reward (collecting stamps, playing chess), though the main aim is
personal fulfillment. They may lead us to acquiring substantial skill, knowledge, and
experience and, also, what is a hobby for someone may be a profession for another
(cooking as a chef, playing football as a professional). Yet, since Middle Ages falconry,
hobbies have changed considerably up to the present day, for instance, today’s leisure
times are sports, mountaineering, sailing, or cultural entertainment. It is worth noting
that sometimes the line between a hobby and an obsession can become blurred and get
to documented cases of violence. In fact, people who obsessively pursue a particular
hobby is called ‘anorak’ in the UK. This name derives from the particular weatherproof
clothing worn by enthusiasts of offshore radio who sometimes would travel from British
ports to visit the ships from which their outcast heroes broadcast during the 1960s and
1970s.
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•
However, entertainment is regarded as the most relevant cultural element within the
elite consumption of goods and activities since it comprises a vast list of issues, for
instance, games, chatting, dancing, music, mass media (show business, humor), sex
business, and the king type of entertainment: sports.
o
Games in general refer to any type of entertainment. The first one to mention is
gambling, which refers to any behaviour which involves “the risk of money or
valuables on the outcome of a game, contest or any other event in which the
outcome of that activity is partially or totally dependent upon chance”
(wikipedia, 2004). Gambling is a brain chemistry whose customers become
addictive and acquire a harmful behaviour in some people, and it is also related
to the organized crime, which uses violent methods to get large gambling debts
(The film ‘Casino’ by Martin Scorsesse). Among the most famous gambling
activities we include: slot machines, poker, blackjack, baccarat, roulette, and
the wheel of fortune (i.e. Las Vegas).
Other types of gambling take place in horse racing, greyhound racing, football
matches, golf, tennis, cricket, baseball, basketball and hockey. In addition many
bookmakers offer odds on a number of non-sports related outcomes (snow on
Christmas Day, the winner in Big Brother). Also, among non-casino gambling
games, we include the lottery, dice-based, card games, coin-tossing, carnival
games, and bar games (put and take, the smack, the drunken mitt).
In Canada and the United States the most common types of bets are on horse
race whereas in the United Kingdom bookmakers offer exotic wagers on horses
at different tracks. Note that the custom for women to wear enormous hats at the
races is worldwide known as a cultural symbol. Also, betting on team sports is
an important service industry in many countries, for instance, millions of
Britons every week. Yet, in Canada and the United States sports betting is
usually illegal (Nevada offers full sports betting and the Canadian provinces
offer government-run sports parlay betting). However, millions engage in it
despite its illegality.
o
Chatting, commonly known as ‘chat’ is a casual conversation, recently adopted
since the establishment of the Internet. The term is associated to online chat
services which offer multi-person ‘chat-room’ facilities. Today the most
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popular means of chatting online are instant messaging applications (bluechat,
chat room, IRC, outline chat).
o
Dancing is defined as “the human movement used as a form of expression or
presented in a social, spiritual or performance setting.” It is relevant for our
purposes since it implies social, cultural, aesthetic artistic and moral
constrainsts and range from functional movement (folk dance) to codified
(ballet). Moreover, among the English-speaking countries we may find
historical, traditional, ceremonial and ethnic dances (America’s rock’n’roll,
Afrikaan’s ritual dances, Hindu ceremonial dances).
o
Music is closely related to dancing and also establishes cultural markers among
different countries since the sounds people accept as music vary according to
historical era, location and cultural and individual taste. It is regarded as a
physical, psychological and social phenomenon, hence its relevance as a vehicle
of culture transmission. Actually, many cultures include strong traditions of
solo performances (Indian classical music) whereas other cultures (Bali)
include strong traditio ns of group performance. All cultures include a mixture
of both in modern classical concerts or religious processions. Nowadays we
have access to music through several media , being the most traditional way to
hear it live, in the presence of the musicians or live music broadcast over the
radio or television. Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded
sounds, for example, a DJ using records for scratching.
Among famous figures who have made major contributions to British music and
are known internationally, we highlight the composers Michael Tippet,
Benjamin Britten, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Arthur Sullivan, William Walton,
Edward Elgar, Henry Purcell, John Blow, John Taverner, Thomas Tallis, and
William Byrd. Among living composers we mention John Tavener, Harrison
Birtwistle, and Oliver Knussen.
Since London is one of the most important cities for music in the world, Britain
is also famous for supporting a number of major orchestras including the BBC
Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia, the
London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra. Hence
London has several important concert halls and is also home to the Royal Opera
House, one of the world’s leading opear houses.
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Nowadays, the UK, together with the US, is the main leading country in the
music industry. Supporting the rock and roll in the past, it has provided bands
such as The Beatles, the Rolling Stones, The Who, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin,
Status Quo, the Manic Street Preachers, Oasis, Radiohead or the Sex Pistols.
Since then it has also pioneered electronic dance music (acid house, drum and
bass, trip hop) and acclaimed British dance through bands such as Underworld
or Chemical Brothers. Moreover, most musicals are played in the National
Theatre in London.
o
The mass media nowadays, together with the advent of the World Wide Web, is
in charge of mark the first era in which any individual could have a means of
exposure from anywhere in the world. Hence, it is also a cultural marker (the
British BBC, the American CNN).
o
sex business is considered one the most successful commercial enterprises
within adult entertainment since it is not suitable for children (the US Playboy,
Penthouse, sex advertisements on London’s phone boxes). This industry
represents a large portion of the worlds economy, and has been credited with
driving technological advances in popular media, such as the home video and
live streaming video on the internet, being heterosexual men the first largest
consumers. Though advocating that it educates people about sexuality and
sexual health, this industry operates between legality and illegality in the fields
of striptease, live sex show, peep show, pornography, prostitution, erotic
massage, sex shop, and telephone sex.
o
and the king type of entertainment: sports, as it is a major area of human
interest and activity. Considered a large part of our leisure, newspaper and TV
time is given over to it. Actually, a great number of the world’s major
originated in the UK, for instance, football, golf, boxing, rugby, cricket,
snooker, billiards, badminton and curling. Earlier sport men were Roman
gladiators, which fought and killed for the delectation of the audience, Greek
athletes when running for the Olympic Games, and more recently, football.
Actually “the entertainment aspect of sport, together with the spread of mass
media and increased leisure time, has led to professionalism in sport. This has
resulted in some conflict, where the paycheck can be seen as more important
than recreational aspects: or where the sport is changed simply to make it more
profitable and popular therefore losing some of the traditions valued by some”
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(wikipedia, 2004). Sport is both related to politics (as an effective contribution
to the demolition of the apartheid policy in South Africa; or the controversial
Gaelic sports with nationalistic overtones) and art (ice skating, Tai chi,
gymnastics, bodybuilding). Yet, nowadays sport stars are the real trigger for the
audience (David Beckam, Manchester United team).
2.5. Society and culture in the English-speaking countries.
So, taking into account the previous comments on society and cultural issues, we shall proceed
to analyse, broadly speaking, how society and culture is present in the English-speaking
countries with a common code: the English language, first, in the United Kingdom and, then,
out of the United Kingdom.
2.5.1. In the United Kingdom.
As stated, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the
UK) is a state (known simply as the United Kingdom, or incorrectly as Great Britain or Britain)
which consists of the formerly self-governing nations of England, Wales, Scotland, and the
province Northern Ireland after a series of Acts of Union. The rest of Ireland left the United
Kingdom in 1922 after its independence as Eire. It is situated just off the north western coast of
mainland Europe, surrounded by the North Sea, the English Channel and the Atlantic Ocean.
Also, under its sovereignty we find the Crown Dependencies of the Channel Islands, the Isle of
Man and a number of overseas territories.
It has three official languages, English, Welsh and Scots Gaelics, though other regional
languages are recognised: Irish Gaelic, Cornish, Scots and Ulster Scots. Yet, many other
unofficial languages are present due to the wide variety of mong religions (Church of England,
Church of Scotland, Roman Catholic, Muslim, Methodist, Hindu, Sikh and Jewish). Its capital is
London and other important cities are Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester and Liverpool. It has an
extension of 244,820 km2 and a population of 59,511,464 and its currency is the pound sterling.
In form, it is a very centralised state with a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary
democracy, with a queen and a Parliament that has two houses: the House of Lords and the
House of Commons. London’s Westminster Parliament holds responsibility for most of the
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UK’s political power. “The UK’s current monarch and head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who
acceded to the throne in 1952 and was crowned in 1953. In modern Britain, the monarch’s role
is mainly ceremonial, with the UK’s real political power being delegated to the Prime Minister
by Parliament” (wikipedia, 2004).
“Its legislative power is invested in an elected government, and executive power invested in a
Cabinet lead by the Prime Minister whose power, though carried out in the monarch’s name, is
answerable to Parliament and through it the electorate. It is governed from its capital, London.”
Yet, in recent years, “each of the constituent nations, apart from England, has been granted its
own government, responsible in varying degree for some internal matters.”
Regarding economics, the UK is considered as a leading trading power and financial centre
thanks to its essentially capitalist economy, one of the largest of Western Europe. Following
wikipedia (2004), “over the past two decades the government has greatly reduced public
ownership by means of privatisation programmes, and has contained the growth of the Welfare
State. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised, and efficient by European standards,
producing about 60% of food needs with only 1% of the labour force. The UK has large coal,
natural gas, and oil reserves. Services, particularly banking, insurance, and business services,
account for by far the largest proportion of GDP while industry continues to decline in
importance.”
Tracing back in history, “Stonehenge and other examples of prehistoric culture are what remains
of the earliest inhabitants of Britain.” Celtic peoples followed, but after four centuries of Roman
rule, Britain fell prey to invading hordes of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Yet, it was not until the
10th century that the country became united under the kings of Wessex. The death of Edward
the Confessor in 1066 marked a turning point in the history of Great Britain since William, duke
of Normandy, invaded England, defeated the Saxon king, Harold II, at the Battle of Hastings
(1066) and introduced Norman French law and feudalism with the so-called Norman conquest
(linguaphone.co.uk).
Since then, following the encyclopaedia wikipedia (2004), “Scotland and England have existed
as separate unified entities since the tenth century. Wales, under English control since the
Statute of Rhuddan in 1284, became part of the Kingdom of England by the Act of Union 1536.
With the Act of Union 1707 the separate kingdoms of England and Scotland, having shared the
same monarch since 1603, agreed to permanent union as the Kingdom of Great Britain.. The
Act of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, which
had been gradually brought under English control between 1169 and 1603, to form the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.” Yet, “in 1922, 26 of the counties of Ireland were formed
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into the Irish Free State (the other six Ulster counties remaining part of the United Kingdom as
Northern Ireland) and the state became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland, the name being officially changed in 1927.”
“The United Kingdom, the dominant industrial and maritime power of the 19th century, played
a leading role in developing parliamentary democracy and in advancing literature and science.
At its zenith, the British Empire stretched over one quarter of the earth’s surface. The first half
of the 20th century saw the UK’s strength seriously depleted in two World Wars. The second
half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself into a modern and
prosperous European nation. The UK is currently weighing the degree of its integration with
continental Europe.”
“A member of the EU, it has chosen to defer its participation in Euro Zone owing to internal
political considerations.” Actually, “Blair’s controversial meeting in October 1997 with Sinn
Fein’s political leader, Gerry Adams, was the first meeting in 76 years between a British prime
minister and a Sinn Fein leader.” This “infuriated numerous factions but was a symbolic gesture
in support of the nascent peace talks in Northern Ireland. In 1998 the Good Friday Agreement,
strongly supported by Tony Blair, held out the promise of peace between Catholics and
Protestants, and talks continue” (linguophone.co.uk).
“Constitutional reform is also a current issue in the UK. The House of Lords has been subjected
to ongoing reforms and National assemblies with varying degrees of power were created in
Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 1999. Further assemblies for the English regions are
also under consideration. According to opinion polls, the monarchy remains generally popular
in spite of recent controversies. Support for a British Republic usually fluctuates between 15%
and 25% of the population.” Also, “the United Kingdom is a member of the Commonwealth of
Nations (successor organisation to the former Empire), the European Union and NATO. It is
also a permanent member of the UN Security Council and holds a veto power.”
Moreover, in terms of nations, regions, counties, areas and districts, the UK is made up of the
four already mentioned nations: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, which are in
turn subdivided. For instance,
•
England is made up of three regions: the South (from the River Severn in the west, to
the Wash, a bay on the East coast; the Midlands, from the Severn-Wash line to another
line from the estuary of the river Mersey to the Humber estuary in the east; and the
North, from the Mersey-Humber line to the Scottish border.
o
Some special features of the South region are: the climate (warmer than in the
other areas), the varied landscape (miles of sea coast with a variety of flat,
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sandy or stony beaches; a gentle and green inland landscape), coastal resorts
(famous for holidays: Southend, Brighton, Margate), London’s suburbs, the
English Channel, with 35 km from Dover to Calais and the presence of ferries
from Dover, Portsmouth, Plymouth across the Channel, a wide range of trade
and industry work (British aerospace), on land there are grain-growing, milk
production and stock-raising (meat) whereas on the sea we may find boats
sailing from the many harbours. Some places of interest are the prehistoric
monuments of Stonehenge, the Windsor’s Royal Residence, the famous public
school at Eton, the Canterbury Cathedral, the famous Roman remains at Bath
and the oldest universities in Britain, Oxford and Cambridge.
o
Some special features of the Midlands region are: the climate (cooler and wetter
than in the South) and the lack of sea coast. Also, the area where the Industrial
Revolution began, that is, large industrial areas which are very distinct from the
rural ones. The chief cities of the Midlands include: Birmingham as the second
largest city in the UK, and Derby, an enginerring centre where you may find
Rolls Royce’s aero engines and cars. We also find the Brit ish coal-mining
industry, the industrial are of potteries, and farming. Some places of interest in
the Midlands are the birthplace and burial place of William Shakespeare
(Stratford-on-Avon), the ancient cathedral chruches of Worcester, Gloucester
and Lichfield, in contrast to the fine modern cathedral of Coventry, bombed
during the WWII.
o
Among the special features of the North of England, we may say that in general
it gets colder the further north-east you go and wetter in the west. The
landscape is different from the other regions because it is covered by short grass
or low-growing heather. There is also a great contrast between the beautiful
open, hilly countryside and the industrial towns and mining villages. Famous
industrial centres are: Manchester (textiles, cotton goods, and engineering),
Sheffield (steel-making: knives, scissors), Leeds (textile: woollen cloth,
manufacture of coats, women’s dresses and men’s suits), and Newcastle -onTyne, known for ship-building and ship repairing. Furthermore, the North has
coal natural resources and a chemical industry, the Imperial Chemical
Industries (ICI). It also has two fine sea coasts for its citizens to enjoy
(Blackpool adn Scarborough). Some places of interest to visit are: Hadrian’s
Wall, the Lake District (a romantic scenery), the small, ancient university of
Durham, the medieval city walls of York, and Chester, another former Roman
city.
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•
Scotland is subdivided in 32 council areas, though there are three large geographical
areas: the Highlands, the Lowlands , and the Islands. About five million people live in
these areas (three-quarters of them live in the Central Lowlands). The regions of
Scotland are administered from Edinburgh, the capital. Other important cities are
Glasgow, the chie f industrial and commercial city, and Aberdeen, the chief cattle breeding centre. Scotland’s geography is famous for Ben Nevis, the UK’s highest
mountain (1343 m). There are also many long and deep sea arms, firths, lochs, and a
multitude of islands west and north of Scotland (the Hebrides, Orkney Islands, and
Shetland Islands).
In the Highlands farmers lead a hard and lonely life whereas in the Lowlands life is
much easier (cattle -breeding, seed-potato growing), though some of the traditional
Scottish industries of ship-building and ship-repairing and fishing are declining. On the
other hand, financial assistance is administered by the Scottish Development Agency,
which is in charge of saving jobs, creating new ones and develop and modernise
industry with the help of the UK central government. Places of interest include:
Balmoral Castle, the Edinburgh Festival for music and drama, the Western Isles, the
remote and barren northern islands (Shetlands, Orkneys) and if you catch a glimpse,
perhaps the Loch Ness monster.
•
Wales is divided into 22 unitary authorities, styles as 10 county boroughs, 9 counties,
and 3 cities. Its capital is Cardiff, located in the south, and overall figures show an
estimated population of 2,8 million. Most of them live in the industrial areas of South
Wales, where the main Welsh industries like coal-mining, iron and steel making, and
tim-plate manufacturing are set up. Though the architectural style is not very attractive,
the Welsh countryside is beautiful. Wales is mostly mountainous, the highest peak
being Snowdon, at 1,085 m above sea level; also, north of the mainland is the island of
Anglesey.
Some special points of interest are the Welsh borders, so popular for tourists. Actually,
most people from London and theWest Midlands, have bought holiday homes in Wales
to spend their holidays. The Welsh language is called ‘Cimru’ and is spoken with a
distinctive ‘sing-song’ intonation. Welsh folklore and the language strengthen each
other: a yearly-national festival of poetry and music called ‘Eisteddfod’ and choirs.
Finally, Wales has an obvious connection with the monarchy since the Prince of Wales
is the title given to the heir to the throne in Britain.
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•
Northern Ireland remained united after the independence of southern Ireland in 1922
and since then it is considered a province which nowadays consists of 24 districts, 2
cities and 6 counties. It is often called ‘Ulster’ and ‘the Six Counties’, since there are six
administrative areas in the provice. Its capital is Belfast and is famous for the ‘Orange
Day’ march that takes place every year on the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne in
1690, where Protestants commemorate the victory of English King William III over the
Irish Catholics. In recent times, there are people in both Northern and Southern Ireland
who believe fiercely that the two parts should be united in one independent state, and
they really work towards this end. Yet, there is a majority in the North who wish to
remain part of Britain and then they work against a united Ireland. There are the two
religions defending their own faiths in the North; each defends its own way of life as
two separate communities: the Republic in the South is namely Catholic whereas the
Protestant Community controls the economic and political life in the North.
Some gentler features of Northern Ireland include the northeastern part of Ireland,
whose landscape is gentle and colour green because it rains a lot. It is mostly hilly since
mountains roll gently down to the sea. The highest peak is the Slieve Donard at 932
metres above the sea. Also, Northern Ireland is a land of lakes, rivers and a varied sea
coast. It is a great place for outdoor sports, and for tourism (when times are peaceful).
Yet, the Northern Irish people are friendly and generous as St Patrick, the patron saint
of Ireland, who is its representative.
2.5.2. Out of the United Kingdom.
So as to offer a general approach to those English-speaking countries out of the United
Kingdom, we shall concentrate on the past member of the Commonwealth, formerly under
control of the British Empire and nowadays, independent from the monarchy of the United
Kingdom. Symbolically they are fifteen sovereign countries known as Commonwealth Realms.
Note that although Britain has no political or executive power over these independent nations, it
retains influence, through long-standing close relations. We shall also talk about Ireland, which
got its independence from the UK.
Yet, traditionally, the Commonwealth of Nations regards the “free association of sovereign
states consisting of Britain and many of its former dependencies who have chosen to maintain
ties of friendship and cooperation. It was established in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster as
the British Commowealth of Nations. Later its name was changed and it was redefined to
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include independent nations. Most of the dependent states that gained independence after 1947
chose Commonwealth membership.” Moreover, “the British monarch serves as its symbolic
head, and meetings of the more than 50 Commowealth heads of government take place every
two years.”
What follows is a brief history of the origins of the English-speaking countries. History tells us
that “territorial acquisition began in the early 17th century with a group of settlements in North
America and West Indian, East Indian, and African trading posts founded by private individuals
and trading companies. In the 18th century the British took Gibraltar, established colonies along
the Atlantic seacoast, and began to add territory in India. With its victory in the French and
Indian War (1763), it secured Canada and the eastern Mississippi Valley and gained supremacy
in India” (Britannica, 2004). By 1776 the American colonies were controlled by governors
appointed by the British government and by 1783, North American colonists got their
independence by establishing the Constitution of the United States.
After that, the British began to build power in Malaya and acquired the Cape of Good Hope,
Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Malta. The English settled Australia in 1788, and subsequently New
Zealand. Aden was secured in 1839, and Hong Kong in 1842. Britain went on to control the
Suez Canal (1875-1956) and after the 19th -century partitition of Africa, it acquired Nigeria,
Egypt, the territories that would become British East Africa, and part of what would become the
Union of South Africa. It must be borne in mind that prior to 1783, Britain claimed full
authority over colonial legislatures, but after the U.S. gained independence, Britain gradually
evolved a system of self-government for some colonies. Hence since Dominion status was given
to Canada (1867), the British Empire started to change into a ‘Commonwealth’ of independent
nations as later on it was also given to Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of
South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921).
After World War I, Britain secured mandates to German East Africa, part of the Cameroons,
part of Togo, German South-West Africa, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and part of the German
Pacific islands. Yet, the dominions signed the peace treaties themselves (Paris Peace Conference
(1919), where commissions were appointed to study specific financial and territorial questions,
and the Treaty of Versailles, an international agreement signed in 1919) and joined the League
of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established by the Allied Powers so as
to be independent states. The league established a system of colonial mandates, but it was
weakened by the failure of the United States, which had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles
(1919). So, the League ceased its activities during World War II and it was replaced in 1946 by
the United Nations.
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In the 1920s nationalist movements were to be strongly felt in India, Egypt and in the Arab
mandated territories. In 1922 Egypt was granted a degree of independence by Britain and full
independence in 1936. Similarly, Iraq gained full independence in 1932. On the other hand,
India achieved its independence in 1947 after the movement of Indian nationalism, boosted by
the 1919 Amritsar Massacre. In 1931, the British Parliament, by means of the Statute of
Westminster, recognized the legislative independence and equal status under the Crown of its
former dominions and the Irish Free State within a British Commonwealth of Nations. The
resultant relationship is sometimes thought to have been a precursor to the post-war British
Commonwealth.
During the Second World War, Britain’s civilian population found themselves under severe
domestic restrictions, and occasionally bombing. Also, conflict accelerated many social and
political developments and growing nationalist movements impacted both on the British rule of
Empire and on the individual nations of the British Isles. Hence, most of the remaining imperial
possessions were granted independence, for instance, fifty years after Queen Victoria’s
Diamond Jubilee, India was cut in two to become the Commonwealth countries of India and
Pakistan.
The most recent development in the dismantling of the British Empire was the restoration to
Chinese rule, under a declaration signed in 1984, of the former British crown colony of Hong
Kong, on the southeastern coast of China, where the Union Jack was finally and symbolically
lowered on July 1, 1997. So, one by one, the subject peoples of the British Empire have entered
a postcolonial era, in which they must reassess their national identity, their history and
literature, and their relationship with the land and language of their former masters.
So, we shall try to present an overview of the English-speaking countries regarding their society
and cultural variety by addressing, namely (a) the United States, (b) Canada, (c) Australia, (d)
New Zealand, (e) South Africa, (f) India, and (g) the Caribbean Islands.
•
The United States.
They are a federal republic in North America whose capital is Washington D.C. Its currency is
the so-called U.S. dollar. Following the Encyclopaedia britannica (2004), “it comprises 48
contiguous states occupying the mid continent, Alaska at the northwestern extreme of North
America, and the island state of Hawaii in the mid-Pacific Ocean.” Its area includes the U.S.
share of the Great Lakes: 3,675,031 sq mi (9,518,287 sq km).” Its estimated population in 2002
was around 287,602,000 and includes people of European and Middle Eastern ancestry, African
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Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians (Native Americans), and
Alaska Natives.
Hence the population languages include: English as predominant language and Spanish. Among
the variety of religions we find “Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Islamism.”
The country’s regions encompass mountains, plains, lowlands, and deserts. Mountain ranges
include the Appalachians, Ozarks, Rockies, Cascades, and Sierra Nevada.” The lowest point is
Death Valley, in Calif whereas the highest point is Alaska’s Mount MCKinley;” also, “within
the coterminous U.S. it is Mount Whitney, Calif. Chief rivers are the Mississippi system, the
Colorado, the Columbia , and the Rio Grande. The Great Lakes, the Great Salt Lake, and Lake
Okkechobee are the largest lakes.
The U.S. is among the world’s leading producers of several minerals, including copper, silver,
zinc, gold, coal, petroleum, and natural gas; it is the chief exporter of food. Its manufactures
include iron and steel, chemicals, electronic equipment, and textiles. Other important industries
are tourism, dairying, livestock raising, fishing, and lumbering. It is a republic with two
legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president.”
•
Canada
Canada was given the dominion status in 1867, and by the time of the Commonwealth founding,
it was one of the state members. It is regarded as a transplanted society (Maxwell, 1982) as well
as Australia and New Zealand since the majority of its population is of European origin and had
to change the already established cultural habits in the new land. So, it retained a nonindigenous language.
Historically speaking, the first settlement in Canada traces back to the 16th century under the
figure of the Frenchman Jacques Cartir. Therefore, until the eighteenth century most European
immigrants who arrived in Canada came namely from France in opposition to the North
American coast, which received English, Irish and Scottish population. Similarly, it is said that
the bulk of Canada’s immigrants arrived namely from Continental Europe in the twentieth and
twenty-first century.
In linguistic terms, Canada has developed a type of Canadian English which is difficult for us to
understand since it is different from other North American varieties. It is regarded as a
homogeneous language, which has not been affected by its nearest linguistic neighbour,
American English. The differences lie mainly in vocabulary and pronunciation, since Canadian
spelling preserves some British forms (theatre, centre, colour, behaviour) and there are no
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distinctive grammar features. We also highlight the fact that there are also several words of
Canadian origin (chesterfield).
Regarding its cultural diversity, Canada is nowadays still headed by British population (around
45%), followed by French (25%) and the rest (30%) belong to other nationalities rather than
British or French. The influence of French colonization is still present in culture, since America
has influenced this country through the media. Yet, the French-speaking population, namely set
up in Quebec, has a powerful separatist movement which addresses their affiliation to France.
No literature works are worth mentioning within the neo-colonialism movement in Canada.
•
Australia
Following Britannica (2004), “Australia has long been inhabited by Aboriginals, who arrived
40,000–60,000 years ago. Estimates of the population at the time of European settlement in
1788 range from 300,000 to more than 1,000,000. Widespread European knowledge of
Australia began with 17th-century explorations. The Dutch landed in 1616 and the British in
1688, but the first large-scale expedition was that of James Cook in 1770, which established
Britain’s claim to Australia. The first English settlement, at Port Jackson (1788), consisted
mainly of convicts and seamen; convicts were to make up a large proportion of the incoming
settlers.”
“By 1859 the colonial nuclei of all Australia’s states had been formed, but with devastating
effects on the indigenous peoples, whose population declined sharply with the introduction of
European diseases and weaponry. Britain granted its colonies limited self-government in the
mid 19th century, and an act federating the colonies into a commonwealth was passed in 1900.
Australia fought alongside the British in World War I, notably at Gallipoli, and again in World
War II, preventing Australia’s occupation by the Japanese.”
“It joined the U.S. in the Korean and Vietnam wars. Since the 1960s the government has sought
to deal more fairly with the Aboriginals, and a loosening of immigration restrictions has led to a
more heterogeneous population. Constitutional links allowing British interference in
government were formally abolished in 1968, and Australia has assumed a leading role in Asian
and Pacific affairs. During the 1990s it experienced several debates about giving up its British
ties and becoming a republic.”
In linguistic terms, Australian English starts in the second half of the eighteenth century when
pidgin English appeared due to the interrelationship of settlers and Aboriginals. The Aboriginal
vocabulary of Australian English has become one of the trademarks of the national language
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(boomerang, jumbuck –sheep-). Yet, the number of Aboriginal words in Australian English is
quite small and confined to the naming of plants, trees, animals, and place-names. Nowadays,
though English is the official language, Australian English is known for its preserving nature,
since it still keeps eighteenth and nineteenth-century lexis from the European Continent
(Wessex, Scotland, Ireland). Moreover, it has no regional variation of accent.
Regarding its cultural diversity, since it is “the smallest continent and sixth largest country (in
area) on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans,” its population was about
19,702,000 in 2002. Among them, “most Australians are descendants of Europeans. The largest
nonwhite minority is the Australian Aboriginals. The Asian portion of the population has grown
as a result of relaxed immigration policy. Australia is rich in mineral resources, s the country’s
economy is basically free-enterprise; its largest components include finance, manufacturing, and
trade. Formally a constitutional monarchy, its chief of state is the British monarch, represented
by the governor-general. In reality it is a parliamentary state with two legislative houses; its
head of government is the prime minister.”
•
New Zealand
New Zealand was originally inhabited by Polinesian population which traced back to the early
Christian centuries. In the eighteenth century it was explored by J. Cook between 1769-1770
and soon it was a target for European settlement in spite of some indigenous Maori resistance.
Then the 19th century saw the arrival of catholic missionaries and English protestants and the
reorganization of New Zealand started. Subsequently, the two races achieved considerable
harmony. Yet, unlike Australia it was a free colony, as in practice it has been self-determining
since 1901.
In linguistic terms, the New Zealand language has been influenced by its Australian neighbours
(bush lawyer, bush telegraph) as well as by the Scottish language, namely in family names
(Dunedin, Murray). From Australia, many Zealanders were influenced by the native Maori
culture, hence many maori words were borrowed on making reference to animals, plants and
local trees (kiwi). In addition, Zealanders created their own vocabulary for some places, roads
and local places (lines).
Regarding its cultural diversity, New Zealand still has a certain attachment to Britain that is
unheard of Australia (BBC news) and contemporary population seem hesitant to use the
pragmatic initiative used in the eighteenth century. The cultural background in New Zealand is
actually conditioned by a society which is egalitarian in the extreme and shows a tendency
towards conformity. Yet, today Maori people are determined to make their contribution to
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increase their self-respect and confidence in their own culture. Actually, Maori language is
offered in many secondary schools as an optional second language.
•
South Africa.
Before British colonization, certain highlands of East Africa attracted settlers from Europe since
these colonies were confined to coastal enclaves. British penetration of the area began at
Zanzibar in the late 19th century and before WWI most of the European conquest of Africa had
been accomplished. Actually, in 1888 the British East Africa Company established claims to
territory in what is now Kenya. British protectorates were subsequently established over the
sultanate of Zanzibar and the kingdom of Buganda (now Uganda) and in 1919 Britain was
awarded the former German territory of Tanganyika as a League of Nations mandate. Yet, all
these territories achieved polit ical independence in the 1960s.
In linguistic terms, the development of the English language in Africa is related to the term
‘pidgin’, hence ‘pidgin English’ is commonly spoken in Africa. Traditionally, pidgin languages
are defined as those auxiliary languages that have no native speakers and are used for
communicating between people who have no common language. Actually, we find two different
English versions in Africa: East and West African English.
On the one hand, East African Commonwealth countries had no contact with Britain until the
early twentieth century when they were colonized, so the use of English was limited to military
and administrative vocabulary (white administrators and army officials), still used in the East
African states of Kenya. Yet, in Uganda and Tanzania, Swahili is the used as lingua franca and
goes through ethnic and political boundaries whereas English is the main language of education
(secondary, tertiary). So, we may say that the language of Black Africa is pidgin English, not
standard British or American English (Uganda, Zambia, Simbabwe).
On the other hand, West African Commonwealth countries use pidgin English as a result of the
slave experience of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For instance, in Sierra Leona,
pidgin English has evolved into ‘Krio’, a mixture of English and an African language (Yoruba),
with includes Portuguese elements, which is used everywhere. Brought by traders and
missionaries to Nigeria and Cameroon, it influenced the local pidgin. Recent governments are
trying to establish Krio as the national language of Sierra Leone, even though English is still the
official language.
Regarding its cultural diversity, we highlight the fact that in all African countries the majority of
the population is indigenous, except in those African countries which belong to the
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Commonwealth and have European population (Zimbabwe, Zambia and Kenya). Hence, the
most common population group within these countries are the ethnic groups, that is, tribes. This
means that ethnic groups have in common a sense of culture and identity, and therefore, of
distinct religion and language. The new African nations that emerged after the mid-20th century
were not based on the traditional units of the pre-colonial era. African natural resources (mining,
safari hunting) have attracted people of many different cultures speaking a variety of languages.
•
India
Historically speaking, India is the home of one of the world’s oldest and most influential
civilisations of South Asia. By the early seventeenth century, the East India Company was
founded and attracted many European visitors up to the eighteenth century. In linguistic terms, it
was in the nineteenth century that, at the highest peak of the British empire, there was a flood of
English administrators, educators, army officers and missionaries who spread the English
language throughout the sub-continent. Hence by the turn of the century English had become
the prestige language of India.
After a century, the Jewel of the Crown had added many Indian words into the English
language, so as to be able to express different concepts. In addition, Indian English possesses a
number of distinctive stylistic fatures, some of which are inspired by local languages and some
by the influence of English educational traditions (change of heart vs. God is merciful).
Nowadays, even after Indian’s independence (1947), there are more speakers of English in India
than in Britain (over 70 million). English became the official language of everyday life at any
sphere. It is worth noting that, though the speakers of English belonged to the educated ruling
elite, English is taught at every stage of education in all the states of the country.
Regarding its cultural diversity, India is regarded as a subcontinent rather than a country. Its
wide range of races, languages and religions, art and culture show the cultural wealth that has
developed over many centuries. Yet, there are still strong divisive influences such as caste, the
status of untouchability and linguistic chauvinism. Another important aspect is that over 80 per
cent of the country’s total population are Hindus, and also, that Hinduism is the unifying factor
that has kept the large mass of the peoples of India together.
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•
The Caribeean Islands
The Commonwealth Caribbean Islands.have a distinctive history. The Encyclopaedia Britannica
(2004) states that “permanently influenced by the experiences of colonialism and slavery, the
Caribbean has produced a collection of societies that are markedly different in population
composition from those in any other region of the world. Lying on the sparsely settled periphery
of an irregularly populated continent, the region was “discovered” by Christopher Columbus in
1492. Thereafter, it became the springboard for the European invasion and domination of the
Americas, a transformation that historian D. W. Meinig has aptly described as the "radical
reshaping of America."
“Beginning with the Spanish and Portuguese and continuing with the arrival more than a
century later of other Europeans, the indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced a series of
upheavals. The European intrusion abruptly interrupted the pattern of their historical
development and linked them inextricably with the world beyond the Atlantic Ocean. It also
severely altered their physical environment, introducing both new foods and new epidemic
diseases. As a result, the native Indian populations rapidly declined and virtually disappeared
from the Caribbean, although they bequeathed to the region a distinct cultural heritage that is
still seen and felt.”
“During the sixteenth century, the Caribbean region was significant to the Spanish empire. In
the seventeenth century, the English, Dutch, and French established colonies. By the eighteenth
century, the region contained colonies that were vitally important for all of the European powers
because the colonies generated great wealth from the production and sale of sugar. The early
English colonies, peopled and controlled by white settlers, were microcosms of English society,
with small yeoman farming economies based mainly on tobacco and cotton. A major
transformation occurred, however, with the establishment of the sugar plantation system.”
“To meet the system’s enormous manpower requirements, vast numbers of black African slaves
were imported throughout the eighteenth century, thereby reshaping the region’s demographic,
social, and cultural profile. Although the white populations maintained their social and political
preeminence, they became a numerical minority in all of the islands. Following the abolition of
slavery in the mid-nineteenth century, the colonies turned to imported indentured labor from
India, China, and the East Indies, further diversifying the region’s culture and society. The result
of all these immigrations is a remarkable cultural heterogeneity in contemporary Caribbean
society.”
“The abolition of slavery was also a major watershed in Caribbean history in that it initiated the
long, slow process of enfranchisement and political control by the nonwhite majorities in the
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islands. The early colonies enjoyed a relatively great amount of autonomy through the
operations of their local representative assemblies. Later, however, for ease of administration
and to facilitate control of increasingly assertive colonial representative bodies, the British
adopted a system of direct administration known as crown colony government in which British
appointed governors wielded nearly autocratic power. The history of the colonies from then
until 1962 when the first colo nies became independent is marked by the rise of popular
movements and labor organizations and the emergence of a generation of politicians who
assumed positions of leadership when the colonial system in the British Caribbean was
dismantled.”
“Despite shared historical and cultural experiences and geographic, demographic, and economic
similarities, the islands of the former British Caribbean empire remain diverse, and attempts at
political federation and economic integration both prior to and following independence have
foundered. Thus, the region today is characterized by a proliferation of mini-states, all with
strong democratic traditions and political systems cast in the Westminster parliamentary mold,
but all also with forceful individual identities and interests.”
In linguistic terms, we may highlight the fact that the tiny Indian population, once native to the
region, speak creolized forms of the invading European languages, and from this merging we
obtained a Caribbean English and a Caribbean culture. Of all the varieties of Caribbean English,
the most appealing is the Jamaican creole, defined as a language that has evolved from pidgins
used by speakers of unintelligible people. So, we may differenciate two different types of
language: on the one hand, standard English, used in newspapers and news reporting, engages in
conversation, journalists; and on the other hand, Jamaican English, which is virtually
unintelligible to the outsider since this is the language of the streets (originally oral, recently
written).
Regarding its cultural diversity, we may say that the Caribbean is fragmented since each island
has its own strong loyalties and traditions. For example, Trinidad Island is heavily influenced by
French, Spanish, Creole and Indian traditions. The most English of the islands are Jamaica,
Antigua and Barbados. Nowadays, the Caribbean population is namely African and AfroEuropean in origin. Despite size, ancestry, language, history and population differences, the
countries of the Caribbean share a common culture, the result of their parallel experiences as
plantation colonies for distant European economic and politic powers. Jamaica has alwasy had a
lively independent culture, namely reflected in this Third World nationalism and reggae music
as the result of a mixed multi-cultural heritage.
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3. STEREOTYPES AND EMBLEMS IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES.
Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall analyse the phenomenon of stereotypes
and emblems in the main English-speaking countries. In doing so, we shall provide (1) a
definition of both stereotypes and emblems; (2) typology of the main (a) stereotypes and (b)
emblems, and (3) an analysis of the main stereotypes and emblems within the different Englishspeaking countries.
3.1. Definition: stereotypes and emblems.
First of all, the term ‘stereotype’ (also called cliché, archetype, stock character, outgroup
homogeneity) is used metaphorically in modern usage, since it refers to “an oversimplified
mental picture of some group of people who are sharing a certain characteristic (or
stereotypical) qualities. The term is thus often used in a negative sense, with stereotypes being
seen by many as illogical yet deeply held-beliefs that can only be changed through education”
(wikipedia, 2004). The most common stereotypes include opposites, thus the good vs. the bad,
the teenager vs. the adult, and so on. On the other hand, a national emblem is “a symbol that
represents a nation. It may or may not appear on the national flag” and it “is usually something
from the natural world” as an animal or a bird, but can also be any object.
3.2. Typology.
3.2.1.
Main stereotypes.
Common stereotypes include (a) groups of people in terms of personality (behaviour),
appearance and dress, and (b) customs and traditions.
Within the first group, people, we include, following wikipedia (2004), “the "hard-boiled" or
tough private eye, the aging absent-minded professor, the ditzy busty blonde woman (“dumb
blonde”), the dowdy librarian (who becomes instantly attractive when she takes her glasses off),
the degenerate aristocrat with top hat, tuxedo, and monocle, the snobbish butler (speaking with a
British English or other European accent), the nerdy scientist (with black wiry-framed glasses,
black bowtie, white coat, speaking in technobabble).”
“Similar, the short genius schoolkid, who wears glasses and uniform (“geek” or “dork”), the
primly dressed schoolmarm with her pointer and “Now, class” address, the peg-legged pirate
with an eye patch and parrot, the overweight, doughnut-eating cop who believes skateboarding
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is a crime, the prostitute with a heart of gold, the brightly colored court jester, the villain with
black clothes, waxed moustache and generalized Central or Eastern European accent, the jolly
Middle Eastern or South Asian cornershop owner with his collection of trinkets, the picky chef
with his toque and piquant French accent, the overdelivering game show host with his giant
smile, the confrontational gangster in his pinstripe suit from Armani or Versace, the tobaccospitting baseball player, the effeminate homosexual male, the butch lesbian, the old lady who
sits on the porch, reminiscing and knitting, the violent, savage Indian warrior or scalper, the
drunken Irishman, the wise and otherworldly African-American who helps a white character in
crisis,” and finally, “the Anti-Semitic portrayals about the Jews.”
Within the second group, customs and traditions, we include, traditions and holidays. For
instance, British pubs are regarded as a tradition, so it is a very typical custom to meet people
there and have some drinks while talking to friends. Regarding holidays, we should highlight
the relevance of national, regional and local bank holidays, such as Guy Fawke’s Day on
November 5th , Christmas on 25th December or Halloween on 31st October. Actually, these dates
are accompanied by costumes traditions such as dressing up on Halloween and an occasion for
children to request treats or threatening tricks. Pumpkins are closely associated to this event;
also, Guy Fawke’s Day, the Royal National Eisteddfod in Wales which takes place once a year,
or the ‘Orange Day’ march in Belfast every year. We must not forget the Thanks-Giving Day as
an annual national holiday which celebrates the harvest and other blessings of the past yearon
the last Thrusday in November.
3.2.2.
Main emblems.
Among the main emblems we find animals, plants, trees, inanimate objects, symbols and even
people. For instance,
•
Animals are often associated to different countries as follows: the kangaroo, the
crocodile and the koala represent Australia, and similarly the beaver (Canada), the
condor and huemul (Chile), the lion (England, Czech Republic, Sweden and Finland),
the crocodile (East Timor), the elephant (Laos), the kiwi (New Zealand), a white eagle
(Poland), the golden bicephalic eagle or bear (Russia), the white bicephalic eagle
(Serbia), the garuda (Thailand), the American bald eagle (the United States), and the red
dragon (Wales).
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•
Plants are associated to countries as follows: maple leaf (Canada), copihue (Chile), rose
(Engla nd) lily of the valley (Finland), lily (France), bauhinia (Hong Kong),
chrysanthemum (Japan), Kimjongilia (North Korea), peony (People’s Republic of
China), plum blossom (Taiwan), thistle (Scotland), King protea (South Africa), and
finally, the daffodil or a leek (Wales).
•
Trees follow the following association: oak (England), birch (Finland), ceiba
(Guatemala), cedar (Lebanon), baobab (Madagascar), lime (Slovenia), and finally, the
real yellowwood (South Africa).
•
inanimate objects include mate (Argentina), checkerboard (Croatia), the Lion Capital of
Asoka with the spinning wheel (India), harp (Ireland), hammer and sickle (Soviet
Union), and the three Crowns (Sweden).
•
symbols include the star of David (Israel), star and crescent (Pakistan), serbian cross
(serbia), the patriarchal cross and three mountains (slovakia), and the Yin Yang (South
Korea). Also, flags, heraldry, currency, anthems, buildings and monuments, natural
features, items of food, drink and clothes are included here.
•
And finally, people references as follows, Marianne (France), Mother Svea (Sweden),
Britannia and John Bull (the United Kingdom), and Columbia, Uncle Sam and Lady
Liberty (the United States). Also, living figures such as Presidents, sport stars as well as
media stars (fashion, music, cinema, radio, TV).
3.3. Stereotypes and emblems in English-speaking countries.
In this section we shall try to provide, in general terms, the main stereotypes regarding (a)
groups of people in terms of personality (behaviour), appearance and dress, and (b) customs and
traditions; together with the main emblems (animals, plants, trees, inanimate objects, symbols
and even people) within English-speaking countries.
In the monthly magazine ‘Think in English’ (nº 56, pg. 23), there is an interesting article about
society untitled ‘How (not) to be a foreigner.’ In fact, communicating in a foreign language does
not mean the speakers have achieved the whole communicative competence since we have
linguistic, non-linguistic and socio-cultural aspects to overcome. So, a foreign speaker of
English must take into account those social and cultural rules of the English-speaking country to
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eventually fit in it. Actually, “if you follow what is considered polite in your society you
shouldn’t cause too much offence. Most cases in which outsiders cause scandal are obvious
things like sacrificing animals in the street” (regarding Muslim and other minority religions).
“However, there are a few thing that are more acceptable in other societies than in Britain and
it’s better to avoid them. This of course works the other way round too. For example, stretching
in public in Britain and America is not particularly frowned upon but can cause offence in
continental Europe. Anyway, back to Britain; here are the eight things you must avoid if you
want to integrate:
•
Spitting: in some Mediterranean countries spitting is relatively acceptable, at least for
men This is far from true in the UK and spitting in public should be avoided at all costs.
Only punks ans skinheads spit in Britain.
•
Talking loudly : you may be surprised to hear that this is the faux-pas of continental
Europeans and Latins that probably causes offence most frequently in Britain. Moderate
your volume.
•
Stifle that sneeze or cough: for some people as long as you don’t actually squeeze or
cough over someone it doesn’t matter if you don’t put your hand to your mouth when
you sneeze. This is not so in the UK and you should always stifle your sneeze/cough. If
you sneeze, those around you will probably sya “Bless you!” and you can answer
“Excuse me” and you’re there –you’ve integrated!
•
Don’t dunk: in many countries it is normal to dip or “dunk” cake and other types of
food in coffee, especially at breakfast. At best this will be considered very childish in
Britain, and at worst rude.
•
“Tnx” for “yes”: this will no doubt seem absurd but I know cases of British people
being highly offended by foreigners making a “tnx” sound to say “yes”. You don’t have
to say “yes” or “yeah” but the sounds that are socially acceptable are “uh-huh” and
“hmmm”.
•
Don’t stand too close: this is a faux-pas (mistake of etiquette) particulary associated
with Americans, but other visitors may also commit this mistake. The British like a
good arm’s lenght distance between them when they talk to each other and, if you want
to fit in, you should respect this.
•
Watch that contact: cultures that are less emotionally-challenged are happy for
acquaintances (as opposed to family and lovers) to touch each other. Of course, as every
psychologist will tell you, friendly physical contact is very healthy... but the British are
different: avoid hands on shoulders, etc.
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•
Finally, kissing: this friendly natural gesture between continental Europeans and Latins
can be quite traumatic for your average Briton. Interestingly, many Enlgish-speaking
natives will join in the kissing with such foreigners but will studiously avoid it with
other English-speaking natives in the same social gathering – unwritten rules.”
As we can see, every culture has its own rules of etiquette. It is worth remembering that, though
they are ‘invisible’ since they are not written anywhere, they mark the difference between being
integrated or not in the foreign culture. Let us examine other stereotypes regarding physical
appearance and clothes. For instance, regarding physical appearance, the inhabitants of the
British Isles are associated with a pale, blond, light-eyed and thin appearance as opposed to the
Mediterranean dark complexion and strong constitution. Yet, we find stereotypes that break
with the rule, note the British Pierce Brosnan or the Scottish actor Sean Connery, who is
supposed to have red curly hair and pale face with freckles.
Yet, other stereotypes coincide with the rule in the description of Welsh people as dark hair with
dark eyes as the Welsh Katherine Zeta Jones or the Irish music group the Coors, which are said
to be red-haired with blue eyes or dark-haired with dark eyes.has are described. Also, Australian
people coincide mostly with their description, muscular and tanned people with blond hair and
green eyes, as the character of the famous film ‘Cocrodile Dundee’. Yet, it is not so easy to
draw a picture of the typical American since the mix of cultures (called ‘melting pot’) there
increases difficulty in this task, as it is not of Spanish people because of the way of featuring
Manuel, the Spanish waiter, in the BBC TV series ‘Fawlty Towers’.
Also, the stereotypical dressing proves relevant in the distinction of nationalities and even, in
the creation of literary and film characters. For instance, the Scottish national dress, a tartan
pleated skirt which is worn with a shirt, jacket and tie, and often a waistcoat, with underbreeches under it. An English stereotype is the English gentleman, dressed in black with a white
shirt and a bow tie, with a black hat, thin moustache, and a binocular; or Sherlock Holmes, who
has been portrayed in his knickerbockers, tweed cape and jacket, deerstalker hat, plus fours and
brogues. Similarly, his assistant, Holmes with his black shiny bowler hat, black suit, waistcoat,
briefcase and umbrella.
We must not forget the stereotype of the English policeman, the ‘bobby’ in a black uniform and
helment walking the streets in English towns; or the American cowboy, which will be always
remembered in a 10-Gallon hat, leather chaps on the outside part of the legs on the trousers,
leather waist-coast, plaid shirt, neckerchief with a leather accessory with two weights on the
ends; or Hawaia n people dressed in flowery shirts at a beach surrounded by palm trees.
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Regarding stereotypical behaviours it is worth mentioning English people as ‘polite, punctual,
proud and distant’; Australiam men as ‘chovinist’, Scottish and Irish as ‘loud voices’,
Other stereotypes refer to traditions in food and drink or sports. Thus, steroeotypical Australians
sepend their days surfing on a beach while English people play cricket and rugby, Scottish play
golf and Highland games (throwing the hammer, tossing the caber), and Americans play
baseball or basketball. Also, regarding food and dr ink, it is worth mentioning the culture of
cheese since there are over 400 varieties of cheese produced in England (Cheddar, Lancashire
Cheese, Stilton, the smooth Derby, British Parmesan, Gruyere, and so on); English beer (called
‘ales’) which enjoys a fine world-wide reputation (Newcastle Brown Ale, Old Speckled Hen,
Fullers London Pride, O’Hanlon’s Port Stout) since they are made with old brewing techniques;
as well as the Scottish whiskey. Regarding sports, the most famous football team in England,
the Manchester United and the most acclaimed football star, David Beckam.
Regarding the main emblems, among the most famous animals are the red Welsh dragon, the
Australian kangaroo, crocodile and koala, the Canadian beaver, the English lion, the New
Zealand kiwi, and the American bald eagle. Regarding plants, we highlight the Canadian maple
leaf, the English rose (hence Elton John’s hymn for Lady Di), the Scottish thistle and the
daffodil or a leek in Wales. Among the trees we include the English oak and the real
yellowwood in South Africa. Moreover, among inanimate objects we include the Lion Capital
of Asoka with the spinning wheel in India, the harp Ireland, and the three Crowns in Sweden.
Symbols include official ones, such as flags, thus the United Kingdom Union Jack which
combines the flags of England, Scotland and North Ireland and is part of the flags of such
Commonwealth nations as Australia, Fiji, New Zealand and Hawaii; the English flag with Saint
George Cross (a red cross and bordered with white since it is not permissible red on blue in
heraldry; the Scottish flag with the Saint Andrew Cross (a diagonal white cross on blue);
Northern Ireland’s flag with the Sain Patrick Cross (a diagonal red cross on white); the
Australian flag, which has the Union Jack in the upper dial, being the rest blue with white stars
(one big star under the Union Jack, and five on the right).
Regarding heraldry, the crest is automatically included in any grant of arms made in England,
Scotland, or North Ireland (the object placed on top of the helmet, bound into by the wreath of
colours). With respect to currency, we namely find the pound sterling as a sign of England and
Scotland, the Irish pound for the Republic of Ireland, and the dollar as a sign of the United
States and Australia. Following on national symbols, we find anthems, which are hymns or
songs which express patriotic feelings either politically or popularly authorized, hence “God
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Save the Queen” as the oldest national anthem (1825) or “The Star-Spangled Banner” in the
United States.
Other symbols include unofficial ones, such as buildings and monuments which are
representative of the English-speaking country, for instance, the Buckingham Palace,
Westminster Palace (or the Houses of Parliament), the Big Ben and Picadilly Circus in England;
Balmoral Castle, Edinburgh Castle, the National Portrait Gallery and the Scottish Museum in
Scotland, Caernarvon Castle in Wales; the White House, the Statue of Liberty and the Empire
State Building in the US, or the Opera House of Sydney in Australia. Among the most
outstanding natural features, we shall mention the river Thames in England, the Loch Ness and
Ben Nevis in Scotland, the region of Snowdonia in Wales, the large Irish meadows with
turberas breeding, and the Grand Canyon in the US.
If items of food, drink and clothes are to be included here we shall mention the Yorkshire
pudding, fish and chips, roast beef with potatoes and English cheese; regarding drinks, we shall
include gin as the English national liquor whereas in Scotland we find whiskey and Scotch
Broth (a soup of vegetables with oats). Moreover, the Irish menu includes an excelent variety of
orchard products meat and fish. The favourite Irish drinks are whisky, liquors with honey,
coffee or chocolate, adn stout, which is a type of dark beer which everybody knows as Guinness
(a national trademark). American food is characterized by hamburgers, fast food and drinks are
represented by coffee and beer.
4. ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTURAL INFLUENCE.
Chapter 4 shall address the phenomenon of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence by
providing (1) definition and typology and then, stating the relevance of (2) English songs as as a
vehicle of cultural influence (a) through the media and (b) through education.
4.1. Definition and typology.
It is amazing how these “relatively short musical compositions for the human voice”, that is,
English songs can have such a relevant role in the transmission of culture. Yet, since ancient
times, songs and hymns were related to magic powers and throughout time, they have kept that
magic influence on people. Actually, popular songs are often a part of individual and cultural,
but seldom national, identity. Performers usually often have not undergone formal voice training
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but highly stylized vocal techniques are used. On the other hand, folk songs are often of
anonymous origins since they were public domain and were transmitted orally. These are in fact
the major aspect of national or cultural identity. Folk songs exists in virtually if not every
culture.
There are as many definitions for music as many divisions and groupings of music, many of
which are as hotly contested as, and even caught up in, the argument over the definition of
music. Yet, among the larger genres are classical music, popular music or commercial music
(including pop music, hip hop, rock and roll) and folk music. Also, the term world music is
applied to a wide range of music made outside of Europe and European influence, although its
initial application, in the context of the World Music Program at Wesleyan University, was as a
term including all possible musics, and not excluding European traditions.
Following wikipedia (2004), “genres of music are as often determined by tradition and
presentation as by the actual music. While most classical music is acoustical in nature, and
meant to be performed by individuals, many works include samples, tape, or are mechanical,
and yet described as "classical". Some works, for example Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue, are
claimed by both Jazz and Classical Music. As cultures of the world have been in more contact
with each other, their indigenous music styles have often melded to form new styles. For
example, the U.S.-American bluegrass style has elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish,
German and some African-American instrumental and vocal traditions, and can only have been
a product of the 20th Century.”
4.2. English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence.
4.2.1. Through the media.
Nowadays, the music we make “can be heard through several media, the most traditional way is
to hear it live, in the presence, or as one of, the musicians. Live music can also be broadcast
over the radio or television. Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance,
while others focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never
played "live". Recording, even of styles which are essentially live often uses the ability to edit
and splice to produce recordings which are considered "better" than the actual performance.
In many cultures there is less distinction between performing and listening to music, as virtually
everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity, often communal. Sometime in the middle
20th century, listening to music through a recorded form, such as sound recording or watching a
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music video became more common than experiencing live performance. Sometimes, live
performances incorporate prerecorded sounds (i.e. DJ using records for scratching).
4.2.2. Through education.
Following wikipedia (2004), “many people compose, perform, and improvise music with no
training and feel no need for training, including entire cultures. Other cultures have traditions of
rigorous formal training that may take years and serious dedication. Sometimes this training
takes the form of apprenticeship, as in Indian training traditionally take more years than a
college education and involves spiritual discipline and reverence for one’s guru or teacher. In
Bali everyone learns and practices together. It is also common for people to take music lessons,
short private study sessions with an individual teacher, when they want to learn to play or
compose music, usually for a fee. The most famous private composition teacher is Nadia
Boulanger.”
Also, “the incorporation of music performance and theory into a general liberal arts curriculum,
from pre-school to postsecondary education, is relatively common. Western style secondary
schooling is increasingly common around the world. Meanwhile, western schools are
increasingly including the study of the music of other cultures such as the Balinese gamelan, of
which there are currently more than 200 in America.” In fact, songs have come to occupy a
central role int he teaching and learning of English as a foreign language for two main reasons.
First of all, singing and musical activities are genrally acknowledged to be an important part of
a hcild’s learning process. Most English children, for instance, learn the alphabet through a
simple song and many infants’ songs (lullabies) involve games, rhymes with numbers, and
rhythmic and melodic patters. Secondly, songs are valuable as potential motivators of students
since they feel attracted by the most famous singers in the worldwide panorama: Madonna,
Britney Spears, Blur, and so on. Since the birth of rock and roll in the 1950s up to the present
day the mantle of stardom has appealed young people and, for our purposes, our students so as
to imitate their idols. Hence since they do not relate learning songs (in terms of linguistic
content –form, vocabulary, pronunciation) with hard work, learning comes easily.
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5. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
Society and culture is one of the most outstanding aspects of educational activity and, for our
purposes, it is the vehicle for better understanding and awareness of the English-speaking
countries culture. In the classroom setting all kinds of social and linguistic aspects of language
may be brought to students in terms of cultural awareness so as to bring them closer to the
world’s reality: the relevance of the European and international framework nowadays. Yet, how
is this issue linked to our Spanish students? Basically , through the educational activity, both in
and out the classroom, the former being developed in terms of tutorial or classroom activities
and the latter by focusing on sociocultural aspects that exist within the students’ environment
(home, friends, the media).
We may handle in class stereotypes and emblems from English-speaking and non Englishspeaking countries so as to make relevant the comparison to the Spanish ones regarding
outstanding differences (food, drinks, clothes, traditions, physical appearance). So, many of
these stereotypes may become familiar to Spanish students thanks to the presence of the media
nowadays (press, radio, television, the Internet) in terms of transmitting physical and mental
images. Hence it makes sense to examine the social and cultural background of Englishspeaking countries.
Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school reality with
the yearly international exchanges of British-Spanish language assistants in schools so as to
promote the learning of the English language with native speakers. Actually, they can make
students aware of certain sociocultural aspects of Britain and encourage them to use the British
media to get informed through new technologies, such as the Internet (through the Aula
Plumier), since we can acceed to press, radio and television on the web. Also, the integration of
Spain into the European Union makes relevant for students to become aware of social and
cultural features of other countries so as to be able to appreciate the main similarities and
differences with the Spanish one.
Also, this social and cultural dimension of the English language may be easily approached to
students by the increasing number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school trips) and
technologies (the Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students with authentic material
in context so as to get acquainted with other ways of life around Europe and overseas. Actually,
among the stage objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato students (stated respectively in RD
112 and RD 113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting acquainted
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with other cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude of critical
awareness of other language systems. Thus, E.S.O. objectives (9-13) make reference to:
•
Analyse the mechanisms and values that govern the functioning of societies, especially
those related to the rights and duties of citizens, adopting open and democratic attitudes
and judgements (objective 9).
•
Know, respect and value the traditions and the natural, historical and artistic patrimony
of the Region of Murcia, analysing its basic elements and contribute to its conservation
and improvement (objetive 10).
•
Know the traditions and cultural patrimony of other countries, value them critically, and
respect the cultural and linguistic diversity as a people’s and countries’ right (objetive
11).
•
Know the beliefs, attitudes and basic values of our tradition valuing them critically
(objective 12).
•
And establish relations with other people based on respect and integrate in a
participative way in group activities, developing attitudes of solidarity and tolerance and
reject any type of discrimination, overcoming prejudices with a critical, open and
democratic spirit (objective 13).
Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (8, 9, 10), we find a closer
approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to “accede
to the knowledge of the culture transmitted by the foreign language, developing respect towards
it and its speakers, to achieve a better understanding between countries” (objective 8);
“recognise the value of foreign languages as a means of communication between people
belonging to different cultures and as an enriching element for social and interpersonal
relations” (objective 9); and “use the foreign language as a means of communication with a
ludic and creative attitude and enjoy its use” (objective 10).
On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to “understand and know how to express
oneself fluently and correctly in the foreign language or languages being studied” (objective 2);
“to use the information and communication technologies to acquire types of knowledge and
transmit information, solve problems and facilitate interpersonal relations, valuing its use
critically” (objective 7); and “to show interest in integrating oneself fully in one’s social and
natural environment and participate respectfully and with solidarity in its development and
improvement” (objetive 8).
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Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (2, 6, 7), we find a closer
approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to
“understand and interpret oral texts critically, written texts, and visuals issued in habitual
communicative situations and by mass media,” that is, stereotypes or emblems (objective 2);
“know the sociocultural aspects of the target language as a means to improve communication in
the foreign language and for the critical knowledge of one’s own culture” (objective 6) and also,
to “value the importance of the study of foreign languages as an element of understanding and
encouragement of respect and consideration towards other cultures” (objective 7).
Actually, the success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users since theory
about society and culture, stereotypes and emblems and songs, only becomes relevant when
students have the opportunity to experience it by their own in and out the classroom setting.
This is to be achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular,
the Spanish Educational System which establishes a common reference framework for the
teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to broaden their personal, academic
and professional horizons beyond the frontiers of other European countries (grants, European
programmes, courses) and, for our purposes, in any of the English-speaking countries. Broadly
speaking, the final aim is for students to be aware of their current social reality through the
cultural issue in the English language.
6. CONCLUSION.
As we have seen, Unit 69 has provided a useful introduction to society and culture within the
scope of stereotypes and emblems of English-speaking countries by addressing the question of
English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence. So, Chapter 2 has provided a general
introduction to the concepts of society and culture in relation to the English language and has
established a link between the terms ‘la nguage, society and culture’. First, by redefining certain
concepts that may be misleading within this framework (Great Britain vs. the United Kingdom;
society vs. culture); secondly, by establishin the cultural and social connection to the English
language as a cultural and social means; third, listing a typology of issues to deal with when we
refer to society; and similarly, regarding culture; and finally, by discussingt common features
which were shared by different societies and cultures in the English-speaking countries in and
out of the United Kingdom at international level.
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Next, Chapter 3 has analysed the phenomenon of stereotypes and emblems in the main Englishspeaking countries by providing a definition of both stereotypes and emblems; a typology of the
main stereotypes and emblems, and an analysis of the main stereotypes and emblems within the
different English-speaking countries. And finally, with this background in mind, Chapter 4 has
addressed the phenomenon of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence by providing
definition and typology and then, stating the relevance of English songs as as a vehicle of
cultural influence through the media and through education.
So far, we have attempted to provide the reader with a general overview of the influence of
language, society and culture on ourselves through the scope of stereotypes and emblems in and
out the United Kingdom. This information is relevant for language learners, even 2nd year
Bachillerato students, who automatically detect stereotypes between different cultures and, in
other occasions, may not. So, learners need to have these associations brought to their attention
in socio-cultural aspects within cross-curricular settings (Spanish language, history, technology
–format, presentation). As we have seen, understanding how stereotypes, language, society and
culture are reflected in our world today through songs is important to students, who are expected
to be aware of the richness of the English language, not only in English-speaking countries, but
also in worldwide terms.
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7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
- B.O.E. 2002. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currículo de la
Educación Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia.
- B.O.E. 2002. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 113/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currículo de
Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia.
- Bromhead, Peter. 1962. Life in Modern Britain. Longman.
- Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework
of reference.
- McLean, A. 1993. Profile UK. Heinemann, Oxford.
- Vaughan-Rees, M. 1995. In Britain. Richmond Publishing Editors.
Other sources include:
"British Empire." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 28 May 2004
<http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press
www.wikipedia.org (2004)
www.bbc.co.uk (2004)
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