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INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT DESIGN
AERO 290
Lecture 2
Dr. Hang Xu
Winter 2024
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A Story on Antonov An-225 Mriya
Super-heavy Transport Aircraft
Wingspan: 88.4 m
Max takeoff weight: 640,000 kg
Antonov An-225 (Photo: Mark Steven)
Wingspan ranking:
Wreckage of the An-225 Mriya from the front, after its destruction
during the Battle of Antonov Airport (Photo: Kyivcity.gov.ua)
Buran with Myasishchev
M-4 Bomber
Stratolaunch: 117 m
An-225
2
H-4 Hercules: 97.82 m
Soviet Union (Ukrainian SSR)
The An-225 carrying Buran (1.01) in 1989
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A Story on Antonov An-225 Mriya
Super-heavy Transport Aircraft
An-225 and An-124 (ANTONOV Company)
•
•
•
•
Engine: 6
Fuselage Length:
84 m (world record)
Twin tail arrangement
New wing design
An-225 and An-124 (ANTONOV Company)
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Photo: ANTONOV Airlines
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Lecture content:
Lecture content:
▪ Topic 1: Aerodynamics of Aircraft Components
▪ Basic aerodynamics
▪ Lift
▪ Drag
▪ Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design (Decision Matrix)
▪ What is aircraft configuration design
▪ Aircraft configurations (Tail, Wing, Engine, and Gear)
▪ Benchmarking
▪ Knowledge gaps
▪ Technologies
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Basic Aerodynamics
How aircraft can fly well?
•
•
•
5
Sufficient lift
Sufficient trust
Sufficient stability and controllability
Topic 1: Aerodynamics
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Basic Aerodynamics
Topic 1: Aerodynamics
Law of conservation of mass
Static pressure & dynamic pressure
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Law of conservation of energy
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Topic 1: Aerodynamics
Basic Aerodynamics
Quebec: where the river narrows
1. Law of conservation of mass → Continuity equation
When air velocities are below 100 m/s → Compressible flow
𝑨𝟏 ∙ 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 ∙ 𝑽𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 →
The cross-sectional area of fluid conduits is small, fluid velocity is high
The cross-sectional area of fluid conduits is large, fluid velocity is low
2. Law of conservation of energy → Bernoulli equation
𝟏
P (static pressure) + 𝟐 𝝆𝒗𝟐 (dynamic pressure) = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Fluid velocity is high, dynamic pressure is high, static pressure is low
Fluid velocity is low, dynamic pressure is low, static pressure is high
Experiment: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dHqgoDIiNYs
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Lift
Topic 1: Lift
Experiment: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqBmdZ-BNig
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Topic 1: Lift
Lift
Lift coefficient: cL
cL depends on the
airfoil shape, the angle
of attack, and the flow
regime
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Topic 1: Lift
Lift
Lift coefficient: cL
cL depends on the
airfoil shape, wing
shape, angle of attack,
and the flow regime
[Introduction to Flight, John D. Anderson]
High-lift multi-element airfoil
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Topic 1: Drag
Drag
1.1 Form drag
(Pressure drag)
Profile drag
1. Parasitic drag
1.2 Friction drag
1.3 Interference drag
2. Lift-induced drag (Induced drag)
3. Wave drag (Compressibility drag)
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Topic 1: Drag
Drag: Parasitic drag
1.1 Form drag (pressure drag)
Panel
High Pressure
Fairing
1/5 of the pressure drag of the panel
Form drag: high
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Low Pressure
Streamlined form
1/20 of the pressure drag of the panel
Form drag: medium
Form drag: small
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Topic 1: Drag
Drag: Parasitic drag
1.2 Friction drag caused by viscosity:
Fundamentals of Boundary Layers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6v3rK4Ikhc
Influence factors:
Air viscosity; surface roughness; flow regime;
wetted area; number and type of surface
defects
Measures to reduce drag:
Configuration design and smooth surface
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Topic 1: Drag
Drag: Parasitic drag
1.3 Interference drag
The An-225 carrying Buran (1.01) in 1989
Interference drag is an additional drag caused by the interference of air
flows between the assembled components of an aircraft.
Measures to
reduce drag: Fairing
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Fairing
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Drag: 2. Lift-induced drag (Induced drag)
Planes clouds and vortices
Wingtip vortices, 1990.
PUBLIC DOMAIN/NASA LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dfY5ZQDzC5s
Topic 1: Drag
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Drag: 2. Lift-induced drag (Induced drag)
Topic 1: Drag
Why do Canada Geese fly in formation?
Creator: Janet Griffin-Scott
The trailing goose is in the updraft
(vortices) created by the wing tip
of the forward goose
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Drag: 2. Lift-induced drag (Induced drag)
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Topic 1: Drag
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Drag: 2. Lift-induced drag (Induced drag)
Topic 1: Drag
Why does vortex induce drag?
Pressure difference creates wing tip vortex.
The vortex creates downwash airflow.
Downwash airflow changes the direction of the lift.
Oblique lift resolves a drag component.
𝑣 ′′ : induced
velocity
𝐹𝑦′ : lift created
by 𝑣 ′
𝐹𝐷′ : drag created
by 𝑣 ′
𝐹𝐷′ is the induced drag
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Drag: 2. Lift-induced drag (Induced drag)
Measures to reduce drag:
• Increase the aspect ratio
• Select the appropriate wing geometry
• Wing tips (e.g., winglet)
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Topic 1: Drag
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Drag (low-speed, Ma<=0.4 and subsonic, 0.4<Ma<=0.85)
Lift coefficient: cL
cL depends on the
airfoil shape, wing
shape, angle of attack,
and the flow regime
Drag coefficient: cD
cD depends on the
airfoil shape, wing
shape, angle of attack,
and the flow regime
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Topic 1: Drag
Drag: 3. Wave drag (Compressibility drag):
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Topic 1: Drag
transonic, 0.85<Ma<=1.3 or supersonic 1.3<Ma<=5.0
With a transonic or supersonic speed, the aircraft
causes strong disturbance and compression to the air
and forms shock waves, which are accompanied by
strong shock wave drags.
Drag coefficient: cD
Shock wave
cD depends on the type of shock wave, Ma,
and aircraft configuration
Measures to reduce drag:
Smooth surface
Sharp leading edge, thin, symmetrical airfoil
Swept wing
…
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Aircraft Configuration Design
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
What is Aircraft Configuration?
Aircraft Configuration refers to the main features of aircraft geometry
and the arrangement of aircraft components.
Aircraft configurations are usually distinguished mainly by the shape, number,
and relative position of the aircraft components:
1. The number of tails and their positions with respect to the wing and fuselage
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
3. Number of engines (inlet ducts) and mounting positions
4. Type and location of landing gears
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
1. The number of tails and their position with respect to the wing and fuselage
Tails provide for trim, stability, and control.
Trim refers to the generation of a lift force that, by acting through some tail moment arm about the center of gravity,
balances some other moment produced by the aircraft.
Horizontal position of the horizontal tail:
Conventional
(Aft horizontal tail)
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Canard
Tailless
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Conventional
Aerodynamics of the horizontal tail
• The lift contribution of the horizontal tail to the whole aircraft lift is related to
the position of the center of gravity
• Longitudinal static stability
Pros and Cons
✓ Mature technology, sufficient empirical data, for the majority of aircraft in service
✓ Provide better longitudinal stability than canards and tailless contributions
o Wing downwash interferes with the tail; trim drag is relatively large
o When the horizontal tail generates negative lift to trim the pitch-down moment,
the aircraft has low L/D
Conventional
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Canard
Aerodynamics of the horizontal tail
• To ensure the longitudinal stability of the aircraft, the angle of attack of the
canard usually is greater than that of the wing
• Canards should stall first. Otherwise, the aircraft may be out of control
Pros and Cons
✓ High lift (may have a high L/D)
✓ Places the pitch control surface in a region of undisturbed flow
✓ Stall safety (avoid pitch-up)
o Longitudinal unstable (need a modern computerized flight control system)
Canard
Wright Brothers’ Aircraft, C. H. Claudy, 1908
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Canard
A Grumman X-29 in flight
The wing carries most of the lift, and
the canard surface is used primarily to
control the angle of attack of the wing
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1976 Rutan VariEze
A lifting-canard aircraft uses
both the wing and the canard to
provide lift all of the time.
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Canard
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Close coupled canard
Canard with a long distance to the wing
Generate vortex
which will increase
lift coefficients
Rutan Long-EZ, with high-aspect-ratio lifting
canard and suspended luggage pods
For hobbyist
A Dassault Rafale in high angle-of-attack flight
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Canard: examples
Scaled Composites Proteus (Rutan)
Rutan Model 76 Voyager
The first aircraft to fly
around the world without
stopping or refueling.
Unique configuration adapts to
many mission requirements
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Tailless
Aerodynamics of the horizontal tail
• Use the flaperon (flap and/or aileron) at the wing’s trailing edge as the
control surface for the longitudinal trim and control.
• Use delta (triangular) wings with a large sweep angle.
Pros and Cons
✓ Light structural weight: no weight of horizontal tail;
✓ Low drag: less parasitic drags; sharply swept delta wings have less drag at
supersonic speed;
o To trim the pitch-down moment of a stable tailless aircraft, the lift direction
of the flaperon is downward, which causes lift loss and large trim drag.
o Take-off and landing performance is not easily guaranteed (e.g., small
pitch-up moment).
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Tailless: examples
Concorde
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Mirage 2000
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
1. The number of tails and their position with respect to the wing and fuselage
Vertical position of the horizontal tail:
Layout principle:
• Avoid the wing wake
• Avoid the prop wash/jet exhaust air
• Light structural weight
Structural
weight
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Conventional
T-tail
Cruciform
Low
High
Medium
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
o Engines cannot be mounted in pods on the aft fuselage
✓ Probably 70% or more of the aircraft in service have such a tail arrangement.
✓ For most aircraft designs, the conventional tail will provide adequate stability
and control at the lightest weight.
o
This arrangement is usually heavier than a conventional tail because the
vertical tail must be strengthened to support the horizontal tail.
✓ Because of the end-plate effect, the T-tail allows a smaller vertical tail
✓ The T-tail lifts the horizontal tail and clears off the wing wake and prop wash
✓ T-tail allows the use of engines mounted in pods on the aft fuselage
▪
o
A compromise between the conventional and T-tail arrangements
Cruciform tail will not provide a tail-area reduction due to endplate effect as
will a T-tail
✓ Compared to a T-tail, the cruciform tail will impose less of a weight penalty
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Examples
Conventional (high)
Cruciform
Air Canada 737 Max
A Soviet Air Forces MiG-15UTI two-seater
trainer over Duxford Air Festival 2017
T-tail
Global 8000 (MACH 0.94)
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Conventional (low)
Cessna 172S
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
1. The number of tails and their position with respect to the wing and fuselage
Position and number of the vertical tails:
Location:
•
Aft fuselage: Most aircraft have vertical tails at
the aft fuselage
•
Upper wing
Number:
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•
Single: Most aircraft use a single vertical tail
•
Twin: The height of the center of pressure is
significantly reduced, which reduces the
fuselage torque caused by side forces; It can
significantly reduce its lateral "radar cross
section" (RCS)
•
No vertical tail: B-2, B-21(Northrop Grumman)
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Aircraft Configurations: 1. Tail arrangement
Examples
Twin Tail
Su-27 SKM
Flying Wing
B-21 Raider
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Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
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Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Aircraft Configurations: 2. Wing
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
Wing geometry
Position
• Straight wing
• High
• Swept wing
• Delta wing
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Taper ratio ≠ 1
Variable-sweep wing
• Mid
• Low
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Aircraft Configurations: 2. Wing
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
Straight wing
•
Mainly used in low-speed aircraft
✓ Good low-speed aerodynamic
characteristics: High lift-drag ratio
(Low induced drag and
high slope of lift curve)
Cessna 172S
✓ The relative thickness of the lowspeed airfoil is relatively large. Thus
the structural layout, strength and
stiffness, and weight problems are
easy to solve
✓ Low manufacturing cost
Bombardier Q400 Dash 8
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Aircraft Configurations: 2. Wing
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
Swept wing
✓ Can effectively improve the critical
Ma, delay the generation of shock
waves and decrease wave drags
o Aerodynamics: in the case of a
large sweep angle and large taper
ratio, the wing tip is easy to stall first
when the angle of attack is large,
thus spoiling the stability (pitch up)
and maneuverability.
Figure from the Boldmethod
o Extra bending moment affects on
the arrangement of the wing
structure and its strength, stiffness,
and weight
F-14 (Variable-sweep wing)
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Aircraft Configurations: 2. Wing
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
Delta wing
✓ It has the characteristics of wings with a small a
spect ratio and large sweep angle. Its
transonic aerodynamic characteristics are
good, and the aerodynamic focus changes
smoothly.
✓ It has a long root chord length, which allows for
a larger structural height. The wings thus have
good strength, stiffness and lightweight
o The slope of its lift curve is low, which requires
a large angle of attack to provide sufficient lift
when the flight speed is low.
o For the delta wing with a small aspect ratio
and large sweep angle when the angle of
attack is large, there will be a strong
downwash flow and affect the horizontal tail.
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Concorde
Mirage 2000
Rafale
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DECISION MATRIX
OVERVIEW
▪ A decision matrix, such as the Pugh Matrix, is a rationale tool for decision making
▪ It is a structured approach to define and evaluate design concepts and alternatives
▪ A decision making matrix helps to:
❑
Clearly identify & describe the baseline and alternatives
❑
Clarify the decision criteria and their importance
❑
Eliminate week concepts
❑
Find new solution
❑
Get all stakeholders involved
▪ A decision matrix can be used for qualitative and quantitative assessment of
alternatives
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DECISION MATRIX
STEP 1
▪ Define baseline, alternative concepts and evaluation criteria
Design space (all design options to be considered)
Decision criteria
Baseline
(basis of
Concept Concept Concept
comparaison)
#1
#2
#m
Criteria #1
o
+
+
o
Criteria #2
o
-
+
+
Criteria #3
o
+
o
+
1
2
2
o: neutral
+: better
- worse
…
Total score
▪
▪
▪
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The baseline and each concept need to be clearly described (documentation, visual representation)
Often, the baseline is one configuration for which most knowledge is available (i.e. adapted from an existing aircraft)
The decision criteria need to be in-line with the project objectives and need to be “evaluable”
▪ Ideally, they are directly derived from customer needs (using e.g. the QFD method)
▪ Pay attention to interrelated criteria (e.g. “mission fuel burn” and “aircraft weight”)
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DECISION MATRIX
STEP 2
▪ Create scoring/evaluation principle and metrics
▪ Analyze the importance of the criteria (i.e. pair-wise comparison)
Decision
criteria
o: neutral
+: better
- worse
Baseline
Importance
(basis of
Concept Concept Concept
of criteria comparaison)
#1
#2
#3
Criteria #1
10
o
+
+
o
Criteria #2
8
o
-
+
+
Criteria #3
3
o
+
o
+
5
18
11
…
Total score
Scoring principle/evaluation metrics:
▪
Qualitative: for very early design, requires experience
▪ Evaluation of each criteria vs. baseline: o: neutral, +: better, ++: much better, - worse, -- much
▪ Ranking of all concepts for each criteria from 0 … n
▪
Quantitative: requires initial estimates of the decision criteria
▪ Percentages (e.g. -3%, +45% )
▪ Physical quantities (e.g for aircraft weight - 50 kg, + 100 kg )
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DECISION MATRIX
STEP 3
▪ Eliminate weak concepts
▪ Propose new concepts
Decision
criteria
Design space (all design options to
be considered)
Baseline
Importanc
(basis of
e of
comparaison Concept Concept
criteria
)
#1
#2
Concept Concept #4
#3
Criteria #1
10
o
+
+
o
+
Criteria #2
8
o
-
+
+
+
Criteria #3
3
o
+
o
+
+
5
18
11
21
…
Total score
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Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Aircraft Configurations: 2. Wing
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
Supersonic Aircraft
Swept
wing
Delta
wing
Straight wing with a
small aspect ratio
Drag (1.3<Ma<1.6)
1 (best)
2
3
Weight
3
1
2
Slope of lift curve
2
3
1
Straight wing
with a small
aspect ratio
F 104
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Aerion AS2
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Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Aircraft Configurations: 2. Wing
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
High wing
•
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Many military transport aircraft
choose the high wing (required
by the mission)
Cessna 172S
An 225
Bombardier Q400 Dash 8
C-130 Hercules
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Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Aircraft Configurations: 2. Wing
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
Mid wing
•
A mid wing position
adds the least amount
of interference drag
(Blended wing body
(BWB))
F 16
Patty Wagstaff's Extra 300 over Florida
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Boeing 377
Westwind
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Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Aircraft Configurations: 2. Wing
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
Low wing: jet liners
✓ Wing structure may go under the
cabin floor
✓ Landing gear is short, lightweight,
and easy to retract
✓ Engine and flap are easy to be
inspected and repaired
✓ Safety: buffer during a forced
landing
o Large interference drag
o Difficult to mount engines under
the wing
o The wings block the view
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Air Canada B 737
Max
US Airways Flight 1549, 2009
A 320
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Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Aircraft Configurations: 2. Wing
2. Wing geometry and its mounting position on the fuselage
Supersonic Aircraft
High
Mid
Low
Interference drag
2
1 (best)*
3
Lateral Stability
1
2
3
Field of view
1
2
3
Landing gear
weight
3**
2
1
Structural weight
1
3
1
Nacelle
1
2
3
* Blended wing body (BWB)
** If the landing gear is retracted into the fuselage, there is no effect
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Aircraft Configurations: 3. Engines
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
3. Number of engines (inlet ducts) and mounting positions
Engines
Number of engines
Single: easy to operate, little
additional weight, low cost, poor
safety
Double (multiple): higher survivability
Mounting position
Single: fuselage (front and aft)
Double: aft fuselage, under the wing,
the trailing edge of the wing or tail,
nacelle
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B 727
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Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
Aircraft Configurations: 3. Engines
3. Number of engines (inlet ducts) and mounting positions
Inlet ducts layout
Nacelle
Nose inlet
B 787
Ventral inlet
J-7
Side inlet
Concorde
Back inlet
B-2
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J-8-II
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Aircraft Configurations: 3. Engines
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
3. Number of engines (inlet ducts) and mounting positions
Engines mounted under the wing
✓ Reduce the weight of the wing
structure
✓ Shorter fuselage length with the
same passenger capacity
B 787
✓ Lower installation height of engine
nacelle
✓ Easier to maintain
✓ Easier to control the center of
gravity
A 320
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Aircraft Configurations: 3. Engines
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
3. Number of engines (inlet ducts) and mounting positions
Engines mounted in the nacelles
at the aft fuselage
✓ High lift coefficient
✓ Higher controllability: Since
engines are close to the fuselage,
it is easier to trim the yawing
moment with one engine failure.
Bombardier Global 8000 (MACH 0.94)
✓ Shorter landing gear
✓ Low noise in the passenger cabin
✓ Reduced flight drag
CRJ-100ER
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Aircraft Configurations: 4. Gear
Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
4. Type and location of landing gear
Tail-Wheel Gear (Conventional)
✓ Small and light, simple design
o Difficult handling on landing
o Unstable on take-off and
landing slippage
o Not for jets
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Tricycle Gear
✓ Suitable for aircraft with high landing
speed, easy to handle during landing.
✓ Stabile in take-off and landing
✓ Pilots have a good field of view
o The front wheel may appear
"pendulum" phenomenon.
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Aircraft Configurations: 4. Gear
4. Type and location of landing gear
Unstable Tail-Wheel Gear:
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Topic 2: Aircraft Configuration Design
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Benchmarking
Focus on Benchmarking
Customer/market
requirements & objectives
Design requirements &
objectives
Concept Sketch
Technology
availability
Requirements trade-offs
▪ Benchmarking: evaluate or check (something) by
Initial layout
Revised layout
comparison
▪ Which existing aircraft have similar characteristics (MR&O)
as the you are supposed to design?
▪
First-guess sizing
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[adapted from Raymer, 6th Ed - FIg]
Analysis
Initial analysis:
- design
Aerodynamics
Starting point for configuration
-▪ Aerodynamics
- Weights
- Weights
▪ Starting point for MR&O validation
- Propulsion
- Propulsion
- Stab. & Control
Benchmarking is both:
- Structure
▪ inspiration to the design (which ideas are out there) and
- Systems
- Cost« look right? »)
▪ « sanity check » (does our design
Sizing & performance
optimization
Refined sizing &
performance optimization
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Benchmarking involves two steps: data collection and analysis
Step 1: Collect data
▪ Which data is relevant?
▪ How complete is the data collection?
Step 2: Analyze data
▪ What knowledge do you want to gain through benchmarking?
▪ Create relevant graphs
▪ Analyze the data in a table
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Example: Benchmarking for a next generation regional aircraft
Step 1: Collect data
▪ Which data is relevant?
List of aircraft
PAX, Range
How complete is the
data collection?
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Example: Benchmarking for a next generation regional aircraft
Step 2: Data Analysis
Target requirements for new aircraft
Range: 1782NM
(3000 km)
PAX: 20-60
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Technology Availability
Activity / homework
▪ Create a list of technologies / aircraft configurations with the potential to meet your
MR&O requirements
▪ Get familiar with the advantages and challenges of these technologies
Important concepts to review / use:
▪ Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) (recall AERO201)
▪ TRL classification is used to indicate the maturity of a technology
▪ Which TRL is enough to bring a technology into a new aircraft program?
▪ What is the projected TRL for EIS of your aircraft?
▪ Technology impact (e.g. projected fuel burn reduction) is of indicated in % with
respect to a reference year or reference aircraft
▪ Watch out for the challenges/unknowns of the new technology and their potential
adverse impact
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Knowledge Gaps
This course covers many new topics…
Activity (step 3 to be done in Tutorial)
1) Each student : create a list of 3 things you do not know (Knowledge Gaps) and
what seems to be important to start your project (5 min)
2) Discuss the list in the tutorial with your team – define the top knowledge gaps each team member can investigate one for the next week
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