BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS FOURTH EDITION ALAN BRYMAN & EMMA BELL Abbreviations About the authors About the students and Supervisors Guided tour of textbook features Guided tour of the Online Resource Centre About the book Acknowledgements Chapter 1 Chapter 2 The nature and process of business research xx xxii xxiii xxvi xxviii xxx xxxvii 3 Introduction What is meant by 'business research'? Why do business research? Business research methods in context Relevance to practice The process of business research Literature review Concepts and theories Research questions Sampling Data collection Data analysis Writing up The messiness of business research Key points Questions for review 4 5 5 5 7 9 9 9 10 12 12 13 13 15 16 16 Business research Strategie: 18 Introduction: the nature of business research Theory and research What type of theory? Deductive and inductive theory Epistemological considerations A natural science epistemology: positivism Interpretivism Ontological considerations Objectivism Constructionism Epistemology and ontology in business research Competing paradigms 19 20 20 23 26 27 28 32 32 32 34 35 Detailed Contents Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 r Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative Influences and politics on the conduct of business research Values Practica! considerations Key poirtts Questions for review 37 39 40 42 45 45 Research designs 47 Introduction Quality criteria in business research Reliability Replication Validity Research designs Experimental design Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design(s) Gase study design Comparative design Level of analysis Bringing research strategy and research design together Key points Questions for review 48 49 49 50 50 53 53 61 66 67 72 75 76 78 78 Flanning a research project and formulating research questions 80 Introduction Gelting to know what is expected of you by your Institution Thinking about your research area Using your Supervisor Managing time and resources Formulating suitable research questions Criteria for evaluating research questions Writing your research proposal Preparing for your research Döing your research and analysing your results Checklist Key points Questions for review 81 81 82 83 85 87 93 94 94 95 97 98 98 Gelting started: reviewing the literature 99 Introduction Reviewing the existing literature and engaging with what others have written Gelting the most from your reading Systematic review Narrative review Searching the existing literature and looking for business Information Electronic databases Keywords and defining search parameters 100 100 103 104 110 111 112 116 Detailed Contents Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Referencing your work The role of the bibliography Avoiding plagiarism Checklist Key points Questions for review 118 122 123 125 126 126 Ethics and politics in business research 128 Introduction Ethical principles Harm to participants Lack of informed consent Invasion ofprivacy Deception Ethics and legal considerations Data management Copyright Reciprocity and trust Affiliation and conflicts of interest The difficulties of ethical decision-making The politics of business research Checklist Key points Questions for review 129 134 135 139 143 144 145 146 147 147 149 150 151 154 155 155 The nature of quantitative research 159 Introduction The main steps in quantitative research Concepts and their measurement What is a concept? Why measure? Indicators Using multiple-indicator measures Dimensions of concepts Reliability Stability Internal reliability Inter-rater reliability Validity Face validity Concurrent validity Predictive validity Construct validity Convergent validity Discriminant validity Reflections on reliability and validity The main preoccupations of quantitative researchers Measurement Causality 160 160 163 163 164 164 167 167 168 168 168 170 170 170 170 171 171 171 172 172 174 174 174 IX Detailed Contents Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Generalization Replication The critique of quantitative research Criticisms of quantitative research Is it always like this? Reverse operationism Reliability and validity testing Sampling Key points Questions for review 174 176 178 179 180 180 181 181 181 182 Sampling in quantitative research 183 Introduction Introduction to sampling Sampling error Types of probability sample Simple random sample Systematic sample Stratified random sampling Multi-stage Cluster sampling The qualities of a probability sample Sample size Absolute and relative sample size Time and cost Non-response Heterogeneity of the population Kind of analysis Types of non-probability sampling Convenience sampling Quota sampling Limits to generalization Error in survey research Key points Questions for review 184 186 189 190 190 191 191 192 195 197 198 198 199 200 200 200 200 202 205 206 207 207 Structured interviewing 209 Introduction The structured interview Reducing error due to Interviewer variability Accuracy and ease of data processing Other types of interview Interview contexts More than one interviewee More than one Interviewer In person or by telephone? Computer-assisted interviewing Conducting Interviews Know the schedule Introducing the research Rapport Asking questions 210 211 211 212 213 214 214 215 215 217 218 218 218 219 219 Detailed contents Recording answers Clear Instructions Question order Probing Prompting Leaving the interview Training and supervision Other approaches to structured interviewing Critical incident method Projective methods, pictorial and photo-elicitation Verbal protocol approach Repertory grid technique Problems with structured interviewing Characteristics of Interviewers Response sets The problem of meaning The feminist critique Key points Questions for review Chapter 10 Self-completion questionnaires Introduction Self-completion questionnaire or postal questionnaire? Evaluating the self-completion questionnaire in relation to the structured interview Advantages of the self-completion questionnaire over the structured interview Disadvantages of the self-completion questionnaire in comparison to the structured interview Steps to improve response rates to postal questionnaires Designing the self-completion questionnaire Do not cramp the presentation Clear presentation Vertical or horizontal closed answers? Identifying response sets in a Likert scale Clear Instructions about how to respond Keep question and answers together Diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire Advantages and disadvantages of the diary as a method of data collection Experience and event sampling Key points Questions for review Chapter 11 Asking questions Introduction Open or closed questions? Open questions Closed questions Types of question Rules for designing questions 220 221 221 223 224 225 225 226 226 227 228 229 233 233 233 235 235 235 236 238 239 239 240 240 241 242 245 245 246 246 246 248 248 248 251 251 254 254 256 257 257 257 259 262 264 XI XIi Detailed contents General rules of thumb Specific rules when designing questions Vignette questions Piloting and pre-testing questions Using existing questions Checklist Key points Questions for review Chapter 12 Structured Observation Introduction Problems with survey research on behaviour So why not observe behaviour? The Observation schedule Strategies for observing behaviour Sampling Sampling people Sampling in terms of time Further sampling considerations Issues of reliability and validity Reliability Validity Other forms of structured Observation Field Stimulation Organizational Simulation Criticisms of structured Observation On the other hand... Checklist Key points Questions for review Chapter 13 Content analysis Introduction What are the research questions? Selecting a sample Sampling media Sampling dates What is to be counted? Significant actors Words Subjects and themes Dispositions Images Coding Coding schedule Coding manual Potential pitfalls in devising coding schemes Advantages of content analysis Disadvantages of content analysis Checklist Key points Questions for review 264 265 270 272 272 274 276 276 278 279 279 280 284 285 286 286 286 287 288 288 289 290 290 292 294 294 295 295 296 297 298 301 301 301 302 303 303 303 304 306 306 307 307 308 308 312 315 316 316 317 Detailed contents Chapter 14 Secondary analysis and official statistics Introduction Other researchers' data Advantages of secondary analysis Limitations of secondary analysis Accessing the UK Data Archive Archival proxies and meta-analysis Official statistics Reliability and validity Condemning and resurrecting official statistics Official statistics as a form of unobtrusive measure Key points Questions for review Chapter 15 Quantitative data analysis Introduction A small research project Missing data Types of variable Univariate analysis Frequency tables Diagrams Measures of central tendency Measures of dispersion Bivariate analysis Relationships not causality Contingency tables Pearson's r Spearman's rho Phi and Cramer's V Comparing means and eta Multivariate analysis Could the relationship be spurious? Could there be an intervening variable? Could a third variable moderate the relationship? Statistical significance The chi-square test Correlation and Statistical significance Comparing means and Statistical significance Checklist Key points Questions for review Chapter 16 Using IBM SPSS statistics Introduction Getting started in SPSS Beginning SPSS Entering data in the Data Viewer Defining variables: variable names, missing values, variable labels, and value labels Recoding variables Computing a new variable 318 319 320 320 328 330 330 333 334 335 335 338 338 339 340 341 343 345 347 347 348 349 349 351 351 352 352 354 354 355 355 355 356 357 357 360 360 361 361 362 362 364 365 366 366 367 368 369 372 XII XIV Detailed Contents Data analysis with SPSS Generating a frequency table Generating a bar chart Generating a pie Chart Generating a histogram Generating the arithmetic mean, median, Standard deviation, ränge, and boxplots Generating a contingency table, chi-square, and Cramer's V Generating Pearson's r and Spearman's rho Generating scatter diagrams Comparing means and eta Generating a contingency table with three variables Further Operations in SPSS Saving your data Retrieving your data Printing Output Key points Questions for review Chapter 17 The nature of qualitative research Introduction The main steps in qualitative research Theory and research Concepts in qualitative research Reliability and validity in qualitative research Adapting reliability and validity for qualitative research Alternative criteria for evaluating qualitative research The main preoccupations of qualitative researchers Seeing through the eyes of the people being studied Description and the emphasis on context Emphasis on process Flexibility and limited structure Concepts and theory grounded in data Not just words The critique of qualitative research Qualitative research is too subjective Difficult to replicate Problems of generalization Lackoftransparency Is it always like this? Some contrasts between quantitative and qualitative research Some similarities between quantitative and qualitative research Researcher-subject relationships Action research Feminism and qualitative research Collaborative and participatory research Postcolonial and indigenous research Key points Questions for review 373 373 375 375 376 377 377 379 379 382 383 385 385 386 386 386 386 391 392 395 397 398 399 400 400 404 404 406 407 408 409 409 413 413 414 414 414 415 416 417 418 418 420 422 422 424 425 Detailed contents Chapter 18 Sampling in qualitative research Introduction Levels of sampling Purposive sampling Theoretical sampling Generic purposive sampling Snowball sampling Sample size Not just people Using more than one sampling approach Key points Questions for review Chapter 19 Ethnography and participant Observation Introduction Organizational ethnography Global and multi Site ethnography Access Overt versus covert? Ongoing access Key informants Roles for ethnographers Active or passive? Shadowing Field notes Types of field notes Bringing ethnographic fieldwork to an end Feminist and institutional ethnography Visual ethnography Writing ethnography Experiential authority Typical forms Key points Questions for review Chapter 20 Interviewing in qualitative research Introduction Differences between the structured interview and the qualitative interview Asking questions in the qualitative interview Preparing an interview guide Kinds of questions Using an interview guide: an example Recording and transcription Telephone interviewing Life history and oral history Interviews Feminist research and interviewing in qualitative research Qualitative interviewing versus participant Observation Advantages of participant Observation in comparison to qualitative interviewing 427 428 429 430 431 433 434 436 438 439 440 440 442 443 444 447 448 452 454 455 456 459 460 461 462 463 464 466 471 471 472 476 476 478 479 480 481 486 490 492 494 497 501 503 504 505 XV XVI Detailed Contents —i Advantages of qualitative interviewing in comparison to participant Observation Overview Checklist Key points Questions for review Chapter 21 Focusgroups Introduction Uses of focus groups Conducting focus groups Recording and transcription How many groups? Size of groups Level of moderator involvement Selecting participants Asking questions Beginning and finishing Group interaction in focus group sessions The focus group as a feminist method Limitations of focus groups Checklist Key points Questions for review Chapter 22 Language in qualitative research Introduction Fine-grained approaches Conversation analysis Discourse analysis Narrative analysis Rhetorical analysis Context-sensitive approaches Critical discourse analysis Overview Key points Questions for review Chapter 23 Documenta as sources of data Introduction Personal documents Public documents Organizational documents Mass media Outputs Visual documents Virtual documents The world as text The reality of documents Interpreting documents Qualitative content analysis Semiotics 506 508 508 509 509 511 512 513 515 515 516 517 519 520 521 521 522 523 525 527 528 528 529 530 530 531 535 541 544 547 547 549 551 551 553 554 555 558 561 562 564 567 567 568 569 569 570 Historical analysis Checklist Key points Questions for review Chapter 24 Qualitative data analysis Introduction General strategies of qualitative data analysis Analytic induction Grounded theory More on coding Steps and considerations in coding Turning data into fragments Problems with coding Thematic analysis Secondary analysis of qualitative data Key points Questions for review 572 575 575 576 578 579 581 581 584 594 595 595 597 599 601 604 604 Chapter 25 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis: using NVivo 605 Introduction Is CAQDAS like quantitative data analysis Software? No industry leader Lack of universal agreement about the Utility of CAQDAS Learning NVivo Coding Searching text Memos Saving an NVivo project Opening an existing NVivo project Final thoughts Key points Questions for review Chapter 26 Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide Introduction The natural science model and qualitative research Quantitative research and interpretivism Quantitative research and constructionism Epistemological and ontological considerations Problems with the quantitative/qualitative contrast Behaviour versus meaning Theory tested in research versus emergent from data Numbers versus words Artificial versus natural Reciprocal analysis Qualitative analysis of quantitative data Quantitative analysis of qualitative data Quantification in qualitative research 606 606 607 607 608 609 615 618 619 619 620 621 622 625 626 627 629 630 631 631 631 632 633 633 635 635 635 636 XVili Detailed Contents J Thematic analysis Quasi-quantification in qualitative research Combating anecdotalism through limited quantification Key points Questions for review Chapter 27 Mixed methods research: combining quantitative and qualitative research Introduction The argument against mixed methods research The embedded methods argument The paradigm argument Two versions of the debate about quantitative and qualitative research The rise of mixed methods research Classifying mixed methods research in terms of priority and sequence Different types of mixed methods design Approaches to mixed methods research The logic of triangulation Qualitative research facilitates quantitative research Quantitative research facilitates qualitative research Filling in the gaps Static and processual features Research issues and participants' perspectives The problem of generality Qualitative research may facilitate the Interpretation of the relationship between variables Studying different aspects of a phenomenon Solving a puzzle Quality issues in mixed methods research Key points Questions for review Chapter 28 E-research: Internet research methods Introduction The Internet as object of analysis Using Websites to collect data from individuals Virtual ethnography Qualitative research using online focus groups Qualitative research using online personal Interviews Using Skype Online social surveys Email surveys Web surveys Mixed modes of survey administration Sampling issues Overview Ethical considerations in e-research The State of e-research Key points Questions for review 636 637 637 638 638 640 641 642 642 642 643 643 644 646 647 647 649 650 651 652 652 653 653 656 657 658 660 660 661 662 662 665 667 670 673 675 675 676 676 678 679 685 685 689 689 689 Detailed contents Chapter 29 Writing up business research Introduction Writing up your research Start early Be persuasive Get feedback Avoid sexist, racist, and disablist language Structure your writing Writing up quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research An example of quantitative research Introduction Theory and hypotheses Methods Results Discussion Lessons An example of qualitative research Introduction Review of the literature Methods Presentation of main themes Discussion Implications Lessons An example of mixed methods research Introduction The Russian context Organizational culture and effectiveness Research questions Testing the model: a comparative study Taking a closer look: four case studies Discussion Lessons Reflexivity Writing academically Checklist Key points Questions for review Glossary References Index of names Subject index 691 692 693 693 695 695 697 697 700 700 700 702 702 702 702 703 705 705 706 706 706 708 709 709 709 711 711 711 712 712 712 713 714 714 715 718 719 720 721 731 758 764 XIX
