SS 22: Readings in
Philippine History
Tecah C. Sagandoy
2022
2nd
edition
Readings in
Philippine
History
Tecah C. Sagandoy
History Department
College of Social Sciences
Benguet State University
SMART: 09291828610
Gmail: t.sagandoy@bsu.edu.ph
Website: tecsonline.weebly.com
© 2022 Benguet State University
La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines 2601
Inside Cover Image: Lapu-Lapu Shrine, Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu
Photo by Tecah C. Sagandoy
THIS BOOK IS NOT FOR SALE
Readings in Philippine History
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About this Module
Readings in Philippine History
My dear students, this module, Readings in Philippine History, has been prepared in
accordance to the new General Education Curriculum or GEC (CHED Memo Order No.
20, s. 2013), which “aims to expose undergraduate students to various domains of
knowledge and ways of comprehending social and natural realities, developing in the
process, intellectual competencies and civic capacities” (pp. 1-2). As part of the GEC,
Readings in Philippine History is viewed to contribute to the laying of a “groundwork for
the development of a professionally competent, humane, and moral person…thus;
enabling] the Filipino to locate [themselves] in [their] community and [in] the world”
(CMO No. 20, s. 2013, pp. 3-4). Readings in Philippine History, as a general education
course, strives to be an essential part of the varied means of providing a holistic
education to you, my dear students.
Let me emphasize that this module on Readings in Philippine History does not follow
the traditional style of presenting history, i.e., a chronological narration of historical
events, peoples, and places. It however follows the commonly used periodization of
history (i.e., pre-16th century, Spanish Colonial period, American Colonial period,
Japanese Occupation, Post-Colonial period). Periodization refers to the division of
historical events into series of events called periods. Hence, as a matter of compliance
to CMO No. 20, s. 2013, this module presents selected Philippine historical events as
“viewed from the lens of primary [and secondary] sources” (p. 11). What this means is
that you, my dear students, are expected not to just read, but will also examine and
analyze selected readings about the “various aspects of Philippine life—[geographical],
political, economic, social, cultural—“(p. 11) across periods of Philippine history. In this
connection, you, my dear students, will be introduced to a set of historical thinking
skills, which you will use in writing your own personal (autobiographical) history, and
hopefully would also be useful in other fields of knowledge.
So, how should you think historically? Historical thinking comes in interwoven forms:
chronological thinking; historical comprehension; historical analysis and interpretation;
historical research capabilities; and, historical-issues analysis and decision-making
(University of California Los Angeles-Department of History or UCLA-History, 2020).
Chronological thinking is being knowledgeable of “when events occurred and in what
temporal [or time-based] order,… [so that you will be able to] examine relationships
among those events or to explain historical causality” (UCLA-History, 2020,
Chronological thinking section, par. 1). Historical comprehension directs you, the
reader, “to read imaginatively, taking into account the motives…, the values…, fears…,
strengths and weakness” (UCLA-History, 2020, Historical comprehension section, par.
1) of the people you meet in the narrative; it also entails the “ability to describe the
past on its own terms, through the eyes and experiences of those who were there”
(UCLA-History, 2020, Historical comprehension section, par. 1).
Building on the skill of historical comprehension, historical analysis and interpretation
compels you, as a reader of history, to “assess the evidence on which the historian has
drawn and determine the soundness of interpretations…; [you need to have] the ability
to differentiate between expressions of opinion…and informed hypotheses grounded in
historical evidence” (UCLA-History, 2020, Historical analysis section, par. 4).
Historical research capabilities refer to the skills involved in “doing history—[which]
proceeds with the formulation of a problem or set of questions worth pursuing; [then it
encourages students] to analyze a document, record, or [a] site itself” (UCLA-History,
2020, Historical research section, par. 4). With the obtained data, evaluation,
identification and filling of gaps and employment of more analysis and interpretations
are done (UCLA-History, 2020).
Historical-issues analysis and decision-making involves the following:
[T]he capacity to identify and define public policy issues and ethical dilemmas;
analyze the range of interests and values held by the many persons…; locate
and organize the data required to assess the consequences of alternative
approaches to resolving the dilemma; assess the ethical implications as well as
the comparative costs and benefits of each approach; and evaluate a particular
course of action [taken to resolve dilemmas]…(UCLA-History, 2020, Historicalissues analysis section, par. 1-2).
Turn to the course schedule for a bird’s-eye view of the topics covered by this module. I
hope you will still learn a lot despite the employment of a not-so familiar modality of
learning. Enjoy!!!
Readings in Philippine History
[C]onfronting the issues or problems of the time, analyzing the alternatives
available to those on the scene, evaluating the consequences that might have
followed those options for action that were not chosen, and comparing with the
consequences of those that were adopted...
Preliminaries
Course Guide
Readings in Philippine History
This is a self-directed learning kit. This means that your success in finishing this course
rests greatly in your hands. You might not be familiar with this modular modality of
learning but rest assured that with diligence, patience, and persistence, you will gain a
learning experience that you would be proud of in the end. Remember not to lose focus
when accomplishing the learning tasks embedded in this module. And to help you with
that matter, let me lay down some guidelines that would keep you on track with your
learning journey for one semester.
A. Allot quality time for this course as you would for other courses you are enrolled
in. Spend the hours purposely designated for this course. This means that you
need to come up with a time-management plan and religiously follow that plan.
B. Believe in your abilities, but be mindful of your inabilities as well. Be kind to
yourself. Those who know how to help themselves can achieve a lot. You will
need all the motivation and inspiration you can get. The task at hand is not
easy; it is hard.
C. Carefully read the assigned readings and guide questions. Carefully read the
learning outcomes, lesson overviews, instructions of the modules. Do not rush,
but do not be too slow. A dictionary by your side would be very helpful when
doing the guided reading activities.
D. Deliberately set your learning goals and tasks. Dilly-dallying is not an option. Do
not get distracted by social media or by addictive video or computer games.
Remember, you have tasks to be accomplished on time. You have deadlines to
beat. Self-discipline is a must.
E. Excel in every learning opportunity you meet. Do your best in completing your
learning tasks. Do not be contented with mediocre outputs. Review your work;
review your answers before submitting to me.
F. Find help; find necessary help. Yes, you are an independent learner but it pays
to be interdependent. Ask questions. Discuss with your classmates online (if
given the chance). Your family members are one best source of help. Find time
to help others, too. Share your thoughts when necessary, but avoid sharing
unnecessary ideas.
G. Give due credit to your sources as necessary. Plagiarism is never an option.
H. Honesty is the best police. Yes, the pun is intended. Accomplish your tasks
yourself; do not let others do the work for you.
I. If you feel like becoming bored, find time to relax for a while. Take a nap but
don’t sleep. Bear this in mind, “all work makes you a dull person”. Be wary also
not to be idle, for “idleness is the devil’s play thing”.
J. Joyfully savor every learning experience you will go through. Find something good
in every activity you do, whether the task is difficult or not.
K. Keep yourself physically, emotionally, mentally, socially, intellectually, and
spiritually healthy. Pray.
Course Schedule
Aug. 8-13, 2022
Aug. 15-19,
2022
Aug. 22-26,
2022
Aug. 29-Sep. 2, 2022
Topics
PRELIMINARIES
MODULE 1. Understanding History
Unit 1. What is history?
Unit 2. Sources of history
MODULE 2. People of the
Philippines
Unit 3. Who are the Filipinos?
Sep. 12-16, 2022
MODULE 3. Pre- and 16th Century
Philippines
Unit 4. Archaeological evidences
of prehistoric Philippines
Unit 5. Early Philippine culture
Sep. 19-23, 2022
MODULE 4. Filipino communities
under the Spanish colonial system
Unit 6. Life under the Spanish
Colonial Administration
Sep. 5-9, 2022
Sep. 26-30, 2022
Unit 7. Responses to Spanish
colonialism and the weaving of
national consciousness
Oct. 17-21, 2022
Module 5. The Filipino nation
under the American Colonial
System and World War II in the
Philippines
Unit 8. Life under the American
Colonial Administration
Oct. 24-28, 2022
Unit 9. Responses to American
colonialism
Oct. 31-Nov. 4, 2022
Nov. 7-11, 2022
Nov. 14-18, 2022
Nov.21-25, 2022
Unit 10. Life under the Japanese
imperial regime
Module 6. Post-World War II
Philippines
Unit 11: The Third Philippine
Republic (1946-1972)
Unit 12: The Martial law and the
new Society (1972-986)
Module 7. Contemporary
Philippines (1986-Present)
Unit 13: Transformations under a
Activities
Orientation; sending of copy of modules
to students
Exercise 1.1.1: Historical fact or opinion
Exercise 1.1.2: Uses of history
Exercise 1.2.1: Primary and secondary
sources
Exercise 1.2.2: Inference in interpreting
evidence
Exercise 2.1.1: What makes me a
Filipino?
Exercise 3.1.1: Thinking like an
archaeologist
Exercise 3.2.1: Ma-yi in the 13th century
Exercise 3.3.1: The 16th century Filipino
culture
Exercise 4.1.1. Life in the Encomienda
Exercise 4.2.1. Encomienda and
Christianity
Exercise 4.3.1. Motives behind the
revolts
Exercise 4.4.1. The Propaganda
movement objectives
Exercise 4.4.1. The Propaganda
movement objectives
Exercise 5.1.1 American colonial
motives from the eyes of an antiimperialist
Exercise 5.2.1 American education for
Filipinos
Exercise 5.3.1 Philippine-American War
Timeline
Exercise 5.4.1 Igorot-American and
Igorot-Filipino Relationships
Exercise 5.5/5.6. My reflection about
the life during the war period
Exercise 6.1.1. The Third Philippine
Republic
Exercise 7.1.1. Martial Law and the
New Society
Exercise 8.1./8.2. 1986 EDSA
Readings in Philippine History
Week
Nov.28-Dec. 1, 2022
“restored” democracy
Module 8. Bringing history alive in
the Philippines
Unit 14: Local Narratives
Revolution & beyond
Exercise 9.1.1 My personal history
School Calendar: Important Events
August 8, 2022 – Start of 1s semester, SY 2022-2023
October 3-8, 2022 – Midterm examination
December 2, 5-7, 9, 2022 – Final examination
December 11, 2022 – End of 1st semester, SY 2022-2023
Course Requirements
Readings in Philippine History
To pass the course, you must:
1. Read ALL readings; answer concisely the guide questions.
2. Answer ALL activities labeled “exercise”; these are graded tasks.
3. Submit the required final project (personal history).
4. Accomplish the midterm and final examinations.
Formative Assessment Activities. This module includes guided reading worksheets.
Each selected reading material is followed by a set of guide questions. These guide
questions are meant to formatively assess your comprehension of the reading
materials. Such assessment activities are not numerically graded, but they also
prepare you for your evaluative assessment tasks. Hence, it is highly encouraged that
you diligently accomplish these formative assessment tasks.
Evaluative Assessment Activities. This module also includes evaluative assessment
activities. These graded activities would serve as the basis for computing your grade
for the course.
A. Graded Quizzes and Examination. Graded quizzes refer to the objective-type of
quizzes such as alternative-response test, completion-test, matching test, etc.
Examinations refer to the summative periodic midterm and final examinations.
B. Graded Assignments and Projects. Graded assignments refer to the essay-type of
tests such as reflection or thought papers, position papers, and short research
written outputs. For your project, you will write and submit your “personal
history”—autobiography or memoir of sorts.
The tools you need: While this module is designed to make your learning experience
meaningful, there are other tools you would need to help yourself accomplish all the
given tasks:
1. Study/task plan with key dates and times. While self-directed learning is generally
done at your own pace and convenience, you still need to structure and plan
how you would go about your learning tasks. Make a work schedule and put it in
a place where you would always see it every single day.
2. Study place. Yes, you would need to designate a space in your home where you
will do your academic tasks. You have to keep yourself shielded from
distractions.
Readings in Philippine History
3. Gadget. You need your mobile phone, or a tab, or a laptop, or a personal
computer desktop. No, you don’t need to have them all. The mobile phone
(cellphone) is probably a must-have gadget nowadays. Install practical apps in
your phone such as a dictionary, a pdf reader, a Messenger chat, etc.
4. Internet. This is not a requirement, but if you have access to the Net, it would be
an advantage. The Web is a storehouse of knowledge and resources you might
need to enhance your learning.
Module 1: Understanding history
Unit 1. What is history?
Lesson 1.1. The nature of and relevance of history
Lesson outcomes:
1. Distinguish actual history from account of history
2. Distinguish historical facts from opinions in historical texts
3. Identify the value and varied uses of history
4.
Lesson overview: This lesson provides thoughts and ideas about what history is and its
importance to our present society.
READ TO LEARN
History and its nature (Furay C. & Salevouris, M., 2015, The methods and skills of history: A practical
Readings in Philippine History
guide, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 14-17)
_________________________________________________________________________
“In English the word “history” has two distinct meanings. First, “history” is the sum
total of everything that has actually happened in the past—every thought, every action,
every event. In this sense, “history” is surely one of the broadest concepts conceived by the
human intellect. “History,” broadly defined, encompasses the entire scope of the human
experience on this planet. And this meaning of the word—things that happened in the
past—is what most people have in mind when they use the term in daily conversation.
“But there is a second meaning of the term “history”… If “history” is the past, it is also
an account of the past—i.e., the books, articles, films, and lectures we encounter in school.
It should be clear with just a moment’s thought that the past (all of those thoughts and
events that actually happened) is lost forever... Our only contact with the past is through
the relatively scant records left by those who lived before us and through the accounts
written by historians on the basis of those records. It is this “history”—created accounts of
the past—that we read, think about, and study in school.
“History,” then, is both the… past-as-it-actually-happened (history in the first sense)
[and the] historians’ accounts of that past (history in the second sense)… To the extent we
can know anything about the pastas-it-actually-happened, that knowledge must be based
on surviving records… Just as a landscape can be real, so, too, is the past that historians
study. The actual events of the past are gone forever, but they were just as “real” as all the
human activities you see around you every day… [Further], historians’ accounts can and
do provide glimpses of the contours of the past, but those accounts constitute only a pale
reflection of reality.
“The historian can reveal a tiny piece of the past, can present us with an individual
version of a segment of the past, but no one can present the past as it actually was. This
leads us to another point: All historical accounts are reconstructions that contain some
degree of subjectivity. Whether written or spoken, every piece of history is an
individualized view of a segment of past reality—a particular vision, a personalized
version based on incomplete and imperfect evidence. Writing history is an act of creation,
or more accurately, an act of re-creation in which the mind of the historian is the catalyst.
Any piece of history that we read or hear ought to be treated as an individual creation… In
the words of historian Louis Gottschalk:
‘Only a part of what was observed in the past was remembered by those who
observed it; only a part of what was remembered was recorded; only a part of what was
recorded has survived; only a part of what has survived has come to the historians’
attention; only a part of what has come to their attention is credible; only a part of what is
credible has been grasped; and only a part of what has been grasped can be expounded or
narrated by the historian… . Before the past is set forth by the historian, it is likely to have
gone through eight separate steps at each of which some of it has been lost; and there is no
guarantee that what remains is the most important, the largest, the most valuable, the most
representative, or the most enduring part. In other words the “object” that the historian
studies is not only incomplete, it is markedly variable as records are lost or recovered.’
[Louis Gottschalk, Understanding History (New York: Knopf, 1950), 45–46 as cited by Furay
& Salevouris, 2015]
What does history mean as used in every day talks?
What is the primarily role of a historian in terms of dealing with the past?
Why can we not know the exact and full details of the past-as-it-actually happened?
What is history for you?
Readings in Philippine History
1.
2.
3.
4.
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 1.1.1: Historical fact or opinion
As a student of history, you should know how to distinguish which of those sentences or
paragraphs that make up the narrative are facts or opinions. While a historian attempts
to present historical facts free from biases, it cannot be avoided that personal opinions
or judgments of people, places, or events are integrated in a particular historical
account.
Below are excerpts from books and newspapers. Label each passage either as FACT (F)
or OPINION (O). If a passage combines fact and opinion, write “FO” and underline that
part of the passage that you think is an opinion or judgment.
Readings in Philippine History
_____1. “[Apolinario Mabini’s] writings, his behavior throughout his life, short as
it was, demonstrated extraordinary moral integrity, intense and
uncompromising patriotism.” (Roxas-Lim, 2000)
_____2. “Swimmer Miguel Molina finished fourth in the 400-meter individual
medley…, while the men’s trap shooters missed the bronze by seven
birds…” (Bancod, 2006, Tempo Sports News)
_____3. “President Marcos, an unscrupulous politician, craftily planned KBL
strategy before, during, and after the elections, if need be to steal the results
in his favor. No effort was spared in the use of ‘guns, goons and gold’ to
intimidate or entice voters to support the Marcos-Tolentino ticket.” (Zaide,
1999)
_____4. “[When in] Jolo, [you] can… see that beyond the town looms a dominating
peak, Mt. Tumatangis, a place held sacred by the Tausugs as the burial
grounds of its sultans. The busy pier is called the ‘Chinese Pier’, used in
early times by Chinese trading vessels.” (Patanñe, 1996)
_____5. “Yay Panlilio [was] a pre-war newspaperwoman. As early as April 1942,
she began serving as G-2 agent in Manila for the USAFFE headquarters…
Through her untiring efforts and selflessness…in supplying…information
concerning Japanese…activities…many American lives were saved.’”
(Baclagon, 1968)
_____6. “[T]he early ancestors of the Baguio people were ranchers, riders,
cattlemen and the like. When they sing their history as a people in their
native…Ba-diw, their best parallel approach in English is to listen to the
songs of the Wild West, some of which they have now translated to their
own local languages!” (Pungayan, 2005)
_____7. “Returning to the Philippines early in 1901, [Isabelo] de los
Reyes…founded the first labor union in the Philippines: Union Obrera
Democratica…[In]1902, [he] called a meeting of his Democratic Labor
Union…and delivered a[n] anti-friar speech…and proposed the
establishment of a Filipino Church independent of Rome…” (Agoncillo, 1990)
_____8. “Young, enthusiastic, and fired with a Messianic fervor, Magsaysay
enlisted the help not only of the governmental agencies, but also of the
civic organizations in the vast undertaking of ‘bringing freedom and
progress to the barrios.’” (Agoncillo, 1990)
_____10. “The Islamized ethnic communities in the southern Philippines,
collectively called Moros by the Spaniards, were the first communities in
the Philippines to be united by a world religion with a distinct political
system, the sultanate.” (Evangelista, 2002)
_____11. “La Trinidad valley has been the official capital of Benguet since the
province was designated as military district in 1846 by the Spanish Colonial
Government.” (Paw, 2015)
_____12. “[Being] born an Ilocano [was] an accident of history that defined the
character of [F.E.] Marcos as surely as if he had been a Scotsman in Great
Britain…” (Rempel, 1993)
_____13. “[Five-hundred twenty-five] teachers arrived on the army transport
Thomas, and came to be known as ‘Thomasites’. They served as teachers,
superintendents and supervisors in public schools…” (Villegas, 2000)
_____14. “The imposition of the Tobacco Monopoly…in [1781 and 1782] had a
profound effect on the economic development of the country… [It]
proved to be a very lucrative business for the Colonial Government.”
(Legarda, 1999; De Jesus, 1980, as cited by Paw, 2015)
_____15. “[Apolinario de la Cruz] was shot, his body cut up into pieces, his head
put in a cage and displayed atop a pole… [He]…died with serenity and
‘greatness of spirit’ because death was the fulfillment of their hopes…to a
condition of pure liwanag…” (Ileto, 2011)
Readings in Philippine History
_____9. “On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed. It provided that
Spain would cede the Philippines to the United States in return for which
she [Spain] would receive $20, 000, 000 from the United States…”(Agoncillo,
1990)
READ TO LEARN
The value of history (Liddell Hart, B.H., 2012, Why don’t’ we learn from history? USA: Sophron Editor,
pp. 19-21)
Readings in Philippine History
_________________________________________________________________________
“What is the object of history? I would answer, quite simply—“truth.” It is a word and
an idea that has gone out of fashion. But the results of discounting the possibility of
reaching the truth are worse than those of cherishing it.
“The object might be more cautiously expressed thus: to find out what happened while
trying to find out why it happened. In other words, to seek the causal relations between
events.
“History has limitations as guiding signpost, however, for although it can show us the
right direction, it does not give detailed information about the road conditions.
“But its negative value as a warning sign is more definite. History can show us what to
avoid, even if it does not teach us what to do—by showing the most common mistakes that
mankind is apt to make and to repeat.
“A second object lies in the practical value of history. “Fools,” said Bismarck, “say they
learn by experience. I prefer to profit by other people's experience.” The study of history
offers that opportunity in the widest possible measure. It is universal experience—
infinitely longer, wider, and more varied than any individual's experience.
“How often do people claim superior wisdom on the score of their age and experience?
The Chinese especially regard age with veneration, and hold that a man of eighty years or
more must be wiser than others. But eighty is nothing for a student of history. There is no
excuse for anyone who is not illiterate if he is less than three thousand years old in mind.
“The point was well expressed by Polybius. “There are two roads to the reformation
for mankind—one through misfortunes of their own, the other through the misfortunes of
others; the former is the most unmistakable, the latter the less painful…the knowledge
gained from the study of true history is the best of all educations for practical life.”
“[I]n studying military problems in the decades after that war [World War I] I always
tried to take a projection from the past through the present into the future. In predicting
the decisive developments of World War II I know that I owed more to this practical
application of the historical method than to any brain wave of my own.
“History is the record of man's steps and slips. It shows us that the steps have been
slow and slight; the slips, quick and abounding. It provides us with the opportunity to
profit by the stumbles and tumbles of our forerunners. Awareness of our limitations
should make us chary of condemning those who made mistakes, but we condemn
ourselves if we fail to recognize mistakes.
“There is a too common tendency to regard history as a specialist subject—that is the
primary mistake. For, on the contrary, history is the essential corrective to all
specialization. Viewed aright, it is the broadest of studies, embracing every aspect of life. It
lays the foundation of education by showing how mankind repeats its errors and what
those errors are.
1. How does history help us arrive at the truth of things we search for?
2. What can history do to prevent us from doing or repeating the mistakes of our
ancestors?
3. In what sense do we say that the past is connected to the present and to future
events?
4. In your own opinion, is history valuable? Why?
READ TO LEARN
The uses of history (Furay C. & Salevouris, M., 2015, The methods and skills of history: A practical
guide, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 7-8)
_________________________________________________________________________
“[In discussing] the uses of history…, the relationship between the past and the
present, and the role history plays in defining our own identity [are emphasized]. These
concepts are summarized below, along with a variety of other reasons why the study of
history is a rewarding venture.
B. History helps us better understand the present. The cliché is true that to
understand the present one must understand the past. History, of course, cannot
provide clear answers to today’s problems (past and present events never exactly
parallel each other), but knowledge of relevant historical background is essential
for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many current world situations.
C. History—good history—is a corrective for misleading analogies and
“lessons” of the past. Time and again politicians, journalists, and sloppy historians can
be heard declaring that “history proves” this or “history shows” that. But the historical
record is so rich and varied that one can find examples that seem to support any
position or opinion. If one reads selectively, one can find historical episodes to support
a variety of policies and ideas. Good history, on the other hand, can expose the
inapplicability of many inaccurate and misleading analogies, as well as expose the
dishonesty inherent in “cherry-picking” historical episodes in order to bolster a
predetermined conclusion.
D. History enables us to understand the tendencies of humankind, social
institutions, and all aspects of the human condition. Given the vast range of
its inquiry, history is the best “school” for study of many dimensions of human
behavior: heroism and degradation, altruism and avarice, martyrdom and evil
excess, freedom and tyranny—all of which are part of the record and part of the
story that history tells.
E. History can help one develop tolerance and open-mindedness. Most of us
have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and
proper. Studying the past is like going to a foreign country—they do things
differently there. Returning from such a visit to the past, we have, perhaps, rid
ourselves of some of our inherent cultural provincialism.
F. History provides the basic background for many other disciplines. Historical
knowledge is extremely valuable in the study of other disciplines—literature,
art, philosophy, religion, political science, anthropology, sociology, and economics.
Readings in Philippine History
A. History provides us a sense of our own identity. Each of us is born into a
nation, but also into a region, a culture, an ethnic group, a social class, and a
family…The study of history helps us to get our bearings in such respects—in other
words it allows us to achieve a social as well as a personal identity.
G. History can be entertainment. This may seem trivial, but it certainly must be
counted as one of the central “uses” of history. Much written history is also good
literature, and the stories historians relate are often far more engaging and
entertaining than those we find in works of fiction.
H. The careful study of history teaches one many critical skills. [History helps us
develop critical skills such as]: how to conduct research, how to evaluate evidence,
how to present your arguments clearly in writing, how to read, view, and think
critically, and, of course, historical thinking. These analytical and communication skills
are highly usable in other academic pursuits—and in almost any career you choose.
Readings in Philippine History
1. How can history help us develop respect for other cultures?
2. How can history help us understand who or what we are?
3. How can we use good history to correct misleading analogies and lessons of the
past?
4. When can we say that history is entertaining?
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 1.1.2: Uses of history
Review the “Uses of History” summarized by Furay and Salevouris (2015). Using the
letters A through H (as each letter corresponds to a particular “use” of history), indicate
which category best describes each of the given quotation. You may use a category
more than once.
_______1. “History presents the pleasantest features of poetry and fiction—the
majesty of the epic, the moving accidents of the drama, and the surprises
and moral of the romance.” (Robert A. Willmott)
_______3. “History can help us shake off the shackles of ethnocentrism and the
debilitating bias of cultural and racial purity… History helps us to
illuminate the human condition.” (Lester Stephens)
_______4. “Everything is the sum of its past and nothing is comprehensible except
through its history.” (Pierre Teilhard de Chardin)
_______5. “[History’s] chief use is only to discover the constant and universal
principles of human nature.” (David Hume)
_______6. “History provides a training ground for development of many valuable
intellectual traits.” (Anonymous)
_______7. “The chief practical use of history is to deliver us from plausible
historical analogies.” (James Bryce)
_______8. “The study of history is in the truest sense an education and a training
for political life….” (Polybius)
_______9. “In an age when so much of our literature is infused with nihilism, and
other social disciplines are driven toward narrow, positivistic [i.e.,
scientific] inquiry, history may remain the most humanizing of the arts.”
(Richard Hofstadter)
______10. “What man is, only history tells.” (Wilhelm Dilthey)
______11. “The ultimate reason for studying history is to become conscious of the
possibilities of human existence.” (Rudolf Bultmann)
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_______2. “The chief lesson to be derived from the study of the past, is that it holds
no simple lesson, and … the historian’s main responsibility is to prevent
anyone from claiming that it does.” (Martin Duberman)
______12. “History is not only a particular branch of knowledge, but a particular
mode and method of knowledge in other disciplines.” (Lord Acton)
______13. “History enables bewildered bodies of human beings to grasp their
relationship with their past, and helps them chart on general lines their
immediate forward course.” (Allan Nevins)
______14. “Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural
philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend” (Sir
Francis Bacon)
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______15. “A lawyer without history or literature is a mechanic, a mere working
mason; if he possesses some knowledge of these, he may venture to call
himself an architect.” (Walter Scott)
Unit 2. Sources of history
Lesson 1.2. Historical sources and their criticism
Lesson outcomes:
1. Distinguish primary from secondary sources of history
2. Explain some basic considerations in critiquing historical sources
3. Analyze critically selected primary sources of history
4. overview: In this lesson, you will be learning about the sources of history. You
Lesson
will also learn about critiquing documents that may be used in the recounting of history.
READ TO LEARN
Sources of History (Furay C. & Salevouris, M., 2015, The methods and skills of history: A practical
guide, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 171-172)
A primary source (also called an original source) is a piece of evidence written or
created during the period under investigation. Primary sources are the records of
contemporaries who participated in, witnessed, or commented on the events you
are studying. They are the documents and artifacts—letters, reports, diaries,
government records, parish registers, newspapers, business ledgers, photographs,
films, works of art, buildings, and a host of others—that make the writing and study
of history possible. A note of caution: even though an eyewitness or participant
writes down memories many years after the event, the commentary is still a primary
source.
A secondary source is an account of the period in question written after the events
have taken place. Often based on primary sources, secondary sources are the books,
articles, essays, and lectures through which we learn most of the history we know.
Historians take the raw data found in primary sources and transform it into the
written histories that attempt to explain how and why things happened as they did.
Textbooks and similar works represent a special category of “tertiary” source. Most
general survey texts are not based on research into primary sources so much as they reflect
the findings of a wide variety of secondary sources—that is, other history books.
The distinction between primary and secondary sources is not always as clear as
the above definitions imply. For instance, newspapers are definitely primary sources for
the periods in which they were published. But parts of newspapers—especially news
stories and editorials—also share many characteristics with secondary sources.
Very often journalists are not eyewitnesses to the events they describe in their
accounts. Like historians, journalists must interrogate witnesses—in this case
directly—and read pertinent documents in order to construct the story, the “history,”
that appears in the paper.
Another problematic source is the personal memoir or autobiography written by a
politician, military officer, or movie star. Such memoirs often straddle the line that
separates primary from secondary sources. While memoirs and autobiographies are firstperson narrations of events, their authors rarely rely totally on their memories,
as the term “memoir” implies. Authors often “recollect” the events of their public
life with the help of a variety of documents, or with previously published accounts
of friends and colleagues. In this case the memoir writer is functioning like any
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other historian, so the memoir must be considered, at least in part, a secondary
source.
Also confusing is the fact that many sources can be categorized either as primary or
secondary depending on the subject being studied. An example is Charles
Beard’s famous book, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution, published in
1913. Beard’s controversial thesis was that the delegates to the Constitutional
Convention in Philadelphia designed the Constitution to protect their own
personal economic interests. For scholars studying the origins of the Constitution,
Beard’s book is a secondary source, and its central thesis has been long debated.
However, the book would be a primary source for anyone studying the ideas of
Charles Beard himself. That is, if Charles Beard and his ideas were the subject of
the study, [his work] would be a primary source; if the origins of the Constitution were the
subject, Beard’s book would be a secondary source.
Finally, many primary sources have been published in book form. In spite of their
resemblance in form to secondary sources, these materials remain primary.
Remember, the basic question to ask is: When did the materials originate? Not:
When were they published or reprinted? The Declaration of Independence printed
in the back of a textbook is still a primary source for the revolutionary period of
American history, even though the textbook itself is a secondary source.
1. What is the main distinction between primary and secondary sources?
2. What are “tertiary” sources? How do they differ from secondary sources?
3. What makes the categorization of a newspaper as a primary source
problematic?
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 1.2.1: Primary and secondary sources
Below are sources you might consult if you were preparing a paper on the “Japanese
occupation of the Philippines, 1942-1945”. In the spaces provided indicate whether
the sources should be classified “Primary” (“P”) or “Secondary” (“S”). If you think a
source shares both primary and secondary characteristics, write “PS.” The dates in
parentheses indicate the year(s) of publication.
_____1. Liberation: Battle of Manila, A short documentary film produced by the
Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office
and the Presidential Museum and Library, (2015)
_____3. Day of Valor, a personal account of Ricardo G. Hechanova, a WW II P.O.W.
(Prisoner of War) at Camp O’Donell, Tarlac, (2003)
_____4. Philippine stage performances during the Japanese Occupation, by Motoe
Terami-Wada, an article in the journal, Philippine Studies, (1981)
_____5. We remained: Three years behind enemy lines in the Philippine, a personal
account of Col. Russell W. Volkmann, leader of Filipino and American
guerillas in WW II, (1954)
_____6. The 1943 Constitution, Republic of the Philippines, (orig. 1943)
_____7. The Fateful Years, Japan’s Adventure in the Philippines 1941-1945,
Teodoro Agoncillo’s (the author) first-hand account (and supported with
documents) of the three-years Japanese occupation of the Philippines,
(1965)
_____8. World War II Japanese propaganda posters from the Philippines (created
between 1943-1944)
_____9. Copies of guerilla newspapers (e.g. Matang Lawing, Manila Tribune, The
Liberator), (produced during the years 1942, 1943, and 1944)
_____10. The Wainwright Papers (Historical Documents of World War II in the
Philippines, with notes and comments, edited by Celedonio A. Ancheta,
(vol. 1-3, 1980 and vol. 4, 1982)
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_____2. Awaiting the allies’ return: The guerrilla resistance against the Japanese in
the Philippines during World War II, Doctorate’s Dissertation by James A.
Villanueva, (2009)
READ TO LEARN
Criticism of primary sources (Furay C. & Salevouris, M., 2015, The methods and skills of history: A
practical guide, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 174-176)
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“The most challenging task of the historian-detective is to draw testimony from the
records of the past. Here the historian has two aims, neither of them simple: (1) to
determine if a source is authentic and, (2) to establish the meaning and believability
of the contents. The first is accomplished through external criticism; the second
through internal criticism.
“External criticism, in the words of one historian, “authenticates evidence and
establishes texts in the most accurate possible form.” (R. J. Shafer , 1969 as cited by Furay &
Salevouris, 2015) Many historical records lack precise dates or correct attribution (i.e., who
wrote them). Many texts, for various reasons, are inaccurate, and forgeries are not
uncommon. Highly specialized techniques are required to authenticate documents and
artifacts: carbon dating, linguistic analysis, chemical analysis, and the like. Extensive
knowledge of the period in question is also a prerequisite. Beginners rarely have either the
background knowledge or the specialized skills for such criticism.
“Once the authenticity of a document has been established, the historian faces the far
more important challenge of reading and interpreting the contents. This is called internal
criticism, and the techniques involved are much less mysterious. More than anything else,
the process requires a healthy skepticism. We have an innate tendency to believe anything
if it is written down, and the older the document or more ornate the script, the more we
tend to believe it. Therefore, it is important to remind ourselves that our venerable
ancestors could lie, shade the truth, or make a mistake, just as we can.
“Documents do not reveal their secrets easily. You must learn to question the evidence
like an attorney in a courtroom—from different angles, from different perspectives,
relentlessly, suspiciously. Even an account written by an individual of unimpeachable
honesty can be marred by error and half-truth. What sort of questions should you askof
the evidence? Below is a partial list of some of the most important. (R. J. Shafer , 1969 as
cited by Furay & Salevouris, 2015)
1. What exactly does the document mean? Often the literal meaning differs from
the real meaning…Because of this, the historian must become familiar with the
conventions of…correspondence in order to understand the real meaning of the
dispatches. Another problem facing the historian is that words change
meaning from one age to the next. A nineteenth-century reference to a “gay”
person means something quite different from a similar reference in the twentyfirst century. To discover these sorts of differences you have to know as much
as possible about the cultural and political context of the period you are
studying.
2. How well situated was the author to observe or record the events in question?
Here there are a number of subsidiary questions. What was the author’s
physical location? Was he or she a direct eyewitness or did the information
come from someone else? What was the author’s social ability to observe? That is,
might the person’s social or economic position in the society have influenced
how an event or situation was seen? Finally, did the witness have specialized
knowledge that might enhance the credibility of the testimony?
3. When, how, and to whom was the report made? Obviously, the longer the time
between the event and the report, the greater the chance a witness’s memory
will play tricks. In addition, you should ask: What was the intended purpose of
the report?
4. Is there bias that must be accounted for? Personal bias can be the enemy of
truth on two levels. It is, of course, common for a piece of testimony to be
colored by an author’s personal beliefs and convictions. In the same way,
however, your own biases can often blind you to much that the sources reveal.
Knowing as much as possible about the person who left the account will help
you recognize and compensate for the first sort of bias. Knowing yourself is the
only
way to insure that your own biases don’t get in the way of understanding.
6. Do the reported actions seem probable in the light of informed common sense?
We can never get absolutely conclusive answers for many questions in history.
The test of the believability of a given piece of testimony is the inherent
probability of its being true. The issue is not whether a version of events is
possible (just about anything is at least possible) but whether, given all the
evidence, it is probable… Clearly, we must supplement our native intelligence
with solid information.
7. Is there corroborating testimony? No document can stand alone. Even asking
all of the preceding questions can’t insure that you won’t be fooled. You must
seek other witnesses (sources)—what lawyers call corroborating testimony—to
reinforce and substantiate the first account. Just as corroboration is necessary in
the courtroom, it is essential to good history.
1. What is the main difference between external and internal criticism when
examining primary sources?
2. To a historian, why is “evidence” important in his work of reconstructing the past?
3. Why is personal bias a potential “enemy of [historical] truth”?
4. What could make an autobiography questionable as a primary source in terms of
accuracy?
5. What does the phrase, “No document can stand alone” mean?
6. How would you treat two different versions of a historical event (as primary
evidences)?
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5. What specialized information is needed to interpret the source? Many times
you will have to look up names, places, dates, and technical terms to get
the full meaning of a statement.
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 1.2.2: Inference in interpreting evidence
While inference is not an absolute logical deduction or conclusion, it is an essential tool
in interpreting available evidences.
Given below are statements followed by some possible inferences. Read each
statement and indicate ‘V’ for each inference that is ‘Valid’ inference, ‘F’ for a “False”
inference, or ‘ID’ for an inference that cannot be determined to be valid or invalid due
to ‘Insufficient Data’. An inference that is labeled “F” (False/Invalid) has to be justified
by clear evidence in the passage contradicting such inference.
For this exercise, assume that existing evidence corroborates any statement of fact. A
completed example is done for your guidance. [Note: All diary excerpts were lifted from the
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https://philippinediaryproject.com/, a website owned and managed by Manuel L. Quezon III]
1. Last few days of December 1901, A statement of Apolinario Mabini describing
their condition as prisoners at the prison camp in Guam where Mabini was
exiled. [Excerpt from Apolinario Mabini’s The Philippine Revolution, vol.2,
(undated)].
This month predicts a sad future for the prisoners in the prison house.
Ever since we arrived in the island, we have been fed with canned goods and it
was very seldom that we were given fresh meat during the time of Commander Orwig.
We had canned meat, canned salmon and bacon, potatoes, etc. Although in the last few
days we were already satiated, we did not mind it too much since we were still able to
buy from the Commissary sardines, shrimps in cans, ham and other things.
During the time of Captain Shaw, who manifested great concern for us, we were
served salmon and given a supply of fresh meat twice a week. Besides, during this
time, we could ask either though the guy with a shaven head or through our cook who
also had a shaven head to buy for us vegetables, chicken and other goods.
Shaw finally left and Captain McKelvy assumed command. This time, we no
longer had potatoes but beans; we could not buy from the Commissary other than
cigarettes and they stopped giving us fresh meat.
Possible Inferences: (V = Valid; F = False/Invalid; ID = Insufficient Data)
ID
F
V
V
1. Apolinario Mabini and Captain Shaw had a good relationship.
2. Prisoners were denied food during their stay in the prison house.
3. Captain Shaw was mindful of the well-being of the prisoners.
4. Prisoners were fed with available food while in the prison house.
Reason for “F” label. Statement 2 is a false/invalid inference. Contrary to the false
inference, the prisoners were given a variety of foods during their stay in the island.
2. Landings in Mindoro, December 17, 1944, A statement of Felipe Buencamino III
describing the conditions of Manila and the sentiments of the people at a time
when U.S. bombers (planes) landed in Mindoro, island south of Manila.
[Excerpt from Memoirs and Diaries of Felipe Buencamino III, 1960s].
Possible Inferences: (V = Valid; F = False/Invalid; ID = Insufficient Data)
1. Due to the air raids, there was scarcity of food and inflation was setting in.
2. The landings in Mindoro and air raids in Manila proved U.S.’s superiority
against the Japanese defenses.
3. Japanese military officials acknowledged their defeat due to the landings
of U.S. forces in Leyte.
4. Felipe Buencamino III, just like the people in the church, was happy about
the talk that U.S. forces have arrived in Mindoro.
5. Despite the problems on food that they were facing, the people of Manila
were hopeful of liberation with the news that U.S. forces landed in
Mindoro.
Reason for “F” label.
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3. Day Three –Nov. 25, (Wednesday), A statement of Jesus G. Dureza, former
presidential adviser for Mindanao Affairs, describing the details of his
negotiation with the Ampatuans (suspects of the massacre of media
personalities in Maguindanao in 2009). [Excerpt from Jesus G. Dureza’s
Maguindanao Massacre: The Four Critical Days, 2009].
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This morning in church the people forgot about the non-stop three-day raid, talked
about the landings in Mindoro. Many people that were already depressed by the
‘delay’ in Leyte because of the Jap stand in Ormoc coupled by the bad weather, had
happy faces in church this morning…
MacArthur now has the Jap Commander-in-Chief guessing. “Where will Mac land?”
is the question today. Second question: “When will he land?” As far as I am concerned,
I don’t care where, I only care for the ‘when’. I am damned tired of waiting.
Japs probably realize that they can no longer fool the people. You can’t talk of
“Japanese aerial superiority” when Americans skylark without a single Jap
interception. You can’t say there are still no landings when you hear the roar of
cannons.
Japs have not yet admitted Leyte campaign is finished, because they keep saying
that their para-troop units have captured several aerodromes in Leyte.
Meanwhile food prices are going higher and higher. The masses can no longer
afford the food. No rice. No viands. Only vegetables at prices that are fantastic.
The people say: “Never mind all that… as long as they return!”
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4:00 PM – While meeting the families of victims in downtown Marbel, I got a call
from the father, Gov Andal telling me that he would turnover to me Datu Unsay but
requested that the deadline be moved from 5pm today to 10 AM, the following day. I
immediately told him I could not guarantee things if the deadline was moved. He said
the Ampatuan clan would meet that evening and discuss things and bid goodbye to
Datu Unsay. I told him I would get back to him by phone. I made calls and informed
some of my colleagues (with whom I had been consulting from the beginning) of the
request.
There were objections. Understandable reservations: what if the extension was a
ruse to escape that evening? What were the guarantees that he would voluntarily
surrender during the new deadline? People were becoming outraged not only on the
crime but on the perceived slowness of government, so why waste more time? The
forces were ready to strike, so why delay?
But I also reasoned back: How sure are we that we would get Datu Unsay in the
operations? (From yesterday’s visit to the Ampatuans, I was certain that he was not
there in the immediate vicinity but came from somewhere far.) An assault would
surely cost lives knowing the armaments, the culture and the situation. People were
crying for swift action but I would not agree to precipitate action. I also said I believed
Gov Andal was sincere when he told me he would bring out his son when needed. To
wrap up my point, I said: I would take full responsibility for whatever outcome.
Possible Inferences: (V = Valid; F = False/Invalid; ID = Insufficient Data)
1. Governor Andal and Jesus Dureza mutually trusted each other’s
statements.
2. Some people were angry about the massacre and were impatient about
the alleged inaction of the government to capture the culprit.
3. Jesus Dureza’s colleagues fully believed in Gov Andal’s sincerity to turn
over his (Andal’s) son Datu Unsay to the authorities.
4. Jesus Dureza was doubtful that using military force would succeed in
capturing Datu Unsay.
5. Amidst the disagreements regarding Datu Unsay’s capture, Unsay
voluntarily surrendered.
Reason for “F” label. ______________________________________________________
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Module 2: People of the Philippines
Unit 3. Who are the Filipinos?
Lesson 2.1. The “first” people of the Philippines
Lesson outcomes:
1. Identify the evidences of the existence of prehistoric people in the
Philippines
2. Infer about the identity and life of prehistoric people based on remains and
artifacts
Lesson overview: Where did we come from? This is one question that has baffled
humans and continues to be an object of debates among scholars. In this lesson, you
will read and learn about anthropological evidences establishing the existence of
humans in the Philippines thousands of years ago.
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709 years ago. “[In Rizal, Kalinga], an almost-complete disarticulated skeleton of
[Rhinoceros] philippinensis was found embedded in the basal sediments… lying across
the base of an erosional channel surface that cuts down vertically into sandy [area].
This channel was filled with an up to 3.25-m thick mudflow, which covered the bones,
along with an in situ tektite as well as 57 stone tools and sparse fossils of other
animals… The 57 stone artefacts account for six cores, 49 flakes and two possible
hammer stones… [Dating analysis on] the tooth [of the rhinoceros] yielded an age of
709±68 thousand years… Thirteen of the excavated rhinoceros bones, all of which in
life had a thin cover of soft tissue (that is, the ribs and metacarpals), display cut marks.
Both rhinoceros humeri have similar percussion marks on the anterior surface for the
right humerus and on the posterior surface for the left humerus, and both were
presumably made with the intention to smash the bones and gain access to the
marrow…”(Ingico, et al., 2018)
1. What observation indicates that the rhinoceros philippinensis was possibly
butchered for food by the early humans who inhabited Rizal, Kalinga?
66.7 thousand years ago. “Hominin movement into Island Southeast Asia has always
been problematic due to the lack of well-dated human remains. The humid tropical
environment of Island Southeast Asia contributes to the problems of bone
preservation…Our recent excavations (2007) in Callao Cave, [Cagayan Valley] have
produced what is probably one of the earliest hominin fossils east of Wallace’s Line [a
transitional zone between Asia and Australia], from the island of Luzon, northern
Philippines…The 2007 excavations started at 130 cm below surface, the level at which
the 2003 excavation had ended… [In a layer 270-295 cm below surface], the team
encountered cemented sediment containing a relatively dense concentration of animal
bone. In this layer, at a depth of 275 cm below the cave surface, we found the human
Readings in Philippine History
READ TO LEARN
third metatarsal (MT3) bone…[Based on dating analysis], we regard the age estimate
of 66.7±1 thousand years, derived from the weighted mean of all data points, as a
minimum age estimate for the MT3.” (Mijares, et al., 2010)
1. Why was it challenging for anthropologists to determine the age of human remains
in Island Southeast Asia?
50 thousand years ago. “Continued excavations in Callao Cave that originally yielded
the hominin third metatarsal have produced another twelve hominin elements from
the same stratigraphic layer: seven postcanine maxillary teeth, two manual phalanges
[finger bones], two pedal phalanges [toe bones] and a femoral shaft [thighbone]. [The
postcanine maxillary teeth were dated] to [a] minimum of 50 thousand years… On the
basis of the unique mosaic of primitive (that is, Australopithecus-like) and derived (that
is, Homo sapiens-like) morphological [physical structural] features observed on these
specimens, we assign them to a new species, Homo Luzonensis.”(Detroit, et al., 2019)
Readings in Philippine History
1. What was the primary basis of the anthropologists in identifying the set of human
bones they uncovered as a new human species?
30-47 thousand years ago. “Securely identified human fossils discoveries from the
Tabon Cave [in 1962] consist of two mandibular [lower jaw] fragments and one frontal
bone… A series of new human remains has been recovered during the [year] 2000.
[T]welve fossils had been attributed to Homo sapiens. After an exhaustive study, we
maintain the human determination for eleven specimens, excluding a small fragment
of a long bone… New Uranium-series direct absolute dating have been carried out on
two human fossils recovered from the Tabon cave: the formerly discovered
mandibular fragment and the newly found tibia diaphysis [shin bone]. The results
[are]: Right mandibular fragment [31,000 +8,000/–7,000 years ago]; Tibia fragment
[47,000 +11,000/–10,000].”(Detroit, et al., 2004)
1. Based on the age assigned to each of the bones found in Tabon Cave, what does
the addition to or subtraction from (e.g. +8,000 or –7,000) the number of years
mean?
22 to 24 thousand years ago. “During the initial excavations of Tabon Cave [in] June
and July, 1962, the scattered fossil bones of at least three individuals were excavated,
including a large fragment of a frontal bone with the brows and portions of the nasal
bones. These fossil bones were recovered towards the rear of the cave along the left
wall… Subsequent excavations in the same area now strongly suggest that the fossil
human bones were associated with [a flake assemblage (set of stone tools)]. The
available data would suggest that Tabon Man may be dated from 22,000 to 24,000
years ago. But, only further excavations in the cave and chemical analysis of human
and animal bones from disturbed and undisturbed levels in the cave will define the
exact age of the human fossils… The fossil bones are those of Homo sapiens.”(Fox, 1970)
1. By associating the fossil bones with the set of stone tools uncovered, how was Fox
able to identify the fossil bones as Homo sapiens?
16,500 years ago. “In order to get a qualitative estimate of the uranium content of the
fossils, the Tabon frontal and the left mandibular fragment [found in 1962] were
measured by means of non-destructive gamma-ray spectrometry. The mass of the
fossils and the relatively low uranium content (about 2 parts per million or [milligrams
per liter]) prevented any attempt at direct dating. However, the detection of a small
amount of uranium allowed the use of alpha-ray spectrometry and the calculation of
uranium and thorium ratio. Following the early-uranium-uptake hypothesis, this ratio
would imply an age of 16,500± 2,000 BP [Before Present] for the fossil.”(Dizon, et al.,
2002)
4,000 years ago. “Since 1971, more than 30 Neolithic and Iron Age shell [mounds] have
been found in the lower Cagayan Valley, forming the densest pattern of prehistoric
settlement in the Philippines. Some of these sites have yielded red-slipped plain ware
pottery derived from Middle Neolithic Taiwan at about 2000 BC, with very similar rim
and vessel forms. Other Cagayan artifacts, such as baked-clay pendants, spindle
whorls, Taiwan jade objects, and bark cloth beaters also point to origins in Taiwan.
Our excavation at Magapit in 2015 recovered carbonized rice grains and banana
[fossilized tissue], dated directly at least as early as 1000 BC. More recent excavations
in 2016 at Nagsabaran recovered more carbonized rice grains from the late Neolithic
layer. Another significant discovery was a clear layer at the base of the site with
abundant charcoal and many pieces of low-fired clay… Date for the charcoal was 3760
± 30 years BP or 2287–2125 BC. This result strengthens the conclusion, based on
pottery styles and other artifacts, that the Neolithic settlement of the northern
Philippines about 4000 years ago came from an eastern Taiwan source and introduced
rice cultivation and domesticated pigs.”(Hung, 2016)
1. What do the artifacts found in Cagayan Valley reveal about the connection of the
early people of Northern Philippines with Taiwan?
3,900-1,690 years ago. “In 2003, I undertook the excavation of three caves in the Callao
Limestone Formation, in Peñablanca. These are Callao, Eme and Dalan Serkot. Dalan
Serkot ceramic horizon contained earthenware sherds (mixed red-slipped, black and
brown), human teeth and phalanges, human skull fragments and a few stone flakes.
Some black sherds had incised designs on their rims and carinations. Land snail shells,
deer and pig teeth were also recovered. This layer has [been dated 3,900- 3,690 BP].
Callao Cave [ceramic layer] contains andesite and chert flake tools; shell beads; clay
lingling-o earrings; and brown, red-slipped and black earthenware sherds. Faunal
remains include deer teeth, wild boar tusks and other pig teeth, bat bones, and riverine
and land snail shells. This layer is dated [3,650-3470 BP]. Eme Cave ceramic horizon
contains chert, andesite and basalt flakes, lithic debris, land snails and riverine shells,
and animal bones. The sherds are mostly black in finish, but there is also some plain
brown pottery. A large number of probably mineralized seeds were identified.
Charred pieces of nut, and wood fragments were also identified. This layer [is dated
2,010-1,690 BP].”(Mijares, 2006)
Readings in Philippine History
1. Considering the ages of the Tabon Cave fossil bones dated by Fox, Detroit, et al.,
and Dizon, et al., what does the variation of ages of the bones suggest about the
cave’s utilization?
1. If you were Mijares who found a combination of human, animal, and material (tools
and clay jars) remains and artifacts in a single cave, which are dated about the
same age, what could you initially infer about the relationship of these finds?
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“The
human
right
third
metatarsal
recovered
from
Callao Cave” (not to scale)
Source: Detroit, et al., 2013,
"Small Size" in the Philippine
Human Fossil Record…, Human
Biology, 85(1), Art. 3, 45-65.
“Postcanine maxillary tooth” (not
to scale)
Source: Détroit, F., et al. (2019).
A new species of Homo from the
Late Pleistocene of the
Philippines. Nature, 568, 181–
186.
“The human frontal bone recovered from
Tabon Cave” (scaled down)
Source: Detroit, et al., 2013, "Small Size" in
the Philippine Human Fossil Record…,
Human Biology, 85(1), Art. 3, 45-65.
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2. Give the fossil a human face! Based on the descriptions of the human fossils found
and on the images of these fossils, what could our ancestor look like? Use your
imagination and draw a complete image depicting the physical features of our earliest
Homo sapien ancestors?
Lesson 2.2. What makes you a Filipino?
Lesson outcomes:
1. Identify common traits of Filipinos
2. Write a personal essay about your identity as a Filipino
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you are going to read short stories that highlight some
Filipino traits. As you are reading, reflect on the observable attitudes that we Filipinos
are noted for. Are these true of you as a Filipino? Do these make you proud?
Readings in Philippine History
READ TO LEARN
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“When we first arrived we stayed with a fellow blogger friend whom until this trip we
had never met… We were so surprised and amazed that a family would invite foreigners
they never met into their home.
“Once we arrived at their home we were greeted with a home cooked meal. Again, we
were strangers that were just welcomed into this family’s home without a question just
open and loving arms.
“Our entire time there we felt like a part of the family and completely welcome in their
home. We thought that this experience was probably just because of our friend but we
were wrong. Time after time on our trip we learned that Filipinos are some of the most
welcoming and gracious people we have had the pleasure of meeting on our travels.
“While eating out around the city, it didn’t matter where we were. Whether it was fine
dining or a two-dollar dish. We got supreme service with a smile. Like most of Asia, the
Philippines doesn’t have a tipping culture, so people aren’t just working for a tip here.
They are just doing their job and making sure you are having a pleasant experience in
their home country. I wish this was true in the [S]tates.” (Scott (aka Bobo) & Megan (aka
Chichi), 2019, How the hospitality in the Philippines stole our hearts, par. 3, 5-7)
1. What particular acts of hospitality did Scott and Megan experience in the
Philippines?
“I’m wondering when root beer floats will make their big comeback. I, like everyone
else, just want a little bit of junk sometimes. And when I mean junk, I mean the American
kind.
“I think my secret love of processed foods comes from way back. Mcdonald’s or
Jollibee was where people spent their birthdays, and I sure as heck ate potato chips for an
after school snack. Everyone’s had a little bit of this culture mixed into their childhood,
and it seems as if it runs through our blood. Years later on, we’ve still got American fast
food chains everywhere, and have even more coming in. We’re fixated on it, and even
some of our homegrown concepts are made with this in mind. While we have plenty of
restaurants and cuisines that share the spotlight, the greasy side of American comfort food
still seems to win over our hearts every time. So it got me thinking—why is it that we’re so
attached to this stuff?
“American junk food was and is a novelty…We loved it so much, that we even started
adopting and adapting beloved dishes into the Filipino culinary repertoire, turning them
into staples: for example, American spaghetti turned into a Filipino one, with a sweeter
sauce and chopped-up hotdogs, fried chicken and hamburgers are so ubiquitous that
they’ve even become common and standard street food, and corned beef with rice is
almost as beloved as our cured tapa. Heck, some of our most popular fast food chains offer
mainly Western-inspired menus.” (Cortez, 2019, Why is American junk food so popular in the
Philippines?, par. 1-2, 4)
“My journey as an OFW is a story shared by all others like myself because it is a
story of dreams—dreams of a better life for one’s family, to have one’s own house, to
give one’s children the best education, to help one’s siblings complete a college education,
to provide the best medical treatment to ailing family members, and ultimately to ensure a
comfortable life after one retires and grows old.
“Unseen behind our loved ones’ big smiles every time they receive money and
balikbayan boxes are our great sacrifices, our sleepless nights, and our being deprived of
the true essence of life. Who does not want to be with loved ones during the best and
worst of times?” (Parica, 2014, An OFW’s journey home, par. 2 & 5)
“Like many other Filipinos working overseas, my mother sent the majority of her pay
back to her family. Her parents needed her support as they grew older and as my
grandfather became unable to work as much. Some of her siblings fell into financial hard
times. While working abroad separated my mom from her family for years, it allowed
them to leave a life of poverty and gain a better, more stable life.
“I was her first child and the start of her own little family. But about four weeks after
giving birth, per her work contract, she had to return to Saudi Arabia… I was left in the
care of my mom’s parents and one of her brothers. They raised me as if I were their own…
They then left me in the care of one of my mom’s sisters and her husband. I would grow so
close to them that I’d call them “Mommy” and “Daddy”, rather than the usual Tita
meaning aunt or Tito meaning uncle. I’d see their children, who were technically my
cousins, as my brother and sister.” (Gabriel, 2019, My mother's journey as an overseas
Filipino worker, par. 15, 17-19)
1. Why would Filipinos work abroad and bear the burden of leaving their families
behind?
2. Would you also sacrifice your personal comforts (just like OFWs) for the sake of your
family? Why?
“Is it just me, or is there something iffy with the way respect and politeness have
evolved in the Philippines? Respect and politeness are shown through both speech and
actions.
“When I was younger, one po/opo and ho/oho…at the end of the entire sentence was
enough. Nowadays, I hear these words…after every other word… My…friends…perceive
excessive use of it as fake and insincere… A more recent development, I believe, is the
peppering of sentences with “Sir” and “Ma’am”, especially in the corporate world and
service industry.
“I’ve worked with more open-minded Filipino and foreigner bosses, who insisted I
drop the ‘sir’ or ‘ma’am’. It was liberating. I believe respect and politeness is conveyed
through the overall impression, which is both speech and deed.
“As children, Filipinos are expected to do all the biddings of their parents without
question. In the worst cases, they are treated as property; talking back and asking
questions that they don’t want to answer will result in the children being called
‘ungrateful’ or ‘smart-alecky’… And when these children grow up, you can’t blame them
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1. Are you also fond of the foods mentioned in the article? Why?
2. What does showing preference for foreign things like American foods over our own
local cuisine reflect about our mentality?
for doing it to their own juniors. (FallenAngel, 2016, What has become of respect in Filipino
society? par. 1, 5-6, 11, 18)
Readings in Philippine History
1. Do you share similar opinion with the author regarding the way respect for an elder
is now being observed? Elaborate your idea.
2. In what other ways have respect for elders changed nowadays? Cite an example.
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 2.2.1: What makes me a Filipino?
Write a short personal essay (300-400 words) expressing your thoughts about being a
Filipino. Use additional sheet as needed.
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Module 3. Pre - and 16th Century Philippines
Unit 4. Archaeological evidences of prehistoric Philippines
Lesson 3.1. Stone Ages in the Philippines
Lesson outcomes:
1. Identify the material culture of Stone Age Philippines
2. Infer about the life of Stone and Metal Age Philippines
3. Conduct a simple archaeological activity based on locally available artifacts
Lesson overview: This lesson covers the periods called Paleolithic (Old Stone), Neolithic
(New Stone), and Metal Age Philippines. This section is a continuation of your lesson
about the appearance of the earliest people in our country, with emphasis on the
prehistoric culture.
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READ TO LEARN
________________________________________________________________________________
“Prehistory. The story of man in the Philippine islands that took place before writing
was used to record events is about 1500 times longer than the historic period. [Written]
history of the Philippines thus far can only be pushed back to...the 10th century when
places in the islands were first recognized in a copper plate inscription accidentally found
in Laguna.“ (Peralta, J.T., n.d., Glances: Prehistory of the Philippines, Prehistory, par. 1)
Cortical flake
on chert
Possible hammerstone
on dacite
Double-backed
flake on flint
Siret kombewa
flake on jasper
“Lithic artefacts from Kalinga” (Source: Ingicco, T., van den Bergh, G.D., Jago-on, C. et
al., (2018), Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years
ago, Nature, 557, 233–237.)
The Paleolithic Culture. “Several [Philippines] islands have provided stone implements
that were attributed to Paleolithic cultures. The first discoveries were made in the Cagayan
Valley, northern Luzon. During the 1950s…at Espinosa Ranch in Cagayan Valley, a set of
modified pebbles and fragments of quartzite and sandstone on the surface [were
found]…Over a decade later…, sixty-eight sites [were studied] in the region of KalingaApayao (west of the Cagayan Valley) [and] twenty-one were identified as knapping
workshops or butchering sites. [These sites] resulted in a collection of one hundred stone
tools and animal fossils… [More pebbles and flakes were found] in 1976 and [in] 1980…
[Comparing with known artifacts in Southeast Asia], Von Koenigswald, [an
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anthropologist], associated the pebbles with the Middle Pleistocene faunal remains…and
concluded they were produced by Homo erectus around 400,000 to 500,000 BP,
contemporaneous with the finds from Java and Choukoutien in China.” (Patole-Edoumba,
Pawlik, and Mijares, 2012, p. 223)
“[T]he results of recent excavations at Kalinga in the Cagayan Valley of northern
Luzon in the Philippines have yielded 57 stone tools associated with an almost-complete
disarticulated skeleton of Rhinoceros philippinensis, which shows clear signs of butchery,
together with other fossil fauna remains attributed to stegodon, Philippine brown deer,
freshwater turtle and monitor lizard. All finds originate from a clay-rich bone bed that was
dated to between 777 and 631 thousand years…” (Ingico, et al., 2018, p. 233)
“Tabon Cave. Tabon Cave is located at Lipuun Point on the southwestern coast of
Palawan. It is currently the most important site for understanding the peopling of the
Philippines. Excavations… in 1962, 1965 and in 2000 identified two levels of occupancy
during the Pleistocene. Human fragments, faunal remains and over 3800 artefacts were
discovered…Recent studies of [the Tabon human] fossils reveal that two different modern
humans lived at the same time…Chert (probably red jasper) has been used for more than
80% of the artefacts but also andesite occurs as raw material. [Materials found in 2000 and
2001 were] dated 9,500 years B.P…Several stone tools discovered in 2001 showed that they
were used for the manufacturing of wooden implements. (Patole-Edoumba, et al., 2012, p.
217-221)
“The [Tabon] cave was named Tabon after the large-footed bird that lays eggs in huge
holes it digs into cave floors, many of which have been found in the cave. The mouth is
about 33 meters above the sea level… Tabon Cave was populated by peoples earlier than
Tabon Man since stone tools were there again to prove this. The deepest soil deposit of the
cave was dated to approximately 50,000 years old, and the youngest to about 10,000 years.
This shows that the cave was used continuously for about 40,000 years by peoples that
used the same kind of tools… In the Tabon Caves, the archeological remains tend to show
that the early peoples here were catching more of small animals, bats and birds that live in
the cave itself.” (Peralta, J.T., n.d., Glances:/The Tabon caves…, par. 2-3)
Other Old Stone Age Sites. [N]ear the city of Tuguegarao, [Cagayan] is the Musang
Cave, [a home of artefacts] older than 12,000 years. [D]uring the 1970s, a lithic assemblage
associated with a shell midden, composed mainly of freshwater snails from the river and
animal bones (wild pigs, deer and fish) [were found]. [T]he site had been used as a
temporary settlement by hunter-gatherers approximately 10,500 years ago… [Their] tools
were mostly manufactured from andesite [and] chert…Other [Lower Palaeolithic] stone
tools… come from the islands of Palawan and Mindanao. In Palawan, a dolomite handaxe
was collected in a secondary deposit of Ile Cave, in El Nido. On the northern coast of
Mindanao in Cagayan de Oro, five pebble tools [were recovered] at the open site of
Huluga. But all these assemblages are surface finds and without direct dating the age
remains uncertain.” (Patole-Edoumba, et al., 2012, p. 221, 223)
“The proliferation of human occupation during the Late Pleistocene in different parts
of the Philippines seems not to have significantly affected the manufacturing system of
stone tools…[T]he lithic production system continued during the Holocene [the last 11,700
years of the Earth's history]… The same raw materials and the same simple hardhammer
percussion technique continued even after the introduction of pottery in the Cagayan
Valley about 3500 years ago. At Eme Cave, flake tools mostly made from andesite and
basalt materials were found associated with earthenware pottery at around 1900 BP.”
((Patole-Edoumba, et al., 2012, p. 227, 228)
1. Why is the culture of the Paleolithic people called as such?
2. Except for Tabon Cave and Callao Cave, what could explain the absence of human
remains in the other Paleolithic archaeological sites where artifacts have been
found?
3. Basing from the artifacts discovered in several sites, what can you infer about the
life ways of the Paleolithic people?
4. Of what importance were caves for the Paleolithic people?
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New Stone and Metal Age. “The Guri Cave [is a] post-Pleistocene habitation site with
Upper Palaeolithic flake assemblages and a [Neolithic] technology… [This] is perhaps the
most attractive cave on Lipuun Point, being composed of numerous chambers and
winding passageways at various levels... The exploratory excavations in Guri Cave have
revealed two major periods during which the cave was utilized by man: (1) occupation of
the main entranceway during the early post-Pleistocene period [dated about] 5000 B.C. to
about 2000 B.C.; (2) a jar burial assemblage which, as based upon the present data, began
during the Early Metal Age, about 300 to 500 B.C., plus others of a later date.” (Fox, 1970, p.
49)
“Flake tools from Guri
Cave” Source: Fox, R.B.
(1970). The Tabon
Caves. Manila:
Monograph of the
National Museum, No.
1, p.7”
“This shelf-like, rocky chamber [of the Guri Cave] was literally filled with jars, jarcovers, and smaller earthenware vessels which had collapsed in place. The contents of the
collapsed jars were scattered on the surface and in the fissures between rocks.” (Fox, 1970,
p. 51)
“Restored vessel
from Ngipe't Duldug
Cave”
Source: Fox, R.B.
(1970). The Tabon
Caves. Manila:
Monograph of the
National Museum,
No. 1, p. 108.
“Burial Jar with Cover
Hidden on Shelf in
Guri Cave” [Right]
Source: Fox, R.B.
(1970). The Tabon
Caves. Manila:
Monograph of the
National Museum, No.
1, p. 51.
“[In the Ngipe’t Duldug Cave], [s]herds of at least eight vessels were recovered,
including four small burial jars with a plain, smoothed surface. One jar has a relatively
straight neck and an ellipsoid shaped body. (See above) (Fox, 1970, p. 105)
“Manunggul Cave. The first view of Chamber A was as dramatic as its setting;
numerous large jars and covers, smaller vessels, skulls and portions of painted human
bones scattered over the surface of the cave. Many of the vessels were either perfect, in
nearly perfect condition, or had merely collapsed in their original positions. Striking too
was the large number of decorated and painted vessels…The range of forms and designs
is remarkable and to the writer, at least, presents a clear example of a funerary pottery; that is,
vessels which for the most part were potted specifically for burial and ritual purposes. The
burial jar with a cover featuring a ship-of-the-dead (See below) is perhaps unrivalled in
Southeast Asia; the work of an artist and master potter.” (Fox, 1970, pp. 109, 112)
“The excavations in Duyong and Uyaw Caves, as well as others, have yielded
a unique assemblage of cultural materials which include the early metals-bronze,
copper, gold-in limited quantities in association with many ornaments of jade
and distinctive jade ear-pendants, ancient glass beads, and a developed pottery
complex associated with jar burial… The brief period when bronze and copper
first appeared (and ‘drift’ iron may have appeared together with these metals)
did not represent a major phase of technological development in the Philippines,
although the period was accompanied by new and extensive movements of
people into Palawan and the Philippines. Objects of prehistoric bronze and
copper are extremely rare in Philippine sites. (Fox, 1970, p. 121-122)
“Nephrite (Jade) ornaments of the Early Metal Age”
Source: Fox, R.B. (1970). The Tabon Caves. Manila:
Monograph of the National Museum, No. 1, p. 125.
1. Why is the culture of the Neolithic people called as such?
2. What can you infer about the religious belief of the Neolithic people as evidenced by
burial jars?
3. What might explain the rarity of metals (bronze, copper, and iron) during the late
Neolithic and “metal age” periods?
4. What can you infer about the life ways of the Neolithic and Metal Age people in
relation to the widespread use of jars or pots, ornamental objects, and polished
stone tools?
Readings in Philippine History
“A superb example of a Late Neolithic burial jar from
Manunggul Cave, Lipuun Point, Palawan. The jar cover
represents souls sailing to the afterworld in a death
boat. (Height, 66.5 cm; diameter at greatest width,
51.5 cm)” Source: Fox, R.B. (1970). The Tabon Caves.
Manila: Monograph of the National Museum, No. 1,
inside front cover, p. 114.
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 3.1.1: Thinking like an archaeologist
One thing that is common between historians and archaeologists is that they decode
and attempt to reconstruct the past. In this activity, you will locate or find an artifact
(man-made object of historical or cultural value such as tool, weapon, jewelry, etc.),
something that might be “old” (perhaps, 50 years old or more!). Using the guide
questions provided, describe in full detail the artifact and by interviewing some
knowledgeable (older) people in your community, write your archaeological report.
[These artifacts may be found in your home, in the neighborhood, or in a very near local
museum]
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Draw an image of the artifact below. Provide at least two “views” (front, back, top,
bottom) of the artifact.
1. What is the object?
2. What is it made of?
3. What is its measurement? (size, weight, diameter, width, height, etc.)
4. What interesting markings do you see (if any)?
5. What is its overall physical condition?
6. Other details that you have noticed
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Based on an interview with knowledgeable people (NOTE: Do not search the internet
or any book) within the community, write a short account about your artifact. (Hints:
What was its function? Who used it? Who made it? Where did it come from? What
could it tell you about the life [or culture] of those who used it?) Use additional
papers as needed.
Unit 5. Early Philippine culture
Lesson 3.2. Glimpse of pre-16th century Philippines
Lesson outcomes:
1. Draw inferences about the pre-16th century society in the Philippines
2. Analyze interpretations of an archaeological evidence of 10th century
Philippines
3. Analyze the content of a 13th century narrative about pre-Hispanic Filipinos
Lesson overview: Aspects of the life of pre-16th century “Filipinos” could be glimpsed
from Chinese writings and archaeological finds. In this lesson, you will take a look at an
archaeological artifact that depicts life in the pre-16th century.
READ TO LEARN
Readings in Philippine History
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The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (Postma, 1992, p. 188)
“In January 1990, a crumpled, blackened, thin piece of metal was offered for sale to the
National Museum in Manila,… The attractive aspect of this plate of copper (as laboratory
analysis later established) was the fact that this copper sheet, measuring about, 20 x 20 cm.,
was fully covered on one side with an inscription in ten lines of finely written characters.
“When I saw the inscription on the copper-plate I immediately thought that this was
from Indonesia, and had nothing to do with the Philippines. Because nothing similar had
ever been found in the Philippines before... Because the copper-plate had been discovered
along the Lake of Laguna east of Manila, I decided to call it the Laguna Copper-Plate
Inscription or LCI for short…
“The script appeared to me rather similar to the standard form of the Early Kawi Script
used around the tenth century A.D… like the OJ [Old Javanese] Randoesari inscription of
Central Java, dated 905 A.D...
“Regarding the language of the LCI, there are a number of technical Sanskrit words,
common to this type of inscription, and some OJ words expressing ceremonious forms of
address, but the main language of the LCI is clearly Old-Malay (henceforth OM),
containing several words that are identical or closely related to the Old-Tagalog language
(henceforth OT) of the Philippines…
“A number of names, or possible names, of persons and/or places are mentioned in
the LCI, and close attention should be paid to them, because they furnish vital clues
regarding the political and topographic background of the LCI.” (Postma, A., 1992, pp.
183-184, 190, 192)
“Line 1: swasti shaka warshatita 822 waisakha masa ding jyotisha. chaturthi krishnapaksha
“Line 2: mawara sana tatkala dayang angkatan lawan dengannya sanak barngaran si
bukah
“Line 3: anakda dang hwan namwaran di bari waradana wi shuddhapat(t)ra ulih sang
pamegat senapati di tundu“Line 4: n barja(di) dang hwan nayaka tuhan pailah jayadewa. di krama dang hwan
namwaran dengan dang kaya“Line 5: stha shuddha nu di parlappas hutangda wale(da)nda kati 1 suwarna 8 di hadapan
dang hwan nayaka tuhan pu“Line 6: liran ka sumuran. dang hwan nayaka tuhan pailah barjadi ganashakti. dang hwan
nayaka tu“Line 7: han binwangan barjadi bishruta tathapi sadanda sanak kaparawis ulih sang
pamegat de“Line 8: wata [ba]rjadi sang pamegat medang dari bhaktinda di parhulun sang pamegat.
ya makanya sadanya anak
“Line 9: chuchu dang hwan namwaran shuddha ya kaparawis di hutangda dang hwan
namwaran di sang pamegat dewata. ini gerang
“Line 10: syat syapanta ha pashchat ding ari kamudyan ada gerang urang barujara welung
lappas hutangda dang hwa ...” (Santos, 1996, Transcription of the LCI, par. 3-12)
1. Why did Postma initially think that the LCI originated from Indonesia?
2. Based on the terminologies used, what languages seemed to compose the LCI
(according to Postma)?
3. What could explain the use of Malay language in 10th century Philippines?
English translation of the LCI. “(1) Hail! In the Saka-year 822; the month of March-April;
according to the astronomer: the fourth day of the dark half of the moon; on (2) Monday.
At that time, Lady Angkatan together with her relative, Bukah by name, (3) the child of
His Honor Namwran, was given, as a special favor, a document of full acquittal, by the
Chief and Commander of Tundun (4) representing the Leader of Pailah, Jayadewah. This
means that His Honor Namwran, through the Honorable Scribe (5) was totally cleared of a
salary-related debt of 1 kati and 8 suwarna: in the presence of His Honor the Leader of
Puliran, (6) Kasumuran; His Honor the Leader of Pailah, representing Ganasakti; (and) His
Honor the Leader (7) of Binwangan, representing Bisruta. And, with his whole family, on
orders of the Chief of Dewata, representing the Chief of Mdang, because of his loyalty as a
subject (slave?)' of the Chief, therefore all the descendants (9) of his Honor Namwran have
been cleared of the whole debt that His Honor owed the Chief of Dewata. This (document)
is (issued) in case (10) there is someone, whosoever, some time in the future, who will state
that the debt is not yet acquitted of His Honor. . .” (Postma, 1996, p. 187)
Notes on Place Names: Tundun (Tondo, Manila today); Pailah (Paila, village in
Norzagaray, Bulacan today); Puliran (Pulilan, Bulacan today); Binwangan (same name,
village in Obando, Bulacan today); Mdang (Medang, possibly a place in Indonesia);
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so-
Dewata (Diwata, possibly a place near Butuan, Agusan del Norte today) (Postma , 1992;
Santos, 1996)
Note on kati and suwarna: “One kati is about 617.6 grams, and one suwarna (the 16th part
of a kati is about 38.6 grams. The total weight of gold that had to be paid was 1.5 kati, or
approximately 926.4 grams.” (Postma, 1992, p. 187, footnote)
1. Based on the titles provided, what was the status of the personalities present
during the giving of the “special favor”?
2. What is the primary content of this “document of full acquittal”?
3. What can you infer about the social hierarchy of the early Filipinos based on the
LCI?
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READ TO LEARN
In this section, you will examine another English translation of the LCI provided by
Hector Santos, an engineer and a history buff who is “very interested in writing systems
that were used in the Philippines during ancient times” (Santos, n.d. Hector Santos, par.
3, http://www.bibingka.baybayin.com/). Below is a free translation of the LCI.
Phrase 1: Greetings! Shaka year 822, month of Waisakha, according to the stars.
Phrase 2: On the fourth day of the waning moon, Monday, Lady Angkatan and her
brother Bukah, children of the Honorable Namwaran, were given a gift of their wish, this
document of full forgiveness by the Commander-in-Chief of Tundun, represented by the
Honorable Lord Minister of Pailah, Jayadewa.
Phrase 3: By this order through the scribe, the Honorable Namwaran is cleared and
forgiven of his debt and his arrears of 1 kati and 8 suwarnas as witnessed by the
Honorable Lord Minister of Puliran, Ka Sumuran.
Phrase 4: The Honorable Lord Minister of Pailah was the source of authority.
Phrase 5: On account of Namwaran's devotion as a subject of the chief, the Honorable
Lord Minister of Binwangan, who is known in many places, identified all of Namwaran's
living relatives who were taken by the Chief of Dewata, represented by the Chief of
Medang.
Phrase 6: As a consequence, all living descendants of the Honorable Namwaran are also
cleared of all debts that the Honorable Namwaran owed the Chief of Dewata.
Phrase 7: This document is issued in case there is someone in the future who will allege
that the debt has not been cleared yet by the Honorable …
________________________________________________________________________________
List the important differences in the translation of the LCI by both scholars. The first
one is done for you.
Line
Postma’s translation
Santos’s translation
Phrase
1
Hail, Saka, March-April, astronomer,
dark half of the moon
Greetings, Shaka, Waisakha, stars,
waning moon
1, 2
2, 3,
4
2
4, 5,
3
6, 7
4, 5
7, 8,
9
6
9, 10
7
1. What is/are the most important difference/s between Postma’s and Santos’s
translations of the LCI?
2. Is/are such difference/s important to the reader’s understanding of the facts?
Why?
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6
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 3.2.1: Ma-yi in the 13th century
Below are translated excerpts from Chao Ju-Kua’s (ca. 1280), “Description of the
Philippines,” published in the Periódico Hebdomadario Escolar, 1901. Chao Ju-Kua
was a Chinese official and geographer (Blair and Robertson, 1906).
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Read each statement that follows each excerpt and indicate ‘V’ for each inference that
is ‘Valid’ inference, ‘F’ for a “False” inference, or ‘ID’ for an inference that cannot be
determined to be valid or invalid due to ‘Insufficient Data’. An inference that is labeled
“F” (False/Invalid) has to be justified by clear evidence in the passage contradicting
such inference.
“The country Ma-yi [Mindoro (Scott, 1984)] is located north of Poni [Borneo]. About
one thousand families inhabit the shores of a river which has many windings. The natives
dress in linen, wearing clothes that look like sheets; or they cover their bodies with sarongs
[or loin-cloth (Scott, 1984)]. In the thick woods are scattered copper statues of Buddha, but
no one can tell the origin of those statues. Pirates seldom visit those districts. When
[Chinese] merchantmen arrive at that port they cast anchor at a place [called] the place of
Mandarins. That place serves them as a market, or site where the products of their
countries are exchanged. When a vessel has entered into the port, (its captain) offers
presents consisting of white parasols and umbrellas which serve them for daily use. The
traders are obliged to observe these civilities in order to be able to count on the favor of
those gentlemen.” (p. 186)
Possible Inferences: (V = Valid; F = False/Invalid; ID = Insufficient Data)
1. The natives of Ma-yi were religious Buddhist devotees.
2. Ma-yi designated a port purposely for Chinese traders and
products.
3. Pirates frequently attack the ports and interior of Ma-yi.
4. Giving gifts were important for Chinese traders to gain approval of Ma-yi
leaders.
______5. The Ma-yi natives lived a simple life as shown by their simple clothes.
Reason for “F” label. ______________________________________________________
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“In order to trade, the savage traders are assembled, and have the goods carried in
baskets, and although the bearers are often unknown, none of the goods are ever lost or
stolen. The savage traders transport these goods to other islands, and thus eight or nine
months pass until they have obtained other goods of value equivalent to those that have
been received [from the Chinese]. This forces the traders of the vessel to delay their
departure, and hence it happens that the vessels that maintain trade with Ma-yi are the
ones that take the longest to return to their country.” (p. 186)
“The most noteworthy places of this country are: San-hsii [three islands]; Pai-pu-yen
[Babuyan]; Pu-li-lu, which is located near San-hsii; Li-yin-tung; Lin-hsin; and Li-han. The
products of that country are yellow wax, cotton, pearls, shells, betel nuts, and jute [yu-ta]
textiles. Foreign traders import porcelain, commercial gold [coins?], iron vases for
perfumes, leaden objects, glass, pearls of all colors, and iron needles.” (p. 187)
1. Chinese tend to distrust the Ma-yi natives due to stealing of merchandise.
2. It took several months for Chinese products to be traded with local goods.
3. Local agricultural goods were traded for Chinese earthen wares and metal
products.
4. Both the local and foreign traders practiced at all times fair and equal
trade.
______5. Ma-yi and the other named islands were preferred by Chinese traders due
to abundance of trade goods coming from those places.
Reason for “F” label. ______________________________________________________
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Possible Inferences: (V = Valid; F = False/Invalid; ID = Insufficient Data)
Lesson 3.3. The 16th Century “Filipinos”
Lesson outcomes:
1. Describe the traits and life ways of the 16th century Filipinos
2. Analyze the contents and contexts of Spanish reports about the 16th century
Filipinos
Lesson overview: Records about the 16th century people of the Philippine Islands are
reported in the so-called “contact chronicles”—accounts written by Pigafetta
(Magellan’s chronicler, 1521), Loarca (1582), Plasencia (1589), Chirino (1604), Morga
(1609), including the author of the Boxer Codex (late 16th century), and other Spanish
documents (Patanñe, 1996). In this lesson, you will learn about the life of the 16th
century Filipinos.
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READ TO LEARN
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Antonio Pigafetta describes their interaction with the Visayans [Excerpts from “First
voyage around the world” by Pigafetta, A. In Blair and Robertson, 1906]:
“At dawn on Saturday, March sixteen, 1521, we came upon a high land at a distance of
three hundred leguas from the islands of Latroni—an island named Zamal [i.e., Samar].
The following day, the captain-general [Ferdinand Magellan] desired to land on another
island which was uninhabited and lay to the right of the abovementioned island, in order
to be more secure, and to get water and have some rest. He had two tents set up on the
shore for the sick and had a sow killed for them. On Monday afternoon, March 18, we saw
a boat coming toward us with nine men in it. Therefore, the captain-general ordered that
no one should move or say a word without his permission. When those men reached the
shore, their chief went immediately to the captain-general, giving signs of joy because of
our arrival. Five of the most ornately adorned of them remained with us, while the rest
went to get some others who were fishing, and so they all came. The captain-general
seeing that they were reasonable men, ordered food to be set before them, and gave them
red caps, mirrors, combs, bells, ivory, bocasine, and other things. When they saw the
captain’s courtesy, they presented fish, a jar of palm wine, which they call uraca [i.e.,
arrack], figs more than one palmo long [i.e., bananas], and others which were smaller and
more delicate, and two cocoanuts. They had nothing else then, but made us signs with
their hands that they would bring umay or rice, and cocoanuts and many other articles of
food within four days. (pp. 103-104)
“The island where we were is called Humunu [now Homonhón]; but inasmuch as we
found two springs there of the clearest water, we called it Acquada da li buoni Segnialli
[i.e., “the Watering-place of good Signs”], for there were the first signs of gold which we
found in those districts… There are many islands in that district, and therefore we called
them the archipelago of San Lazaro, as they were discovered on the Sabbath of St. Lazurus.
(p. 108)
“At noon on Friday, March 22, those men came as they had promised us in two boats
with cocoanuts, sweet oranges, a jar of palm-wine, and a cock, in order to show us that
there were fowls in that district. They exhibited great signs of pleasure at seeing us. We
purchased all those articles from them. Their seignior was an old man who was painted
[i.e., tattooed]. He wore two gold earrings [schione] in his ears, and the others many gold
armlets on their arms and kerchiefs about their heads... There are people living near that
island who have holes in their ears so large that they can pass their arms through them.
Those people are caphri, that is to say, heathen. They go naked, with a cloth woven from
the bark of a tree about their privies, except some of the chiefs who wear cotton cloth
embroidered with silk at the ends by means of a needle. They are dark, fat, and painted.
They anoint themselves with cocoanut and with beneseed oil, as a protection against sun
and wind. They have very black hair that falls to the waist, and use daggers, knives, and
spears ornamented with gold, large shields, fascines [darts], javelins, and fishing nets…
and their boats are like ours.” (pp. 109-113)
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1. How would you describe the first meeting of Magellan with the Visayans as
recounted by Pigafetta?
2. Why did Pigafetta’s group name the Island of Homonhon, “the watering-place of
good signs”?
3. Why did Pigafetta’s group name the islands, “Archipelago de San Lazaro”?
4. How did the islanders treat their European visitors?
5. What can you infer about the status of the old man and those that Pigafetta
described as painted, adorned with jewelry, and wore kerchiefs around their heads?
6. What did Pigafetta mean by calling those other people with large holes in their ears
as heathens?
READ TO LEARN
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Juan de Plasencia, a Franciscan priest, writes his report on the Customs of the Tagalogs of the
16th century (1589):
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[Social structure]. “This people always had chiefs, called by them datos, who governed
them and were captains in their wars, and whom they obeyed and reverenced…These
chiefs ruled over but few people; sometimes as many as a hundred houses, sometimes
even less than thirty. This tribal gathering is called in Tagalo a barangay. It was inferred
that the reason for giving themselves this name arose from the fact (as they are classed, by
their language, among the Malay nations) that when they came to this land, the head of
the barangay, which is a boat, thus called…became a dato. And so, even at the present day,
it is ascertained that this barangay in its origin was a family of parents and children,
relations and slaves. There were many of these barangays in each town, or, at least, on
account of wars, they did not settle far from one another. They were not, however, subject
to one another, except in friendship and relationship. The chiefs, in their various wars,
helped one another with their respective barangays.
“In addition to the chiefs, who corresponded to our knights, there were three castes:
nobles, commoners, and slaves. The nobles were the free-born whom they call maharlica.
They did not pay tax or tribute to the dato, but must accompany him in war, at their own
expense. The chief offered them beforehand a feast, and afterward they divided the spoils.
Moreover, when the dato went upon the water those whom he summoned rowed for him.
If he built a house, they helped him, and had to be fed for it…
“The commoners are called aliping namamahay. They are married, and serve their
master, whether he be a dato or not, with half of their cultivated lands, as was agreed
upon in the beginning. They accompanied him whenever he went beyond the island, and
rowed for him. They live in their own houses, and are lords of their property and gold.
Their children inherit it, and enjoy their property and lands. The children, then, enjoy the
rank of their fathers, and they cannot be made slaves (sa guiguilir) nor can either parents or
children be sold…
“The slaves are called aliping sa guiguilir. They serve their master in his house and on
his cultivated lands, and may be sold. The master grants them, should he see fit, and
providing that he has profited through their industry, a portion of their harvests, so that
they may work faithfully. For these reasons, servants who are born in the house of their
master are rarely, if ever, sold. That is the lot of captives in war, and of those brought up
in the harvest fields…If any person among those who were made slaves (sa guiguilir)—
through war, by the trade of goldsmith, or otherwise—happened to possess any gold
beyond the sum that he had to give his master, he ransomed himself, becoming thus
a namamahay, or what we call a commoner.
[Religion and Religious Beliefs]. “In all the villages, or in other parts of the Filipinas
Islands, there are no temples consecrated to the performing of sacrifices, the adoration of
their idols, or the general practice of idolatry. It is true that they have the name simbahan,
which means a temple or place of adoration; but this is because, formerly, when they
wished to celebrate a festival, which they called pandot, or “worship,” they celebrated it in
the large house of a chief. There they constructed, for the purpose of sheltering the
assembled people, a temporary shed on each side of the house, with a roof, called sibi, to
“Among their many idols there was one called. Badhala, whom they especially
worshiped. The title seems to signify “all powerful,” or “maker of all things.” They also
worshiped the sun, which, on account of its beauty, is almost universally respected and
honored by heathens. They worshiped, too, the moon, especially when it was new, at
which time they held great rejoicings, adoring it and bidding it welcome. Some of them
also adored the stars, although they did not know them by their names…,—with the one
exception of the morning star, which they called Tala… They possessed many idols
called lic-ha, which were images with different shapes; and at times they worshiped any
little trifle, in which they adored, as did the Romans, some particular dead man who was
brave in war and endowed with special faculties, to whom they commended themselves
for protection in their tribulations. They had another idol called Dian masalanta, who was
the patron of lovers and of generation. The idols called Lacapati and Idianale were the
patrons of the cultivated lands and of husbandry. They paid reverence to water-lizards
called by them buaya, or crocodiles, from fear of being harmed by them. They were even in
the habit of offering these animals a portion of what they carried in their boats, by
throwing it into the water, or placing it upon the bank.
“Their manner of offering sacrifice was to proclaim a feast, and offer to the devil what
they had to eat. This was done in front of the idol, which they anoint with fragrant
perfumes, such as musk and civet, or gum of the storax-tree and other odoriferous woods,
and praise it in poetic songs sung by the officiating priest, male or female, who is
called catolonan. The participants made responses to the song, beseeching the idol to favor
them with those things of which they were in need, and generally, by offering repeated
healths, they all became intoxicated. In some of their idolatries they were accustomed to
place a good piece of cloth, doubled, over the idol, and over the cloth a chain or large, gold
ring, thus worshiping the devil without having sight of him. The devil was sometimes
liable to enter into the body of the catolonan, and, assuming her shape and appearance,
filled her with so great arrogance—he being the cause of it—that she seemed to shoot
flames from her eyes; her hair stood on end, a fearful sight to those beholding, and she
uttered words of arrogance and superiority…
[Priestly Class]. “The distinctions made among the priests of the devil were as follows:
The first, called catolonan, as above stated, was either a man or a woman. This office was
an honorable one among the natives, and was held ordinarily by people of rank, this rule
being general in all the islands…“The second they called mangagauay, or witches, who
deceived by pretending to heal the sick. These priests even induced maladies by their
charms, [and]… are capable of causing death. The third they called manyisalat, which is the
same as magagauay…The fourth was called mancocolam, whose duty it was to emit fire
from himself at night, once or oftener each month. This fire could not be extinguished; nor
could it be thus emitted except as the priest wallowed in the ordure and filth which falls
from the houses; and he who lived in the house where the priest was wallowing in order
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protect the people from the wet when it rained. They so constructed the house that it
might contain many people—dividing it, after the fashion of ships, into three
compartments. On the posts of the house they set small lamps, called sorihile; in the center
of the house they placed one large lamp, adorned with leaves of the white palm, wrought
into many designs. They also brought together many drums, large and small, which they
beat successively while the feast lasted, which was usually four days. During this time the
whole barangay, or family, united and joined in the worship which they call nagaanitos.
The house, for the above-mentioned period of time, was called a temple.
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to emit this fire from himself, fell ill and died... The fifth was called hocloban, which is
another kind of witch, of greater efficacy than the mangagauay. Without the use of
medicine, and by simply saluting or raising the hand, they killed whom they chose. But if
they desired to heal those whom they had made ill by their charms, they did so by using
other charms…The sixth was called silagan, whose office it was, if they saw anyone
clothed in white, to tear out his liver and eat it, thus causing his death… Let no one,
moreover, consider this a fable; because, in Calavan, they tore out in this way through the
anus all the intestines of a Spanish notary, who was buried in Calilaya by father Fray Juan
de Mérida…The seventh was called magtatangal, and his purpose was to show himself at
night to many persons, without his head or entrails. In such wise the devil walked about
and carried, or pretended to carry, his head to different places; and, in the morning,
returned it to his body—remaining, as before, alive…The eighth they called osuang, which
is equivalent to “sorcerer;” they say that they have seen him fly, and that he murdered
men and ate their flesh. This was among the Visayas Islands; among the Tagalos these did
not exist. The ninth was another class of witches called mangagayoma. They made charms
for lovers out of herbs, stones, and wood, which would infuse the heart with love. Thus
did they deceive the people, although sometimes, through the intervention of the devil,
they gained their ends. The tenth was known as sonat, which is equivalent to “preacher.” It
was his office to help one to die, at which time he predicted the salvation or condemnation
of the soul…The eleventh, pangatahojan, was a soothsayer, and predicted the future. The
twelfth, bayoguin, signified a “cotquean,” a man whose nature inclined toward that of a
woman (pp. 164-183).
1. Fill in the “social” pyramid with the appropriate details to reflect the social hierarchy
of the 16th century Tagalog. [Use the Tagalog terminologies]
2. What is the extent of the dato’s power in the barangay that he governs?
3. What are the main bases of the social differentiation or classification of the Tagalog
society?
4. What evidences are provided to prove that the Tagalog are “animists”?
5. How important are the catolonan, mangagauay, and other priests in the 16th
century Tagalog society?
6. Do these priests exist at present? Why?
READ TO LEARN
[A] Cagayan Native Woman,
p. 22
[C] Zambales, p. 43
[B] Possibly Igorot in
Cagayan, p. 23
[D] Zambales, p. 46
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From the Boxer Codex (c. 1590), the following images possibly drawn by Chinese depict how
16th century “Filipinos” looked like.
[F] Negritos, p. 35
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[E] Zambales, p. 47
[G] Tattooed Visayan, p. 66
[H] Visayan possibly alipin,
p. 110
[I] Visayan kadatuan, p. 70
[J] Possibly Muslim women, p. 111
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
[L] Tagalog, p. 123
Based on the images, who are depicted as hunters?
Based on the images, who are depicted as warriors?
What social class do images K and L possibly represent?
What did tattoos possibly represent? (See image G)
How is clothing associated with social class? (See images H and I)
READ TO LEARN
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Miguel de Loarca (1582) gives account of the tattooed people [pintados] of Visayan
Islands in his report, “Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas”.
“The natives of the Pintados Islands are not very dark. Both men and women are well
formed and have regular features. Some of the women are white. Both men and women
wear their hair long, and fastened in a knot on the crown of the head, which is very
becoming. The men tattoo their entire bodies with very beautiful figures, using therefor
small pieces of iron dipped in ink. This ink incorporates itself with the blood, and the
marks are indelible. They are healthy people, for the climate of that land is good. Among
them are found no crippled, maimed, deaf, or dumb persons. No one of them has ever
been possessed by evil spirits, or has become insane. Therefore they reach an advanced
age in perfect health. The Pintados are a courageous and warlike race; they have
continually waged war on both land and sea. They bore their ears in two places and wear
beautiful ornaments, not only in their ears, but also around their necks and arms. Their
dress is neat and modest, made generally of cotton, medriñaque [cloth resembling a not
fully processed cotton], or silk (which they get from China and other places). They are
greatly addicted to the use of a kind of wine which they make from rice and from the
palm-tree, and which is good. Very rarely do they become angry when drunk, for their
drunkenness passes off in jests or in sleep.
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[K] Tagalog, p. 119
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“The men are very fond of their wives, for it is the men who give the dowry at
marriage. And even if their wives commit adultery, action is never taken against the
woman, but against the adulterer. An abominable custom among the men is to bore a hole
through the genital organ, placing within this opening a tin tube, to which they fasten a
wheel like that of a spur, a full palm in circumference. These are made of tin, and some of
them weigh more than half a pound. They use twenty kinds of these wheels; but modesty
forbids us to speak of them. By means of these they have intercourse with their
wives. The inhabitants of the mountains do not follow this custom; all, however,
circumcise themselves, saying that they do it for their health and for cleanliness. When
they marry, they are not concerned whether their wives are virgins or not.
“The women are beautiful, but unchaste. They do not hesitate to commit adultery,
because they receive no punishment for it. They are well and modestly dressed, in that
they cover all the private parts; they are very clean, and are very fond of perfumes. It is
considered a disgrace among them to have many children; for they say that when the
property is to be divided among all the children, they will all be poor, and that it is better
to have one child, and leave him wealthy. The Pintados are very strict as to whom they
marry; for no one marries below his station. Therefore chiefs will never marry any but
women of rank. All the men are accustomed to have as many wives as they can buy and
support. The women are extremely lewd, and they even encourage their own daughters to
a life of unchastity; so that there is nothing so vile for the latter that they cannot do it
before their mothers, since they incur no punishment. The men, however, are not so vile as
the Moros. The Pintados love their wives so dearly, that, in case of a quarrel they take
sides with their wives’ relatives, even against their own fathers and brothers. (pp. 110114)
1. What are Loarca’s standards of describing the Pintados as physically healthy
people?
2. How do the Pintados express and prove their love for their wives?
3. What is the attitude of Visayan males about virginity of women?
4. Why does Loarca describe the Pintados women as “beautiful but unchaste”?
5. What is the relationship of having one child or few children to wealth among the
Pintados?
6. What is the relationship of social rank to the choice of finding a woman to marry
among the Pintados?
EXTENDED READING
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Fray Francisco Antolin (1789), in his report, “Noticias de los infieles igorrotes en lo
interior de la Isla de Manila,” presents “a general ethnographic description—physical
environment, population, character, customs, products, commerce, religion,
government, arms, wars and slaves”—of the Igorots (Scott, translator’s introduction to
Antolin, 1789).
“In particular, very few reports speak of the so-called Igorot pagans of this Island of
Manila, and those that do, do so only very confusedly because of their lack of consistency
or thoroughness. It would be very important and useful if somebody were to write of
these pagans and their mountainous lands which are right in the midst of the Christian
provinces, specifically and with exactitude, giving clear details which might serve for the
enlightenment and instruction of those who live so near them by reason of their ministry
or office of converting their paganism, or at least to be safe from their frequent
ambuscades and deceptions.
“Description of the Mountainous Land of the Igorots. The pagans of the Igolot nation,
commonly called Igorots, have had and still have their own language and definite
territory. They live by themselves, separated from the Christian Filipinos, and inhabit one
continuous land which appears to be wholly mountainous. It is not so very far from the
City of Manila, being only about 30 leagues across level land. The Christian provinces of
Ilocos, Pangasinan，and Pampanga and the highland missions of Cagayan are much
closer, since it is in between them and dominates them. Almost all the rivers of these
provinces have their origin in the Igorot mountains. This proves it is a land of
considerable altitude, composed of watersheds opposite one another and ranges which
overlook the lands of the Christians which are all around them.
“Among the many mountains which can be seen, the highest is in the interior, which
the Igorots call Pola or Polac [Pulag or Pulog]. It is visible on clear days from Dupax, in the
mission of Ituy, and several times I have observed that the sun at dawn illuminates it
before the other mountains around it. The Igorots say that standing on its peak, the
opposite plains of the two seas of this island can be see—that is, the Ilocos coast and the
contracosta of Baler. According to what they say, its great height seems to have given rise
to a fable among the Igorots that the whole earth was inundated by a deluge in ancient
times, and that only one man and one woman survived, mounting its crest, and from these
are descended all the Igorots. This is believed among them as the tradition of their elders,
and thus they are very far from believing themselves descendants of the Chinese.
“The size of the Igorot territory was formerly greater than it is now, because they
occupied some slopes and savannahs near their mountains for their gold-panning and
hunting, and charged their Christian neighbors land rentals in rice and animals for the
fields built on their land, and if they didn’t give it, they seized it. So, it used to happen in
the missions of Ituy when the Igorots were bolder，and the same toward Pangasinan and
Ilocos. Later, they would make ambuscades, assaults, robberies and killings on the
Christian trails, and burn towns and churches. But the long-suffering and constancy of the
Christians made them withdraw little by little and retire farther into the interior，even as
the light of the sun dissipates the shadows and drives the beasts to their dens.
“As to their extent now, they occupy an irregular quadrilateral whose sides would
each be from 12 to 26 leagues long. According to this estimate, the most abundant gold
mines, called Pancutcutan,vir which are in the most interior at the base of Mount Pulog,
would be ten leagues from the land of Ilocos as the crow flies, the same from Pangasinan,
and six or eight from the mission. But the Igorots take longer because of the many zigzags
and slopes, and when they drive animals bought from the Christians, it takes them weeks
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“It would be very important and useful if somebody were to write of these pagans and
their mountainous lands which are right in the midst of the Christian provinces,
specifically and with exactitude, giving clear details which might serve for the
enlightenment and instruction of those who live so near them by reason of their ministry
or office of converting their paganism, or at least to be safe from their frequent
ambuscades and deceptions.
because they travel slowly and make stops so the animals won’t die. The mission of Ituy
would then be parallel to the province of Ilocos, and about 16 leagues away as the crow
flies. As I figure it, Agoo and Aritao should be in the same parallel of latitude, and the
town of Asingan and Pancutcutan—that is，the mine~on the same meridian of longitude.
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“Their People and Number. Some works say that the Igorot nation is very populous, and
their houses and villages many, but this claim is only very vague and betrays a note of
exaggeration. Here only some reasons will be considered to persuade anybody that this
land is moderately well populated with pagans.
“For the most part, these pagans make use of the gold from mines and placers for
procuring provisions from the Christians of Ilocos, Pangasinan, Pampanga and the
missions. They generally buy nothing more than animals to eat, like pigs, carabaos, cows
and chickens, from the Christians. In Ilocos they buy whole herds. Although it is not in the
missions that they buy most because gold is little known or appreciated here, the Igorots
still get about 600 head in one year or the next. It doesn't seem that they try to buy rice,
corn, camotes or other necessities from the Christians, which is a sign they have all they
need of these. As a matter of fact, in some valleys and slopes their land is fertile, soft and
porous, and can easily be worked with some wooden shovels without needing animals to
plow it. They find the hardness and solidness of the land in the Christian lowlands strange,
for the land in the lowlands is packed down with the pressure of the rains，the tread of
the population and the vibration of carts. It is a land, as the saying goes, worn out and
baked by the lowland sun. Not so these valleys and woodlands of the pagans, which enjoy
greater freshness and humid vapors which cause plants to bear more fruit with less labor.
Although the agriculture of the pagan Filipinos is most primitive, they do not have those
duties, sometimes enforced, which the Christians have, like government service, running
messages, making roads, attending church, and various personal tasks incompatible with
working and cultivating their fields. It is to be concluded, therefore, that there is no lack of
food or population. A manuscript about the Igorots says this: ‘Their common food is
camote, gabe, ubi and squash, all of which they plant abundantly, as well as much meat of
pigs, cows, carabao or deer, too, which they catch in the foothills of the mountains.’
“The sparse population of Indios is also usually attributed to smallpox, venereal
disease and leprosy, or to wars, deforestation, tribute, division of land, migrations, and
similar things. Yet the Igorots have practically none of these. They take sufficient care of
the mountain passes to prevent the entrance of smallpox and other epidemics from the
Christians. They don’t navigate seas or rivers, nor do they leave their land. They have
nobody to order them to row, act as porters, or cut wood; they work, eat and drink as they
wish and when they like. They have few long-range wars. And then, their people do not
have those backward handicaps we find in other places. The very fact of having
maintained themselves as an independent republic this long, exploiting their mines and
placers, which is work that requires robustness and many hands，without the Christians
and other pagans having been able to seize their mineral wealth, implies an abundance of
people and population. If they were few and not disposed to cooperate among themselves,
they would not have been able to resist becoming Christians and obedient vassals until
now, inasmuch as there have been many expeditions and endeavors, as will be said later.
“Considering these reasons alone, it could be said, as some think, that the Igorots are
very numerous and divided into many households and villages. But there are other
sufficiently weighty reasons to support the view that their number and rate of increase is
small. The men pass much time in idleness, fiestas, visiting and drunkenness. When
necessity finally moves them, they make their rugged trips, climbing and descending the
slopes in the greatest exposure and discomfort when they go to trade or hunt. The
domestic duties fall on the women and even the labor and care of the fields, since they
treat them like slaves. A modern authority says: ‘The small appreciation which the
American Indians have of their wives surely contributes to making them less fertile;
women among barbarous tribes are little esteemed and treated like slaves, and among the
Americans they are relegated to the lowest grade of despite.’ The same thing is true
among these pagans, and even more so because of their vain superstitions.
“They take no care of their sick since they know no more remedy than the sacrifice of
animals and anointing the patient’s head and feet with their blood. The women leave their
houses to give birth in a hut in the fields or under a tree on the banks of a stream of water
where they can wash themselves afterwards.
“The Royal Order of the year 1758 to Bishop Fuentes refers to the pagan Tinguianes in
the Ilocos regions very near the Igorots, saying that, according to official information of
the Royal Purveyor, they reckoned this nation as being composed of 100 villages and
10,000 Tinguianes. I don’t know how many they may be now since I am not well informed
about those parts of Ilocos, but I consider it to be most likely that all the Igorots who
consider themselves one nation and speak the same Igorot language (though with
different intonations) exceed the number of Tinguianes by five times, considering their
commerce with the upland Cagayan towns, for though they are isolated, they extend all
the way from one side to the other and make business with their gold in the four
provinces already mentioned.
“Character, Customs，Products, and Commerce. The Igorots, who are to the west of Ituy, are
very much different. They live in really bare and naked mountains. Honey and wax are very scarce
for want of flowers. For illumination, they use pine chips, the tree which is most abundant. Even
their pasturelands are few because every year they burn them in the dry season. Father
Colin says in his History of the Philippines, ‘It is a large land, that of these mountains of the
Igorots— a warlike people with large bodies— ，as was seen in the year 1623 when an
army marched for six days at the rate of three leagues a day on a journey for their
conquest or pacification. They passed through many forests of wild nutmegs and then
pines with their spreading tops and freshness, also uncultivated for fruit, a land and place
of happy appearance which is not so covered over or shady as other forests and
mountains in these islands, and finally they reached a peak of the hills where the Igorots
have their principal settlement among the rich gold mines, which gold they get and trade
to the Ilocos and Pangasinan for supplies, clothes, and what else they need. They also
trade rich stones of carnelian, not in the raw but worked with much skill. But these are not
from there, but brought from India in ancient times through Borneo.’
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“If they have many children，they kill them for whatever bodily defect they may have,
or in the manner of their delivery Father Gaspar's History says, ‘The Ilocanos have various
superstitions, and one is simply to kill those little creatures who are born with their
umbilical cord over the neck or head, because they say they would be unlucky or die
quickly.’ The manuscript on the Igorots already cited says that they kill those who are
born weak, one-eyed or one-armed because they apparently would not be able to take care
of their parents. If the delivery is difficult or transverse, they usually kill the poor creature
because it wanted to kill its mother!
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“I have heard nothing of these nutmegs of the Igorots, but a Royal Order which will be
placed farther on says something about them. The Visayas and other parts of these islands
have them, as I have been assured. About the pines, it is certain that those there are very
tall and thick for I have seen them up to 30 feet, and that they make a great shade and kill
the vegetation around them with their seedlings and falling needles. Of the carnelian
stones, Father Colin speaks again, ‘They must doubtless be those I have sometimes seen
Igorots with, which they much esteem. They are in the shape of the beads of a
rosary，very hard and smooth, somewhat transparent and approaching a real red in color.
I have seen them round, square and oval. The Igorots wear them as ornaments, strung as
necklaces, and they value them more than other fake beads of glass which are now coming
from China and have lowered the price of all precious stones. The Pangasinan merchants
look for this kind of stones to buy from the new Christians of the missions and take and
sell them to the Igorots and Tinguianes of Ilocos at a peso in gold each.’
“It has already been said of the Ilongots that they hardly know the color of silver or
gold, but the Igorots know it very well, understanding and reckoning it. To weigh the
gold, they have their curious balances with weights placed in a little box, which they have
bought from the Christians, not having the ability to make them themselves. These
balances or scales are not found among other pagans of the island but the Igorots have
many, which is a sign of their great traffic in gold. Some believe, and have written, that the
silver which goes up to the Igorots they monopolize there, burying it in jars. But I don’t
know how this could be believed of a people so sharp in matters of self-interest and
personal advantage. They have been coming down to the upper towns of the missions
frequently these last years to buy animals and clothes, and they pay for almost everything
in minted silver. A few times they have come down with pure gold dust, but usually in
cast pieces mixed with some other metal, for which reason the Christians of the missions
usually won’t take it.
“They also make their purchases with knives, spears and other iron tools which they
make up there in a crude manner, using hard stones as anvils and hammers. For this
purpose, they buy broken plows and tools from the Christians, heat them with hot coals of
pine with a bellows of a tree-trunk pierced through, and with these only the Igorots glory
in blacksmiths without ever having worked any iron mine! They must exploit copper
mines somewhat, since they descend to the missions with plenty of kettles and pots which
serve as stewpots for cooking food. They are of true copper but very crude and uneven,
made without skill or dexterity, which is a sign of their being their work, for they fuse the
metal together in the fire with the earth in which they get it from the copper mines,
according to what they have told me.
“Those who live by working the gold, copper and iron in the manner stated, care little
about making fields. And why should they wear themselves out in agriculture when the
gold, knives and pots they make suffice for everything? This is not to deny that other
Igorots, who do not work so much with metals, plant and cultivate some valleys and
remote pieces of good soil for rice, camotes, beans, onions, sugarcane, tobacco, squash,
and other vegetables. They plant all of these and sell and trade them from one village to
another.
“According to what they informed me, there is a lack of ducks, crows and other big
birds, but they have some little ones. There is also a lack of guavas and bananas, mangos,
buyo [betelnut], coconuts, palms, broomsage, nettles and other plants and flowers which
thrive so well among the Christians because of greater care, methods of transplanting, and
the manure of many animals.
“The men have the custom of adorning their bodies with permanent ornaments of
little cost but much pain, for they prick their legs, arms and faces, putting powdered soot
on the needles in the manner of our sailors and the Filipinos of the Visayas.
“When they come down to sell gold to the Christians, much covetousness can be
observed in them and sly cunning for tricks with their gold, though they are not
themselves fooled when they purchase animals, so they seem to be as wise and competent
in matters of their own interest as the Chinese. Considering the contentment they take in
their own land with their poor clothes and rough food, sleeping on the trails wherever
night happens to catch them, and praising the government of their leaders, it might be
said of them that they are very like those whom the ancients feigned enjoyed the blessings
of a Golden Age. But they are Indios just like the rest— difficult to understand because of
the variety and contradiction of their actions and customs. The gold which occurs in their
mountainous land with more abundance than anywhere else moves them to a certain
amount of hard work and shrewdness—such as their strength to dig the mountains, soak
in the placers in the rivers, and climb up and down to make their sales and purchases— ,
but they do these things for the sake of their gold without ever leaving their own little
Indian world.
“They desire gold and use it only to serve their God, which is their bellies. The meat of
the pig is their major delight, and for variety they also eat carabaos and cows. They are so
voracious when hunger grips them that they know no bad meat, not even the rotten. I
have seen them seek out dogs, dead horses, snakes, monkeys and bats and eat them with
relish. In the more interior of their mountains there is little fish and game so they come
down to the plains of the Christians to hunt with nets and little dogs. Those who live on
the frontiers practice this most, even the children. When they catch some boar or deer,
they carry them to their villages on their shoulders for their old folks to eat，and their
women, who, as has been said, are the main ones to take care of their crops.
“With their gold they also buy-G-strings and blankets to cover their bodies. The poor
use white because it is cheaper, and they are willing to pay as high as ten pesos for
them，and as much as five for the G-strings, and they put some little plates and tubes of
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“But from this it is not to be taken as a completely barren and miserable land, for it
abounds in precious metals, and what else we don’t even know is to be found there. The
fact is that the Igorots are contented in it, and that it costs the missionaries much battling,
strife and diligence to get them out of their lands and make them live among Christians.
They give many reasons for not coming down. They say that the towns of the Christians
are very hot, that there is much smallpox and many epidemics, that there are crimes,
robberies and conflicts between people, and that there are many to give orders and make
the poor people work. Much less are the tribute, monopoly, and government officials
hidden from them. And even though they also have to be subject to their relationships or
the pressures and whims of their leaders up there, these are lighter and they can evade
them. In short, they do not envy the products and conveniences of the Christians, and only
seek free trade in blankets, G-strings and animals for their gold, and with this alone they
keep themselves perfectly happy in their mountains. If they had something of the
character and industry of the Chinese, they would feel the need of other things and buy
them, but they are mountain Indios perfectly content with little.
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gold on them as decorations and marks of distinction. They don’t plant or buy raw cotton
since they seem not to know how to spin or weave it, nor do all of them have opportunity
and means to buy cloth from the Ilocos. Those who are near the missions make up this
lack with a shrub which they plant, very similar to flax，which the natives of the mission
call aramay; its thread is very strong and very good for fishline, nets and small cordage to
be exposed to water a long time. It would be good to call it ‘thread-shrub’ in Spanish. It
grows taller than two meters, and when it gets that high, they cut the straight, thin
branches, and the roots sprout again each year. I have not seen seeds in its flowers, so it
must be propagated by its roots, and in any soft, moist soil.
“Their Religion and Tribal Government. The Igorots have no temples, altars, public idols
nor priests. Neither have they letters, writing, painting or sculpture. Their whole religion
is mere childishness and the desire to fill their bellies. Those who practice the superstitions
and sacrifices are mostly the old men and women, and some charlatans who seek thus to
be esteemed and depended on for their fictions in order to get something to eat. Here,
what was found in ancient Europe continues, when, in a day of more ignorance, their cults
were as strange and ridiculous as these. The superstitions and sacrifices of these pagans
for their harvests, trips, weddings, childbirths, and especially illnesses are innumerable,
which proves their great ignorance and primitive state. A letter from Father Ormaza, a
Dominican missionary, says, ‘The Yumanguies (a tribe of Igorots) are atheists and observe
the vainest superstitions of this area; they don’t make or eat anything- without performing
some ritual.’ The manuscript on Igorots already cited refers to many superstitions of theirs.
Let us take this sample: ‘They are most superstitious. They venerate the sun as the first
cause but their major care is given their deceased, and to them they attribute all good and
evil, making frequent sacrifices by means of some old men and women who pretend the
deceased are within them.’
“One time the Igorots said to the Christians of the missions: ‘The fiestas of the
Christians aren’t worth anything, because everything is simply making a lot of noise with
bells, drums and muskets and then everybody just goes to his own house to eat what little
he has. But the fiestas of our leaders are not like that because, without making such a
racket, they are more tasty and satisfying. They kill animals to eat by the dozens, and
everybody drinks till he passes out, and so it goes for many days. Among you, anybody is
mayor or headman，but our leaders are never changed. No matter how much they spend,
the always have more’一 and they told of a prominent person who had many granaries of
rice, and of another who had a deer of solid gold.
“As to their political government, every kindred has a separate village governed by
the oldest who perform the duties of judges, though their judgments are simply for the
purpose of eating and drinking at the expense of the culprits. Their houses are very low,
and filthy because of the smoke of the pine torches. Prominent people have very spacious
houses of boards to accommodate two or three couples together. I have never heard that
they take more than one wife, but if the first wife is sterile, sickly, lazy or nagging, they
simply leave her to marry another. They don’t comb their hair and only cut it when it gets
really long. They sleep on a hide, and always go about barefoot. No courtesy or tidiness is
to be found among them. They keep their deceased seated without burial for a long time,
and so they will not smell too bad, remove the intestines through the arms, as they do
with partridge in Spain，so they won't corrupt so quickly. Then they salt the bodies and
place them in the air or near a fire. I heard of a chieftain in Tinok they kept this way for
four months, doing him honor and depleting his whole estate in their gluttony.
“They raise many pigs and also buy them from the Christians to eat in their feasts and
funeral…
“Their Arms, Wars, and Slaves. Their arms and skirmishes are all typical of pure
backwoods Indians. They have a horror of powder-and-ball. They don’t use cuirasses
because they are a handicap in open hillsides or mountain heights, and a person wearing
them can’t slink around undetected, nor do they use arrows. They commonly make use of
spears and big knives. To defend themselves against Christian troops, they climb to the
highest of the mountains and there throw down stones and rolling logs. Since they are
accustomed to running through the hills and precipices, they take the speed of their legs
as their major defense, like deer. In ancient times, they were manifest enemies of the
Christians. All through the region adjoining' Pangasinan and Ilocos they would do much
damage, commit treacheries、take captives and cause deaths among* every class of
persons, about which specific data will be given later. To make the trip to the Ilocos，it
was necessary to take good precautions and an escort. How many surprise attacks and
how much opposition the Christians and ministers of the Igorots and Zambal pagans
suffered in the begining to found and maintain their towns! How many of their houses
and churches they burned! Father Mozo recounts on page 70 of his Book of Missions that
for a century and a half they had to keep battling the resistance of these barbarous Igorots
with very little reward: ‘Their ferocity and cruelty were second to none; their whole
ambition was to take captive and kill any they met. When the Christians would go out to
plant and harvest their crops, they made tall look-out posts to watch for them, and those
who were working* had their sickles in one hand and arms in the other, and even with all
these precautions they would not be able to escape their fury.’
“On the other side, toward the missions, they also had their own way, as evidenced by
an account by the Dominicans printed in 1745. It says: ‘Very close to the missions of Ituy,
or Isinay, are found the Panoypuyes, a tribe of Igorots always feared for their valor and
fierceness. The troubles and threats they always made for the Christians cannot be
counted. There has been no year when they haven’t robbed their houses or fields. If some
poor Isinay would go after his animals that had gotten away toward Igorot land, he would
have to give them some to get the others back, if, indeed, the pagans hand’t already killed
them to eat. They would even make traps and pits in the roads for the cows and carabaos
of the Christians. When the Christians would be harvesting their rice, they would come to
ask for some, and collect land rentals on their fields, saying that it was their land. Other
times they would seek out persons to kill according to their rituals. So, the new converts
have not been able to live in peace and Christian liberty even until now.’
“They also have litigations and disputes with those of their own nation, motivated by
envies, hatreds and debts. How could there be a lack of such litigation among Igorots so
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“Some manuscripts imply that the Igorots are very peaceful and candid，and of such
good faith they don’t rob others. They are a chaste people, says one, who punish adultery
with rigor. Another says they punish even dishonest or suspicious appearances or
thoughts, and that bachelors don’t even cover their shame and have to sleep at night all
together. But it seems to me that all this is just because their towns are like one large estate,
or tiny hamlets, where all the families know each other and are intermarried, under the
dominion of some patriarchs or leaders, under which conditions there are no
opportunities for doing wrong or committing adultery, nor is it easy to conceal bad deeds.
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grasping? How could they be free of divisive orders and partialities with such chieftains
as govern them? In the most interior of the mountains, toward the north，are some
villages called Poliang and Tococan where the copper mines are, where, like Moros who
live by robbery and taking captives, they go out on the trails to rob and seize pagans
travelling there unawares, and sell them as slaves.
“This buying and selling of slaves must be a characteristic of this particular tribe for I
have never seen or heard of any other pagans who sell and make business off their
captives. Just recently they sold some women for two carabaos each in Bayombong, a
town of Paniqui, and in Dupax I have baptized an Igorot girl sold for twenty pesos’ worth
of clothes and animals. In other towns of the missions there are many slaves sold in this
way. The ones they sell are not their own children or parents; they are from other distant
towns who have come into the power of some chief for debts, quarrels or violent crimes.
They make these slaves serve as servants in their houses, in the mines and in the gold
placers, and they punish them severely if they are lazy, impudent or haughty. They make
them eat and sleep separate from their masters. They don’t let them marry except with
slaves，and the children follow their parents into slavery. In short, even with their slaves
the Igorots retain those laws and ancient customs which were general to all the Filipinos of
these islands when the Spaniards arrived, as can be seen in the various histories of the
Philippines.”
[Complete account of Antolin’s Notices could be accessed in the Internet. Check these
links: https://asianethnology.org/downloads/ae/pdf/a227.pdf,
https://dl.ndl.go.jp/view/download/digidepo_10208506_po_990.pdf?contentNo=1&alte
rnativeNo=]
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 3.3.1: The 16th century Filipino culture
This exercise is based on the preceding readings. Read the two statements given in
each number and indicate A if both statements are “True”; B if both statements are
“False”; and, C if one of the statements is “False” and the other statement is “True”.
____1. A day after Magellan landed on Philippine shore in Zamal in 1521, he and his
men transferred to Humunu island to get more provisions. The island was abundant
with bananas, rice, and cocoanuts.
____2. The chief of the natives happily welcomed Magellan’s company. As a sign of
goodwill, both parties ate together and exchanged goods.
____4. The heathens, Pigafetta reported, had tattoos on their bodies as protection from
the sun’s heat. These tattoos were also meant to disguise or cover the heathens’
genitals.
____5. Plasencia reported that the 16th century barangay was ruled by a dato who
belonged to the noble caste. The dato’s authority to rule, Plasencia explained, was
based on his ownership of boats called barangay.
____6. As free-born, the 16th century maharlica caste paid tribute to the dato in terms
of helping the dato in wars. The maharlica got rewards from the wars won by the dato.
____7. The 16th century Tagalog society had two classes of commoners called alipin.
Both the aliping namamahay and the aliping sa guiguilir served their master in their
own capacities.
____8. The children of 16th century Tagalog slaves were commonly sold or bought. A
captive of war who became a slave may become free if he paid his master a sum of
gold.
____9. The 16th century Tagalogs were polytheists. This means that they worshipped as
a group in a temple called simbahan, which housed their idols called lic-ha.
____10. For the 16th century Tagalogs, heavenly bodies were worthy of adoration. They
also adored dead brave warriors who protected them from danger.
____11. Tagalogs of the 16th century worshipped the “devil” by offering food, objects,
and singing songs. The “devil” the Tagalogs praised had the ability to possess the
officiating priest called catalonan.
____12. The priestly class of the 16th century Tagalogs were distinguished based on
their abilities. These abilities included the power to heal, to kill, to cast spells, to cause
sickness, and perform other supernatural acts.
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____3. Pigafetta reported that the chiefs of the natives they encountered in 1521 wore
gold jewelry. For this reason, they (the foreigners) labeled the islands where the gold
came from as Archipelago of San Lazaro.
____13. Pintados refer to Visayan people who are heavily tattooed. They are reported
by Loarca as brave warriors.
____14. Climate has contributed to the health of the Pintados. Such health is proven by
the observation that Pintados live long.
____15. Pintados are fond of drinking rice and palm-tree wine. When drank, they
become angry until they fall to sleep.
____16. Loarca reported that Pintados are physically fit since they had no bodily
defects. Furthermore, the Pintados are also mentally fit since nobody among them is
crazy.
____17. Adultery among the Pintados is a serious offence that they severely punish the
adulterous woman. Because of this, women had to remain chaste and loyal to their
husbands.
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____18. Loarca admired the tin tube and wheels placed by the Pintados on their
genitals. These objects were mainly for sexual intercourse purposes.
____19. To have many children is shameful for women Pintados. Having many children
negatively affects property ownership of the children.
____20. Loarca observes that male Pintados disregard the importance of woman
virginity before marriage. Choosing a wife is based more on the social class of the
woman than on her chastity.
Module 4. Filipino Communities under the Spanish Colonial
System
Unit 6. Life under the Spanish Colonial Administration
Lesson 4.1. Encomienda: Ordering the Indio society
Lesson outcomes:
1. Explain the functions of encomienda
2. Analyze the effects of the encomienda to the Indios
Lesson overview: This lesson introduces you to encomienda, a Spanish mechanism used as
an administrative and economic scheme in consolidating the Indio into manageable and
profitable “communities”. Other economic institutions established by the Spaniards were:
taxation, forced labor (polo), galleon trade, monopoly of cash crops, and haciendas.
________________________________________________________________________________
“Encomienda was the earliest and, for half a century, the most important system in the
Spanish Philippines for the ordering of Filipino society and labour. Encomenderos were, in
most islands outside of Luzon, the cutting edge of Spanish expansion, and the institution
was an important source both of crown revenues and of information concerning native
peoples. Because encomienda was established as early as 1572, and did not begin to decline
for another century, it remains one of the few constant sources of data for early Philippine
colonial history.”(Anderson, 1976, p. 27)
“The word encomienda is a term belonging to the military orders (from the ranks of
which came many officials appointed for the colonies), and corresponds to our word
‘commandery.’ It is defined…as ‘a right conceded by royal bounty, to well-deserving
persons in the Indies, to receive and enjoy for themselves the tributes of the Indians who
should be assigned to them, with a charge of providing for the good of those Indians in
spiritual and temporal matters, and of inhabiting and defending the provinces where
these encomiendas should be granted to them." (footnote number 20 in “The expedition of
Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, 1541-46 in Blair& Robertson, 1903)
Antonio de Morga (1609) provides some details about the 16th and early 17th century
encomiendas:
“All of these islands and their natives, so far as they were pacified, were apportioned
into encomiendas from the beginning. To the royal crown were allotted those which were
chief towns and ports, and the dwellers of the cities and towns; and also other special
encomiendas and villages in all the provinces, for the necessities and expenses of the royal
estate. All the rest was assigned to the conquerors and settlers who have served and
labored for the conquest and pacification, and in the war. This matter is in charge of the
governor, who takes into consideration the merits and services of the claimants. In like
manner the villages that become vacant are assigned. There are many very excellent
encomiendas throughout the islands, and they offer many profits, both by the amount of
their tributes and by the nature and value of what is paid as tribute. The encomienda lasts,
according to the royal laws and decrees, and by the regular order and manner of
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READ TO LEARN
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succession to them, for two lives; but it may be extended to a third life, by permission.
After it becomes vacant, it is again assigned and granted anew (pp. 377-378).
“The tributes paid to their encomenderos by the natives were assigned by the first
governor, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, in the provinces of Vicayas and Pintados, and in the
islands of Luzon and its vicinity; they were equal to the sum of eight reales [or one peso]
annually for an entire tribute from each tributario. The natives were to pay it in their
products—in gold, cloth, cotton, rice, bells, fowls, and whatever else they possessed or
harvested. The fixed price and value of each article was assigned so that, when the tribute
was paid in any one of them, or in all of them, it should not exceed the value of the eight
reales. So it has continued until now, and the governors have increased the appraisements
and values of the products at different times, as they have deemed advisable (p.378).
“The encomenderos have made great profits in collecting in kind, for, after they
acquired possession of the products, they sold them at higher prices. By this they
increased their incomes and the proceeds of their encomiendas considerably; until a few
years ago his Majesty, by petition of the religious and the pressure that they brought to
bear on him in this matter, ordered for this region that the natives should pay their tribute
in whatever they wished—in kind or in money—without being compelled to do otherwise.
Consequently, when they should have paid their eight reales, they would have fulfilled
their obligation. Accordingly this rule was initiated; but experience demonstrates that,
although it seemed a merciful measure, and one favorable to the natives, it is doing them
great injury. For, since they naturally dislike to work, they do not sow, spin, dig gold, rear
fowls, or raise other food supplies, as they did before, when they had to pay the tribute in
those articles. They easily obtain, without so much work, the peso of money which is the
amount of their tribute. Consequently it follows that the natives have less capital and
wealth, because they do not work; and the country, which was formerly very well
provided and well-supplied with all products, is now suffering want and deprivation of
them. The owners of the encomiendas, both those of his Majesty and those of private
persons who possess them, have sustained considerable loss and reduction in the value of
the encomiendas” (p.378).
David P. Barrows (1905) summarizes details about the encomiendas of the late 1500s:
“[I]n 1591, about twenty-five years after the [encomienda] system was introduced into
the Islands, [t]here were then 267 encomiendas in the Philippines, of which thirty-one
were of the king, and the remainder of private persons (citing Gov. Dasmariñas, p. 160).
The entire population under encomiendas is set down as 166,903 tributes, or 667,612 souls.
This is, so far as known, the earliest enumeration of the population of the Philippines.
Barring the Igorrotes of northern Luzon and the Moros and other tribes of Mindanao, it is
a fair estimate of the number of the Filipino people three hundred years ago. (citing Gov.
Dasmariñas, p. 161)
“From the enumeration of these encomiendas, we learn that the most populous parts
of the archipelago were La Laguna, with 24,000 tributantes and 97,000 inhabitants, and the
Camarines, which included all the Bicol territory, and the Catanduanes, where there were
21,670 tributantes and a population of over 86,000, In the vicinity of Manila and Tondo,
which included Cavite and Marigondon, the south shore of the bay, and Pasig and Taguig,
there were collected 9,410 tributes, and the population was estimated at about 30,000. In
Ilocos were reported 17,130 tributes and 78,520 souls (p. 160, citing Gov.
Dasmariñas,)…The population among the Bisayan islands was quite surprisingly small,
considering its present proportions. Masbate, for example, had but 1,600 souls; Burias, a
like number; the whole central group, leaving out Panay, only 15,833 tributes, or about
35,000 souls… It will be noticed that the numbers assigned to single encomenderos in the
Philippines were large…a thousand or twelve hundred “tributantes” were frequently held
by a single Spaniard. (citing Gov. Dasmariñas, p. 161)
“That the Filipinos on many of these islands bitterly resented their condition is
evidenced by the frequent uprisings and rebellions. The encomenderos were often
extortionate and cruel, and absolutely heedless of the restrictions and obligations imposed
upon them by the Laws of the Indies. Occasionally a new governor, under the first
impulse of instructions from Mexico or Spain, did something to correct abuses. Revolts
were almost continuous during the year 1583, and the condition of the natives were very
bad, many encomenderos regarding them and treating them almost as slaves, and keeping
them at labor to the destruction of their own crops and the misery of their families. (citing
Zuñiga, p. 162)
“Here my powers fail me, I lack the courage, and I can find no words, to express to
your Majesty the misfortunes, injuries, and vexations, the torments and miseries, which
the Indians are made to suffer in the collection of the tributes. The tribute at which all are
commonly rated is the value of eight reales, paid in gold or in produce which they gather
from their lands; but this rate is observed like all other rules that are in favor of the
Indians—that is, it is never observed at all. Some they compel to pay it in gold, even when
they do not have it. In regard to the gold likewise, there are great abuses, because as there
are vast differences in gold here, they always make the natives give the finest. The weight
at which they receive the tribute is what he who collects it wishes, and he never selects the
lightest. Others make them pay cloth or thread. But the evil is not here, but in the manner
of collecting; for, if the chief does not give them as much gold as they demand, or does not
pay for as many Indians as they say there are, they crucify the unfortunate chief, or put his
head in the stocks—for all the encomenderos, when they go to collect, have their stocks,
and there they lash and torment the chiefs until they give the entire sum demanded from
them. Sometimes the wife or daughter of the chief is seized, when he himself does not
appear. Many are the chiefs who have died of torture in the manner which I have stated.
When I was in the port of Ybalon some chiefs came there to see me; and the first thing they
said to me was, that one who was collecting the tributes in that settlement had killed a
chief by torture, and the same Indians indicated the manner in which he had been killed,
which was by crucifixion, and hanging him by the arms. I saw this soldier in the town of
Caceres, in the province of Camarines, and learned that the justice arrested him for it and
fined him fifty pesos—and that with this punishment he was immediately set free.
Likewise I learned that an encomendero—because a chief had neither gold nor silver nor
cloth with which to pay the tribute—exacted from him an Indian for nine pesos, in
payment of nine tributes which he owed; and then took this Indian to the ship and sold
him for thirty-five pesos. And although I told this to the steward and asked for the Indian,
he remained in slavery. They collect tribute from children, old men, and slaves, and many
remain unmarried because of the tribute, while others kill their children. (p. 212)
1. What are the roles of encomiendas in the ordering or governing of the Indios of the
16th and 17th century Philippines?
2. What are the duties of the encomendero to the Indios within his encomienda?
3. What are the benefits of Indios under an ecomienda?
4. What has caused the decline and loss of value of the encomiendas in the 1600s?
Readings in Philippine History
Domingo de Salazar (1583) reports some abuses committed against Indios in the
encomienda:
Readings in Philippine History
5. What are the abuses committed by the encomenderos that brought misery to the
Indios? What could have caused these abuses?
6. How did the Indios react to the abuses they experienced from the encomenderos?
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 4.1.1. Life in the Encomienda
Readings in Philippine History
Draw an editorial cartoon that expresses your thoughts and feelings regarding the
condition of Indios in an Spanish encomienda. Add a caption that captures your idea.
CAPTION HERE
Lesson 4.2. Indios: The making of the Christian natives
Lesson outcomes:
1. Explain how Christianity was introduced to the natives of the Philippines
2. Analyze selected Christian doctrines and practices that the Spaniards
introduced to the natives
Lesson overview: This lesson presents narratives about the Christianization of natives
and gives a glimpse of Indio life as Christians under the Spanish Regime.
READ TO LEARN
Readings in Philippine History
________________________________________________________________________________
Anotonio Pigafetta(1521) narrates how Christianity was first introduced to the natives of
the Visayan Islands:
“Early on the morning of Sunday, the last of March, and Easter-day, the captaingeneral [Magellan] sent the priest with some men to prepare the place where mass was to
be said; together with the interpreter to tell the king [Raia Colambu] that we were not
going to land in order to dine with him, but to say mass… When the hour for mass arrived,
we landed with about fifty men, without our body armor, but carrying our other arms,
and dressed in our best clothes… We landed; the two kings [Raia Colambu and Raia Siaui]
embraced the captain-general, and placed him between them. We went in marching order
to the place consecrated, which was not far from the shore. Before the commencement of
mass, the captain sprinkled the entire bodies of the two kings with musk water. The mass
was offered up. The kings went forward to kiss the cross as we did, but they [offered
nothing]. When the body of our Lord was elevated, they remained on their knees and
worshiped Him with clasped hands… Then [the captain-general] had a cross carried in
and the nails and a crown… He told the kings through the interpreter that they were the
standards given to him by the emperor his sovereign, so that wherever he might go he
might set up those his tokens… It was necessary to set that cross on the summit of the
highest mountain, so that on seeing it every morning, they might adore it; and if they did
that, neither thunder, lightning, nor storms would harm them in the least… The captaingeneral also asked whether they were Moros or heathen, or what their belief was. They
replied that they worshiped nothing, but that they raised their clasped hands and their
face to the sky; and that they called their god ‘Abba.’(pp. 124-127)
“After dinner we all returned clad in our doublets, and that afternoon went together
with the two kings to the summit of the highest mountain there. When we reached the
summit, the captain-general told them that he esteemed highly having sweated for them,
for since the cross was there, it could not but be of great use to them… After the cross was
erected in position, each of us repeated a Pater Noster and an Ave Maria, and adored the
cross; and the kings did the same. (p. 128)
“[In Zubu (Cebu), April 9, Tuesday], after dinner,…[with] the captain-general seated
in a red velvet chair, the principal men [of the ships] on leather chairs, and the others on
mats upon the floor, the captain-general said many things concerning peace, and that he
prayed God to confirm it in heaven. They said that they had never heard any one speak
such words, but that they took great pleasure in hearing them. The captain seeing that
they listened and answered willingly, began to advance arguments to induce them to
accept the [Christian] faith… The captain told them that God made the sky, the earth, the
sea, and everything else, and that He had commanded us to honor our fathers and
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mothers, and that whoever did otherwise was condemned to eternal fire; that we are all
descended from Adam and Eva, our first parents; that we have an immortal spirit; and
many other things pertaining to the faith… The captain [told] to them that…if they wished
to become Christians, our priest would baptize them, and that he would next time bring
priests and friars who would instruct them in our faith. They answered that they would
first speak to their king, and that then they would become Christians, [whereat] we all
wept with great joy. The captain-general told them that they should not become Christians
for fear or to please us, but of their own free wills; and that he would not cause any
displeasure to those who wished to live according to their own law, but that the Christians
would be better regarded and treated than the others. (pp. 143-145)
“On Sunday morning, April fourteen, forty men of us went ashore,… The captain and
the king [Raia Humabon] embraced… Then we all approached the platform joyfully. The
captain and the king sat down in chairs of red and violet velvet, the chiefs on cushions,
and the others on mats. The captain told the king through the interpreter that he thanked
God for inspiring him to became a Christian;… The king replied that he wished to become
a Christian, but that some of his chiefs did not wish to obey, because they said that they
were as good men as he. Then our captain had all the chiefs of the king called, and told
them that, unless they obeyed the king as their king, he would have them killed, and
would give their possessions to the king. They replied that they would obey him… A large
cross was set up in the middle of the square. The captain told them that if they wished to
become Christians as they had declared on the previous days, that they must burn all their
idols and set up a cross in their place. They were to adore that cross daily with clasped
hands, and every morning after their [i.e., the Spaniards’] custom, they were to make the
sign of the cross (which the captain showed them how to make); and they ought to come
hourly, at least in the morning, to that cross, and adore it kneeling… The captain led the
king by the hand to the platform while speaking good words in order to baptize him. He
told the king that he would call him Don Carlo, after his sovereign the emperor…(pp.155159)
“After dinner the priest and some of the others went ashore to baptize the queen, who
came with forty women. We conducted her to the platform, and she was made to sit down
upon a cushion, and the other women near her, until the priest should be ready. She was
shown an image of our Lady, a very beautiful wooden child Jesus, and a cross. Thereupon,
she was overcome with contrition, and asked for baptism amid her tears. We named her
Johanna, after the emperor’s mother… She asked us to give her the little child Jesus to
keep in place of her idols; and then she went away [Note: Magellan would later give the
statue to the queen]… Before that week had gone, all the persons of that island, and some
from the other island, were baptized. We burned one hamlet which was located in a
neighboring island, because it refused to obey the king or us. We set up the cross there for
those people were heathen. Had they been Moros, we would have erected a column there
as a token of greater hardness, for the Moros are much harder to convert than the heathen.
(pp. 159-161)
“One day the captain-general asked the king and the other people why they did not
burn their idols as they had promised when they became Christians; and why they
sacrificed so much flesh to them. They replied that what they were doing was not for
themselves, but for a sick man who had not spoken now for four days, so that the idols
might give him health… The captain told them to burn their idols and to believe in Christ,
and that if the sick man were baptized, he would quickly recover; and if that did not so
happen they could behead him [i.e., the captain] then and there. Thereupon, the king
replied that he would do it, for he truly believed in Christ. We made a procession from the
square to the house of the sick man with as much pomp as possible. There we found him
in such condition that he could neither speak nor move. We baptized him and his two
Readings in Philippine History
wives, and [some] girls. Then the captain had him asked how he felt. He spoke
immediately and said that by the grace of our Lord he felt very well. That was a most
manifest miracle [that happened] in our times. When the captain heard him speak, he
thanked God fervently. Then he made the sick man drink some almond milk, which he
had already had made for him. Afterward he sent him a mattress, a pair of sheets, a
coverlet of yellow cloth, and a pillow. Until he recovered his health, the captain sent him
almond milk, rosewater, oil of roses, and some sweet preserves. Before five days the sick
man began to walk. He had an idol that certain old women had concealed in his house
burned in the presence of the king and all the people. He had many shrines along the
seashore destroyed, in which the consecrated meat was eaten. The people themselves cried
out “Castiglia! Castiglia!” and destroyed those shrines. They said that if God would lend
them life, they would burn all the idols that they could find, even if they were in the king’s
house.”(pp. 165-167)
1. What was the purpose of the mass that Magellan’s group and the native kings
celebrated?
2. What does the cross symbolize? Why is it important for the Christians to erect a
cross for adoration?
3. What important Christian doctrines did Magellan teach the natives of Zubu?
4. Do you agree with such doctrines? Why?
5. What is the purpose of baptism? Why were the natives of Zubu who accepted
Christianity baptized?
6. What did Pigafetta mean by saying, “Moros [Muslim natives] are much harder to
convert [to Christianity] than the heathen”?
7. What is the role of miracle in the Christian faith (as what happened to the sick man
who was cured after being baptized)?
READ TO LEARN
_________________________________________________________________________
Antonio Morga (1609), in his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, narrates the coming of the Friars
[Religious Orders] who are credited for expanding the reach of Christianity across the
Philippine Islands. He also narrates the results of conversion and Christianity among the
natives.
“From the earliest beginning of the conquest and pacification of the Filipinas Islands,
the preaching of the holy gospel therein and the conversion of the natives to our holy
Catholic faith were undertaken. The first to set hand to this task were the religious of the
Order of St. Augustine, who went there with the adelantado [conqueror-governor]
Legazpi in the fleet of discovery, and those of the same order who went afterward to labor
in this work, and toiled therein with great fervor and zeal. Thus, finding the harvest in
good season, they gathered the first fruits of it, and converted and baptized many infidels
throughout the said islands.
“Next to them in the fame of this conversion, the discalced [barefooted] religious of the
Order of St. Francis went to the islands by way of Nueva España (Mexico); then those of
the Order of St. Dominic, and of the Society of Jesus. Lastly, the discalced Augustinian
Recollects went. One and all, after being established in the islands, worked in the
conversion and instruction of the natives…The Order of St. Augustine has many missions
in the islands of Pintados (Visayas) and has established and occupied monasteries…In the
island of Luzon, they have those of the province of Ylocos, some in Pangasinan, and all
Juan J. Delgado (1751-54), informs us of the census of Christian converts in the 1700s.
“I have been unable to state separately the number of souls to whom the seculars
minister in the archbishopric and in the bishoprics throughout these islands. I have seen
them enumerated only in common. They number 131,279 and live in 142 villages. [Years
1735 to 1736]
The seculars minister throughout this archipelago to
131,279
St. Augustine, throughout the islands
241,806
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those of La Pampanga—a large number of monasteries; while in the province of Manila
and its vicinity they have others, which are flourishing. The Order of St. Dominic has the
missions of the province of Cagayan, and others in the province of Pangasinan…The
Order of St. Francis has some missions and monasteries about Manila, all the province of
Camarines and the coast opposite, and La Laguna de Bay. The Society of Jesus has three
large missions in the neighborhood of Manila…It has many others on the islands of Sebu,
Leite, Ybabao, Camar [Samar], Bohol, and others nearby.
“These four orders have produced many good results in the conversion of these
islands, as above stated; and in good sooth the people have taken firm hold of the faith, as
they are a people of so good understanding. They have recognized the errors of their
paganism and the truths of the Christian religion; and they possess good and well-built
churches and monasteries of wood with their reredoses and beautiful ornaments, and all
the utensils, crosses, candlesticks, and chalices of silver and gold. Many devotions are
offered, and there are many confraternities. There is assiduity in taking the sacraments
and in attendance on the Divine services; and the people are careful to entertain and
support their religious (to whom they show great obedience and respect) by the many
alms that they give them, as well as by those that they give for the suffrages and the burial
of their dead, which they provide with all punctuality and liberality.
“At the same time that the religious undertook to teach the natives the precepts of
religion, they labored to instruct them in matters of their own improvement, and
established schools for the reading and writing of Spanish among the boys. They taught
them to serve in the church, to sing the plain-song, and to the accompaniment of the organ;
to play the flute, to dance, and to sing; and to play the harp, guitar, and other instruments.
In this they show very great adaptability, especially about Manila; where there are many
fine choirs of chanters and musicians composed of natives, who are skillful and have good
voices. There are many dancers, and musicians on the other instruments which solemnize
and adorn the feasts of the most holy sacrament, and many other feasts during the year.
The native boys present dramas and comedies, both in Spanish and in their own language,
very charmingly. This is due to the care and interest of the religious, who work tirelessly
for the natives' advancement.
“In these islands there is no native province or settlement which resists conversion or
does not desire it. But, as above stated, baptism has been postponed in some districts, for
lack of workers to remain with the people, in order that they may not retrograde and
return to their idolatries. In this work, the best that is possible is done, for the missionfields are very large and extensive. In many districts the religious make use, in their visitas
[districts which have no resident missionary, but are visited by religious from some
mission station], of certain of the natives who are clever and well instructed, so that these
may teach the others to pray daily, instruct them in other matters touching religion, and
see that they come to mass at the central missions; and in this way they succeed in
preserving and maintaining their converts.
The Society, in all the islands
170,000
St. Dominic, in all the islands
89,752
Discalced Augustinians, in all the islands
63,149
Discalced Franciscans, in all the islands
141,196
837,182
Total
Readings in Philippine History
“I reflect that no one can give a better account of the treasury than he who has
continual care of it. It is doubtless true that all or any of them may have unavoidable
errors; for the Indians are continually removing, dying, or absenting themselves.
Consequently, I judge that the number of souls, of those who are at this time reputed to be
natives of these Islands, exceeds one million. The temples [of God] where the instruction is
given in villages and visitas are in excess of seven hundred… (p. 161)
“I do not doubt that the souls ministered to throughout the islands of this archipelago,
by the secular and regular priests, will exceed one million and many thousands additional,
inasmuch as the children who are not yet seven years old are not found mentioned or
enumerated in the registers [padrones] of the ministries. Consequently, I shall give attention
only to the reckoning made a few years ago. [Year 1750] (pp. 179-180)
Villages
Souls
The clerics in
142
147,269
St. Augustine in
115
252,963
St. Francis in
63
141,193
The Society in
93
209,527
St. Dominic in
51
99,780
Recollects in
105
53,384
Total
569
904,116
John N. Schumacher (1984) narrates how a typical evangelization proceeded in all parishes
that the Spaniards established. (Note: Citations were omitted for readability purposes)
“The most important feature of the early evangelization, however, was the insistence
on continued postbaptismal instruction. If such postbaptismal instruction was not assured
in some way, generally the missionaries refused to baptize even those who earnestly
begged for it. Though a variety of methods were used, the following became the normal
structure in all Philippine parishes. The children up to the age of fourteen recited the
entire Doctrina [Cristiana] and were instructed in it daily in the schools. The bagontaos and
dalagas, from fourteen to eighteen years of age, were required to come to the church each
Saturday for Mass and for similar instruction and recitation of the Doctrina On Sundays,
either before the Mass or in the afternoon, the entire Christian community was assembled
to recite the Doctrina, either in unison or alternating, and later were questioned by the
priests. In those barrios where there was no resident priest, a fiscal was appointed who led
the respective groups in a similar recitation of the Doctrina and other prayers on those
occasions when the priest was not present. Generally speaking, strict attention was given
to attendance, by calling the roll each Sunday. Moreover, a whole series of religious
practices, from the recitation of the Angelus three times a day at the tolling of the bells, to
the Animus, prayers for the dead at the sound of the bell each night, framed the day.
Similarly, as settlements became more stable, family devotions took place at small altars
erected in the houses, and a series of weekly, monthly, and yearly observances permeated
every part of the ordinary Filipino Christian's life. So deeply were they inculcated that
they became part of the social fabric, and were performed, as far as possible, with or
without the presence of the priest.” (pp. 254-255)
Readings in Philippine History
1. What religious orders are responsible for the widespread conversion and
Christianization of natives in Spanish Philippines?
2. What might explain the names of these religious orders? (Why are they named as
such?) Note: This requires you to look for answers in other references.
3. What evidences are reported to show that the Christianization and conversion of
natives were successful?
4. What “new” learning did the Indios receive from the religious orders?
5. How did the religious orders address the lack of Spanish priests and missionaries
who were needed in the teaching of Christian precepts?
6. What was the primary resource that the priests used in teaching the new converts?
7. How would you describe the typical life of an Indio, a Christianized native?
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 4.2.1. Encomienda and Christianity
Readings in Philippine History
CROSSWORD PUZZLE: Using the given clues, readings, and other references,
answer correctly the puzzle below.
Unit 7. Responses to Spanish colonialism and the weaving of national consciousness
Lesson 4.3. 17th century revolts against Spanish rule
Lesson outcomes:
1. Analyze selected texts on the revolts and rebellions against Spanish rule
2. Explain the causes and results of the revolts against Spanish rule
Lesson overview: This lesson presents narratives of revolts against Spanish rule.
Revolts had varied causes: Spanish oppression, land problems, and personal desires
of former native leaders to gain back what they have lost due to colonization.
Tamblot Revolt [1622]. “During this time, the island of Bohol rebelled…A babaylán or
priest called Tamblot had deceived them, by telling them that the time was come when
they could throw off the oppression of the Castilians; for they were assured of the aid of
their ancestors and divatas, or gods. And in order that they might know this, it was proved
by certain signs. The priest went with some of the more trusty among them, cut a bamboo
with a small knife, and wine gushed forth. He cut another, and rice came out. These
articles he had hidden there cunningly and adroitly. Consequently those men were
convinced, and became preachers of those lies, which the Indians love and believe so
readily; while we have no power to enable us to persuade them of the certainty of our
faith…(Medina, 1893, p. 116) The majority of the ministers in the island of Bohol had gone
to Zebu, to celebrate the feasts of the beatification of St. Xavier; in their absence [Tamblot]
commanded them to quit the gospel ministers and the Spanish vassalage, and take refuge
in the hills; and to build him [Tamblot] a chapel, where he would aid them and give them
whatever they needed to pass their lives in happiness and abundance, without the
encumbrance of paying tribute to the Spaniards or dues to the churches…With these
magnificent promises, so attractive to men—and especially to the Indians, who are so
inclined to idleness and sloth—four villages revolted…(Murillo Velarde, Bernal Diaz as
quoted by Blair & Robertson, 1906, p. 88)
“Don Juan de Alcarazo, alcalde-mayor of Zebu, went [and] invited them to
make peace, for which the rebels did not care. Their boldness increasing, they burned the
four villages and their churches; they flung on the ground the rosaries and crosses, and
pierced an image of the blessed Virgin eighteen times with javelins… Thereupon the chief
ordered troops from Zebu, fifty Spaniards and a thousand friendly Indians, accompanied
by a father; and on New Year’s day, 1622, he began the march to the mountains, where the
insurgents were… [On the sixth day], more than 1,500 rebel Indians attacked our
vanguard, which consisted of sixteen Spaniards and three hundred Indians; but when our
muskets were fired so many fell dead that the rebels began to retreat to a bamboo
thicket…The rebels were in a fortification of stone, in which they had placed many stones
and clods of earth to throw at our men; but the latter, covering themselves with their
shields, seized the redoubt, with the death of many of the enemy, and in a fortnight
returned to Loboc. Captain Alcarazo, who was foremost in all these engagements,
commanded that some of the rebels be hanged, and published a pardon to the rest; and he
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READ TO LEARN
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Readings in Philippine History
returned to Zebu, where the victory was celebrated……”(Murillo Velarde, Bernal Diaz as
quoted by Blair & Robertson, 1906, p. 89)
Bancao Revolt [1622]. “The natives of Carigara in the island of Leyte became impatient,
and revolted without waiting for the result in Bohol, incited thereto by Bancao, the ruling
chief of Limasava—…baptised and, although a young man, showed that he was loyal to
the Christians; but, conquered by the enemy [of souls], he changed sides in his old age.
This man…, with a son of his and another man, Pagali [a native priest], erected a sacred
place to the divata, or devil; and they induced six villages in the island to rebel. In order
to remove from them their fear of the Spaniards, these men told their followers that they
could change the Spaniards into stones as soon as they saw them,… and that a woman or
a child could change them into clay by flinging earth upon them…Captain Alcarazo
equipped an armada of forty vessels, in which were embarked some Spaniards and many
friendly Indians,…united with the forces…that the alcalde of Leyte had. They offered
peace to the rebels, but the latter spurned it with contempt. Our men…attacked them;
and…, they fled to the hills. Our soldiers followed them, and on the way put to the sword
or shot those whom they encountered;…Many of the rebels died…; the rest saved
themselves by flight… Someone pierced with a lance Bancao…not knowing who he was,
whom two of his slaves were carrying on their shoulders and immediately his head was
placed on a stake as a public warning…His second son was beheaded as a traitor, and a
daughter of his was taken captive. To inspire greater terror, the captain gave orders to
shoot three or four rebels, and to burn one of their priests—in order that, by the light of
that fire, the blindness in which the divata had kept them deluded might be removed. The
Spaniards also cut off the head of an Indian who had robbed [a Spanish priest] and [had]
broken to pieces an image of the Virgin, and kicked a crucifix; and his head was set up in
the same place where he had committed those horrible sacrileges.” (Velarde and Diaz as
quoted by Blair & Robertson, 1906, pp. 92-94)
Ladia Revolt. “Another rebellion, which threatened a great outbreak, was checked (in
the year 1643) by father Fray Cristobal Enriquez. In the district of Malolos in the province
of Bulacán, an Indian named Don Pedro Ladía, a native of Borney, went about promoting
sedition; he proclaimed that to him belonged the right of being king over the provinces of
Tagalos, alleging that he was a descendant of Raja Matanda, the petty king whom the
Spaniards found at Manila in the year 1571. With these and other impostures, aided by
wine—the chief counselor in matters of policy and war, among those natives—and with
the consultations with the demon which always figure on these occasions, he kept many
villages of that district disquieted. But the sagacious procedure of father Fray Cristobal
Enriquez intercepted all these misfortunes which were threatening us, by furnishing a
plan for the arrest of Don Pedro Ladía—who already was styling himself ‘king of the
Tagálogs;’ he was sent to Manila, where, he paid with his life for his vain presumption.
And thus this revolt, lacking even that weak foundation, was entirely quieted. (Diaz as
quoted by Blair & Robertson, 1906, pp. 99)
Sumoroy Revolt [1649-50].“There was an Indian named Sumoroy in the village of
Palapag [in Samar]… He was greatly addicted to drunkenness, and he had so promoted it
[in others] that all the village was contaminated with this vice… At the time, Governor
Don Diego Fajardo—with the intention of relieving the near-by provinces of Tagalos and
Pampanga from the burden of working, at the harbor of Cavite, in the building of galleons
and vessels necessary for the conservation and defense of these islands—had ordered the
alcaldes of Leite and other provinces to send men thence to Cavite for that employment.
That was a difficult undertaking, because of the distance of more than one hundred leguas,
1. What might be the primary motive behind the revolt headed by babaylans or native
priests?
2. How did the babaylans persuade the Christianized natives to revolt against the
Spanish religious orders and clergy?
3. What tactics did the Indios employ to sustain their revolts and rebellion?
4. Are the severe punishments imposed upon the Indios who revolted justifiable?
Why?
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and the troubles and wrongs to the said Indians that would result from their leaving their
homes for so long a time…As soon as the inhabitants of Palapag saw that the alcaldesmayor were beginning to collect men to send them to the harbor of Cavite, they began to
go oftener to the meetings in the house of Sumoroy and his father [a babaylan], and to
begin…to organize their insurrection. They quickly appointed leaders, [Sumuroy was one
of three]… Then they discussed the murder of the father minister, Miguel Ponce of the
Society of Jesus, at the suggestion of…the father of Sumoroy… On Tuesday evening, the
first of June, 1649, [Sumoroy] went to the house of the father, who had just eaten his
dinner, and was ascending a narrow ladder to his house. Sumoroy awaited him at that
place, and hurling his lance, pierced his breast from side to side, and left him dead… Next
day they despoiled the house and church of its furniture and holy ornaments; profaned
the altars and sacred images; scattered the holy oils;…The insurgents incited the
inhabitants of Catubig, who also revolted…[More natives in nearby and farther places and
islands would revolt destroying churches and killing Christian priests and ministers]…[In
July 1650], Captain Silvestre de Rodas [and his soldiers] made the assault [against the
insurgents]… Unfurling their victorious banners, they took possession of the lodgings,
trenches, and food of the enemy. Don Ginés de Rojas ascended the hill with his whole
army, and destroyed the insurgent quarters by setting fire to them. Having published a
general pardon, those who had been insurgents before, presented themselves in peace.
The chief leader Sumoroy…refused to put in an appearance, or to talk of peace. But the
very ones whom he had caused to rebel killed him, and carried his head to Don Ginés de
Rojas…”(Diaz as quoted by Blair & Robertson, 1906, pp. 115-116, 128)
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 4.3.1. Motives behind the revolts
Using the readings, other references, and stock knowledge, identify the primary
motives behind the following revolts. Categorize each motive as either: Political,
Economic, or Religious. Write only one motive for each revolt.
Revolts, Rebellions and Resistance
1. Lakandula and Sulayman
2. Ambaristo
3. Tamblot
4. Bancao
5. Dagohoy
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6. Magalat
7. Maniago
8. Diego Silang
9. Hermano Pule
10. Sumuroy
11. Andres Malong
12. Almazan
13. Tapar
14. Palaris
15. Ladia
Category
Lesson 4.4. The Propaganda Movement
Lesson outcomes:
1. Analyze selected texts on the Reform Movement of the late 1800s
2. Evaluate the objectives and reforms advocated by the Ilustrados
Lesson overview: This lesson deals with the account of the Reform Movement
initiated and advocated by the middle-class Indios who were dubbed as Ilustrados. It
should be noted that other than the revolts and rebellions, peacefully campaigning for
reforms was another response of the Indios to Spanish colonialism.
“The Philippine reform movement or what is to be known in our history as the
Propaganda Movement was a result of the nationalism from a modernizing Spanish
colony. The enlightened Filipinos became aware that the fight for nationalism and equality
was not to be fought in their own country but in the land of their colonial masters.
Dissatisfied with their roles as colonials, but unable to fight and foster their ideals in their
homeland, the ilustrados [enlightened; learned] opted to do their campaign abroad in the
liberal atmosphere of Spain. It must be made clear to the authorities, however, that the
changes they wanted to achieve had to be done by peaceful means. They wanted reform
not revolution.
“Though several middle-class sons were sent to Spain, only a few actually worked in
the reformist movement. Among them were young men like Jose Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar,
Jose Alejandrino, Pedro Pat-erno, Graciano Lopez Jaena, Eduardo de Lete, Jose Maria
Panganiban, Mariano Ponce, and the brothers, Juan and Antonio Luna. These men worked
hard in the creation of the movement and its eventual recog-nition in Spanish society.
“For the next 15 years, beginning in 1880 until 1895, the Propaganda Movement
formed a cause that battled the colonial government and the Catholic Church in the
Philippines with the might of the pen.
[La Solidaridad]. In [the] history of the La Solidaridad (or Soli) based on Timoteo Paez’
account, here are the facts about the newspaper:
‘The La Solidaridad was founded on Febru-ary 15, 1889 in Barcelona by Galicano
Apaci-ble, Jose Ma. Panganiban, Mariano Ponce. Pablo Rianzares Bautista, and
Santiago Icasiano. The main proponent of the news-paper project, however, was
Mariano Ponce, who became administrator and the business manager of the
newspaper. The newspaper began with funds these men contributed. Paez
mentioned that Ponce and Bautista gave 10 reales fuertes each while Panganiban
gave three duros.’
“The objectives of the La Solidaridad were printed on the front page of the first issue:
‘Our program, aside from being harmless is very simple, to fight all reactions, to
hinder all steps backward, to applaud and to accept all liberal ideas, and to defend
progress....
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@@READ TO LEARN
________________________________________________________________________
From Jose Victor Torres’ (2017) article, the following excerpt gives details about the
Propaganda Movement and the La Solidaridad [Note: In-text citations were omitted for
readability purposes].
‘The aims, therefore, of La Solidaridad are defined: to gather, to collect liberal ideas
which are daily exposed in the camp of politics, in the fields of science, arts, letters,
commerce, agriculture, and industry....
‘We shall pay special attention to the Philippines because these islands need the
most help having been deprived of representation in the Cortes [Parliament]. We
shall fulfill one patriotic duty in the defense of democracy in those islands. That
nation of eight million souls should not and must not be the exclusive patrimony
of theocracy and conservatism.’
“As Schumacher said:
Readings in Philippine History
‘The newspaper unabashedly took a partisan stance, associating itself with the
generally anti-clerical republican parties of Spain, and to a lesser extent with the
left wing of the liberals. It announced its program as “assimilation” –the full
application to the Philippines of Spanish law and ‘the rights conceded to it.’
(Schumacher, nd)
“The writers of the Solidaridad were among the best of the intellectuals in the Filipino
community in Spain. The articles, at first, remained uncredited for obvious reasons but
later the writers started using pseudonyms: Rizal was Dimas-Alang and Laong-Laan;
Ponce -Kalipulako, Tikbalang, Naning; Del Pilar -Plaridel; Antonio Luna -Taga-Ilog; and
Panganiban -Jomapa.
“A problem of the reformists about the La Solidaridad was disseminating the
newspaper, along with their other writings, in the Philippines. Reports of their antigovernment activities had already reached the colonial authorities in Manila. [Thus],
copies of the Soli were smuggled to the islands by sympathizers working in the mail and
telegraph offices in Manila…The price for getting caught with copies of the La Solidaridad
and other subversive propaganda materials was heavy. Many were arrested and deported.
Among them were two relatives of Del Pilar who he was relying on for funding.
“The end of the La Solidaridad came in the seventh year of its existence. By this time
the reform movement was waning. Rizal had returned to the Philippines in 1892 and
founded the La Liga Filipina on July 3. He was, however, arrested that same evening and
ordered deported to Dapitan four days later. With Rizal gone, it was the end of the La
Liga. The remaining members tried to continue the organization along with its aims of
reform and support for the La Solidaridad. But the Liga lasted for only a few months as
the members saw the futility of continuing the call for reforms as it apparently fell on deaf
ears in the Spanish colonial administration. The group broke into two factions: the Cuerpo
de Compromisarios led by Numeriano Adriano and the Katipunan led by Andres
Bonifacio.”
“An Examination. La Solidaridad went into a steady decline as the years passed.
Several factors were cited:
“First, as mentioned in Mabini’s letter to Del Pilar, the irregularity of funds. Money
was a continuous problem despite the financial support from fellow Filipinos and
sympathizers in Spain. The reformists not only had to pay for the printing of the
newspapers, they had to deal with expenses like rent for the offices as well as salaries for
the staff and the correspondents and fees for the use of the telegraph and other means of
communication as well as the sending of the newspaper.
“Second, the effective vigilance of the Spanish authorities in the Philippines led to a
low circulation of the Soli in the country. And without a good circulation, subscriptions
from readers were very few, leading to a shortage of funds.
“Third, a rift between Rizal and Del Pilar over the leadership of the reformists
climaxed with the breakaway of Rizal from the movement and the Soli. This worsened the
newspaper’s precarious circulation since Rizal had many supporters and readers. Del Pilar
was left with Ponce to manage the newspaper. The contents soon became repetitious for
Del Pilar had dis-cussed issues over and over in earlier Soli articles. Interest among the
Spanish politicians waned.
1. Who are the Ilustrados? Why are they called as such?
2. Why do historians call the Reform Movement of 1880-1895 as ‘Propaganda
Movement’?
3. What are ‘liberal’ ideas and how did such ideas influence the Propaganda
Movement?
4. What might have motivated the Reformists to fight for ‘assimilation’ and not for
‘independence’?
5. Despite its failure, how was the Propaganda Movement contributory to the
formation of other movements against Spanish rule?
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“As an organ of the reformists, it was successful, but as a means to influence the
Spaniards, it failed. Assimilation became an impossible dream for the reformists…The
positive result of the newspaper, however, was that it still contributed, in a small way, to
the development of the identity of the Filipinos. The ideas the newspaper expounded,
coupled with the call for reforms and assimilation introduced the Filipinos to their
standing as members of Spanish society –not as colonials but as equals. It also contributed
to their realization of the futility of having equal status with Spaniards. Independence
would soon become the cry of the people.” (pp. 45-51)
READ TO LEARN
_________________________________________________________________________
Below is a copy of the aims of the La Liga Filipina, the civic society that Jose Rizal founded in
the Philippines on July 3, 1892 (Agoncillo, 2012):
1. To unite the whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous, and homogenous body;
2. Mutual protection in every want and necessity;
3. Defense against all violence and injustice;
4. Encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce; and
5. Study and application of reforms (p. 153)
Agoncillo (2012) further outlines the reforms that a combined group of Spanish and Filipino
reformists, the Hispano-Filipino Association, aimed to secure for the Philippines.
Readings in Philippine History
The organization was “conceived as early as 1888 [but it] was inaugurated in January
12, 1889 in Madrid, [Spain].”(p. 150) Prominent among the Spanish members were Miguel
Morayta, professor of history at the Universidad Central de Madrid, and Felipe de la
Corte, a writer of Philippine Studies (Agoncillo, 2012).
Among the reforms needed in the Philippines the organization outlined was:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The compulsory teaching of Spanish in all schools;
The suppression of inhuman punishment in all jails;
The establishment of the civil register and the register of deeds;
Abolition of the diezmos prediales (tax which amounted to one-tenth of the produce
of the land) and the sancturom (tax for the support of the church);
Establishment of secondary schools in the provinces;
Establishment of agricultural banks;
Reforms in the University of Sto. Tomas in order to raise it to the rank of the
universities in Spain;
Initiation of reforms in the public administration; and,
Construction of good roads and railways. (pp. 150-151)
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 4.4.1. The Propaganda movement objectives
Given are inferences based on the aims and objectives of the Propaganda Movement
as provided in the previous readings. Decide whether each of the inferences is
possibly valid or invalid. For each valid answer, you write V; for each invalid statement,
write IN. (Write your answer on the blank before each statement.)
____1. The propaganda movement was an open-minded, pro-democracy organization
of learned men.
____2. The propagandists aimed to expose liberal thinking which affected government
matters, business activities, and social aspects of life.
____3. Theocracy is what the Reformists wanted the Spaniards to preserve for the
benefit of future generations.
____5. For Jose Rizal, the improvement of education, farming, and trade are
contributory to the progress of the Filipino nation.
____6. The Hispano-Filipino Association advocated for the mandatory learning of the
Spanish language in Philippine schools.
____7. The propagandists exposed the deplorable condition of education, commerce,
and public infrastructure in the Philippines.
____8. As assimilationists, the Propagandists fought for the freedom and
independence of the Philippines from Spain.
____9. Taxes, according to the Reformists, appear to be acceptable on the part of the
natives as long as these are for church matters.
___10. The Propagandists were against imprisonment so they suggested that Indios
should not be put in jails.
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____4. If the Philippines will be assimilated by Spain, the Reformists claimed, the
country’s people will be deprived of their human rights.
Lesson 4.5. The Revolution Movement of 1896
Lesson outcomes:
1. Analyze selected texts on the Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang Katipunan ng
mga Anak ng Bayan
2. Evaluate the objectives and teachings advocated by the Katipunan
Lesson overview: This lesson deals with the Revolution Movement of 1896 known as
the Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan [KKK] or
Katipunan. This movement was established at a time that the Indios realized that the
Propaganda Movement was doomed.
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@@READ TO LEARN
________________________________________________________________________
Jim Richardson (2013) posted “foundational” documents of the Katipunan in his
website, http://www.kasaysayan-kkk.info/, a site dedicated to Katipunan documents
and studies. Given below are excerpts of the translated documents.
“Kasaysayan; Pinag-kasundoan; Manga dakuilang kautusan,” August 1892 [Narrative;
Covenant; Principal orders]
“Narrative
“There is a country that is ruled by wickedness and cruelty; the laws are worthless and
what prevails is the rule of the mighty. And yet this country is sacrificing its blood and
life for the honor and glory of its rulers, just to be called brother or child. Its wealth, life
and honor are at the disposal of people with evil desires. For more than three centuries it
has suffered hardship and wearisome deceit: a record not of tolerant benevolence, but of
callous neglect.
“This country is ours; this chronicle of oppression is ours. A country full of suffering,
to the extent of slavery. Oh Philippines! How wretched you are! Oh country of our
birth! Had she wanted you to progress, she would have given you advantages over other
peoples; had she desired your welfare, she would have treated you like a favored
child. But you have not been treated like this. You have been persecuted; you have
suffered despicable punishments and grave injustices. [To Spain:] One by one your
children are accusing you; here too you despise the very being of those who cannot
answer back or protest that honor is being stained.
“Great and certain is the honor to be accorded to those who devote their hearts and
souls to their country, because they are prepared to leave their parents, brothers and
sisters, spouses, children and friends, to forsake their own interests and wealth, and to
disregard the hardship ahead. Their single goal, their single thought, is the betterment of
the land of their birth.
“And therefore to my beloved brothers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora, who were reviled
for their absolute devotion to the Philippines, our country, and to those who are now
being sent to isolated places, punished, and dying in exile, we dedicate our hearts and
lives in solidarity under a great and resolute Katipunan, which is now constituted to
wrench this our country from the rapacious claws of the Spaniards and from the
enslavement and hardship they inflict upon us in pursuit of their desire to succor and
benefit themselves.
“Covenant
“Having regard to all the abuses just narrated, the acts perpetrated by the Spaniards
that open deep wounds in our heart, and for the reasons that are enumerated above, we
affirm below this document that we are of one accord and conviction to extirpate the
oppression, maltreatment, enslavement and many other excesses that this subjugated and
oppressed Archipelago suffers at the hands of its pitiless, ravenous and bestial
oppressors.
“In order to ensure the success of this momentous and arduous undertaking, and to
fortify our strength, we place ourselves before the High Tribunal of God the Creator and
we request the help of his great strength and power in order that we may be sheltered and
succored by true reason.
“For the fulfilment of what we have discussed and covenanted, we swear in the name
of God before this Supreme Katipunan and our loved ones to defend this, our country and
to strive, come what may, for her independence and separation from Spain.
“For the fulfilment of this sacred cause, we shall respond with our bodies, lives and
wealth, now and in the future.
“We swear also that we shall adopt and shall put into effect the principal orders that
have been signed and agreed by ourselves and by other Gentlemen who belong to this
Katipunan, whom we respect and salute. These orders are attached at the end.
“Principal orders [an excerpt)
“In conformity with the foregoing narrative and covenant, we direct the whole subject
and subjugated population of this Philippine Archipelago, now and in the future, to
observe and implement the following orders:-
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“We should not believe the honeyed words about being guided and tutored; we have
been invited to observe the reality by our brave and beloved brother Mr. Rizal, who
desires the welfare and education of the country most earnestly, but who has now been
exiled by the malefactors.
“Whereas the most important, most abundantly honorable and sublime duties of any
enlightened power are to defend her country, to safeguard its welfare, to expend riches,
blood and even life for her country, brothers and children in order that they are not
oppressed and enslaved by another ruler.
“Whereas the Creator does not mandate any one of His creations to oppress and
trample on another.
“Whereas to defend and love one’s country is not a crime, especially if she is
suffocated and enslaved by her rulers, as is happening now.
“Whereas a people whose interests, needs and true and genuine desires are under
relentless attack has just cause to bring down the leaders or rulers who behave in such a
way, and that if this eventuality arrives it is not lawless or traitorous, but the defense of
true reason, and a revolt against the flame of hardship.
“Whereas no Laws have been passed or justification given for the confiscation of
anything that is not hers, and that we are the true owners of this land, it is just for us to
demand the return of what has been borrowed, for us to govern these Islands. We do not
need the intervention or direction of people from other lands, because if that happens, like
now, the result is frustration, humiliation, enslavement, and slaughter.
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“1. Be it declared that from this day forward this Archipelago is separated from Spain,
and that no leadership is recognized or will be recognized other than this Supreme
Katipunan.
“2. The Supreme Katipunan is hereby established, and henceforth it will be the
paramount authority throughout the entire Archipelago and will issue the principal
orders.
“3. The Katipunan has a paramount Chief who is to be recognized, respected and
obeyed by all who support and join the Association here or the Katipunans established in
other towns and provinces of this Archipelago.
“4. The Chief has two groups of three in his administration, who will be called
Councilors. Their decisions must be followed and implemented without protest by all
subordinates.
“8. Each Katipunan of three should deliberate on steps that will be effective in
strengthening unity, defending brothers who are suffering misfortune, developing skills
of leadership and encouraging good conduct amongst all members, and likewise in
spreading news, notifying members of new instructions, and in bringing to the attention
of the chief anything they notice about the enemy, and information about the deposits in
their reserves.
“11. Those who will be admitted into this great Katipunan must be people known to
be of good character, to have their hearts set on the defense of our country, and to be
prepared to face the trials they will be set. Before the supreme Head authorizes a person’s
admission, a group of three must be persuaded that he is worthy of being received into the
Katipunan. He will then take a new name, swear before God in the name of this
Philippines to pledge his life in defence of the country and sign a pledge to that effect.
“12. Leaders must demonstrate to their followers meritorious and commendable
qualities such as fellowship, friendship, brotherhood, and good parenting, and likewise
show compassion toward whoever is in need.
“Rules for all. Absolute secrecy must be maintained in relation to the plans, deeds and
commands of the chiefs of the Katipunan. These must not be disclosed even to parents,
brothers and sisters, children, spouses and other loved ones and partners in life, no matter
what the temptation, because the Katipunan will deal harshly with every violation of this
order.”
1. What is the primary aims of the Katipunan?
2. In summary, what drove the Katipuneros to organize their movement against the
Spanish colonizers?
3. Do you agree with the statement, “Great and certain is the honor to be accorded to
those who devote their hearts and souls to their country”? Why?
4. What evidences show the influence of Christianity on the Katipunan’s “Narrative
and Covenant”?
5. What are required from Indios who desire to become members of the Katipunan?
6. What are required of the Katipunan leaders? Why were these qualities important
(at that time)?
READ TO LEARN
________________________________________________________________________________
Katipunan nang manga A. N. B. – Sa may nasang makisanib sa katipunang ito [The
“Kartilya”], Emilio Jacinto, c. 1896 [an excerpt]
Richardson (2013) comments: “Taught in schools and debated in universities, the ‘Kartilya’
is the best known of all Katipunan texts. Making manifest the KKK’s principles and
teachings, it was printed as a small pamphlet for new members.”
“In order that all who want to enter this Association may have a full understanding
and knowledge of its guiding principles and main teachings, it is necessary to make these
things known to them so that they will not, tomorrow or the next day, repent, and so that
they may perform their duties wholeheartedly.
“This Association pursues a most worthy and momentous object: to unite the hearts
and minds of all the Tagalogs (*) by means of an inviolable oath, in order that this union
may be strong enough to tear aside the thick veil that obscures thought, and to find the
true path of Reason and Enlightenment.
(*The word Tagalog means all those born in this Archipelago; even a person who is a
Visayan, Ilocano, or Kapampangan, etc. is therefore a Tagalog too.)
“One of the foremost rules here is true love of the native land and genuine compassion
for one another…As soon as anybody enters here, he shall perforce renounce disorderly
habits and shall submit to the authority of the sacred commands of the Katipunan.
“TEACHINGS OF THE KATIPUNAN OF THE SONS OF THE PEOPLE
“[A] A life that is not dedicated to a great and sacred cause is like a tree without a
shade, or a poisonous weed.
“[B] A good deed lacks virtue if it springs from a desire for personal profit and not
from a sincere desire to do good.
“[C] True charity resides in acts of compassion, in love for one’s fellow men, and in
making true Reason the measure of every move, deed and word.
“[D] Be their skin dark or pale, all men are equal. One can be superior to another in
knowledge, wealth and beauty... but not in being.
“[E] A person with a noble character values honor above self-interest, while a person
with an ignoble character values self-interest above honor.
“[F] An honorable man’s word is his bond.
“[G] Don’t waste time; lost wealth may be recovered, but time lost is lost forever.
“[H] Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
“[I] An intelligent man is he who takes care in everything he says and keeps quiet
about what must be kept secret.
“[J] Along the thorny path of life, the man leads the way and his wife and children
follow. If the leader goes the way of perdition, then so do those who are led.
“[K] Do not regard a woman as a mere plaything, but as a helpmate and partner in the
hardships of this existence. Have due regard to her weakness, and remember the mother
who brought you into this world and nurtured you in your infancy.
“[L] What you would not want done to your wife, daughter and sister, do not do to
the wife, daughter and sister of another.
Readings in Philippine History
“To those who want to join this association.
Readings in Philippine History
“[M] A man’s worth does not come from him being a king, or in the height of his nose
and the whiteness of his face, or in him being a priest, a REPRESENTATIVE OF GOD, or
in his exalted position on the face of this earth. Pure and truly noble is he who, though
born in the forest and able to speak only his own tongue, behaves decently, is true to his
word, has dignity and honor, who is not an oppressor and does not abet oppressors, who
knows how to cherish and look after the land of his birth.”
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 4.5.1. Katipunan teachings in the Kartilya
Given are statements that are related or associated to the 13 teachings of the
Katipunan in the Kartilya. Using the letters, A, B, C, D, and so on until M, match each
numbered statement to each teaching of the Katipunan. Write the corresponding letter
on the space before each number. No answers may be repeated.
____1. “Be of good report; watch your actions; temper your thoughts.”
____2. “Promise is a promise; don’t fail to fulfill your promise.”
____3. “Jail the [drug] pusher; save the [drug] user.”
____4. “Love begets love; hate begets hate; you choose.”
____5. “Heroes die with a good name because they die so that others may live.”
____6. “I will help this beggar so people will praise me for my kindness.”
____8. “Pig philosophy: Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow you die.”
____9. “Rich or poor; wise or stupid; handsome or ugly; black or white---they all die!”
____10. “Do not procrastinate! Do what you can do now.”
____11. “Not your position nor possession; not your beauty nor your body; It’s your
character, it’s your heart that matters most.”
____12. “Behind the success of a man is a woman.”
____13. “Bridle your tongue! Walls have eyes and ears.”
Readings in Philippine History
____7. “A good tree brings forth good fruits.”
EXTENDED READING
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Igorot Responses to Spanish Aims: 1576-1896 [An excerpt]. In the following article,
W.H. Scott (1970) presents how the Igorots responded to Spanish colonialism.
“In John Leddy Phelan's well-known The Hispanizatwn of the Philippines: Spanish Aims
and Filipino Responses 1565-1700, the failure of the Spaniards to conquer the Ygolote
mountains of Northern Luzon is relegated to one short paragraph and analyzed in one
sentence: ‘In the face of the uncompromising hostility of the mountaineers and the
reluctance of Manila to underwrite the expenses of a prolonged and costly territorial
occupation, various military expeditions in 1591, 1608, 1635, and 1663 proved fruitless.’
Readings in Philippine History
“The contrast between this response and that of the lowland populations that formed
the subject of Phelan's study, and the paucity of detail about how this, response was
expressed, may perhaps be explained by recourse to the opinion of Filipino historian
Teodoro Agoncillo that ‘with few exceptions the document of the pre-1872 Philippines
deal almost exclusively with the history of Spain in the Philippines. In the three centuries
before the outbreak of the Revolution in 1896, the Filipinos played or were forced to play,
a passive role in the development of their polity, namely, that of slaves or near-slaves…’
“Yet documents are not completely wanting to provide some insight into the
motivations and methods of this Igorot defense of the Gran Cordillera Central, for Spanish
records themselves leave no doubt that 'these mountain peoples fought for their liberty
with every means at their disposal for 320 years, and that this resistance was deliberate,
self-conscious, and continuous. That it was largely successful is indicated by the fact that
at the end of the Spanish regime when Igorot territory had been carved up into a dozen
military districts, the last census still listed one-third of the estimated mountain
population as completely independent.
“Although these facts seem not to have found a place in standard Philippine textbooks,
they are available not only in remote archives but even in such popular English
translations as the publications of the Filipiniana Book Guild. Sinibaldo de Mas, for
instance, said, ‘One of the things which most attracts the attention upon arrival in the
Philippines is to hear talk of the independent tribes that live in the center of the islands
without either the benefit of missions or the force of arms having been able to subjugate
them up to the present.’ It was a thing, indeed, which attracted the attention of visitors to
the Philippines during the entire Spanish regime. Italian traveler Giovanni Careri noted
the independence of these ‘tall warlike’ Igolotti in 1698, and so did American Admiral
Charles Wilkes in 1842 when he collected a Bontoc head ax which can still be seen in the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. Nor did the economic implications of this
independence pass unnoted - Frenchman Guillaume le Gentil was assured in 1766 ‘that
every year two hundred thousand pesos are absorbed by this people,’ and German Fedor
Jagor commented of their mining techniques in 1873, ‘What Europeans yet appear unable
to accomplish, the wild Igorots, who inhabit that trackless range of mountains, have
carried on successfully for centuries.’ And during the Revolution at the very end of the
Spanish regime, Englishman John Foreman remarked, ‘The feeble efforts displayed to
conquer them only served to demonstrate the impotence of the Europeans.’
“In addition to such chance references, there is a voluminous manuscript collection of
missionary accounts and military =ports in Philippine archives, which, strangely enough,
“A fair sample of how this theory was carried out in practice may be taken from the
report of the expedition of 1620 to the Baguio gold mines written by its commanding
officer, Garcia de Aldana y Cabrera. The decision having been made in the preceding year
that a just war could be waged against the Igorots for their offenses to loyal vassals of the
Crown - and that the discovery and exploitation of their gold mines would benefit
everybody concerned-, Aldana was ordered to mount the appropriate punitive expedition.
He organized a force of some 1,700 Spanish and Filipino soldiers, friars and cargadores, and
set out from Aringay in the present province of La Union on March 12. After a two-day
march, he was met by a party of 50 Igorot chieftains who desired a parley with him. He
received them politely and explained that he had come to pardon all their crimes if they
would but accept Christianity, missionaries and vassalage to the King of Spain. This they
declined to do, saying rather that if he wished to proceed in friendship, he would have to
pay tribute to them; otherwise, he could climb up the mountains and find out for himself
what stuff Igorots were made of. They then departed, and Aldana continued unopposed
for another three days until he reached and occupied the town of Boa (just below Mines
View Park in Baguio today), deserted and burnt to the ground.
“Here he fortified himself and took possession in the name of His Majesty, while three
Dominicans executed affidavits of having said mass unopposed by any other religious,
thereby staking missionary claim to the area. Aldana then gent for the local Igorots and
offered them the same choice, but they simply laughed, asked when he was planning to
depart, and went off, leaving him with the impression they had retreated-until they took
the heads of two lowlanders a few days later who had sneaked off during mass. He then
sent out five companies, ‘did what seemed best to punish such audacity,’ and took eleven
chieftains alive, sparing them only on their promise to pay tribute, never to take heads
again, and to turn over for punishment any of their fellows who might. Then, collecting
130 pesos in gold as tribute and delivering himself of his final threats, Aldana returned to
Aringay where he wrote his report on May 20, and then proceeded to Manila to register
Readings in Philippine History
makes the Igorot response more immediately obvious than the Spanish aims. For Spanish
aims were not only mixed but mixed in different proportions at different times - to extend
or protect conquered territory, to win new souls for Christ or save old ones from apostasy,
to discover exotic products or exploit ordinary ones, or simply to respond manfully to
pride of conquest and love of gold. They were, moreover, somewhat confused in
statement by the tender legal conscience of a monarchy committed to the proposition that
no government had a legitimate right to rule without the consent of the governed. In
theory at least, if the Igorots had not embarrassed the exercise of Spanish sovereignty in
the lowlands, they would have been left in peaceful possession of their homes, gold mines
and religion--despite, presumably, whatever pangs of conscience missionary bishops
would have suffered at such abandonment of pagans to eternal perdition or such nagging
doubts as theologians raised by wondering if God had really buried all that gold in the
mountains of Northern Luzon just for the use of a horde of naked savages. It was this
theory which was invoked as late as 1881 when the Colonial Minister ordered the
Governor General to cancel an expedition he was mounting against the Igorots, although
the subtlety of such reasoning would probably have been lost on any Igorots who might
have heard it while Spanish garrisons were being maintained by armed might on the
Cordillera at that very time. But, in terms of colonial jurisprudence, those garrisons were
both the legal and logical extension of earlier punitive expeditions sent out in just
retribution for such breaches of natural or international law as entering Spanish territory
to attack Spanish subjects - or to sell them contraband goods like tobacco.
Readings in Philippine History
the gold with the Royal Treasurer and execute a petition for bonus pay for himself and his
troops.
“For the next three centuries, Spaniards who found themselves in the contested
regions, whatever their aims, considered the Spanish Crown the legitimate government
there, and so regarded all such resistance as illegal. An Augustinian, describing how ‘the
inhabitants of Bontoc had been entertaining the idea of independence for a long time’ in
1881, lauded the greater passivity of the ‘peaceful inhabitants’ of Lepanto who rejected ‘so
criminal a proposition.’ Juan de la Concepci6n in 1792 bemoaned the difficulty of
civilizing the Igorots because they were all raised ‘in total liberty without any subjection at
all.’ Spanish authors inclined to the opinion that such recalcitrance was to be accounted for
by the simple instinct of a savage people who had been enemies of the more peaceful
lowlanders from time immemorial. The literature lends little support to this theory,
however, for it provides no evidence that these mountaineers were at war with their
lowland neighbors during the first generation of the Spanish conquest. Quite the contrary,
Morga in 1607 implied a sort of commercial partnership between Igorots and Ilocanos in
the gold trade, the former mining it and the latter refining and distributing it. As a matter
of fact, the Ilocanos appear to have been busy enough just fighting each other--a 1591
report states that before the effective imposition of Spanish police power, ‘every one of the
timaguas and chieftains who took it into his head…would sally forth into the roads and
other natives' fields and kill and rob them.’
“A few years later, however, lowland Filipinos who submitted to Spanish sovereignty
were clearly under Igorot attack. A Jesuit document of 1619 urges a ‘just war’ against the
Igorots because they deny free passage to ‘the Ilocanos and Cagayanes, our friends and
vassals of the King our Lord,’ and quotes a 1606 complaint that ‘they prevented the
Filipinos from becoming Christians, and that they had fallen on Christian towns in troops,
killing and robbing and carrying off baptized children whom they then raised in the midst
of their idolatries.’ Nor is the record wanting in evidence that the Igorots were not without
grievances on their own side. In 1753, the Augustinian Provincial translated an Igorot
petition to the Governor General for the return of the gold, silver and blankets seized by
the agents of the Governor of Pangasinan (who then seized the chieftains with the petition
to prevent them from delivering it), and in 1773 the Igorots burned the church in San
Nicolas, Pangasinan, in revenge for the loss of gold entrusted to a business-minded
cacique of that town. Dominican accounts of 1789 and 1849 say the Igorots collected land
rentals in the nearby foothills under claim, of ownership prior to Spanish relocation of
lowland converts, and a friar writing in Kiangan in 1857 said the major cause of friction
between the Ifugaos and the Christians was conflicting claims to the same hunting
grounds – ‘and it has been discovered that not always have the pagans been the
aggressors, either.’
“At any event, if the Igorots and the lowlanders were really implacable enemies before
and during the Spanish occupation, how are we to account for the constant Spanish
complaint that Igorots absorbed every sort of lowland Filipino refugee from government
authority? An early seventeenth-century petition calls Igorotland ‘a den of thieves in
which delinquent Christians take refuge and are not punished by law.’ The Governor
General called it a place ‘where rebels take refuge because they are their allies and our
enemies’ after the Maniago and Malong uprisings of 1660-1661. (Murillo Velarde said the
Igorots united with the Ilocanos and Cagayanes ‘to help kill all the Spaniards.’) Still more
impressive is the number of times in 320 years that Spanish historians mention lowland
refugees, running off to the mountains of Northern Luzon. Indeed, so frequent are
references to these remontados and alzados, and so noteworthy the declining population
figures of the coastal regions in the early Spanish regime (e.g., Laoag-7,500 in 1591, and
5,600 in 1612) that the late Felix M. Keesing suggested that the entire Igorot population
outside the Baguio gold-mining area may be nothing more than lowland Filipinos who
fled Spanish domination, an opinion later supported for the province of Ifugao by Father
Francis Lambrecht on the internal evidence of native epic literature.
“The idea that the Spaniards did not want to invade Igorot territory is flatly contrary
to the historic record. It took them only five years to reach the Igorot gold mines--that
‘magnet to men's hearts,’ as the friars themselves said, which Divine Providence had
placed in remote pagan lands so that ‘with this incentive men would be inspired to leave
their countries and set out for lands so remote, and in their wake would come the
preachers of the Gospel.’ They established short-lived garrisons in the Baguio area In 1620,
1623 and 1625, and occupied Kayan near the Mankayan mines in 1663. The pressure of
political problems elsewhere prevented further exploration for almost a century
afterwards (a 1713 Royal Order raised the question of the mines again but a 1718
expedition was cancelled), but in the middle of the eighteenth century new campaigns
were begun to open safe passage from Pangasinan to Cagayan through Igorot territory in
what is now Nueva Vizcaya. From 1750 on, there was not a decade without some punitive
expedition into Ifugao--in 1767 government troops were repulsed in Kiangan itself, in 1793
they were met by natives wearing metal breastplates, and a diary, in the Isinay language,
of troop movements beginning in 1820 is still extant. Latter-day conquistadores like
Guillermo Galvey and Mariano Oscariz ‘pacified’ the province in the 1830s and 1850s, and
Manuel Lorenzo D'Ayot prematurely boasted of his military accomplishments in his 1880
Excursiones militares del coronel D. Manuel Lorenzo al pais de los Igorrotes. Yet in the late
1850's the Ifugaos killed or drove out the Spanish missionaries resident in Mayaoyao,
Bunhian and Kiangan, in the 1880s were picking off the members of the new occupation
forces one by one, and during the Revolution massacred the entire Kiangan garrison.
“The Spanish government itself never dismissed this Igorot independence so lightly.
When Governor Salcedo called his first council in Manila in 1662, he spoke with
considerable passion of his trip through Ilocos and Pangasinan during which ‘he took note
of those mountain ranges still inhabited by the lgorots, owners of the gold mines, and
other tribes of free peoples and enemies of the Christians… [for] it is certainly a shameful
thing for the Spanish nation to permit them such excesses; it is also a scandal to the
Christian Filipinos and a [cause for] derision and mockery for foreigners that in the very
heart of the island which is the main one there should be such pagan enemies of ours-and
with the fame of their rich gold mines, too.’ So Joaquin de la Cuesta was to echo a hundred
years later in urging the Governor in 1779 to invade this territory: ‘It is certainly a
shameful thing for our nation to suffer such disorders without exacting satisfaction for
their excesses, a scandal among the vassal natives, a derision and mockery among
foreigners, and, finally, little love of country [on our part].’ Nor had this thorn in the side
of Spanish pride been removed or rendered less painful another century later when
Governor Primo de Rivera wrote in 1880: ‘It is certainly humiliating for Spain and her
Readings in Philippine History
“Modern writers of the Republic of the Philippines have been almost as slow as their
Spanish predecessors to give credit to the Igorots for this defense of their territory, and
lecturers in college classrooms in the nation's capital have been known to dismiss the
accomplishment as a simple accident of geography or international politics-that is, that it
was too much trouble for the Spaniards to invade the rugged mountains or that they
didn't want to do so in the first place.
government at home and abroad to realize that thousands of human beings, some at the
portals of the capital of the archipelago and many others within sight of Christian towns
with resident civil, military and ecclesiastical authorities, not only live in pre-Conquest
backwardness but commit crimes and depredations, carrying their audacity to the extent
of demanding and collecting tribute from the very Christian towns without receiving
castigation for their troubles and without any authority having been bold enough to
impose itself upon them!’
Readings in Philippine History
[Complete details about the Igorot responses to Spanish colonialism could be accessed
in the Internet through this link:
http://www.philippinestudies.net/files/journals/1/articles/1150/public/1150-3505-1PB.pdf]
Module 5. The Filipino nation under the American Colonial
System and World War II in the Philippines
Unit 8. Life under the American Colonial Administration
Lesson 5.1. The beginnings of American colonization in the Philippines
Lesson outcomes:
1. Identify the primary aims of the Americans in colonizing the Philippines
2. Analyze selected literary works that describe the Americans’ “burden” in
colonizing the Philippines.
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will learn about the United States of America’s
intentions of keeping the Philippine Islands for themselves.
READ TO LEARN
In the text below, U.S. President William McKinley makes the first official proclamation
regarding the Philippines Islands in December 1898, more than ten days after the
signing of the Treaty of Paris (between U.S.A. and Spain). J.H. Blount (1913) comments,
“The ever-memorable Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation, the Pandora box of Philippine
woes, was signed December 21, 1898, and its contents were let loose in the Philippines on
January 1, 1899.” (p. 140)
“THE BENEVOLENT ASSIMILATION PROCLAMATION
“EXECUTIVE MANSION, WASHINGTON, December 21, 1898.
“The destruction of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Manila by the United States naval
squadron commanded by Rear-Admiral Dewey, followed by the reduction of the city and
the surrender of the Spanish forces, practically effected the conquest of the Philippine
Islands and the suspension of Spanish sovereignty therein. With the signature of the treaty
of peace between the United States and Spain by their respective plenipotentiaries at Paris
on the 10th instant, and as a result of the victories of American arms, the future control,
disposition, and government of the Philippine Islands are ceded to the United States. In the
fulfilment of the rights of sovereignty thus acquired and the responsible obligations of
government thus assumed, the actual occupation and administration of the entire group of
the Philippine Islands becomes immediately necessary, and the military
government heretofore maintained by the United States in the city, harbor, and bay of
Manila is to be extended with all possible dispatch to the whole of the ceded territory. In
performing this duty the military commander of the United States is enjoined to make
known to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands that in succeeding to the sovereignty of
Spain, in severing the former political relations, and in establishing a new political power,
the authority of the United States is to be exerted for the securing of the persons and
property of the people of the islands and for the confirmation of all their private rights and
relations. It will be the duty of the commander of the forces of occupation to announce and
proclaim in the most public manner that we come not as invaders or conquerors, but as
friends, to protect the natives in their homes, in their employments, and in their personal
Readings in Philippine History
________________________________________________________________________________
Readings in Philippine History
and religious rights. All persons who, either by active aid or by honest submission, cooperate with the Government of the United States to give effect to these beneficent
purposes will receive the reward of its support and protection. All others will be brought
within the lawful rule we have assumed, with firmness if need be, but without severity, so
far as possible. Within the absolute domain of military authority, which necessarily is
and must remain supreme in the ceded territory until the legislation of the United States
shall otherwise provide, the municipal laws of the territory in respect to private rights and
property and the repression of crime are to be considered as continuing in force, and to be
administered by the ordinary tribunals, so far as practicable. The operations of civil and
municipal government are to be performed by such officers as may accept the supremacy of
the United States by taking the oath of allegiance, or by officers chosen, as far as practicable,
from the inhabitants of the islands. While the control of all the public property and the
revenues of the state passes with the cession, and while the use and management of all
public means of transportation are necessarily reserved to the authority of the United
States, private property, whether belonging to individuals or corporations, is to be
respected except for cause duly established. The taxes and duties heretofore payable by
the inhabitants to the late government become payable to the authorities of the United
States unless it be seen fit to substitute for them other reasonable rates or modes of
contribution to the expenses of government, whether general or local. If private property
be taken for military use, it shall be paid for when possible in cash, at a fair valuation, and
when payment in cash is not practicable, receipts are to be given. All ports and places in
the Philippine Islands in the actual possession of the land and naval forces of the United
States will be opened to the commerce of all friendly nations. All goods and wares not
prohibited for military reasons by due announcement of the military authority will be
admitted upon payment of such duties and other charges as shall be in force at the time of
their importation. Finally, it should be the earnest wish and paramount aim of the military
administration to win the confidence, respect, and affection of the inhabitants of the
Philippines by assuring them in every possible
way that full measure of individual rights and
liberties which is the heritage of free peoples,
and by proving to them that the mission of the
United States is one of
BENEVOLENT ASSIMILATION
substituting the mild sway of justice and right
for arbitrary rule. In the fulfilment of this high
mission,
supporting the
temperate
administration of affairs for the greatest good
of the governed, there must be sedulously
maintained the strong arm of authority, to
repress disturbance and to overcome all
obstacles to the bestowal of the blessings of
good and stable government upon the people
of the Philippine Islands under the free flag of
the United States.” (McKinley as quoted by
Blount, 1913, pp. 148-150)
“The Filipino First Bath”
Mr. McKinley-“Oh, you dirty boy”
READ TO LEARN
________________________________________________________________________
Rudyard Kipling, a British novelist and poet wrote a poem in February 1899 that
advised U.S.A “to take up the ‘burden’ of empire, as had Britain and other European
nations. This poem titled ‘The White Man’s Burden: The United States and The
Philippine Islands’ was published in the Mclure’s Magazine and its publication
“coincided with the beginning of the Philippine-American War and U.S. Senate
ratification of the treaty (of Paris) that placed Puerto Rico, Guam, Cuba, and the
Philippines under American control.” (historymatters.gmu.edu, n.d.)
“The White Man’s Burden (Apologies to Rudyard Kipling).” Victor Gillam, Judge, April 1, 1899.
Source: The Ohio State University Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum (https://apjjf.org/)
“Take up the White Man's burden Send forth the best ye breed Go bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives' need;
Readings in Philippine History
1. What was U.S.A’s main justification in claiming for the Philippines’ “control,
disposition and government”?
2. What was Pres. McKinley’s primary objective in installing a military government in
the Philippines?
3. What image of the Americans did Pres. McKinley want the Filipinos to believe? How
was this to be achieved?
4. What might be the meaning of U.S.A.’s mission of “Benevolent Assimilation” in the
Philippines?
5. In the editorial cartoon (Judge), what was meant by giving the Filipino a bath?
To wait in heavy harness
On fluttered folk and wild Your new-caught sullen peoples,
Half devil and half child.
Readings in Philippine History
“Take up the White Man's burden In patience to abide
To veil the threat of terror
And check the show of pride;
By open speech and simple,
An hundred times made plain,
To seek another's profit,
And work another's gain.
“Take up the White Man's burden The savage wars of peace Fill full the mouth of famine
And bid the sickness cease;
And when your goal is nearest
The end for others sought,
Watch Sloth and heathen Folly
Bring all your hopes to nought.
“Take up the White Man's burden No tawdry rule of kings,
But toil of serf and sweeper The tale of common things.
The ports ye shall not enter,
The roads ye shall not tread,
Go make them with your living,
And mark them with your dead !
“Take up the White Man's burden And reap his old reward,
The blame of those ye better,
The hate of those ye guard The cry of hosts ye humour
(Ah slowly !) towards the light:"Why brought ye us from bondage,
"Our loved Egyptian night ?
“Take up the White Man's burden Ye dare not stoop to less Nor call too loud on Freedom
To cloak your weariness;
By all ye cry or whisper,
By all ye leave or do,
The silent sullen peoples
Shall weigh your Gods and you.
“Take up the White Man's burden Have done with childish days The lightly proffered laurel,
The easy, ungrudged praise.
Comes now, to search your manhood
Through all the thankless years,
Cold-edged with dear-bought wisdom,
The judgement of your peers.”
“Pile on the brown man's burden
To gratify your greed;
Go, clear away the "niggers"
Who progress would impede;
Be very stern, for truly
'Tis useless to be mild
With new-caught, sullen peoples,
Half devil and half child.
“Pile on the brown man's burden;
And, if ye rouse his hate,
Meet his old-fashioned reasons
With Maxims up to date.
With shells and dumdum bullets
A hundred times made plain
The brown man's loss must ever
Imply the white man's gain.
“Pile on the brown man's burden,
compel him to be free;
Let all your manifestoes
Reek with philanthropy.
And if with heathen folly
He dares your will dispute,
Then, in the name of freedom,
Don't hesitate to shoot.
“Pile on the brown man's burden,
And if his cry be sore,
That surely need not irk you-Ye've driven slaves before.
Seize on his ports and pastures,
The fields his people tread;
Go make from them your living,
Readings in Philippine History
READ TO LEARN
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Henry Labouchère's ‘The Brown Man's Burden’ is a parody of “Kipling's notorious poem,
[which is] offering a view of imperialism.” The poem “offers an indictment of imperial
hypocrisy, with particular emphasis on the violence employed in subjugating countries
like the Philippines in the name of freedom.” (herb.ashp.cuny.edu, 2020)
And mark them with his dead.
Readings in Philippine History
“Pile on the brown man's burden,
And through the world proclaim
That ye are Freedom's agent-There's no more paying game!
And, should your own past history
Straight in your teeth be thrown,
Retort that independence
Is good for whites alone.”
1. What is Kipling’s ‘White man’s burden’ referring to?
2. What reaction or response should the Americans (white men) expect from the
Filipinos? (See stanza 1 and 2 of the White man’s burden)
3. And how should the Americans deal with such reactions from the Filipinos? (See
stanza 2 the White man’s burden)
4. What are the particular things that the Americans should do in their colonies as
suggested by Kipling? (See stanza 3 and 4 of the White man’s burden)
5. Why would those that the Americans would have served would blame and hate
them for what they have done for the latter? (See stanza 5 of the White man’s
burden)
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 5.1.1 American colonial motives from the
eyes of an anti-imperialist
In this exercise, you will analyze the following inferences based on Henry Labouchère's
‘The Brown Man's Burden’. Decide whether each of the inferences is possibly valid or
invalid. For each valid answer, you write V; for each invalid statement, write IN.
____1. Pile on the brown man’s burden means help the brown man with his problem.
____2. In “clearing away the niggers,” the poem is suggesting that the Americans
should be harsh because being kind is a waste of effort.
____3. If the brown man becomes angry at the Americans’ way of treating him, the
Americans must show their superiority and kill the former if needed.
____5. While pretending to be democratic and benevolent, the Americans must be
willing to punish any brown man who is against their actions.
____6. If the brown man complains and asks for pity, the Americans should stop from
taking the former’s land and properties.
____7. The brown man’s land, the poem says, is meant for the Americans to gain
profit from.
____8. If the Americans, claiming to be democratic, are questioned on how they have
recognized other people’s freedom, they must reason out that freedom is
merely suited for white men.
____9. Between using peaceful or violent means of conquering the brown man’s
country, the poem shows that the Americans would prefer using violence.
___10. Labouchère's parody of Kipling’s ‘White Man’s Burden’ offers a detailed
justification of the Americans’ colonial objectives in the Philippines.
Readings in Philippine History
____4. The poem suggests that the brown man is civilized and educated but needs to
be controlled.
Lesson 5.2. Civilizing the Filipinos
Lesson outcomes:
1. Identify the primary aims of American education in the Philippines
2. Analyze the aims and results of American education in the Philippines
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will learn about United States of America’s
intentions of educating and civilizing people of the Philippines. If Spain “used” religion
to tame the natives, U.S.A. used education to civilize the Filipinos.
READ TO LEARN
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Readings in Philippine History
Below are images that depict U.S.A.’s way of civilizing the “untamed” and “wild”
Filipinos.
“School Begins.” Uncle Sam (to his new class in Civilization): Now, children, you've got
to learn these lessons whether you want to or not! But just take a look at the class ahead
of you, and remember that, in a little while, you will feel as glad to be here as they are!”
Louis Dalrymple, Puck, January 25, 1899. Source: Beinecke Rare Books & Manuscripts,
Yale University (https://apjjf.org/)
Uncle Sam as a teacher, standing behind a desk in front of his new students who
are labeled “Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii, [and] Philippines”; they do not look
happy to be there. At the rear of the classroom are students holding books
labeled “California, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, [and] Alaska”. At the far left,
an African-American boy cleans the windows, and in the background, a Native
boy sits by himself, reading an upside-down book labeled “ABC”, and a Chinese
boy stands just outside the door. A book on Uncle Sam's desk is titled “U.S. First
Lessons in Self-Government”. 1899. Dalrymple, Louis. Image and caption from
the United States Library of Congress (https://globalvoices.org)
teacher” to a group of reluctant Filipinos, telling them that the choice is theirs. 1901.
Keppler, Udo J. Image and caption from the United States Library of Congress
(https://globalvoices.org/)
“If they’ll be good”--Uncle Sam: You have seen what my sons can do in war — now
see what my daughters can do in peace. Uncle Sam standing at center, gesturing to the
left toward American soldiers boarding ships to return to America after defeating the
Spanish in the Philippines, and gesturing to the right toward a group of matronly
women, one labeled “Daughters of the Revolution”, who have just arrived to educate
the peoples of the Philippines. 1900. Ehrhart, S. D. (Samuel D.). Image and caption
from the United States Library of Congress (https://globalvoices.org)
Readings in Philippine History
“It’s up to them.” Uncle Sam offering on one hand a soldier and on the other a “school
https://sectiona6.wordpress.com
Readings in Philippine History
He could exchange the war club for the baseball bat readily
His water buffalos ought to go well in tandem
His old habit of running amuck will old greatly on the football field
From the war dance to the cake walk is but a step
In the excerpt below, Anongos and Sagandoy (2019) narrate about the aims of American
education in the Philippines:
“In President McKinley’s instruction to the Taft Commission, he exhorted them to extend
and improve the kind of education started by the US military in the Philippines. The
improvement being considered is a kind of education ‘which shall fit the people for the duties
of citizenship and for the ordinary avocations of civilized community.’
“The ‘duties of citizenship’ has been interpreted by the Taft Commission to be related to a
future period of Filipino self-government. In one of the occasions when Governor General
William Taft justified American takeover of the Philippines, he reasons that US objective is ‘to
develop the people into a self-governing people, and, in doing that, popular education is, in
our judgment, the first and most important means’. US policy makers ‘assumed as a matter of
course’ that self-government, especially democratic self-government, can only be realized
through an educated population, thus making education a necessary requirement for the
future Philippine independence.
“Lewis E. Gleeck, Jr. is more illustrative of how education could support self-government.
He bares that the basic doctrine of American education revolves around ‘character building’,
without which any self-government is impossible. This entails the imposition of American
values such as democracy, honesty, industry, thrift, sportsmanship and patriotism. Of the
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enumerations, democracy is the most vital of the American values and Americans emphasized
participation, equality, respect, and fair taxation to put meaning to this value. It is only when
Filipinos become absorbed into these values and transforms their character along these lines
that they could be deemed ready for self-government. It is also only when the Filipinos go
through American education that the transformation would become possible.
“The courses of instruction established along the supposed aims are a 3-year primary
grade and increased to 4 some years later, a 3-year intermediate grade, and a 4-year secondary.
The key features based on the Education of Act of 1901 are the use of English as a means of
instruction, prohibition of religious instruction, insertion of physical education, and inclusion
of industrial education. English was used on practical reasons since the official language of
the government was English, the teachers were English speaking, books were written in
English, and there was a desire to impose the colonizer’s language plus the acquiescence of the
Filipinos for a new and common language.
“From the very beginning, Education policy makers perceived that because the country is
agricultural ‘the masses must always remain dependent upon the soil for their maintenance’,
and thus agricultural education became a significant character of Philippine education during
the American rule and beyond.
“The Bureau of Education pursued industrial education for three reasons. One is the
backward state of development that the Americans reckoned there was a great need to
improve the homes in terms of cooking, sanitation, care of infants, and to provide the
necessary convenience in the home. Another is the presence of natural resources in land,
timber and minerals that remained untapped, and colonial education wanted to involve the
young Filipinos in the extraction of these resources. The third is what the Americans saw as a
given Filipino capacity for manual dexterity and patience that suit the nature of industrial
work. The Americans also considered the economic benefits of industrial education in the form
of uplifting the standard of living of the Filipinos. This is achieved through farming,
housekeeping, and fabrication of articles for home use, production of articles which are
normally imported from abroad, and production of export products in commercial quantities
for income purposes.
“Agriculture is one of the four principal areas of industrial education. The others are
Household industries, Trade Instruction, and Housekeeping. These four areas are offered in
the intermediate grades even if there are created specialized schools for each. Of the four fields
in industrial education, agriculture is recognized by the Bureau of Education as the most
significant. This recognition is based on a perceived agricultural potential of the country and
the evaluation that nothing noteworthy was done to exploit it. Agriculture, says the American
Chamber of Commerce, is the ‘paramount industry’ in the country and ‘upon its volume
production rests all other activity…’ The importance attached to the agricultural education
can be shown in the primary and intermediate programs. Since the beginning gardening has
been offered as an industrial activity in the two levels. Nurseries were required in all public
schools and school ground improvements were in accordance to agricultural aims.
Occasionally, garden days, agricultural fairs and food campaigns, as well as agricultural
extension works are sponsored by public schools.
“Educating the non-Christians. “In the Philippines, the Americans recognized different
ethnic groups but simplified these into the Christians and non-Christians. During the 1903
Census of the Philippines, categorization of the inhabitants of the Philippines posed a puzzling
question. The anthropologist and head of the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes, David Barrows,
was given that task and conveniently divided the Filipinos as ‘Christian or civilized tribes’ and
‘Non-Christians or wild tribes’.
“Being a party in the classification, Dean Worcester, explains that there was difficulty for
an appropriate term for these people. ‘The only characteristic which they have in common is
their refusal to accept the Christian faith, and their adherence to their ancient religious
beliefs… I am therefore forced to employ the term “non-Christian” in designating them
although I fully recognize its awkwardness.’ Although the classification was too simple,
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temporary, and perhaps convenient, it became the bases of further categorization and identity
formation as well as colonial policy formation. A bureau called the Bureau of Non-Christian
Tribes was created in 1901 to aid the Philippine Commission on the matters pertaining to these
people. Through the bureau, and with the keen interest of Commissioner Dean Worcester, the
Americans interpreted McKinley’s instruction in very paternalistic way. In 1903, the Moro
province was created for the non-Christians in Mindanao and in 1908, a Mountain Province
was created for those in Northern Luzon…
“The creation of special provinces, like Mountain Province for Igorots, had some economic
reasons favoring the colonizers, but it was the political agenda that appeared to have been
more important at that time. Because the Americans, in their ‘imperial indigenism’, have
determined that the Igorots were ‘weak, passive, and easily preyed upon by… Christian
neighbors’, such creation has tucked the Igorots in the safe and protective hands of
Americans…
“The primary purpose for the education of non-Christians was ‘to bring them up to the
same cultural plane of, and into closer union with, the Christian Filipinos…’ This is especially
significant given the new approach adopted by the Harrison administration in 1914 that nonChristians should be integrated to the larger Filipino population instead of being isolated. The
Jones Law of 1916 revived the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes as an administrative body, and
it was guided by the principle the ‘mutual intelligence between and complete fusion of all the
Christians and non-Christian elements…’ Integration was understood to be easier when the
non-Christians had adjusted themselves to the culture of the general population. Education
was decided to be a universalizing tool.” (NOTE: in-text citations were omitted for readability
purposes)
The Metamorphosis of a Bontoc Igorot. Two photographs of a Pítapit, a Bontoc Igorot boy. The
second was taken nine years after the first. (Source: Dean Worcester’s (1914) ‘The Philippines
Past and Present,’ vol. 2, downloaded from https://www.gutenberg.org)
Readings in Philippine History
1. In the cartoon captioned “School Begins” why are the new students (Cuba, Puerto
Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines) seemed to be unhappy?
2. In the cartoon captioned “It’s up to them”, what is the implication of Uncle Sam’s
offer (soldier or a teacher) to the reluctant Filipinos?
3. In the cartoon captioned “If they’ll be good” what seems to be the reaction of the
Filipinos to Uncle Sam’s “Daughters of the Revolution”? Why?
4. In the cartoon captioned “The Filipino after expansion”, what particular changes
were highlighted in the Filipino’s life as a result of American expansion?
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 5.2.1 American education for Filipinos
Matching Type Test: Match the items in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the
CAPITAL LETTER [from Column B] that corresponds to your answer on the space
provided [in Column A].
Readings in Philippine History
Column A
Column B
1. Duties of citizenship
A.
Integration
2. Practical arts and agriculture
B.
Pagans and Muslims
3. Civilized Filipinos
C.
Maranaw, Tausug, Yakan
4. Main approach of building citizens’ character
D.
Democracy
5. Merging of Christians and Non-Christians
E.
English
6. Moros
F.
Spanish
7. American value of freedom and equality
G.
Industrial education
8. Igorots
H.
Christian lowlanders
9. Wild Filipino groups
I.
Self-Government
10. Medium of public instruction
J.
Ibaloi, Bontoc, Ifugao
K.
L.
Isolation
M.
Universal education
Tagalog, Mangyan, Aeta
EXTENDED READING
________________________________________________________________________________
Igorot from the eyes of an American. Below is a lengthy excerpt of the ethnological
survey on the Bontoc Igorot reported by Albert Ernst Jenks (1905).
“The word ‘Ĭg-o-rot’ is now adopted tentatively as the name of the extensive primitive
Malayan people of northern Luzon, because it is applied to a very large number of the
mountain people by themselves and also has a recognized usage in ethnologic and other
writings. Its form as ‘Ĭg-o-rot’ is adopted for both singular and plural, because it is both
natural and phonetic, and, because, so far as it is possible to do so, it is thought wise to
retain the simple native forms of such words as it seems necessary or best to incorporate in
our language, especially in scientific language.
“Marks of Bontoc culture. It is difficult and often impossible to state the essential
difference in culture which distinguishes one group of people from another. It is more
difficult to draw lines of distinction, for the culture of one group almost imperceptibly
flows into that of another adjoining it.
“However, two fundamental institutions of the people of Bontoc seem to differ from
those of most adjoining people. One of these institutions has to do with the control of the
pueblo. Bontoc has not developed the headman—the ‘principal’ of the Spaniard, the ‘Baknan[g]’ of the Benguet Igorot—the one rich man who becomes the pueblo, leader. In
Benguet Province the headman is found in every pueblo, and he is so powerful that he
often dominates half a dozen outlying barrios to the extent that he receives a large share,
often one-half, of the output of all the productive labors of the barrio. Immediately north
of the Bontoc area, in Tinglayan, the headman is again found. He has no place whatever in
Bontoc. The control of the pueblos of the Bontoc area is in the hands of groups of old men;
however, each group, called ‘intugtukan,’ operates only within a single political and
geographic portion of the pueblo, so that no one group has in charge the control of the
pueblo. The pueblo is a loose federation of smaller political groups.
“The other institution is a social development. It is the olag [or olog], an institution of
trial marriage. It is not known to exist among adjoining people, but is found throughout
the area in which the intugtukan exists; they are apparently coextensive. I was repeatedly
informed that the olag is not found in the Banawi area south of Bontoc, or in the Tinglayan
area east, or among the Tinguian to the north, or in Benguet far southwest, or in Lepanto
immediately southwest—though I have some reason to believe that both the intugtukan
and olag exist in a crumbling way among certain Lepanto Igorot.
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“Igorot Peoples. In several languages of northern Luzon, the word ‘Ĭg-o-rot’ means
‘mountain people.’ Dr. Pardo de Tavera says the word ‘Igorrote’ is composed of the root
word ‘golot,’ meaning, in Tagalog, ‘mountain chain,’ and the prefix ‘i,’ meaning ‘dweller
in’ or ‘people of.’ Morga in 1609 used the word as ‘Igolot;’ early Spaniards also used the
word frequently as ‘Ygolotes’—and to-day some groups of the Igorot, as the Bontoc group,
do not pronounce the ‘r’ sound, which common usage now puts in the word. The
Spaniards applied the term to the wild peoples of present Benguet and Lepanto Provinces,
now a short-haired, peaceful people. In after years its common application spread
eastward to the natives of the comandancia of Quiangan, in the present Province of Nueva
Vizcaya, and northward to those of Bontoc.
“Besides these two institutions there are other differing marks of culture between the
Bontoc area and adjoining people… Without doubt the limits of the spread of the common
culture have been determined mainly by the physiography of the country. One of the two
pueblos in the area not on the common drainage system is Lias, but Lias was largely built
by a migration from Bontoc pueblo—the hotbed of Bontoc culture. Barlig, the other pueblo
not on the common drainage system (both Barlig and Lias are on the Sibbu River), lies
between Lias and the other pueblos of the Bontoc culture area, and so naturally has been
drawn in line and held in line with the culture of the geographic area in which it is
located—its institutions are those of its environment.
Readings in Philippine History
“The Bontoc Man. The Bontoc Igorot has been in Bontoc longer than the endurance of
tradition, for he says he never lived elsewhere, that he never drove any people out before
him, and that he was never driven; and has always called himself the ‘Ĭ-pu-kao’—the
‘people.’ The Bontoc Igorot have their center in the pueblo of Bontoc, a Spanish corruption
of the Igorot name ‘Fun-tok′, a common native word for mountain, the original name of
the pueblo.
“The men of the Bontoc area know none of the peoples by whom they are surrounded
by the names history gives or the peoples designate themselves, with the exception of the
Lepanto Igorot, the Ĭt-nĕg′, and the Ilokano of the west coast. They do not know the
‘Tinguian’ of Abra on their north and northwest by that name; they call them ‘Ĭt-nĕg′.
Farther north are the people called by the Spaniards ‘Nabayuganes,’ ‘Aripas,’ and
‘Ipugaos;’ to the northeast and east are the ‘Caylingas,’ ‘Comunanges,’ ‘Bayabonanes,’
‘Dayags,’ and ‘Gaddannes’—but Bontoc knows none of these names. Bontoc culture and
Kalinga culture lie close together on the east, and the people of Bontoc pueblo name all
their eastern neighbors Ĭt-nĕg′—the same term they apply to the Tinguian to the west and
northwest, because, they say, they all wear great quantities of brass on the arms and legs.
To the south of Bontoc are the Quiangan Igorot, the Banawi division of which, at least,
names itself May′-yo-yĕt, but whom Bontoc calls ‘Ĭ-fu-gao′. They designate the people of
Benguet the ‘Igorot of Benguet,’ but these peoples designate themselves ‘Ĭb-a-loi’ in the
northern part, and ‘Kan-ka-nay’ in the southern part, neither of which names Bontoc
knows.
“She has still another set of names for the people surrounding her—people whom she
vaguely knows are there but of whom or of whose lands she has no first-hand knowledge.
The people to the north are ‘Am-yan′-an,’ and the northern country is ‘La′-god.’ The ‘Day′ya’ are the eastern people, while ‘Bar′-lĭg’ is the name of the eastern and southeastern land.
‘Ab-a-ga′-tan’ are the people of the south, and ‘Fi′-lĭg ab-a-ga′-tan,’ is the south land. The
people of the west are ‘Loa′-od,’ and ‘Fi′-lĭg lao′-od,’ or ‘Lo′-ko’ (the Provinces of Ilokos
Norte and Ilokos Sur) is the country lying to the west and southwest.
“Some of the old men of Bontoc say that in the past the Igorot people once extended to
the seacoast in the Provinces of Ilokos Norte and Ilokos Sur. This, of course, is a tradition
of the prehistoric time before the Ilokano invaded northern Luzon; but, as has been stated,
the Bontoc people claim never to have been driven by that invasion, neither have they any
knowledge of such a movement. It is not improbable, however, that traditions of the
invasion may linger with the people nearer the coast and farther north.
“The Bontoc men average about 5 feet 4⅛ inches in height, and have the appearance of
being taller than they are. Again and again one is deceived by their height, and he
repeatedly backs a 5-foot-7-inch Igorot up against a 6-foot American, vainly expecting the
stature of the brown man to equal that of the white. Almost never does the Bontoc man
appear heavy or thickset, as does his brother, the Benguet Igorot—the human pack horse
seen so constantly on the San Fernando-Baguio trail—muscularly one of the most highly
developed primitive people in the world to-day. Of thirty-two men measured from Bontoc
and vicinity the shortest was 4 feet 9⅛ inches and the tallest was slightly more than 5 feet
9 inches.
“In color the men are brown, though there is a wide range of tone from a light brown
with a strong saffron undertone to a very dark brown—as near a bronze as can well be
imagined. The sun has more to do with the different color tones than has anything else,
after which habits of personal cleanliness play a very large role… The natural Igorot never
washes himself clean. He washes frequently, but lacks the means of cleansing the skin,
and the dirtier he is the more bronze-like he appears. At all times his face looks lighter and
more saffron-tinted than the remainder of his body. There are two reasons for this—
because the face is more often washed and because of its contrast with the black hair of the
head.
“The hair of the head is black, straight, coarse, and relatively abundant. It is worn long,
frequently more than half way to the hips from the shoulders. The front is “banged” low
and square across the forehead, cut with the battle-ax; this line of cut runs to above and
somewhat back of the ear, the hair of the scalp below it being cut close to the head. When
the men age, a few gray hairs appear, and some old men have heads of uniform iron-gray
color. I have never seen a white-haired Igorot. A few of the old men have their hair
thinning on the crown, but a tendency to baldness is by no means the rule.
“At the age of 20 a man seems hardly to have reached his physical best; this he attains,
however, before he is 25. By 35 he begins to show the marks of age. By 45 most of the men
are fast getting “old”; their faces are seamed, their muscles losing form, their carriage less
erect, and the step slower. By 55 all are old—most are bent and thin. Probably not over one
or two in a hundred mature men live to be 70 years old.
“Woman. The women average 4 feet 9⅜ inches in height. In appearance they are short
and stocky. Twenty-nine women from Bontoc and vicinity were measured; the tallest
was 5 feet 4¾ inches, and the shortest 4 feet 4¾ inches.
“The women reach the age of maturity well prepared for its responsibilities. They have
more adipose tissue than the men, yet are never fat. The head is carried erect, but with a
certain stiffness—often due, in part, no doubt, to shyness, and in part to the fact that they
Readings in Philippine History
“Man. The Bontoc men are never corpulent, and, with the exception of the very old,
they are seldom poor. During the period of a man’s prime he is usually muscled to an
excellent symmetry. His neck, never long, is well formed and strong and supports the
head in erect position. His shoulders are broad, even, and full muscled, and with seeming
ease carry transportation baskets laden with 75 to 100 pounds. His arms are smoothly
developed and are about the same relative length as the American’s. The hands are strong
and short. The waist line is firm and smaller than the shoulders or hips. The buttocks
usually appear heavy. His legs are generally straight; the thighs and calves are those of a
prime pedestrian accustomed to long and frequent walks. The ankles are seldom thick;
and the feet are broad and relatively short, and, almost without exception, are placed on
the ground straight ahead.
carry all their burdens on their heads. I believe the neck more often appears short than
does the neck of the man. The shoulders are broad, and flat across the back. The breasts
are large, full, and well supported. The hips are broad and well set, and the waist (there is
no natural waist line) is frequently no smaller than the hips, though smaller than the
shoulders. Their arms are smooth and strong, and they throw stones as men do, with the
full-arm throw from the shoulder. Their hands are short and strong. Their legs are almost
invariably straight, but are probably more frequently bowed at the knees than are the
men’s. The thighs are sturdy and strong, and the calves not infrequently over-large. This
enlargement runs low down, so the ankles, never slender, very often appear coarse and
large. In consequence of this heavy lower leg, the feet, short at best, usually look much too
short. They are placed on the ground straight ahead, though the tendency to inturned feet
is slightly more noticeable than it is among the men.
Readings in Philippine History
“The hair of the head is like that of the man’s; it is worn long, and is twisted and
wound about the head. It has a tendency to fall out as age comes on, but does not seem
thin on the head. The tendency to gray hairs is apparently somewhat less than it is with
the men. The remainder of the body is exceptionally free from hair. The growth in the
armpits and the pelvic hair are always pulled out by the unmarried, and a large per cent
of the women do not allow it to grow even in old age.
“They seem to reach maturity at about 17 or 18 years of age. The first child is
commonly born between the ages of 16 and 22. At 23 the woman has certainly reached her
prime. By 30 she is getting “old”; before 45 the women are old, with flat, pendent folds of
skin where the breasts were. The entire front of the body—in prime full, rounded, and
smooth—has become flabby, wrinkled, and folded. It is only a short time before collapse
of the tissue takes place in all parts of the body. An old woman, say, at 50, is a mass of
wrinkles from foot to forehead; the arms and legs lose their plumpness, the skin is
“bagged” at the knees into half a dozen large folds; and the disappearance of adipose
tissue from the trunk-front, sides, and back—has left the skin not only wrinkled but loose
and flabby, folding over the girdle at the waist.
“Pathology. The most serious permanent physical affliction the Bontoc Igorot suffers
is blindness. Fully 2 per cent of the people both of Bontoc and her sister pueblo, Samoki,
are blind; probably 2 per cent more are partially so. Bontoc has one blind boy only 3 years
old, but I know of no other blind children; and it is claimed that no babes are born blind.
There is one woman in Bontoc approaching 20 years of age who is nearly blind, and
whose mother and older sister are blind. Blindness is very common among the old people,
and seems to come on with the general breaking down of the body.
“A few of the people say their blindness is due to the smoke in their dwellings. This
doubtless has much to do with the infirmity, as their private and public buildings are very
smoky much of the time, and when the nights are at all chilly a fire is built in their closed,
low, and chimneyless sleeping rooms. There are many persons with inflamed and
granulated eyelids whose vision is little or not at all impaired—a forerunner of blindness
probably often caused by smoke.
“Twenty per cent of the adults have abnormal feet. The most common and most
striking abnormality is that known as ‘fa′-wĭng’; it is an inturning of the great toe. Fa′wĭng occurs in all stages from the slightest spreading to that approximating forty-five
degrees. It is found widely scattered among the barefoot mountain tribes of northern
Luzon. The people say it is due to mountain climbing, and their explanation is probably
correct, as the great toe is used much as is a claw in securing a footing on the slippery,
steep trails during the rainy reason. Fa′-wĭng occurs quite as commonly with women as
with men, and in Ambuklao, Benguet Province, I saw a boy of 8 or 9 years whose great
toes were spread. This deformity occurs on one or both feet, but generally on both if at all.
“Ato. The Igorot is given to naming even small areas of the earth within his wellknown habitat, and there are four areas in Bontoc pueblo having distinct names. These
names in no way refer to political or social divisions—they are not the ‘barrio’ of the coast
pueblos of the Islands, neither are they in any way like a ‘ward’ in an American city, nor
are they ‘additions’ to an original part of the pueblo—they are names of geographic areas
over which the pueblo was built or has spread. From south to north these areas are A-fu′,
Mag-e′-o, Dao′-wi, and Um-fĕg′.
“Bontoc is composed of seventeen political divisions, called ‘ato.’ The geographic area
of A-fu′ contains four ato; Mag-e′-o contains three; Dao′-wi has six; and, Um-fĕg′ has four.
Each a′-to is a separate political division. It has its public buildings; has a separate
governing council which makes peace, challenges to war, and accepts or rejects war
challenges, and it formally releases and adopts men who change residence from one a′-to
to another… In Sagada, Agawa, Takong, and near-by pueblos the a′-to is said to be known
as dap′-ay; and in Balili and Alap both names are known.
“Pabafunan and fawi. The pa-ba-fu′-nan is the home of the various a′-to ceremonials.
It is sacred to the men of the a′-to, and on no occasion do the women or girls enter it. All
boys from 3 or 4 years of age and all men who have no wives sleep nightly in the pa-bafu′-nan or in the fa′-wi.
“The pa-ba-fu′-nan building consists of a low, squat, stone-sided structure partly
covered with a grass roof laid on a crude frame of poles; the stone walls extend beyond
the roof at one end and form an open court. The roofed part is about 8 by 10 feet, and
usually is not over 5 feet high in any part, inside measure; the size of the court is
approximately the same as that of the roofed section. In some pa-ba-fu′-nan a part of the
court is roofed over for shelter in case of rain, but is not walled in. Under this roof skulls of
dogs and hogs are generally found tucked away. Carabao horns and chicken feathers are
also commonly seen in such places.
“In the court of the building the men lounge when not at work in the fields; they sleep,
or smoke and chat, tend babies, or make utensils and weapons. The pa-ba-fu′-nan is the
man’s club by day, and the unmarried man’s dormitory by night, and, as such, it is the
social center for all men of the a′-to, and it harbors at night all men visiting from other
pueblos.
“Each a′-to has a fa′-wi building—a structure greatly resembling to the pa-ba-fu′-nan,
and impossible to be distinguished from it by one looking at the structure from the
outside… The fa′-wi is the a′-to council house; as such it is more frequented by the old
men than by the younger. The fa′-wi also shelters the skulls of human heads taken by the
Readings in Philippine History
“An enlargement of the basal joint of the great toe, probably a bunion, is also
comparatively common. It is not improbable that it is often caused by stone bruises, as
such are of frequent occurrence; they are sometimes very serious, laying a person up ten
days at a time. The feet of adults who work in the water-filled rice paddies are dry,
seamed, and cracked on the bottoms. These ‘rice-paddy feet,’ called ‘fung-as′, are often so
sore that the person cannot go on the trails for any considerable distance.
a′-to. Outside the pueblo, along certain trails, there are simple structures also called “fa′wi,” shelters where parties halt for feasts, etc., while on various ceremonial journeys.
“Olag [Olog]. The o′-lâg is the dormitory of the girls in an a′-to from the age of about 2
years until they marry. It is a small stone and mud-walled structure, roofed with grass, in
which a grown person can seldom stand erect. It has but a single opening—a door some 30
inches high and 10 inches wide. Occupying nearly all the floor space are boards about 4
feet long and from 8 to 14 inches wide; each board is a girl’s bed. They are placed close
together, side by side, laid on a frame about a foot above the earth. One end, where the
head rests, is slightly higher that the other, while in most o′-lâg a pole for a foot rest runs
along the foot of the beds a few inches from them.
Readings in Philippine History
“Though the o′-lâg is primarily the sleeping place of all unmarried girls, in the mind of
the people it is, with startling consistency, the mating place of the young people of
marriageable age.
“A common sight on a rest day in the pueblo is that of a young man and woman, each
with an arm around the other, loitering about under the same blanket, talking and
laughing, one often almost supporting the other. There seems at all times to be the greatest
freedom and friendliness among the young people. I have seen both a young man
carrying a young woman lying horizontally along his shoulders, and a young woman
carrying a young man astride her back. However, practically all courtship is carried on in
the o′-lâg.
“The courtship of the Igorot is closely defined when it is said that marriage never takes
place prior to sexual intimacy, and rarely prior to pregnancy.
“Young men are boldly and pointedly invited to the o′-lâg. A common form of
invitation is for the girl to steal a man’s pipe, his pocket hat, or even the breechcloth he is
wearing. They say one seldom recovers his property without going to the, o′-lâg for it.
“When a girl recognizes her pregnancy, she at once joyfully tells her condition to the
father of the child, as all women desire children and there are few permanent marriages
unblessed by them. The young man, if he does not wish to marry the girl, may keep her in
ignorance of his intentions for two or three months. If at last he tells her he will not marry
her she receives the news with many tears, it is said, but is spared the gossip and reproach
of others, and she will later become the wife of some other man, since her first child has
proved her power to bear children.
[Complete details about the Bontoc Igorot could be accessed through this link:
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/3308/3308-h/3308-h.htm]
Unit 9. Responses to American colonialism
Lesson 5.3. The Philippine-American war
Lesson outcomes:
1. Identify the main causes of the Philippine-American war
2. Analyze selected texts that describe the Philippine-American war
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will learn about the violent response of the
Filipinos to America’s aims of colonizing the Philippines.
READ TO LEARN
“After its defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spain ceded its longstanding
colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. On February 4, 1899,
just two days before the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, fighting broke out between
American forces and Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo who sought
independence rather than a change in colonial rulers. The ensuing Philippine-American
War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over
20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence,
famine, and disease.” (Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, n.d.)
San Franciso’s The Call reports Aguinaldo declares war on
America (https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov)
Pvt. William W. Grayson (1876-1941): The Englishman who fired
the shot that ignited the Philippine-American War [in February 4,
1899]; His family immigrated to Nebraska where young
Grayson worked as a hostler. He enlisted in the 1st Nebraska on
May 10, 1898. The regiment returned to the US from the
Philippines on Aug. 1, 1899, mustered out, and Grayson settled in
San Francisco, California. He married Clara Francesca
Peters, became a US citizen in December 1900. He worked as a
house painter or an undertaker; ill health forced his retirement in
1920. He died in the San Francisco Veterans Administration
Hospital on March 20, 1941. (Dumindin, n.d.)
Readings in Philippine History
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San Francisco’s newspaper The Call reports in its headline about Aguinaldo’s reaction
to American intentions in the Philippines:
“MANILA, Feb. 7.-Aguinaldo, the rebel leader, issued two proclamations on Saturday and
Sunday. The proclamation of Saturday says:
‘I order and command:
‘First—That peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the
latter be treated as enemies within the limits prescribed by the laws of war.
‘Second-That the Americans captured be held as prisoners of war.
Readings in Philippine History
‘Third—That this proclamation be communicated to the consuls, and that Congress
order and accord a suspension of the constitutional guarantee resulting from the
declaration of war.’
“Aguinaldo's proclamation of Monday say the outbreak of hostilities was unjustly and
unexpectedly provoked by the Americans; refers to his manifesto of January 8 [1899],
publishing the alleged grievances of the Filipinos at the hands of the army of occupation
and the constant outrages and the taunts which have been causing misery to the Manilans,
and refers to the lack of confidence and contempt shown for the Filipino government as
proving a ‘premeditated transgression of liberty and justice.’
“The rebel leader also refers to the enormous losses of the Filipinos, but says "slavery
is bitter," and calls upon them to "sacrifice all upon the altar of honor and national
integrity." He insists that he tried to avoid an armed conflict, but claims all his efforts were
useless before the unmeasured pride of the Americans, whom he charged with having
treated him as a rebel because he defended the interests of his country and would not
become the instrument of their dastardly intentions. Aguinaldo concludes by saying: "Be
not discouraged. Our independence was watered freely by the blood of martyrs and more
will be shed in the future to strengthen it. Remember that efforts are not to be wasted that
ends may be gained. It is indispensable to adjust our action to the law of right and to learn
to triumph over our enemies." (“Aguinaldo declares war on America,” 1899, front page)
In the same front page, The Call narrates the battle that transpired in Manila:
“MANILA, Feb. 8, 10 a. m.—Lieutenant A.T. Ford, Company I, Twentieth Kansas Infantry,
and a private of that company were killed and six other members of the regiment were
wounded near Caloocan last evening while reconnoitering. The party was in a Jungle
when it was attacked by the enemy.
“Two companies of the Kansas regiment were sent to the relief of their comrades and
drove the Filipinos into Caloocan, penetrating to the very heart of the town. Meanwhile
the gunboats shelled the suburbs.
“General Otis finally recalled the troops, but the natives, misunderstanding the retreat,
failed to take advantage of it. The outskirts of the town were burned.
“MANILA, Feb. 7—The military situation here continues to be exceedingly tense. The
American troops are driving the natives inland and attacking Santolan, ten miles east of
Manila, and Caloocan, four miles north.
“A Filipino colonel came out this morning from Caloocan under a flag of truce. Several
American officers promptly went to meet him, but when the parties met the Filipinos
opened fire. The Filipino apologized for the barbarous conduct of his troops and returned
to his lines.
“Otis is showing the qualities of a great general. He possesses military talent and
energy in a high degree.
“His men and officers fought splendidly. The resistance of the natives is determined.
They shoot badly, but have plenty of pluck. Two more American victories would ruin
Aguinaldo's prestige and make a settlement of the difficulty easy. The native losses in
killed are over 3000.
“The Americans, as this dispatch is sent, are in complete control of the situation within
a radius of twenty miles of Manila, their lines extending to Malabon on the north and to
Paranaque on the south and fully twenty miles long. While a few detached bodies of the
enemy offer desultory opposition, the main body of the rebels is in full retreat and utterly
routed.
“Of the hordes of troops originally drawn up in battle array against the Americans
fully one third are already incapacitated and the rest are scattered in every direction.
“The rebels, who have been swept in every direction, like pheasants in a bateau, die by
the hundreds in the trenches for the most part passively, except the Ygorotes, who charge
desperately and uselessly.
“The rebel prisoners declare that their attack was unpremeditated, that the outposts
fired and then everybody followed in accordance with a sort of general understanding.
“The terrible loss of the rebels may be gathered from the fact that sixteen of them were
buried in one rice field on Monday near Pasay, and that eighty-seven were interred
between Paco and Santa Ana.
“The converted river gunboat did terrible execution among the rebels, sweeping both
banks of the river with her Gatling guns and her heavier battery. Hundreds of Filipinos
undoubtedly crawled into the canebrakes and died there.
“The Americans are working nobly in their efforts to find the wounded and are
bringing hundreds of suffering rebels to the hospitals for treatment. The natives are
unable to understand the humane motives which prompt the victors to succor the
wounded of the enemy.
Readings in Philippine History
“On the south side of Manila General Anderson occupies Paranaque. The insurgents
are massed in force on the opposite bank of the river.
“Your correspondent is informed that members of the hospital corps have made the
startling discovery that there are several women in male dress and with their hair cropped
among the dead.
“The chief of the Ygorotes, the Filipino natives who fought so gallantly in the face of
our artillery with their bows and arrows, is in a hospital with a shattered thigh. He admits
that he never saw modern artillery and was ignorant of its effects until he and his
followers met the disastrous fire of Sunday morning. The chief is bitterly incensed against
the Tagallos for placing the Ygorotes in front of the American battery, under the pretense
that they were sent to occupy the post of honor, and he intimates that the Ygorotes will
avenge this treachery when the survivors return north.
“It is regarded as a significant fact that many of the Filipino officials of this city
disappeared from Manila as soon as hostilities commenced. Some of them are supposed to
be still hiding.” (“The Kansas troops are shot down…,” 1899, front page)
Readings in Philippine History
On September 28, 1901, early in the morning, Filipino natives in Balangiga, Samar
ambushed the unsuspecting American soldiers. The St. Paul Globe newspaper reports
the incidence:
“MANILA, Sept. 29.—A disastrous fight between United States troops and insurgents
occurred yesterday in the island of Samar, near Balangiga. A large body of insurgents
attacked Company C, Ninth infantry, only twenty-four members of the company escaping.
All the others are reported to have been killed. The Company were at breakfast when
attacked and made a determined resistance; but the overwhelming numbers of the
insurgents compelled them to retreat. Of the survivors, who have arrived at Basey, eleven
are wounded. According to the latest returns the strength of the company was 72. Capt.
Edwin V. Bookmiller, of the Ninth infantry, reports that Gen. Hughes is assembling a force
to attack the insurgents. The insurgents captured all the stores and ammunition of the
company and all the rifles except 26...
“The news created a sensation in official circles. It was the first severe reverse that has
occurred for a long- time. Still the officials were not unprepared for news of just this
character from Samar, in which the revolution started by Aguinaldo still continues. Samar
is a country about as large as the state of Ohio, and the American forces of occupation
number in all between 2,000 and 2,500 men. These are distributed among various posts in
the island, a large number being located at the more important centers. Spain never made
any effort to occupy Samar, and it only has been for probably three months past that the
United States has undertaken that work. The latest report made by Gen. Hughes to the
war department was that the number of insurgent rifles in the island aggregated about
three hundred. The Filipinos carried on a GUERRILLA WARFARE, and operations
against them were difficult. The disaster to Company C, of the Ninth infantry, occurred, it
is believed, while it was engaged in an expedition to clear the country of roving bands of
these insurgents. The fact that the Americans were attacked while at breakfast indicates
the daring and pluck of the insurgents.” (“Battle with Filipinos,” 1901, front page)
CONSEQUENCE OF THE BALANGIGA ATTACK
“The Balangiga massacre gave officers the justification to pursue harsher
methods. General Jacob H. Smith led the charge in Samar. He gave the following
instructions: ‘I want no prisoners. I wish you to kill and burn, the more you kill and burn
the better you will please me. I want all persons killed who are capable of bearing arms in
actual hostilities against the United States.’ Major Littleton Waller asked to know the age
limit, and Smith replied ‘Ten years.’ These orders were immortalized in a cartoon in
the New York Journal whose caption read: ‘Kill Every One Over Ten: Criminals because
they were born ten years before we took the Philippines.’ Smith asked his men to turn
Samar into a ‘howling wilderness,’ and they obliged.
Readings in Philippine History
“Over the next year, the US Army practiced a scorched earth policy on Samar. They
trudged through dangerous jungles, burning towns, taking food, and either killing the
people or taking them to coastal villages for internment. Thousands of Filipinos, mostly
noncombatants, were killed during the Samar campaign. It became the most gruesome
campaign of the entire Philippine-American War.” (Akiboh, 2015)
“Kill Everyone Over Ten”—Gen. Jacob Smith.
(SOURCE: Wikimedia Commons, https://www.esquiremag.ph)
Readings in Philippine History
1. Do you agree with Aguinaldo’s statement that it is better to die defending our
country rather than to be an instrument of the American interests? Why?
2. Based on the narration of the battles around Manila in February of 1899, what
group was winning and why?
3. Why are the Ygorotes (Igorots) soldiers angry against their fellow Filipino soldiers in
the battle of February 1899 in Manila?
4. What was the U.S. officials’ initial reaction to the massacre of their comrades in
Balangiga, Samar in 1901?
5. What is guerilla warfare? Why did this make U.S. military operations against the
Filipinos difficult?
6. Is Gen. Smith’s order to kill over young children, civilians, and burn the Filipino
villages a justifiable response to the Balangiga massacre? Why?
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 5.3.1 Philippine-American War Timeline
1. Filipinos attack and massacre American troops in Balangiga, Samar
2. Emilio Aguinaldo is captured in Palanan, Isabela by Brigadier General
Frederick Funston
3. Pvt. William W. Grayson, an Englishman, fires the shot and kills a Filipino
soldier; thus the Philippine-America War commences
4. Gen. Antonio Luna is murdered in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija by his
compatriots
5. Gen. Gregorio del Pilar dies due to a snipers bullet in the Battle of Tirad
Pass
6. U.S. Pres. Theodore Roosevelt officially declares the end of the
Philippine-American War
7. The U.S. Senate, by a vote of 57 to 27, ratifies the Treaty of Paris due to
the outbreak of hostilities between Filipinos and Americans in Manila
8. Emilio Aguinaldo publishes a manifesto against the alleged maltreatment
and abusive acts of American soldiers towards Filipinos in Manila
9. Despite non-recognition of its independence, the Philippine Republic is
inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan with Emilio Aguinald as its president
10. U.S. Pres. William McKinley issues his “”Benevolent Assimilation”
proclamation, which angers Emilio Aguinaldo
Readings in Philippine History
CHRONOLOGICAL ARRANGEMENT OF EVENTS. To have a better understanding of the
underlying causes and consequences of the Philippine-American War, in this exercise
you will arrange the order of events in chronological order from the first to the last
event. Use the CAPITAL LETTERS: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J. Write your answers on
the spaces provided before the numbered statements. (NOTE: You will need additional
references for this exercise).
Lesson 5.4. The Igorot reaction to independence and Igorot-American relations
Lesson outcomes:
1. Analyze the reasons behind the Igorot response to Philippine Independence
2. Analyze the relations between Igorots and the American colonizers
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will read about the response of the Igorots
regarding the campaign for Philippine Independence that their fellow Filipinos in Manila
were advocating. You will also read about the relationship between Igorots and
Americans
READ TO LEARN
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Readings in Philippine History
Katherine Mayo, a journalist and nationalist historian, in her book Isle of Fear (1925)
reports of the prevailing conditions of the Filipino society in the 1920s. In the said book,
she presents the alleged sentiments of Igorots for the Americans and regarding the
independence of the Philippines that the “elite lowland politicians” were fighting for.
“Between the Filipino of the lowlands and the "Igorot" of the hills no bond nor
connection has ever existed. The Filipino from a distance despises and resents the
mountaineer—and abuses him when he can. Close at hand he fears him. The mountaineer
from any position despises and resents the Filipino, refusing with indignation to be
included under that name. The late Dean C. Worcester, who served for many years as
Secretary of the Interior, says:
‘All the non-Christian tribes have two things in common—their unwillingness to accept
the Christian faith and their hatred of the several Filipino peoples who profess it. Their
animosity is readily understood when it is remembered that their ancestors and they
themselves have suffered grievous wrong at the hands of the Filipinos. In spite of all
protestation to the contrary, the Filipinos are absolutely without sympathy for the nonChristian peoples, and have never voluntarily done anything for them, but on the contrary
have shamelessly exploited them whenever opportunity has offered.’ (The Philippines Past
and Present, pp. 661-2.)
“America's first approach to the mountains, by the blessing of Providence, was good.
We sent splendid young men to blaze our way there—men chosen as if by special
inspiration, for their steely nerve, their instinct for justice, their humour, humanity,
kindliness and horse sense. By true service, and by a genuine passion for their task, these
young men made the word "American" synonymous with "Friend," to the mountain
people. And their allies in that achievement were the doctor and the nurse.
“Another great influence for good, among the mountain people, was the character and
work of the late Dean C. Worcester who, as Secretary for the Interior, developed a wizardlike intuition as well as a great-hearted sympathy and understanding as to the mountain
peoples. Among other civilizing devices he started inter-tribal cañaos (feasts) to bring
together on a friendly basis of pleasures shared men who, in all the ages before, had
scarcely met except in deadly combat. At these cañaos he introduced athletic games, to
which the people took with avidity. And his introduction of the tug-of-war was perhaps
the greatest single element in the stopping of head-hunting.”(Chapter XXIII-The
Headhunters)
“I have talked privately to a hundred mountaineers, more or less, of the various tribes.
To each one I said in preface just what I said to the lowlanders of all degrees—‘I have
come to find out your mind. I want to carry back to America a true report of what you
think and desire. I will convey your message whatever it is. And if you trust me I will not
betray your name.’
“They received this appeal with grave attention. All were ready to speak, saying that
the opportunity to address themselves directly to America had never been offered them
before. Many added that they did not care to conceal their names; for if America remained
to protect them they feared nothing, while if America should go, their lives were forfeit
anyway.
“I now feel justified in affirming that the following statements express the mind of the
whole mountain people, and that any essential divergence will be found to come from
some rare individual who has been isolated and either terrorized or tempted beyond his
power to resist. In essence, the statements agree so completely that to quote a few is to
express them all.
“The question put was this: "Do you desire to see the Independence of the Philippine
Islands, the establishment of native government, and the withdrawal of America?" And I
endeavoured to convey the enquiry without colour or leading.
‘Mr. [Manuel] Quezon, of course, tells everybody that all the people in these Islands
want Independence. My people don't want Independence. For that only means Tagalogs
bullying us. Let more of us be educated first. If Independence came now, none of us is
competent to fill higher offices. They would send Filipinos to govern us, and then there
would be trouble. My people are very anxious to send their children to school now that
they see what schools can do. They say that if the Filipinos would spend some money to
give us schools and hospitals and nurses, and teach some of us to be doctors, instead of
sending missions to the United States, they would have some use for Filipinos. The trouble
is, my people, except a few students who read papers, don't know what goes on. The lowlanders think themselves above the mountain people. They always say 'Igorots know
nothing. They can't hold office.'
“A Bontoc said:
‘Most of my people are still savage. They can't read or write. But they do not want to
be under the Filipinos. Since Spanish times we have known them. Políticos have not
changed. No Filipino deals justly with us, and there will certainly be insurrection in our
country if Independence comes. We have public schools and are going on all right up to
now, but that is just because one American is left with us. He is our old friend. We wanted
him for Provincial Governor. For he is just. He can control our peoples easily because he
uses an equal hand. All Filipinos are Ilocano or Tagalog or something else. All favour their
own side and none would give us, even here in our own country, any chance. But the
Filipinos will not let us choose our own Governor.’
“The following is the statement of a Benguet—a magnificent physical type:
‘We know that we are behind in civilization. And we know that if the Filipinos were in
full power, instead of teaching us they would make us their workmen. They would take
from us all our wealth—our land and our animals, and raise our taxes. That is the
beginning of what 'Independence' would mean to us. I know that the Governor-General
knows that the Igorots are against Independence, because, whenever he comes to the
Readings in Philippine History
“A Kalinga expressed his answer thus:
mountains, the representatives of all the different tribes make journeys to him, asking him
to use all his power to save us, that Independence shall not come.
’Most of the educators among us, in the public schools, are Ilocanos. They seem not to
want any of us to show progress. Filipino officials almost never employ those of us who
have a little education and so give us a chance to learn more. Right now there are several
of us fitted to be secretary of a town, or foreman of road building. I think we natives
should be given opportunities. But foreign Filipinos get them all.
‘We Igorots want an American Governor. This present one is a Filipino. He sits in his
house with his wife. He never goes around to find the people's need. The Filipinos trick us
and steal from us. If one of them steals a carabao, he will win, if he is rich, for the judges
are Filipinos, and they will sell the case any time. The Igorot is sure to lose unless he pays
the judge often. And the Igorot is poor.’
Readings in Philippine History
“Said a Bontoc—one whose experience exceeds that of most:
‘These Filipinos who have been put over us are really trying to treat us better than they
have ever done before. But I do not think their hearts are changed. They hate us. It has
happened that Americans have taken pictures of Igorots and said 'These are some of the
people of the Philippines.' And that makes the politicos (or the ruling Filipino elites) angry
for they think it puts Independence back.
‘It is true that my people are very dirty. Like pigs. And ignorant. But we want to do
better. We want America to stay by us and guide us till we learn how.
‘The mountain farm schools are the best for us. We can't keep our health in the
lowlands. But the real benefit is they teach us on the farm schools how to go back and live
prosperously in our own place. But the políticos hate our farm schools, and are always
trying to push away our American teachers and put in little Filipinos who know nothing
but what is in their little book. We, who are farmers for thousands of years, we can tie
them all up in their little book.
‘We want to go to America to study. But they only send Filipinos as pensionados. Only
the American missionaries have sent any Igorots to the United States. Don't leave the
Igorots! For goodness' sake don't leave us. This is the prayer of every Igorot: Be over us. Be
our guardian. Don't leave the Philippines. Be over us.
‘By law, one Igorot is appointed by the Governor-General to represent us in legislature.
But he cannot do a thing for the Mountain Province. Because he is only one. He is nobody
there. He is ignored. If America goes, we shall be exploited and maltreated worse than the
Spaniards ever maltreated the Filipinos. I myself know the Filipino senator who was asked
what would be done for the Igorots under Independence.
“Another Bontoc testified:
‘We don't want Independence. We know too much. We would be treated like hell. The
Ilocanos, especially, abuse us Igorots instead of helping us. They will rob us. They rob us
now, and cheat us. And their teachers will not give Igorot boys a chance to learn. Our
mountain people want to be separated, in case of Independence. If it comes, and if America
won't keep us, but, against our will, gives us to the Filipinos, to be their slaves, we will
make a revolt. And of course there will be fights between the tribes too. Now, having some
Americans still in Bontoc, we live in peace—except for the weakness of the Governor, who
is a Filipino. Our Governor should be a big, strong chief, and wise and just, like the
Americans, and able to travel from place to place, to explain and convince. We Bontocs,
Kalingas, Ifugaos, Apayaos—we are not yet civilized. We need much help, yet, before we
can hold our own.’” (Chapter XXIV — And the Strength of the Hills is Ours also)
Readings in Philippine History
1. Why does Mayo say that Filipino lowlanders and Igorots of the uplands had no bond
or connection? What is the alleged cause of such “animosity”?
2. How did the Americans treat the Igorots as Mayo claims?
3. What did Dean C. Worcester “invented” and applied to end the violent conflicts
between ethnic groups in the Mountain Province?
4. To the Igorots, who were the Americans to them?
5. What were the main reasons why the Igorots did not generally support the
campaign for Philippine Independence advocated by the “Filipino” politicians?
6. Do you think the Americans had a hand in the social divide between Filipino
lowlanders and mountain peoples? Why?
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 5.4.1 Igorot-American and Igorot-Filipino Relationships
Readings in Philippine History
Through an editorial cartoon, express your opinion about the Igorot-American relations
as compared to Igorot-Filipino relations during the American Period. Use symbolisms
and labels as necessary.
Unit 10. Life under the Japanese imperial regime
Lesson 5.5. Philippines fall to the invading Japanese in World War II
Lesson outcomes:
1. Describe the experiences of the defeated soldiers in the Death March
2. Describe the experiences of the soldiers in military camps as POWs
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will learn about the circumstances and conditions
of the Filipinos during World War II and under the Japanese regime. On December 8,
1941, few hours after the Japanese sneak attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the
Japanese bombers attacked Philippines. Defense of the archipelago persisted until the
combined U.S. and Filipino forces surrendered to the Japanese invaders in April (in
Bataan) and in May (in Corregidor), 1942. The fall of Bataan resulted to the Death
March.
READ TO LEARN
In the excerpt below, Lt. Col. William E. Dyess, a survivor of the Bataan Death March
narrates his experience as a prisoner of war (POW). His account was published in
February 5, 1944 in The Atlanta Constitution.
“SUN TORTURE. Eventually the road became so crowded we were marched into a
clearing. Here, for two hours, we had our first taste of the oriental sun treatment, which
drains the stamina and weakens the spirit.
“The Japs seated us on the scorching ground, exposed to the full glare of the sun.
Many of the Americans and Filipinos had no covering to protect their heads. I was beside
a small bush, but it cast no shade because the sun was almost directly above us. Many of
the men around me were ill.
“When I thought I could stand the penetrating heat no longer, I was determined to
have a sip of the tepid water in my canteen. I had no more than unscrewed the top when
the aluminum flask was snatched from my hands. The Jap who had crept up behind me
poured the water in a horse’s nose-bag, then he threw away the canteen. He walked on
among the prisoners taking away their water and pouring it into the bag. When he had
enough he gave it to his horse.
“SQUAD JAP GRINS. Whether by accident or design we had been put just across the
road from a pile of canned and boxed food. We were famished, but it seemed worse than
useless to ask the Japs for anything. An elderly American colonel did, however. He
crossed the road and after pointing to the food and to the drooping prisoners, he went
through the motions of eating.
“A squad Jap officer grinned at him and picked up a can of salmon. Then he smashed
it against the colonel’s head, opening the American’s cheek from eye to jawbone. The
officer staggered and turned back toward us, wiping the blood off.
“It seemed as though Japs had been waiting for just such a brutal display to end the
scene. They ordered us to our feet and herded us back into the road.
“FEROCITY GROWS. We knew now the Japs would respect neither age nor rank.
Their ferocity grew as we marched on into the afternoon. They no longer were content
with mauling stragglers or picking them with bayonet points. The thrusts were intended
to kill.
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Readings in Philippine History
“We had marched about a mile after the sun treatment when I stumbled over a man
writhing in the hot dust of the road. He was a Filipino soldier who had been bayoneted
through the stomach. Within a quarter of a mile I walked past another. This solider
prisoner had been rolled into the path of trucks and crushed beneath the heavy wheels…
“THIRST UNBEARABLE. The thirst of all had become almost unbearable…A Jap
officer walked along just after the thirsty soldier had been beaten. He appeared surprised
that we wanted water. However, he permitted several Americans to collect canteens for
their comrades and fill them at a stagnant caribou wallow which had been additionally
befouled by seeping sea water. We held our noses to shut out the nauseating reek, but we
drank all the water we could get.
“At dawn of the second day the impatient Japs stepped among and upon us, kicking
us into wakefulness. We were hollow eyed and as exhausted as we had been when we
went to sleep. As we stumbled into the road we passed a Jap officer who as eating meat
and rice…
“The rising sun cast its blinding light into our eyes as we marched. The temperature
rose by the minute. Noon came and went. The midday heat was searing. At 1 p.m.the
column was halted and Japs told American and Filipino soldiers they might fill their
canteens from a dirty puddle beside the road. There was no food.
“KNOCKED SENSELESS. During the afternoon traffic picked up again. Troop laden
trucks sped past us. A grimacing Jap leaned far out, holding his rifle by the barrel. As the
truck roared by he knocked an America soldier senseless with the gun’s stock. Other Japs
saw this and yelled. From now on we kept out of reach if we could. Several more
American and Filipino prisoners were struck down.
“At 2 p.m. we were told it would be necessary to segregate the prisoners as to
rank…This separated all units from their officers and afforded opportunity for another
hour of sun treatment. There was no mention of food.
“WALKING IS AGONY. Our guards had been increased for the night march and rigid
discipline was imposed. We were formed into columns of four… [We] were forced to walk
practically at double quick to keep up… The change of gait so cramped our leg muscles
that walking was agony.
“Many prisoners began falling out now. They went down by twos and threes, some of
them trying to rise. They were moaning. Others lay lifelessly in the road. I observed that
the guards paid no attention to the fallen ones, and wondered why. I soon had an
explanation. There came the sharp crackle of rifle fire behind us.
“Bringing up the rear of our contingent skulked a cleanup squad of murdering Jap
buzzards. The American and Filipino soldiers who had fallen were sprawled darkly
against the white of the road.
“Members of the murder squad stooped over each huddled form…The bodies were
left where they lay, that other prisoners who are marching behind us may see them.
Orange flashes and thudding shots followed us through the night, always just a few paces
behind.” (p. 3)
In the excerpt that follows, Ricardo G. Hechanova (2003), another survivor of the
Bataan Death March recounts his experience in the prison camp in Camp O’Donell,
Capas Tarlac. Hechanova was a technical sergeant of the 2nd Infantry Regiment, 1st
Regular Division, of the Philippine army.
“Burial Grounds.
I was prisoner of war, in the Camp O’Donell Japanese
concentration camp in Capas, Tarlac. I was assigned to the GR & BS—Grave Registration
and Burial Service—a gruesome assignment of which I was the officer in charge. I had to
Readings in Philippine History
lay out plots to be dug and to give the picks and shovels to a company of POWs, and to
keep a registry of the burials. Because of illness, malnutrition and extreme stress,
hundreds of POW’s had to be buried daily at a pace faster than the diggers could dig.
Some of them, perhaps, were willing to die if only to free themselves from the agony of
hunger, disease, despair and the cruelties of the Japanese Imperial Army.
“The year was 1942. The helplessness of the men was the most dreadful part, the
feeling of absolute impotence in the face of evil, making the emotional texture of warfare
vastly different from that of prisoner-hood. Not being able to strike back or take action to
save oneself or one’s comrades, not being able to pick up a weapon, was a terrible feeling.
I could only watch when, for instance, a Japanese soldier pressed the muzzle of his rifle to
the forehead of a prisoner who was pleading for mercy and was shouting at the top of his
voice; one shot was all that was needed to keep the POW quiet.
“Camp O’Donell had been a training ground for the Philippine Army. It was designed
to accommodate no more than 9, 000 people. By the time the prisoners who survived the
infamous death march entered its gates, O’Donell’s population swelled to 50, 000 Filipino
and American POWs. Each barrack designed for 50 men was crammed with more than a
hundred. It was a place for men to go to die.
“My job and those of five others was to lay out the plots for the digging detail to
excavate, then for us in the team to bury the dead into the many 6 by 12 foot holes. My
count of the dead we buried in the biggest of the three burial grounds was 25, 384; there
were about 6, 000 Filipinos and 4, 000 Americans in the other two cemeteries. Burial was
the camp’s main activity. Disease was the real enemy, killing the POWs and sapping our
morale. The daily toll was indeed tragic but for most of the prisoners, the desire to live
was very strong.
“Body Count. The burial crew had to be careful when handling the dead, particularly
the bodies of those who died from wet beriberi. The feet, legs, hands and testicles would
hideously swell, and the patient would drown in his own pus. If we were not careful, the
body would burst on us.
“Once I lifted a body by grasping the hands; the body slid into the grave but left part
of the skin in my grasp. We buried the dead sardines-style, and covered the pile with a
thin cover of earth, thus leaving room for the next day’s batch of dead. In some of the
holes, a hand or leg would protrude out of the covered pile, only to disappear the
following day after the dogs had eaten the carcass.
“When the monsoon rains came, the holes would fill up with water and the bloated
dead would arise to the surface. Once, a POW whom we buried “woke” up after a light
rainfall. He came to me in my shack, crying. The cold shower had awakened him. The
following day we buried him again. Of course, the second time around, we had to be sure
that he was really dead.
“Camp O’Donell was more of an incubatorium for disease rather than a prison.
Pathogens spread from men to insect to beast to feces and to men again. Disease was the
real enemy: disease that modern medicine had long since learned to cure were killing the
POWs by hundreds or even more. Diseases due to lack of vitamins, bad hygiene, malaria,
typhoid and dysentery.
“The worst of malarial cases was the cerebral malaria. A victim would froth at the
mouth and shout at the top of his voice. I had my malarial attacks, which occurred daily. I
would be feverish and the chill would last about 10 minutes. My joints and elbows would
sort of rattle. My friends would wrap me in layers of blankets. I would smile a little after
the attack. O’Donell was a bedlam of delirious people clinging to dear life, praying,
cursing, and wondering how long the scourge would last. (pp. A1, A17)
Readings in Philippine History
Captured Filipino and U.S. soldiers at the outset of the Bataan Death March.
(Photo from National Guard) [http://origins.osu.edu/]
1. What was the general condition of the soldiers who were made to walk the Death
March?
2. What acts of torture did the Japanese employ to weaken the resolve of the
prisoners who were walking.
3. How did the marching prisoners manage to survive the long walk from
Bataan to Pampanga?
4. Why was the long walk dubbed as “Death March”?
5. What might explain the torturous treatment of the Japanese soldiers against the
Filipino and American prisoners in the Death March?
6. Why did Hechanova describe his work in the prison camp as a “gruesome
assignment”?
7. What was the common condition of the prisoners of war (POWs) at Camp O’Donell?
8. To Hechanova, what was worse than the physical conditions that they were going
through as POWs?
9. What was the real enemy in the prison camp? Why was this so?
Lesson 5.6. A glimpse of the everyday life of Filipinos during the Japanese occupation
Lesson outcomes:
1. Describe the social and economic life of the Filipinos under the Japanese
occupation
2. Write a reflection paper about the life of Filipino civilians, POWs, and soldiers
during the Japanese Occupation
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will read excerpts of interviews from the survivors
of World War II in the Philippines, narrating the social and economic life of the period.
READ TO LEARN
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The following excerpts are lifted from the book, “Kuwentong Bayan: Noong Panahon
Ng Hapon : Everyday Life in a Time of War” written by Thelma Kintanar, Clemen Aquino,
Patricia Arinto, and Ma. Luisa Camagay (2006).
‘[MANILA] As the year ended, more news were received of the Japanese forces
advancing towards the city. Daytime was spent gathering news from all sources…As
evening fell all houses were closed and all ears were glued to the ground for any sound
(such as running trucks or the presence of Japanese soldiers) to signify the arrival of
Japanese soldiers.
‘Between [8 to 10 pm], January 2, 1942, we heard trucks coming and soon shouts of
‘Banzai’ were heard. There were truckloads of Japanese nationals…Now they were coming
back escorted by invading Japanese soldiers. We were peeping through our windows. We
heard Japanese soldiers marching on the streets as…the soles of their boots struck the
gravel road. They had a peculiar smell strange to Filipino nostrils…
‘Manilans woke up the following morning to a new environment, Japanese sentries in
the streets growling at Filipinos, requiring them to bow Japanese style from the waist, with
command of ‘Kura-kura,’ slapping their faces. We were naturally afraid as word spread of
the Japanese soldiers’ behavior. Among us Filipinos we laughed at short Japanese soldiers
who stood much shorter than their rifles with fixed bayonets at their side. (pp. 27-28)
“A former resident describes the occupation of Baguio [City] by the Japanese:
‘Japanese soldiers occupied the city in the first week of 1942. They used as one of their
barracks the UP buildings…I had the chance to observe the behavior at close range of
rough Japanese soldiers who spanked innocent civilians and consfiscated personal articles
of value, as well as an educated army officer who took time to befriend and teach us
youngsters their system of writing. In a pre-war moviehouse I saw Japanese soldiers
visiting Filipina ‘comfort women’ voluntarily entertaining the enemy for a living. (p. 28 )
“An informant form Mangaldan, Pangasinan describes the effect [of the coming of the
Japanese] on the town and the townspeople:
‘The beginning of sorrow and painful decision came when news arrived that the
Japanese army landed in Aparri, Cagayan and that more had landed on Lignayen Gulf.
This gave fear [to] our townsmates.
Readings in Philippine History
“The advent of the Japanese army preoccupied the people during the last few days of
1941 [and early days of 1942], filling them with uncertainty and fear:
‘We were in distress then as mother had barely one week rest from giving birth to my
brother. The family decided to move mother to a safer place and to evacuate because we
were 300 meters from the town proper. Mother was moved…thirty kilometers from our
town…to a safer place to hide from the atrocities of the invader.
‘My mother and my sister stayed their…but my grandfather and I returned on the
same day as we did not know what [would] be the outcome of leaving most of our
livestock, palay and farm. As a boy of [14] years, I had no fear in those circumstances but
relied on my grandfather…
‘On January 20, 1942 our town became the station of combat soldiers and cavalry
tanks…Our neighbors and relatives had [evacuated] the place… During the night, we
could hear the rolling tanks, carts and marching of soldiers arriving suddenly. We kept
silent, [with] no lights [on] and stayed in the dug-out so that we would not be recognized
by the soldiers.’ (pp. 28-29)
Readings in Philippine History
“In general, the Filipinos gave the Japanese invaders a wide berth. Whatever they may
have felt, they presented an impassive face to the conquerors and went out their way to
avoid them.
‘The general rule among Filipinos was to avoid encountering Japanese soldiers as
much as possible. Passing through eskinita (alley) and secondary roads where there were
lesser chances of meeting the Japanese soldiers was practiced by Filipinos.
‘The people watched impassively from the sidelines and there was not much
interaction with the troops.’ (p. 34)
“It was not possible, of course, to avoid the Japanese all the time. Life had to go on,
albeit differently. One thorn in the side of Filipinos was the enforcement of the Japanese
custom of bowing. Although this practice may have been a part of Japanese culture, the
Filipinos did not like the way it was imposed on them and enforced, as it were, at the
point of a gun or of a bayonet.
‘We came back to Quiapo form Pampanga and people around us tried their best to
resume their normal activities. But somehow everything was different. There was the
dreaded Japanese soldier at almost every corner one turns. At the slightest imagined
offense, these soldiers were quick to slap and/or kick the Filipinos who happened to cross
their paths. We were forced to bow and greet the Japanese sentries with ‘O Hayo’ (good
morning) or ‘Kumbawa’ (good evening) otherwise there would be consequences to suffer.
The Filipino sense of humor however was always there, and more often than not when our
friends and neighbors would meet one of these sentries, they bowed and mumbled ‘O
Hayup’ and ‘P.I. mo’ (Putang Ina) instead. The soldier would acknowledge the greeting
not knowing he was cussed and insulted by the Filipino. We in the neighborhood shared
many a laugh over this, and somehow lessened the pain and humiliation we were suffering
at the hands of the enemy. (pp. 34-35)
“It was the children, particularly the young boys, who were more open to interaction
with Japanese…Looking back at their experiences then, ‘not all soldiers were inhuman [or]
barbaric.’
‘We were three boys of the same age. We used to play in the tank of the soldiers. We
became friends with the gunner and driver of the Tank. After playing, the soldiers would
get a big cup of sugar and… spoon feed us with sugar. Then he would pick up the rifle. We
thought then that he would shoot us. But no, he just demonstrated how to shoot. He said
‘American pong, pong, guerilla pong, pong, civilians no, tomodachi,’ meaning they shoot
Americans, guerillas but civilians, no. With his handkerchief, he demonstrated Japan is
(small Japan strong, American big, American weak.’ (p. 36)
‘In 1942,… notably in Manila wherein I reside, food, shelter and clothing were not
much of a problem. The people in the city were well stocked with looted goods when
Manila was declared an open city [or non-combat zone]. Some residents even vended their
goods on the city sidewalks. Food supplies could still be brought in from the nearby
provinces by local traders... riding on transportation [with special passes]. My family
operated one such transportation by converting an old automobile into a ‘charcoal-fed
jeepney’…Rice and other staples such as camote…, coconuts, bananas, papayas…could still
be brought in unmolested except at a few Japanese checkpoints.
‘Then in the latter part of the year, the Japanese army felt the need for more food
supplies for their troops. They initiated a move to control the local food suppliers to the
city by imposing a food blockade on every point to the city.
‘Thus the people began to feel an acute shortage of basic needs… They learned and
resorted to the dangerous practice of smuggling the food into the city. Some dared to ride
in trains, ingeniously hiding their goods from Japanese… checkpoints…Some were lucky
and others were not.
‘Food production was encouraged…[through]…home gardening. The people use every
available idle lot to plant vegetables, root crops…and also corn. This helped the people
cope later with the food shortage.’(p. 39)
“Due to the closure of many schools, limited access to schools that were open, as well
as lack of employment, many who were young people during the occupation had a lot of
time on their hands…For many, the occupation ‘was one long period of enforced leisure’
and they had to find ways of spending their leisure time.
‘For us leisure and recreation meant playing…softball, basketball and other games that
we would play in what small space was available to us. The radio was the most common
recreational facility and if one had a radio the whole neighborhood would be guests
listening to soap operas and other programs. Movies that were shown in theaters were
mostly Japanese films and in some places with a large stage, live stage shows could be
enjoyed. At this time the so called striptease shows came into being and so with the
striptease stars who are now called bold stars.
‘Community activities like the fiestas…were participated in by the people in the
community but somehow the activities and participation of those concerned were very
much subdued. As for books, most of those interested accessed them through borrowing
from friends and buying at bookstores but only those allowed to be sold openly.
‘Entertainment open in the radios were dramas and singing contests.
‘News broadcasts were censored and slanted to favor only Japanese victories at war.
‘When the need to… entertain high government officials and their Japanese guest arose,
the elementary public school teachers and children were called upon to perform song and
dance repertoires. (pp. 129-130)
“On the other hand, the Filipino directors and actors of shows staged in big theaters in
Manila slyly used the show to poke fun at the Japanese. Moreover, these shows… also
managed to send subtle messages of sedition.
‘During the occupation, we managed to enjoy life through the radio program and stage
shows mostly by comedians, Pugo and Togo, Oscar Obligacion, Bayani Casimiro, and others. They
managed to inject hidden meaning to their wit and humor which we Filipinos understood, like
poking fun and insults at the Japanese and professing love for our country and America. I
Readings in Philippine History
“A common theme in these narratives [of the respondents] is the shift from relative plenty
during the first months of the war to great want in the latter years. [In Manila, for
example]:
remember a song they often sang called ‘Canutong My Hero’. We shortened ‘Amercano’ to ‘Cano’
and later, to ‘Canuto.’ Only we Filipinos understood this at the time. There was much love for the
Americans then and no Filipino was anti-American.
Readings in Philippine History
1. What was the common reaction of Filipinos when they came to know of the coming
of Japanese soldiers to their places? Why?
2. What were the common acts of maltreatment that the Filipinos received from the
Japanese soldiers?
3. How did the Filipinos manage to survive the lack of basic needs such as food?
4. Describe the general relations of the Japanese soldier and those Filipinos who had
to live under the watch of the Japanese.
5. How did the Filipinos keep their “sanity” intact and “enjoy” life amidst fear, lack of
needs, unemployment, and limited access to schools?
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 5.5/5.6. My reflection about the life during the war period
Readings in Philippine History
From what you have read so far in this unit, take a little time to reflect about
the life circumstances during the war period. Narrate your thoughts and
feelings about the experiences of Filipino civilians, soldiers, and POWs under
Japanese rule. Write a 300-500 words reflection essay on the topic.
Module 6. Post-World War II Philippines
Unit 11: The Third Philippine Republic (1946-1973)
Lesson 6.1. The Third Philippine Republic
Lesson outcome:
1. Describe the socio-economic and political conditions of Post-WW II
Philippines
2. Analyze the problems, programs, and achievements of the Third Philippine
Republic
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will learn about the conditions of the Philippines
since the country’s independence in 1946 up to the end of the first term of Pres.
Ferdinand Marcos in 1969.
READ TO LEARN
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Readings in Philippine History
From the Official Gazette, the official journal of the Republic of the Philippines, we can
read this introduction about the Third Philippine Republic:
“The Third Republic of the Philippines was inaugurated on July 4, 1946. It marked the
culmination of the peaceful campaign for Philippine Independence—the two landmarks of
which were the enactment of the Jones Law in 1916 (in which the U.S. Congress pledged
independence for the Philippines once Filipinos have proven their capability for selfgovernment) and the Philippine Independence Act of 1934 (popularly known as TydingsMcDuffie) which put in place a ten-year transition period during which the Philippines
had Commonwealth status. The Third Republic also marked the recognition by the global
community of nations, of the nationhood of the Philippines—a process that began when
the Commonwealth of the Philippines joined the Anti-Axis Alliance known as the United
Nations on June 14, 1942, receiving recognition as an Allied nation even before
independence.
“Thus, the inauguration of the Third Republic marked the fulfillment of the long
struggle for independence that began with the Philippine Revolution on August 23, 1896
(recent scholarship suggests, on August 24) and which was formalized on June 12, 1898
with the Proclamation of Philippine Independence at Kawit, Cavite.
“From 1946 to 1961, Independence Day was celebrated on July 4. On May 12, 1962,
President Diosdado Macapagal issued Proclamation No. 28, s. 1962, which declared June
12 as Independence Day. In 1964, Congress passed Republic Act No. 4166, which formally
designated June 12 of every year as the date on which we celebrate Philippine
independence.” (“Third Republic,” n.d., par. 1-3)
The Official Gazette further narrates a brief history of the 1935 Constitution, which
served as the legal basis of the Third Philippine Republic from 1946 to 1973:
“In 1934, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Independence Act, which
set the parameters for the creation of a constitution for the Philippines. The Act mandated
the Philippine Legislature to call for an election of delegates to a Constitutional
Convention to draft a Constitution for the Philippines. The 1934 Constitutional
Convention finished its work on February 8, 1935. The Constitution was submitted to the
President of the United States for certification on March 25, 1935. It was in accordance
“The Roxas Administration (May 28, 1946 – April 15, 1948). President Manuel Roxas, in
his first State of the Nation Address, detailed the challenges the country was facing in the
aftermath of war and what he intended to do to address such challenges:
“Roxas’ 1st State of the Nation Address. ‘All of you can see with your own eyes the
destruction which surrounds us and the grave perils which threaten our survival as a
nation… Our people are to inherit a prostrate and war-devastated land. The extent of that
devastation was total. Despite the hum and bustle of activity in our cities, we have not yet
started on the major premises of reconstruction.
‘We are faced first of all by the fact that our Government is without financial means to
support even its basic functions, not to speak of the great projects in rehabilitation and
economic development, which we contemplate and which are, indeed, vital to our
continued existence…
‘Our national production itself is a pittance… The savings of our people and the
windfall of money brought us by the liberation forces are rapidly disappearing. They will
disappear at an even faster rate unless we arrest the unfavorable balance of trade with
drastic measures. The most obvious remedy is to increase our production and exports. This
we must do without delay.
‘Our transportation facilities…have been completely disrupted.
Only in recent weeks has the United States Government been
disposing of trucks and motor vehicles at a sufficient rate to enable
us to look forward to some measure of transportation recovery. But
our roads are a shambles, with a vicious tendency to deplete our
usable motor vehicles and at the same time impede the rate of the
flow of goods to market. Waterborne transport, especially in
coastwise trade, is still only a fraction of what it should be… Most of
our railroads are depleted of rolling stock and the lines themselves
are in a sad state of disrepair. Bridges and roads are in crying need
of reconstruction.
Readings in Philippine History
with the Philippine Independence Act of 1934. The 1935 Constitution was ratified by the
Filipino people through a national plebiscite, on May 14, 1935 and came into full force and
effect on November 15, 1935 with the inauguration of the Commonwealth of the
Philippines. Among its provisions was that it would remain the constitution of the
Republic of the Philippines once independence was granted on July 4, 1946.
“In 1940, the 1935 Constitution was amended by the National Assembly of the
Philippines. The legislature was changed from a unicameral assembly to a bicameral
congress. The amendment also changed the term limit of the President of the Philippines
from six years with no reelection to four years with a possibility of being reelected for a
second term.
“During World War II the Japanese-sponsored government nullified the 1935
Constitution and appointed Preparatory Committee on Philippine Independence to
replace it. The 1943 Constitution was used by the Second Republic with Jose P. Laurel as
President.
“Upon the liberation of the Philippines in 1945, the 1935 Constitution came back into
effect. The Constitution remained unaltered until 1947 when the Philippine Congress
called for its amendment through Commonwealth Act No. 733. On March 11, 1947 the
Parity amendment gave United States citizens equal rights with Filipino citizens to
develop natural resources in the country and operate public utilities. The Constitution,
thereafter, remained the same until the declaration of martial law on September 23, 1972.”
(“Constitution Day,” n.d., par. 3-6)
Readings in Philippine History
‘Public health and sanitation have retreated far from the level, which existed before the
war. Epidemic is a constant threat. The three great pests of our land–the rat, the mosquito,
and the locust–have thrived on our misfortunes and threaten us with both disease and
hunger. Famine is a strong possibility; shortages of food are even now critical. We are
immediately faced by a shortage, which will grow more critical within the next few
months… In some sections of the country rice is not being planted because of the lack of
carabaos and the threat of rats and locusts. In others, planting is diminished because of the
absence of law and order and the fear that the harvest may be stolen.
‘These are not yet all of our ills…In the Central Luzon provinces, and in one of the
provinces of Mindanao, force prevails rather than law. Bands of men possessing illegal
arms defy the forces of peace and order and have instituted their own misguided rule. It is
estimated that over 300,000 arms are illegally held in the Philippines today. Social and
economic injustices especially acute in those areas have been proper soil for the harvest of
violence. We shall do our best to remedy the economic ailments, the best that is within our
means and our understanding. We will not permit for one unnecessary moment the
defiance of law or the imposition of tyrannical terror. Peace and order will be restored with
understanding, with tolerance and with proper regard for the causes which gave rise to
this development. But there will be no compromise with lawlessness, no trafficking with
terror. Laws will be obeyed and arms will be surrendered. The welfare of the people of
those areas will be safeguarded.
‘In regard to labor, we are faced by the growing specter of unemployment. Hundreds
have been discharged from jobs on Army and Navy installations…There are no productive
enterprises available to absorb their energies… There is no easy formula to solve this
problem. It will require the aid not only of the United States, which we anticipate, but also
a recognition by all our people of their duty to invest their savings in productive
enterprises.
‘The United States Congress recently enacted two major pieces of legislation for our
relief-one of them is the Trade Rehabilitation Act, and the other the War Damage Act.
These Acts are major factors in our economic recovery… One of them–the Trade
Rehabilitation Act–requires implementation by the Philippine Congress… Without this
legislation we cannot immediately start our rehabilitation program; without this aid, I
seriously doubt whether we would be able even to feed and clothe our people during the
critical days ahead. Certainly, we would be unable to establish the economic foundations
required for the support of our independence.
‘I have lately returned from the United States… I asked for a government loan of
approximately 800 million pesos to be lent to us in five yearly installments, the first
installment to be 200 million pesos and the second 12 per cent less, the third 12 per cent
less than that, and so forth… I have also asked the Export-Import Bank of the United States,
a government-owned bank, for a rehabilitation loan. We discussed projects, which will
require 500 million pesos. This loan may take some time to negotiate. I intend to see that
every peso of this loan, when made is wisely and economically expended for selfliquidating projects.
‘We took up the matter of military bases which are to be established by the United
States in the Philippines…The specific determination of those bases is now under
negotiation. I have not yet been formally advised of all the specific sites considered by the
United States as necessary for the protection of both countries; I expect that final
agreement will be reached very soon.
‘As we start out on the road to rehabilitation, as we make our plans for the
reconstruction of our country, we must work along two lines. The first is the simplest–to
rebuild those industries and those enterprises, which were destroyed by the war. But that
is only half our goal. We must also plan and work in terms of broadening our economy, of
securing wider and wider participation in business and industry of greater and greater
numbers of individuals… One answer to this, of course, is small business. Small business
“In leading a ‘cash-starved government’ that needed to attend a battered nation,
President Roxas campaigned for the parity amendment to the 1935 Constitution. This
amendment, demanded by the Philippine Trade Relations Act or the Bell Trade
Act, would give American citizens and industries the right to utilize the country’s natural
resources in return for rehabilitation support from the United States…
“The amendment was necessary to attract rehabilitation funds and investments.. On
March 11, 1947, a total of 432,933 (78.89% of the electorate) voted in favor of the parity
amendment. The approval of the amendment had provided the nation with $620
million in war damage compensation, through the Philippine War Damage Commission.
“A major initiative arising from preliminary wartime discussions about the future
security of the Philippines, was the US–Philippine Military Bases Agreement of 1947,
which gave the United States the right to retain the use of sixteen bases, free of rent, with
the option to use seven more for a term of 99 years.
“The Roxas administration also pioneered the foreign policy of the Republic. Vice
President Elpidio Quirino was appointed Secretary of Foreign Affairs. General Carlos P.
Romulo, as permanent representative of the Philippines to the United Nations, helped
shape the country’s international identity in the newly established stage for international
diplomacy and relations. During the Roxas administration, the Philippines established
diplomatic ties with foreign countries and gained membership to international entities,
such as the United Nations General Assembly, the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the
International Labor Organization (ILO), etc.
1. What were the major socio-economic problems the Philippines immediately after
World War II?
2. How did the Roxas administration respond to these problems?
3. What Constitutional amendment was made in exchange for U.S. aids and grants for
the Philippines’ war rehabilitation program?
“The Quirino Administration (April 17, 1948 – December 30, 1953). President Elpidio
Quirino’s goal as chief executive, as stated in his first State of the Nation Address,
revolved around strengthening the people’s confidence in the government and the
restoration of peace.
Quirino’s 1st State of the Nation Speech. ‘My first concern was to complete the
restoration of peace and order and to strengthen our people’s morale and confidence in the
government. My first act in this direction was to order the reduction in the price of Class E
rice…This order reduced the cost not only of other grades of rice but also of other essential
commodities whose price structure is dependent on the cost of rice.
‘Then I made the first of my visits to the troubled areas in Central
Luzon. Here the dissident elements [Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa
Hapon (HUKBALAHAP) led by Luis Taruc] were terrorizing the
population with kidnappings and depredations. They were preying
for food and other necessities upon the poor people of Pampanga,
Bulacan, Nueva Ecija and Tarlac, the very people whose interests they
were pretending to protect, whose welfare they were professing to
promote. That tour elicited the offer of cooperation from the leader of
Readings in Philippine History
is one of the bulwarks of democracy. Small factories, small shops, small processing plants
attracting the ingenuity of individuals and the enterprise of small groups, are economically
essential and socially desirable.’ (“President Roxas on First State..” [an excerpt],1946)
Readings in Philippine History
the dissident elements. It resulted eventually…in the issuance of an Amnesty Proclamation.
‘During the period of the Amnesty, the people of Central Luzon, especially those
seeking shelter in the poblaciones and those hiding in the hills, found it safe once more to
return to their homes and resume the cultivation of their farms. No less than six thousand
one hundred hectares in the troubled areas that had lain idle for four or five years were
planted to rice. Upon the expiration of the proclamation period, the misguided elements
resumed their defiance of the government. They began again to harass the people during
harvest time. But the government, through an effective Constabulary campaign, has been
able not only to break their organization, driving the remnants to the deep recesses of the
Sierra Madre, but to secure the biggest rice harvest since the outbreak of the war despite a
drought and other natural calamities.
‘The Amnesty also served to unmask the dissidents. It exposed their communistic
inspiration and direction. It uncovered their real purpose to overthrow the government,
which they had cloaked by agitation for so-called social and agrarian reforms. Realizing
this as they never had before, our law-abiding citizens gave the government all their
loyalty and support in the subsequent policy it followed of going after the dissidents with
all its strength and power to uphold the law.
‘The government shall continue its vigilance against potential disruptive elements
which impair the efficiency of our productive efforts. We will not tolerate further
interference with the steady prosecution of our social and economic program.
‘My second immediate objective was to provide for relief to the people in the troubled
areas. By executive order I created the Action Committee on Social Amelioration. I charged
it with the duty to go to the field and minister to the needy, the hungry, the homeless and
the sick, to victims of dissident, depredations and violence. I placed the four million pesos
appropriated by Congress for peace and order and relief at the disposal of the Committee.
‘The Action Committee has carried out a program of social amelioration on a
systematic and comprehensive scale. Some 700,000 needy people in thirteen provinces and
chartered cities secured direct assistance food, clothing, medicine and, in some cases, direct
cash loans. These loans amounted to P205,000 and were given to tenant-farmers… In
addition, the Committee distributed P330,000 worth of seeds, mainly palay, for
distribution to farmers to augment the production of rice. Other food crops have likewise
been planted. To provide employment to long unemployed people, the construction of
public works projects in the troubled area was speeded up. In order to encourage the
establishment of homes for the landless, the acquisition of big landed estates to be parceled
for resale to bonafide tenants at cost was also accelerated.
‘By the approval of Republic Act No. 304, we have solved the long standing demand
among our thousands of government employees for backpay... By Acts Nos. 312 and 315,
we have increased the minimum salaries of teachers, enlisted men and other small
government employees...
‘We have obtained from the United States Government provision for the
hospitalization of our veterans. Our government has extended to our heroes of the war
and the resistance such benefits as we have been able initially to afford. We have warded
off epidemics. Large-scaIe immunization work has been accomplished. Medical care and
facilities have been extended. Traveling clinics have been established. Hospitals…have
been rehabilitated. We are taking steps to introduce on a big scale in our country the latest
advances in medical science including new drugs and vaccines for the treatment or
prevention of leprosy and tuberculosis.
‘We have solved the heretofore recurrent school crisis. Nine thousand additional
classes were opened throughout the country. We have made possible the admission of
every child of school age seeking entrance to our public schools. For the first time in the
history of civil administration in this country there was no such thing as a school crisis this
school year.
1. What were the primary goals of the Quirino administration for the Filipino people?
2. What was Quirino’s explanation why his amnesty program for the ‘dissident
elements’ in Central Luzon failed?
3. What was Quirino’s Social Amelioration Program all about?
4. What were the roles of the Central Bank in our economy?
5. What does Pres. Quirino’s statement, “Our economic structure should be built from
below” mean?
“The Magsaysay Administration (December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957). To help the rural
masses was the focal point of the populist administration of President Ramon Magsaysay.
President Magsaysay insisted in meeting and communicating with his people. In his
first Executive Order, he established the Presidential Complaint and Action Commission,
which investigated various citizen complaints and recommended remedial actions
through different government agencies. The Commission served to boost the nation’s
confidence with its government; it was seen as a fulfillment of President Magsaysay’s
promise, stated in his inaugural address, to become a President for the people. The
principles of the Magsaysay administration were codified in the Magsaysay Credo, and
became the theme of leadership and public service.
“The Magsaysay Credo [1956]:
‘I believe that government starts at the bottom and moves upward, for government exists
for the welfare of the masses of the nation.
I believe that he who has less in life should have more in law.
I believe that the little man is fundamentally entitled to a little bit more food in his stomach,
a little more cloth in his back and a little more roof over his head.
I believe that this nation is endowed with a vibrant and stout heart, and possesses
untapped capabilities and incredible resiliency.
I believe that a high and unwavering sense of morality should pervade all spheres of
governmental activity.
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‘We have set up the Central Bank to expand our credit, stabilize our currency and
provide a new source of financing for the agricultural and industrial development of the
nation. With the operation of the Central Bank, we expect to maintain our domestic
monetary stability, the international value of the peso, the free convertibility of the peso
into United States dollars and other freely convertible currencies, and the promotion of a
rising level of production, employment and real income.
‘The most important and urgent aim of this administration at this stage is increased
production and social amelioration. We cannot indefinitely ride on the foam of foreign
charity and friendship… The pensions to war widows, orphans and disabled veterans
must continue with adequate funds therefore. The nation owes an eternal debt of gratitude
to them. Their sacrifices shall not be in vain. I beseech the Congress to give the matter
immediate consideration… I urge total economic mobilization. Our economic structure
should be built from below, making the foundation firm and accessible to the general
population so that everyone can contribute to and share in the benefits of our material
progress…In our economic mobilization, we should give priority to our already
established major industries. The abaca industry needs replanting and expansion. The
tobacco industry must be revived and its foreign markets reopened. The industrial
processes developed for the coconut industry must be fully exploited. The prewar sugar
industry must be restored and markets for excess production over domestic demand and
the United States import quota limitations must be found.” (“State-of-the-Nation
message..”[an excerpt], 1949)
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I believe that the pulse of government should be strong and steady, and the men at the
helm imbued with missionary zeal.
I believe in the majesty of constitutional and legal processes, in the inviolability of human
rights.
I believe that the free world is collectively strong, and that there is neither need or reason
to compromise the dignity of man.
I believe that communism is iniquity, as is the violence it does to the principles of
Christianity.
I believe that the President should set the example of a big heart, an honest mind, sound
instincts, the virtue of healthy impatience and an abiding love for the common man.’
“Magsaysay’s Inaugural Speech. ‘You have called upon me to assume the highest office
within our gift. I accept the trust humbly and gratefully. My sole determination is to be
President for the people.
‘The office of President is the highest in the land. It can be the humblest also, if we
regard it – as we must – in the light of basic democratic principles. The first of these
principles is the declaration of the Constitution that “sovereignty resides in the people and
all government authority emanates from them.” This simply means that all of us in public
office are but servants of the people.
‘As I see it, your mandate in the past election was not a license for the selfish
enjoyment of power by any man or group of men. On the contrary, it was an endorsement
of the principle – at times forgotten – that the general welfare is the only justification for
the exercise of governmental power and authority.
‘Your mandate was a clear and urgent command to establish for
our people a government based upon honesty and morality; a
government sensitive to your needs, dedicated to your best interests,
and inspired by our highest ideals of man’s liberty…
‘From this day, the members of my administration, beginning
with myself, shall cease to belong to our parties, to our families, even
to ourselves. We shall belong only to the people. In the
administration of public affairs, all men entrusted with authority
must adhere firmly to the ideals and principles of the Constitution.
‘I will render – and demand – uncompromising loyalty to the
basic tenet of our Constitution; that you, the people, are sovereign. The rule of government
must be service to you. Accordingly, I pledge my administration to your service. I pledge
that we shall extend the protection of the law to everyone, fairly and impartially – to the
rich and the poor, the learned and the unlettered – recognizing no party but the nation, no
family but the great family of our race, no interest save the common welfare.
‘The Bill of Rights shall be for me and the members of my administration, a bill of
duties. We shall be guardians of the freedom and dignity of the individual. More than this,
we shall strive to give meaning and substance to the liberties guaranteed by our
Constitution – by helping our citizens to attain the economic well-being so essential to the
enjoyment of civil and political rights.
‘The separation of powers ordained by our Constitution – as an effective safeguard
against tyranny – shall be preserved zealously. Mutual respect for the rights and
prerogative of each of the three great departments of government must be observed. The
legislative power vested by the Constitution, in the elected representatives of the people
will, I trust, operate vigorously to prosecute our common program of honest, efficient and
constructive government. As Executive, I look forward to intimate cooperation with the
members of Congress, particularly with those statesmen who have stood guard over the
rights and liberties of our people. The independence of the judiciary shall be strengthened.
Our courts must be freed from political and other baneful influences, so that they may
“Among the accomplishments of the Magsaysay administration were: the Social Security
Law of 1954 or Republic Act No. 1161. In an effort to solve the problems of communism
and insurgency, President Magsaysay sought to protect the farmers, through the creation
of laws such as: the Agricultural Tenancy Act of the Philippines or Republic Act No. 1199;
the Land Reform Act of 1955 through Republic Act No. 1400; the formation of the Court of
Agrarian Relations through Republic Act No. 1267; and the National Resettlement and
Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA) through Republic Act No. 1160. The
administration achieved victory over insurgents with the surrender of Huk leader Luis
Taruc in 1954. In the field of international diplomacy and defense, President Magsaysay,
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function with the same integrity and impartially which have made our Supreme Court the
fortress of law and justice.
‘Heretofore, social justice has raised fervent but frustrated hopes in the hearts of our
less fortunate citizens. We must not permit social justice to be an empty phrase in our
Constitution. We must bring it to life – for all. In consonance with this purpose, my
administration shall take positive, energetic measures to improve the living conditions of
our fellow citizens in the barrios and neglected rural areas and of laborers in our urban
and industrial centers.
‘The land tenure system of our country shall be reexamined, to purge it of injustice and
oppression. ‘Land for the landless’ shall be more than just a catch-phrase. We will translate it
into actuality. We will clear and open for settlement our vast and fertile public lands which,
under the coaxing of willing hearts and industrious hands, are waiting to yield substance to
millions of our countrymen.
‘Democracy becomes meaningless if it fails to satisfy the primary needs of the common
man, if it cannot give him freedom from fear and on which a strong republic can be built.
His happiness and security are the only foundations on which a strong republic can be
built. His happiness and security shall be foremost among the goals of my administration.
‘We must develop the national economy so that it may better satisfy the material needs
of our people. The benefits of any economic or industrial development program shall be
channeled first to our common people, so that their living standards shall be raised.
‘While I shall give priority to our domestic problems, my administration will not
neglect our international responsibilities. We cannot escape the fact that, today, the
destinies of nations are closely linked. It is in this spirit that we regard the goodwill and
assistance extended to us through the various programs of international economic
cooperation with the more developed nations, chiefly the United States. Considering this
aid to be primarily a means of speeding up our progress toward self-reliance, I pledge that
every peso worth of assistance will be spent honestly and to the best advantage.
‘It is to our common interest that this Republic, a monument to mutual goodwill and
common labor, should prove to the world the vitality of the democracy by which we live.
We shall continue to cooperate with the United Nations in seeking collective security and a
just world peace. ‘No effect will be spared, no element of cooperation will be withheld in
strengthening and safeguarding our physical security. We are prepared to live up to all
our obligations under our Mutual Defense Treaty with the United States.
‘Certainly we cannot temporize with armed dissidence. I therefore call upon the
remnants of the Huk uprising still hiding in the hills to lay down their arms – and rejoin
the rest of the nation in the ways of peace. I say to the rank and file of the Huks – who have
been misled by the lies of the Kremlin – that they can win the economic security and social
justice they desire only within the framework of our democracy. We shall welcome back
the truly repentant with understanding and with sympathy. But, to the leaders of the
Communist conspiracy who would deliver this country and its people to a foreign power,
this I say: I shall use all the forces at my command to the end that the sovereign authority
of this government shall be respected and maintained. There can be no compromise with
disloyalty.’(Inaugural address, [an excerpt], 1953)
through the Manila Pact of 1954 or the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, led the
establishment of the Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO).
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1. What did Pres. Magsaysay mean with his statement, “…he who has less in life
should have more in law”?
2. What does the statement, “Sovereignty resides in the people and all government
authority emanates from them” mean?
3. What were the major social problems identified by Pres. Magsaysay in his speech?
4. How did he plan to solve (or have solved) such problems?
“The Garcia Administration (March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961). President Garcia
used the momentum of the previous administration’s campaign on social welfare and
signed the amendment of the Social Security Law through Republic Act 1792, establishing
the Social Security System on September 1, 1957. President Garcia ran for the presidential
elections of 1957. It was the first time in electoral history where there were four serious
contenders to the presidency, namely: Jose Yulo, Claro M. Recto, Manuel Manahan, and
President Garcia. The incumbent president won the elections with 41.3% of the electorate.
It was the first time that a president was elected by plurality of candidates instead of a
majority vote. It was also the first time where the elected president and vice president did
not come from the same political party—President Garcia was a Nacionalista and Vice
President Diosdado Macapagal a Liberal.
“The Garcia administration promoted the “Filipino First” policy, whose focal point
was to regain economic independence; a national effort by Filipinos to “obtain major and
dominant participation in their economy.” The administration campaigned for the citizens’
support in patronizing Filipino products and services, and implemented import and
currency controls favorable for Filipino industries. In connection with the government’s
goal of self-sufficiency was the “Austerity Program,” which President Garcia described in
his first State of the Nation Address as “more work, more thrift, more productive
investment, and more efficiency” that aimed to mobilize national savings. The Anti Graft
and Corrupt Practices Act, through Republic Act No. 301, aimed to prevent corruption,
and promote honesty and public trust. Another achievement of the Garcia administration
was the Bohlen–Serrano Agreement of 1959, which shortened the term of lease of the US
military bases in the country from the previous 99 to 25 years.
“Garcia’s 1st State of the Nation Address. ‘Fortunately, we have succeeded to an
administration that was also our own because most of us were part of it and because,
under the concept of party responsibility, its policies were formulated and implemented
by us. Consequently, we have to continue these policies; with some addition, we must
continue building up the nation, spurred by the dynamics of progressive national growth.
‘Without resorting to substantial foreign assistance, we achieved
our economic progress at some sacrifice of our international reserve.
The question of why the country’s international reserve has continued to decline in spite of controls finds an answer in our
committed policy of development within a framework of monetary
stability. The reserve has not been dissipated as the pattern of
importation clearly demonstrates. It has been increasingly put to use
to purchase the machinery and the tools of our industrialization
without which no satisfactory solution to the problems of poverty
and unemployment would ever be possible. In addition to the
increased requirements of our growing industries, we dipped into
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our reserve for the expanding needs of our growing population for imported essential
consumer goods. However, we cannot continue to draw on our dwindling reserve
indefinitely at the present pace without undermining the international value of the peso
and completely setting back our development program completely set at its crucial stages.
‘As we reached this limit, in drawing on our international reserve as the inflationary
effects of the heavy spending for development became correspondingly greater on the
domestic economy as indicated by recent spiraling of prices. No one in this country
considers inflation compatible in our democratic system. Aside from its manifest social injustices, it creates social unrest. The Government and our citizenry are determined to
insure economic and monetary stability even if this means a temporary retrenchment in
our program.
‘We do have problems and serious ones that challenge the best in us to solve them.
Self-denial and even some sacrifices may be needed. We have the problems of food insufficiency, unemployment, rising prices, dwindling international reserve, decreasing
revenue collections, increasing budgetary requirements, and other problems of equal
importance and urgency. But with faith and courage we will meet these problems and
solve them to the satisfaction of our people.
‘Economic problems are not solved in a day, and foreign assistance does not
immediately jump at the beck of opportunity. We must, therefore, face the fact
that we shall have to rely mainly on our own resources if we are to proceed with our
development. It is clear that we cannot continue to draw on our international reserve at the
present rate. But a slackening for a time of our consumption of dollars would mean either
cutting down our imports of machinery and raw materials—or sacrificing more of our
consumer imports in favor of the industrial. The cause of economic progress constrains us
to take the latter course, while efforts are being exerted to explore sources of new capital
from abroad.
‘We cannot expect to bring about the degree of economic improvement which we have
set for our country without diverting a higher proportion of the national income to capital
investment. Such a course inescapably entails our foregoing of less essential consumption
and wasteful investment. This implies a policy of voluntary austerity on the part of our
people since we are a democratic nation. Sacrifice and a policy of austerity will have to be
adopted temporarily on many fronts.
‘Austerity as a policy means temperate spending. It signifies more work, more thrift,
more productive investment, and more efficiency. It means less imports and less
extravagant consumption. It is a challenge to our resiliency as a people to change our past
habits and make thrift and economy our everyday way of living. Imposed on us by harsh
realities; the exercise of austerity in our everyday life is a desirable end in itself. The
Government will do all in its power to direct the main impact of this policy against,
extravagant consumption and ostentatious living in a way that: will not affect
the basic living standard of the ordinary individual. Curbing such consumption and
eliminating wasteful and unproductive activities the only safe and sound way by which
we can move ahead in our development program without running the risk of national
retrogression. The situation calls for continuing energetic and courageous action on our
part.
‘Our first and immediate goal…is self-sufficiency in food, specifically in rice, corn, and
fish. It is a challenge to our industry and sense of proportion as a people that, blessed with
vast and virgin lands and a favourable climate, we have so far failed to produce enough
rice and corn to feed ourselves. Likewise, endowed with great bodies of water from which
fish of all varieties can be had for the taking, we cannot supply even the minimum needs
of our people. Yet, these commodities are the real index to our national well-being. They
also exert a profound influence on the general level of prices. Abundant cheap rice may be
our most effective weapon against inflation. I therefore propose an intensified rice
production… Under this program, we envisaged: (a) the distribution of fertilizers, selected
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seeds and insecticides to small farmers of food crops; (b) the speeding up of the completion
of irrigation projects now underway; and (c) the building of impounding reservoirs to
guarantee adequate water supply even during drought. We must provide other aids and
devise incentives, preferably in kind, and emphasize intensive and scientific cultivation.
Similar measures must be taken with respect to fish and fowls and livestock.
‘We must not take for granted that our natural resources cannot be exhausted… The
cutting of timber must be followed by reforestation; fishing must be followed by
replenishment of our river and lakes with fry; mining must be done with high recovery
method; and farming must be done with re-fertilization…
‘Intensive and extensive scientific research is a necessary hand-maiden of both the
utilization and conservation of natural resources. I, therefore, request more appropriations
for scientific research. Positive encouragement must be extended to private industry and
the universities to enable them to cooperate to their fullest capacity with the Government
to the end that they may ultimately take over the burden of such research work… Research
may enable us to raise all the cotton and ramie we need for our textile industry, kenaf for
our bags, and the rubber for our tire and rubber industry. It may lead to the discovery of
new uses, as raw materials or food or medicine or chemicals, of our crops, plants, and
other products, and to the invention of machines and equipment suited to our farms,
forests, and other needs…
‘We are stepping up the campaign against smuggling at our ports, sea frontiers, and
other areas in order to prevent the leakage of dollars and the evasion of taxes…
‘Our domestic transportation system must be extensively revamped so as to do away
with wasteful practices and conserve fuel and spare parts.
‘We must try to extend greater incentives and encouragement to our small producers
on the cottage industry level… These cottage industries, integrated and strengthened
through the establishment of a common clearing house for the regulation of standards as
well as for marketing and financing facilities, can become a solid base for further industrial
growth.
‘We must define in clear terms our foreign investment policy. It is my considered
opinion that foreign investments, through welcome, should be admitted on
a selective basis in order that legitimate Filipino business may be protected, particularly in
fields already being fully exploited by our own nationals… While efforts to obtain foreign
loans for our development is believed necessary, domestic capital must be encouraged to
participate fully in Philippine business.
‘It is time to gear our educational system to our economic development program. Since
up-to-date textbooks and modern equipment essential to efficient instruction are not being
supplied adequately to our schools, their acquisition through sufficient appropriation
should be given serious consideration.
‘As a means of augmenting our foreign earnings, we must promote tourism and
improve local facilities to take care of the increased passenger and cargo
traffic that passes through our country. Our cultural landmarks and public places must be
kept in good condition, and new facilities for cultural expression and preservation must be
provided. Art is dear to the Filipino soul.
‘I shall continue to insist on honesty and integrity in the public service. I must serve
stern warning that erring public servants will be dealt with severely but justly. Deserving
employees, however, will be rewarded. This Administration will exert its utmost in
combating all forms of graft and corruption in the government.’ (Message of President, [an
excerpt], 1958)
1. What was the goal of Pres. Garcia’s “Filipino First” policy?
2. What is the role of Pres. Garcia’s “Austerity Program” in the achievement of his goal
for self-sufficiency?
“The Macapagal Administration (December 30, 1961- December 30, 1965). President
Diosdado Macapagal, during his inaugural address on December 30, 1961, emphasized the
responsibilities and goals to be attained in the “new era” that was the Macapagal
administration. He reiterated his resolve to eradicate corruption, and assured the public
that honesty would prevail in his presidency. President Macapagal, too, aimed at selfsufficiency and the promotion of every citizen’s welfare, through the partnership of the
government and private sector, and to alleviate poverty by providing solutions for
unemployment.
Among the laws passed during the Macapagal administration were: Republic Act No.
3844 or the Agricultural Land Reform Code (an act that established the Land Bank of the
Philippines); Republic Act No. 3466, which established the Emergency Employment
Administration; Republic Act No. 3518, which established the Philippine Veterans
Bank; Republic Act No. 3470, which established the National Cottage Industries
Development Authority (NACIDA) to organize, revive, and promote the establishment of
local cottage industries; and Republic Act No. 4156, which established the Philippine
National Railways (PNR) to operate the national railroad and tramways. The
administration lifted foreign exchange controls as part of the decontrol program in an
attempt to promote national economic stability and growth. In the field of foreign
relations, the Philippines became a founding member of Maphilindo [MalaysiaPhilippines-Indonesia], through the Manila Accord of 1963. The regional organization of
Malay states strove for ‘Asian solutions by Asian nations for Asian problems,’ and aimed
to solve national and regional problems through regional diplomacy.
“Macapagal’s inaugural address. ‘Bound by the oath I have just taken, I am resolved that I
shall be the President not only of the members of my party but of all political groups; I
shall be President not only of the rich but more so of the poor; and I shall be President not
only of one sector but of all the people. The primary function of the President is not to
dispense favors but to dispense justice.
‘Our aims are two-fold: first, to solve the immediate problems
of the present and, second, to build materially and spiritually for
the future…Our first mission is the solution of the problem of
corruption… I shall consider it, therefore, my duty to set a personal
example in honesty and uprightness. We must prove that ours is
not a Nation of hopeless grafters but a race of good and decent men
and women.
‘Our second mission is to attain self-sufficiency food of our
people, namely, rice and corn. The elemental needs of every people
are food, clothing and shelter. We shall give impetus to industries
that will provide clothing for our population at reasonable prices. In
collaboration with private enterprise, we shall invigorate the
national housing program and devote particular attention to proper housing for
countrymen who earn the lowest income and the indigents who live under subhuman
conditions.
‘The basic national problem is the poverty of the masses. Our third mission, therefore,
is the creation of conditions that will provide more income for our people – income for
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3. What problems emerged as a result of the use of our country’s international
reserve (as pointed by Pres. Garcia)?
4. What was Pres. Garcia’s policy on foreign investments in Philippines?
5. What was the importance of “scientific research” in Pres. Garcia’s self-sufficiency
program?
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those who have none and more income for those whose earnings are inadequate for their
elemental needs. Millions of our people are unemployed and millions more are
unemployed and millions more are under-employed. We must rectify this situation to help
our people attain a higher level of living and create the domestic buying power that can
help generate prosperity. Unless solved in time, this problem will worsen to the point of
disaster in view of our population explosion.
‘The permanent solution to this problem is the rapid and sound utilization of our vast
and rich natural resources in order to create opportunities for employment. We believe
that the effective accomplishment of this task should be left to the citizens themselves, that
is, to private enterprise.
Our fourth mission is to launch a bold but well-formulated socio-economic program
that shall place the country on the road to prosperity for all our people. In essence, the
program will call for a return to free and private enterprise… I strongly believe in placing
the burden of economic development in the hands of private entrepreneurs with the least
government interference while making the Government assume the full responsibility for
implementing the social and public welfare program.
‘I believe in private enterprise because I have faith in the Filipino. I am convinced that
if his future is placed in his own hands and conditions are created in which he may seek
his prosperity and carve his own destiny – with his integrity, talent, industry and sense of
sacrifice – he shall surmount attendant difficulties, husband the natural bounty that God
has bestowed for his well-being, effectively provide for his needs and transform our
country at an early time into a land of abundance not only for a favored few but for each
and every Filipino.
‘Our fifth mission, therefore, is to establish the practices and the example that will
strengthen the moral fiber of our Nation and reintroduce those values that would
invigorate our democracy. This we shall seek through formal modes of reform, through
enforcement of statutes and, whenever feasible, through the power of example. I shall
accordingly endeavor to set the tone not only for integrity but also for simple living, hard
work, and dedication to the national well-being.
‘Nation-building is an exacting and endless endeavor. No President can build the
whole edifice of a nation. All that he is called upon to do is to add a fine stone to that
edifice, so that those who shall come after him may add other fine stones that will go for a
strong and enduring structure. I stress anew that stone that we are assigned to contribute
to the edifice of a greater Philippines is, first, to attend to such short-range problems as
sufficiency in the staple food of the people, and more employment, and second, to
undertake a long-range task of moral renaissance and the implementation of a socioeconomic blueprint which, although not immediately achieving prosperity, will lead to
that prosperity for all our people.
‘In the past electoral combat, our people showed the strength of our democracy in this
part of the world by bringing about a peaceful change of Administration through the ballot
and not through the bullet. Simultaneously, democracy displayed its splendor by showing
that under its aegis a poor man who sprang from the humblest origin and who has not
attained a state of riches can rise to the Presidency of the Republic. I, whom the sovereign
will in a democracy has chosen as the means for the exhibition of the reality of its virtue of
offering equal opportunity to the rich and the poor alike, am now called upon to prove
that such a gift of opportunity to our humble citizenry shall not be in vain.’ (Inaugural
address, [an excerpt], 1961)
1. What did Pres. Macapagal mean by his statement, “the primary function of the
President is not to dispense favors but to dispense justice”?
2. What were the primary objectives of the Macapagal administration?
3. Why did Pres. Macapagal state that “nation-building is an exacting and endless
endeavor”?
4. In terms of national economy, how is Pres. Macapagal’s socio-economic program
different from that of Pres. Garcia’s?
“Marcos’s Inaugural Address. ‘For indeed we must rise from the depths of ignominy and
failure. Our government is gripped in the iron hand of venality, its treasury is barren, its
resources are wasted, its civil service is slothful and indifferent, its armed forces
demoralized and its councils sterile. But we shall draw from our rich resources of spiritual
strength that flow from this place of martyrdom.
‘We are in crisis. You know that the government treasury is empty. Only by severed
self-denial will there be hope for recovery within the next year. Our government in the
past few months has exhausted all available domestic and foreign sources of borrowing.
Our public financial institutions have been burdened to the last loanable peso. The lending
capacity of the Central Bank has been utilized to the full. Our national government is
indebted to our local governments. There are no funds available for public works and little
of the appropriations for our national government for the present fiscal year. Industry is at
a standstill. Many corporations have declared bankruptcy. Local manufacturing firms have
been compelled to close or reduce their capacity.
‘Unemployment has increased. Prices of essential commodities
and services remain unstable. The availability of rice remains
uncertain. Very recently the transportation companies with the
sanction of the Public Service Commission hiked their fares on the
plea of survival.
‘I, therefore, first call upon the public servants for self-sacrifice.
Long have we depended upon the people. In every crisis, we call
upon our citizens to bear the burden of sacrifice. Now, let the
people depend upon us. The economic viability of the government
and of the nation requires immediate retrenchment. Accordingly,
we must install without any delay a policy of rigorous fiscal
restraint. Every form of waste – or of conspicuous consumption
and extravagance, shall be condemned as inimical to public welfare.
Frugality with government funds and resources must be developed into a habit at every
level of the government. High public officials must themselves set the example.
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“The Marcos Administration (December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986). The last president
of the Third Republic of the Philippines was President Ferdinand E. Marcos. Prior to the
events of Martial Law, the first term of the Marcos administration, as emphasized in
his inaugural address on December 30, 1965, focused on ‘the revival of the greatness of the
nation.’
‘President Marcos, faced with the challenge of corruption in the government,
reorganized the Armed Forces, the Philippine Constabulary, and the Bureau of Internal
Revenue. In an attempt to solve the problem of technical smuggling, the Bureau of
Customs was also reorganized. The administration, with a goal to strengthen the local
economy, devised construction programs and irrigation projects. The promotion of
Philippine heritage, culture, and arts was achieved through the establishment of the
Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) in 1969.
‘Under the Marcos administration, the country hosted the Manila Summit in 1966. The
conference aimed to resolve the Vietnam War, and sought the restoration of peace and the
promotion of economic stability and development throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
President Marcos won his re-election bid in the 1969 presidential elections against Liberal
Party’s Sergio Osmeña Jr., the first to do so in the Third Republic.
Readings in Philippine History
‘One of the most galling of our inherited problems is that of lawlessness. Syndicated
crime has been spawned by smuggling. The democratic rule of law has lost all meaning
and majesty, since all men know that public officials combine with unscrupulous
businessmen to defraud government and the public – with absolute impunity. The
sovereignty of the republic has never before been derided and mocked as when the lawless
elements, smuggling syndicates and their protectors, disavow the power of laws and of
our government over them. This is the climate for criminality. Popular faith in the
government deteriorates. We must, therefore, aim quickly at the establishment of a
genuine rule of law. We shall use the fullest powers of the Presidency to stop smuggling
and lawlessness.
‘Our social policy will seek to broaden the base of our democracy. Our forefathers built
a democratic republic on an extremely narrow social and economic base. The task of our
generation is to broaden this base continuously. We must spread opportunities for higher
incomes for all. But we shall encourage investment to insure progressive production – the
true answer to our economic ills.
‘In international affairs, we shall be guided by the national interests and by the
conscience of our society in response to the dilemma of man in the 20th century.
‘The Filipino today lives is a world that is increasingly Asian as well as African. Asia
claims one-half of all humanity, and this half lives on a little over one-sixth of the earth’s
habitable surface. Africa’s millions are also now coming to their own. Recent events have
shown the willingness of our Asian friends to build a bridge to us. We can do less than to
build strong foundations at our end.
‘Today, as never before, we need a new orientation toward Asian; we must intensify
the cultural identity with ancient kin, and make common cause with them in our drive
toward prosperity and peace. For this we shall require the understanding of ourselves and
of Asia that exceeds acquaintance; we require the kind of knowledge that can only be
gained through unabating scholarship on our histories, cultures, social forces and
aspirations, and through more active interaction with our friends and neighbors.
‘This nation can be great again. This I have said over and over. It is my article of faith,
and Divine Providence has willed that you and I can now translate this faith into deeds. I
have repeatedly told you: each generation writes its own history. Our forbears have
written theirs. With fortitude and excellence we must write ours. We must renew the
vision of greatness for our country… It means the rigorous pursuit of excellence.
‘It is the transformation of the Philippines into a hub of progress – of trade and
commerce in Southeast Asia.
‘It is our people bravely determining our own future. For to make the future is the
supreme act of freedom.
‘We must awake the hero inherent in every man. We must harness the wills and the
hearts of all our people. We must find the secret chords which turn ordinary men into
heroes, mediocre fighters into champions. Not one hero alone do I ask from you – but
many; nay all, I ask all of you to be the heroes of our nation.
‘Offering all our efforts to our Creator, we must drive ourselves to be great again. This
is your dream and mine. By your choice you have committed yourselves to it. Come then,
let us march together towards the dream of greatness.’ (“Inaugural address,” [an excerpt],
1965)
“Marcos’s 5th State of the Nation Address. ‘The situation in the world, as well as that in
the Philippines, is marked by sweeping change. We cannot move forward within the
grooves of old habits and outmoded institutions. Progress demands that the barriers of
centuries be broken.
‘But the pursuit of development and the breaking of barriers to progress require such
energy and endurance as may strain our resources, both of the public and the private
Readings in Philippine History
sectors. Thus, the balance of payments problem is now the most immediate and urgent
challenge facing our country.
‘But from an intimate knowledge of our problems, I know and I say that there is no
reason to be afraid of the dollar gap. It can and will be bridged in a short time. We should
be more concerned about the moral gap—a gap in our self-confidence and our strength of
purpose as a nation, a gap that threatens all classes of people in all stations of life . We
must turn these difficulties and problems into opportunities to strengthen our moral
fiber as a people, to temper our will and character, to imbue the nation with a
permanent sense of discipline so necessary to the achievement of progress.
‘We must offer reforms in the electoral system, abolish social iniquity, work out a
government machinery reorganization, provide a modernized penal system, discard
feudalism and at the same time oppose fascism.
‘Our confidence in the future rests on a solid base, namely, our present achievements.
The past four years have shown that the spirit of the Filipino people, properly challenged,
will more than match the dimensions of the challenges they have to confront.
‘The only condition is that the nation discipline itself towards its goals. I am not
speaking of discipline imposed by a tyrannical government, but of self-discipline in the
active exercise of freedom. Discipline is our salvation as a nation and the key to our future
greatness.
‘At this point, it is important to note three salient points relevant to economic activity:
1. First, our investment incentives policy has stimulated industrial production to a
considerable degree very much more than in the past several years.
2. Second, our total exports continued to grow in 1969 by 6.4%, despite last year’s
drought and storms and an almost 25% reduction of exports of copra and other
coconut products; and
3. Third, the Filipino capitalist has increasingly assumed the bulk of investments in
our economy, so that today, he assumed 94.0% of the total estimated investments.
‘Job opportunities in 1969 maintained the annual average increase of 647,000 new jobs,
which represents 220% increase over the 1965 figures. This massive increase is of particular
significance because its main beneficiary was the rural areas, where employment
opportunities soared to a record annual average of 453,000.
‘In the past four years, our principal programs were the infrastructure, the educational
system, agricultural development, land reform, manpower training, and the
encouragement of exports. We will continue with these programs and add to them the new
program of tourism, rural electrification, and emphasis on export-oriented industries, as
well as the establishment of trade schools all over the country.
‘I reiterate my congratulations to the Sixth Congress for the speedy enactment of the
bill establishing a Free Trade Zone in Mariveles, Bataan. We have laid the groundwork for
the establishment of the Free Trade Zone. This is an experiment. It is my hope that once
this succeeds you will be able to establish other free trade zones in other ports of the
country. The economic benefits that this will generate are tremendous and far-reaching.
The free trade zone has aroused enthusiastic interest not only here but abroad.
‘During the past three calendar years, mineral production reached the billion-peso
mark, registering an increase of 73% in 1968 over that in 1965. Production increased further
the following year with a total output valued at P1,048.1 million. Production of precious
metals, including platinum and palladium, for 1969, reached a total of P124.6 million; base
metals, P607.3 million; nonmetals, including cement, P316.2 million…
‘For the long run, in order to revise the production patterns of the economy, measures
have been devised to promote a more outward-looking, export-oriented type of
development. In cooperation with other government agencies, the Central Bank stands
ready to adopt additional facilities for export industries. With the support given to these
industries, the heavy dependence of the economy on imports should be reduced.
Readings in Philippine History
‘We have intensified revenue collections. In the past four years, the total BIR and
Customs collections rose to P10,128.13 million, an increase of P8,558.81 million over that of
the previous administration. We undertook major reforms in our operations. In the Bureau
of Internal Revenue, these included the strict implementation of the Anti-Graft and
Corrupt Practices Act, the use of electronic and data machines and various drives to
increase voluntary tax compliance…Erring personnel were dealt with accordingly. One
hundred ninety-six criminal cases were filed against officials and employees in the Bureau
of Internal Revenue, and 215 cases were filed against undesirable employees and officials
in the Bureau of Customs.
‘One of the most gratifying results of our efforts in agriculture in the last four years is
our successful rice and corn production campaign. Our national average yield of 30-40
cavans per hectare jumped to 60-80 cavans per hectare as a result of the introduction of
high-yielding rice varieties and the installation of the proper infrastructure and credit
facilities. Our national yield for corn also hit an average of 20 cavans per hectare.
‘The Greater Manila Terminal Food Market Inc. was established to facilitate the flow of
goods from the production centers to the consumer areas, thus providing as well an
accessible and convenient outlet for the produce of about 500,000 farmers in 27 provinces
in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. This is a virtual revolution in marketing, benefitting
farmers and wholesalers, retailers, and other intermediaries. This marketing scheme is
intended to stabilize, and perhaps even to decrease, the prices of prime commodities.
‘Our basic goal is prosperity and economic security for the bulk of our people. To bring
this about, we must industrialize…A principal objective of our economic program is the
development of a sizable domestic market. Employment can be increased substantially
only if our industries can find markets of sufficient size as to warrant a high rate of
absorption of labor into industrial employment…
‘Success at exporting manufactured goods is the authentic sign of self-sustaining
economy. This is the success that we seek. We are growing at a rate which ordinary laissez
faire techniques cannot sustain. In moving into the export markets, we enter into
competition with developed economies sustained by highly efficient firms. To compete
with them, we must not only husband our resources but we must also program them with
equal efficiency. This requires true nationalism, discipline, and sacrifice on our part.’
(Ferdinand E. Marcos, [an excerpt], 1970)
1. What “dream of greatness” was Pres. Marcos referring to (in his inaugural speech)?
2. What were the main problems of the country during Pres. Marcos’s administration
(as identified in his two speeches)?
3. What were the programs that Marcos mentioned he implemented to solve the
country’s problems?
4. Do you agree with Pres. Marcos’s statement that “discipline is our salvation as a
nation and the key to our future greatness”? Why?
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 6.1.1. The Third Philippine Republic
Matching Type Test: Match the items in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the
CAPITAL LETTER [from Column B] that corresponds to your answer on the space
provided [in Column A].
B
A. 1943 Constitution
B. Parity
C. War Damage Act
D. Hukbalahap
E. Ramon Magsaysay
F. “Filipino First” Policy
G. Agricultural Land Reform Code
H. Amnesty Proclamation
I. Ferdinand Marcos
J. July 4
K. Manuel Roxas
L. “Officials are public servants”
M. Carlos Garcia
N. Manila Pact of 1954
O. Balance of payment problem
P. 1935 Constitution
Q. Austerity Policy
R. Manila Accord of 1963
S. New People’s Army
T. Diosdado Macapagal
U. Bell Trade Act
V. Elpido Quirino
W. June 12
X. Social Amelioration
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A
1. Legal basis of the 3rd Philippine Republic
2. Relief for the poor in troubled places
3. Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty
4. Current Philippine Independence Day
5. “Sovereignty resides in the people”
6. First Philippine president to win by plurality votes
7. Imports outweigh exports causing a “dollar gap”
8. President who initiated Philippine foreign policy
9.”Equal rights for American and Filipino citizens”
10. President who signed the Central Bank Law
11. “Malaysia-Philippines-Indonesia Alliance”
12. Program of being thrifty and less extravagant
13. Philippine Trade Relations Act
14. Anti-Quirino administration rebels of Luzon
15. President who initiated the decontrol program
16. Act founding the Land Bank of the Philippines
17. First reelected president of the 3rd Phil. Republic
18. Program for economic independence
19. President for the common people
20. Pardon for armed dissident elements
Unit 12: Martial Law and the New Society (1972-1986)
Lesson 7.1. Prior, during, and after martial law
Lesson outcome:
1. Analyze the causes and consequences of the proclamation of Martial Law in
the Philippines in 1972
2. Describe Philippine conditions under the “New Philippine Society”
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will learn about the circumstances surrounding
and consequences of the proclamation of Martial Law in the Philippines by President
Marcos. Moreover, you will see a glimpse of the socio-economic conditions under the
New Philippine Society. [NOTE: The reading materials provided presents only “few sides”
of the Martial Law story. You are advised to search for other perspectives about Martial
Law.]
READ TO LEARN
Readings in Philippine History
________________________________________________________________________________
PRELUDE TO MARTIAL LAW: “The FQS of 1970 was the Filipino people’s uprising against
late dictator Ferdinand Marcos. It was the peak of arousing, organizing, and mobilizing
ever since Kabataang Makabayan was established in 1964. On January 30, 1970 more
than ten thousand youth, students, workers, and peasants stormed the Malacanang
Palace to demand an end to imperialist and anti-people policies.” (College Editors Guild
of the Philippines, 2018, par. 2)
Rodel Rodis (2015) of Inquirer.net, in his reminiscence of the First Quarter Storm of
1970 (January-March), gives us a glimpse of the anti-Marcos rally.
“January 26, 1970 was the opening day of the Philippine Congress and a newly reelected
Marcos was set to deliver his version of the State of the Nation. But outside the Congress,
various student groups had also planned to deliver our version of the true state of the nation
in a mass rally jointly sponsored by the “moderates” led by Edgar “Edjop” Jopson, president
of the National Union of Students of the Philippines (NUSP) and the “radicals” led by
chairman Fernando “Jerry” Barican of the University of the Philippines (UP) Student Council.
“In the days that followed, indignation rallies denouncing police brutality were held in
campuses throughout Metro Manila culminating in the January 30 March to Malacanang from
Plaza Miranda through the Mendiola Bridge. By nightfall, thousands of students surrounded
the heavily fortified palace when suddenly the lights were shut off.
“The Metrocom riot police retreated into the night, replaced with battle-hardened army
soldiers armed with high-powered Armalite rifles out to quell a rebellion. Before that long,
dark bloody night was over, four students lay dead, scores paralyzed, and hundreds maimed
from gunshot wounds…After the January 30 siege of Malacanang, the student groups formed
a coalition, the Movement for a Democratic Philippines (MDP), to coordinate the
demonstrations and rallies.
For the next three months, there would be protest demonstrations, rallies, and ‘people’s
marches’ that all came to be called The First Quarter Storm, which Nelson Navarro described
as ‘that cathartic student revolt in the first months of 1970 that shook the nation with its
intense and all-encompassing life-changing experience.’” (par. 2-6)
Gemma Cruz Araneta (1970) of the Graphic Magazine writes about those fateful days
of the 1970s.
Readings in Philippine History
“A climactic moment came unexpectedly during the second mammoth demonstration on
the night of 18 February at Plaza Miranda. A labour leader started his speech with an exposé.
Another labour group was allegedly given two million pesos by the CIA. Immediately, a
sizeable sector of the crowd reacted noisily. There was a commotion which threatened to get
out of hand as no one could tell whether they were crying for blood or were simply offended
by allusions. The leaders on the platform pleaded for sobriety and, speaking in the vernacular,
they reminded their companions that the struggle is far from being over and that we should all
first study the issues before contemplating drastic action.
“’Mag-aral muna tayo!’ cried the leaders and twice the National Anthem had to be played to
restrain the crowd and cool tempers. The leaders also warned against provocateurs, falling
into their vicious traps and destroying the beautiful and peaceful union already formed. The
pleas did not fall on deaf ears because even if the group left Plaza Miranda, no unnecessary
violence ensued.
“Verily, the student demonstrations are the best things that have happened since the cry of
Pugad Lawin. Emulating the examples of the heroes of our Revolution, the students have
shaken the nation out of its lethargy by informing the masses about the causes of economic
dependence and the perpetuation of a corrupt and undemocratic social structure. The students
are undoubtedly well-informed as they can see through the superficial, the symptoms and
analyze the real causes of our problems, Soon, when the oppressed farmers, the exploited
laborers and factory workers, the deluded masses see the advantage to nationalize strategic
industries, make workers members of corporations and tenants owners of the land they till,
then we can be assured of a future with social justice where the fruits of labor are distributed
equitably.
“Call it Congress of the People or Parliament of the Streets, the attempt to conduct
nationwide “teach-ins” among peoples from all walks of life is historically and socially
significant.
“The Vigilantes who are safeguarding democratic processes in lawmaking bodies and
government corporations have really forced our elders to be more conscious of public good
rather than self-interest.
“Frankly, to say that the students are demonstrating because they lack love (First
Lady, Daily Mirror, 17 February) is to over-simplify matters.
“The student leaders at Plaza Miranda never for a moment sounded like love-starved
delinquents hungry for parental affection and attention. But there is another way of looking at
it. Perhaps parents do not love their children enough. If they did, then they themselves would
have demonstrated in their youth, formed parliaments of the streets and vigilantes groups.
Had they not allowed themselves to be deluded by imperialist propaganda like Taft’s
“Philippines for the Filipinos” or McKinley’s visions; had they remained idealistic like their
grandfathers who fought the Revolution, then their children would not have to demonstrate
today. The social cancer would not have festered and Rizal, as one writer so aptly put it,
would have long been obsolete.
“Some people have the most shocking attitude about what is going on. Those who have
fled in panic are ludicrous and those who speak with contempt, calling demonstrators, rioteers
(remember the word insurrectos, tulisanes, rebels?) are disgusting. Others have become
nervous wrecks because of what everything has done to the stock market and the thought of
losing their worldly possessions and privileges must have shattered them. Fear has made
people resort to hurried charity projects thinking that alms are an adequate substitute for
social justice. The callously apathetic — like that Blue Lady at a recent gathering — would
rather not think about it and leave everything to the military. In another era, she probably
would have said, “let them eat cake.”
“When all is said and done — or in the unfortunate event that not enough was done, the
student revolution will always be considered a blessing and a significant step toward
enlightening the nation.”
Readings in Philippine History
Ernesto M. Macatuno (1970) writes about the “fronts” involved in the First Quarter
Storm in his column in The Sunday Times Magazine.
“Hours after the bloody January 30 demonstration, President Marcos was reported to
ponder in his study in Malacañang the explosive situation in the schools and streets. One
would presume that in assessing the situation, the President could have asked: ‘Who are our
enemies?’
“For it was quite obvious that whoever fomented the violence that turned the
demonstration into a riot, was no friend of the President and the government. whatever the
group, as it could only be presumed to be the working of not one, not a few but quite a
number of inciting persons, the students into violence and later into frontal clash with the
police and military, highlighted by an actual assault on Malacañang itself, was, call it by any
name, a pure act subversion.
“Viewing thus the damage wrought on Malacañang after it had been cleared of the student
demonstrators, the President, had he said this to be an act of the enemy of the state, had ample
reason to say so. So that President Marcos, going on TV the day after the January 30 demo, told
the people that the demo was ‘a revolt by local Maoist communists whose immediate objective
was the takeover or destruction of Malacañang’
“So there it was: The Maoists, as usual, caused it all.
“But did they? Or were they alone?
“Had this been the case, the problem of the government could have been greatly simplified.
The cause or root of the problem—the so-called Maoists— having been pinpointed, it was but
a matter of small recourse to have them isolated.
“But, as days went by and tension mounted, the government found out that the cause of
the violence that attended the January demos was not, could not be, the sole handiwork of the
homegrown Maoist communists.
“As it was, everybody wanted to get into the act, so to speak. Not only the homegrown
Maoists, but also other sectors, other groups used, exploited, rode on the wave of student
unrest so that their aims which are noble and otherwise, could be heard and listened to and
acted on by Malacañang.
“On one side was a demand from the government that it take measures for a non-partisan
(which eventually had to include a non-sectarian) Constitutional Convention. This product of
exasperation over the excessive politicking in the government, by itself, could not have caused
the conflagration that were the demos. But such a demand, using the student demonstrations
as forum, had, taken at such a time when other groups, for reasons of their own, were also
exploiting these student demonstrations, added fuel to the fire that almost gobbled up
Malacañang.
“On another side were the Americans and their vested interests in the country that have to
be protected from the onslaughts of Philippine nationalism. By adding fuel to the student
unrest with its resultant tension, anxiety and probable anarchy, these interests could weaken
the position of the government and, among other things, parley concessions from it. Although
this has not been officially confirmed and probably will never be officially confirmed by the
government, such American participation in the student demos was alluded to by President
Marcos himself when he said that, aside from the usual scapegoats — the Maoists— there also
were ‘noncommunist’ groups exploiting this explosive situation.
“The student groups were quick to follow the President’s statement on this ‘noncommunist threat’ to the government. They even went further. As one student leader,
Fernando T. Barican, president of the UP Student Council, said in effect, ‘the Americans want
to use the student unrest to topple down Marcos and institute a military junta government
similar to the juntas in Indonesia, Korea, Vietnam, Latin American and elsewhere.’
“Kabataang Makabayan at a protest during the First Quarter Storm”
Source: https://medium.com/
Readings in Philippine History
“With the exposure of the Rightist involvement in the demos, the role of the military in the
country became of great concern. Whatever it would do in this period was more worrisome
than the threat from the Left.
“The military was unhesitating on where its loyalty lay. The sentiment of the military was
voiced out by Armed Forces Chief of Staff Gen. Manual Yan who said, ‘We are sworn to
uphold the constitution. We shall resist every move to subvert the government — whether that
move would come from the Right or the Left.’
“Having been assured that he could count on this strong counterrevolutionary force to
defend the government, President Marcos declared that things since the January 30 demo ‘had
gone back to normal.’ But again, rumors floated that the military itself is not that solid, that it
is permeated with officers of dubious loyalty because of their reported attachment to foreign
groups like the CIA. Again, it was Gen. Yan who, although professing no knowledge of this,
made assurances that ‘any officer found to be working for any Rightist subversive group shall
be severely dealt with.’
“On the other front, reports continue to mount that the military arm of the Left has been
gathering forces, and that the Huks in Tarlac and Pampanga were ready to go down to Manila
and agitate the student demonstrators to commit widespread violence.
“’The military is taking a close look at the Huk activities,’ Gen Yan said. ‘The subversive
elements have been identified…’ but will not be publicly known for reasons of security.
“Assuring further the populace that all is under control and that the rumors on subversion
probably result from merely a bad case of jitters, Gen. Yan said: ‘Rest assured that (as of this
writing) the government is prepared to cope with these sorts of crises and national
emergencies like the student unrest and Red infiltration, all cropping up at the same time…’
“So be it.”
1. What is the First Quarter Storm (FQS) and why was it called as such?
2. What were the primary reasons behind the student demonstrations against the
Marcos administration in 1970? (You might need to read other references to
answer this question)
3. How did people affected by the FQS react to the situation?
4. Who did the government blame for the violent and bloody demonstrations? Why?
READ TO LEARN
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Readings in Philippine History
PROCLAMATION 1081. Below is an excerpt of the proclamation of Pres. Marcos placing
the country under Martial Law in 1972.
“WHEREAS, on the basis of carefully evaluated and verified information, it is definitely
established that lawless elements who are moved by a common or similar ideological
conviction, design, strategy and goal and enjoying the active moral and material support of a
foreign power and being guided and directed by intensely devoted, well trained, determined
and ruthless groups of men and seeking refuge under the protection of our constitutional
liberties to promote and attain their ends, have entered into a conspiracy and have in fact
joined and banded their resources and forces together for the prime purpose of, and in fact
they have been and are actually staging, undertaking and waging an armed insurrection and
rebellion against the Government of the Republic of the Philippines in order to forcibly seize
political and state power in this country, overthrow the duly constituted government, and
supplant our existing political, social, economic and legal order with an entirely new one
whose form of government, whose system of laws, whose conception of God and religion,
whose notion of individual rights and family relations, and whose political, social, economic,
legal and moral precepts are based on the Marxist-Leninist-Maoist teachings and beliefs ;
“WHEREAS, these lawless elements, acting in concert through seemingly innocent and
harmless, although actually destructive, front organizations which have been infiltrated or
deliberately formed by them, have continuously and systematically strengthened and
broadened their memberships through sustained and careful recruiting and enlistment of new
adherents from among our peasantry, laborers, professionals, intellectuals, students, and mass
media personnel, and through such sustained are careful recruitment and enlistment have
succeeded in spreading and expanding, their control and influence over almost every segment
and level of our society throughout the land in their ceaseless effort to erode and weaken the
political, social, economic, legal and moral foundations of our existing government, and to
influence, manipulate and move peasant, labor, student and terroristic organizations under
their influence or control to commit, as in fact they have committed and still are committing,
acts of violence, depredations, sabotage and injuries against our duly constituted authorities,
against the members of our law enforcement agencies, and worst of all, against the peaceful
members of our society;
“WHEREAS, in the fanatical pursuit of their conspiracy and widespread acts of violence,
depredations, sabotage and injuries against our people, and in order to provide the essential
instrument to direct and carry out their criminal design and unlawful activities, and to achieve
their ultimate sinister objectives, these lawless elements have in fact organized, established
and are now maintaining a Central Committee, composed of young and dedicated, radial
students and intellectuals, which is charged with guiding and directing the armed struggle
and propaganda assaults against our duly constituted government, and this Central
Committee is now imposing its will and asserting its sham authority on certain segments of
our population, especially in the rural areas, through varied means of subterfuge, deceit,
coercion, threats, intimidations, machinations, treachery, violence and other modes of terror,
and has been and is illegally exacting financial and other forms of tributes from our people to
Readings in Philippine History
raise funds and material resources to support its insurrectionary and propaganda activities
against our duly constituted government and against our peace-loving people ;
“WHEREAS, in order to carry out, as in fact they have carried out, their premeditated plan
to stage, undertake and wage a full scale armed insurrection and rebellion in this country,
these lawless elements have organized, established and are now maintaining a well-trained,
well-armed and highly indoctrinated and greatly expanded insurrectionary force, popularly
known as the “New People’s Army”, which has since vigorously pursued and still is
vigorously pursuing a relentless and ruthless armed struggle against our duly constituted
government and whose unmitigated forays, raids, ambuscades, assaults, and reign of terror
and acts of lawlessness in the rural areas and in our urban centers brought about the
treacherous and cold-blooded assassination of innocent civilians, military personnel of the
government and local public officials in many parts of the country, notably in the Cagayan
Valley, in Central Luzon, in the Southern Tagalog Region, in the Bicol Area, in the Visayas and
in Mindanao, and whose daring and wanton guerrilla activities have generated and sown fear
and panic among our people; have created a climate of chaos and disorder, produced a state of
political, social, psychological and economic instability in our land, and have inflicted great
suffering and irreparable injury to persons and property in our society”;
“WHEREAS, these lawless elements, their cadres, fellow-travellers, friends, sympathizers
and supporters have for many years up to the present time been mounting sustained, massive
and destructive propaganda assaults against our duly constituted government, its
instrumentalities, agencies and officials, and also against our social, political, economic and
religious institutions, through the publications, broadcasts and disseminations of deliberate
slanted and overly exaggerated news stories and news commentaries as well as false, vile foul
and scurrilous statements utterances, writings and pictures through the press-radio-television
media and through leaflets, college campus newspapers and some newspapers published and
still being published by these lawless elements, notably the “Ang Bayan”, Pulang Bandila” and
the “Ang Komunista”, all of which are clearly well-conceived, intended and calculated to
malign and discredit our duly constituted government, its instrumentalities, agencies, and
officials before our people making it appear to the people that our government has become so
weak and so impotent to perform and discharge its functions and responsibilities in our
society and to our people, and thus undermine and destroy the faith and loyalty and
allegiance of our people in and alienate their support for their duly constituted government, its
instrumentalities, agencies and officials, and thereby gradually erode and weaken as in fact
they have so eroded and weakened the will of our people to sustain and defend our
government and our democratic way of life ;
“WHEREAS, these lawless elements having taken up arms against our duly constituted
government and against our people, and having committed and are still committing acts of
armed insurrection and rebellion consisting of armed raids, forays, sorties, ambushes, wanton
acts of muliders, spoilage, plunder, looting, arsons, destruction of public and private buildings,
and attacks against innocent and defenseless civilian lives and property, all of which activities
have seriously endangered and continue to endanger public order and safety and the security
of the nation, and acting with cunning and manifest precision and deliberation and without
regard to the health, safety and well-being of the people, are now implementing their plan to
cause widespread, massive and systematic destruction and paralization of vital public utilities
and services, particularly water systems, sources of electrical power, communication and
transportation facilities, to the great detriment, suffering, injury and prejudice of our people
and the nation and to generate a deep psychological fear and panic among our people;
WHEREAS, the Supreme Court in the cases brought before it…,as a consequence of the
suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus by me as President of the Philippines
in my Proclamation No.889, dated August 21, 1971, as amended, has found that in truth and in
fact there exists an actual insurrection and rebellion in the country by a sizeable group of men
who have publicly risen in arms to overthrow the government.
Readings in Philippine History
“NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President of the Philippines, by virtue
of the powers vested upon me by Article VII, Section 10, Paragraph (2) of the Constitution, do
hereby place the entire Philippines as defined in Article I, Section 1 of the Constitution under
martial law and, in my capacity as their commander-in-chief, do hereby command the armed
forces of the Philippines, to maintain law and order throughout the Philippines, prevent or
suppress all forms of lawless violence as well as any act of insurrection or rebellion and to
enforce obedience to all the laws and decrees, orders and regulations promulgated by me
personally or upon my direction.
“In addition, I do hereby order that all persons presently detained, as well as all others
who may hereafter be similarly detained for the crimes of insurrection or rebellion, and all
other crimes and offenses committed in furtherance or on the occasion thereof, or incident
thereto, or in connection therewith, for crimes against national security and the law of nations,
crimes against public order, crimes involving usurpation of authority, rank, title and improper
use of names, uniforms and insignia, crimes committed by public officers, and for such other
crimes as will be enumerated in Orders that I shall subsequently promulgate, as well as crimes
as a consequence of any violation of any decree, order or regulation promulgated by me
personally or promulgated upon my direction shall be kept under detention until otherwise
ordered released by me or by my duly designated representative.
“IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the
Republic of the Philippines to be affixed.
“Done in the City of Manila, this 21st day of September, in the year of Our Lord, nineteen
hundred and seventy two.” (Marcos, 1972)
Source: https://martiallawmuseum.ph/
1. Why did President Marcos declare martial law?
2. What proofs did he cite to justify his proclamation of martial law?
3. In your opinion or based on other sources, what is or are the other reason/s why
Pres. Marcos declared martial law in the entire Philippines? Justify your answer.
READ TO LEARN
_______________________________________________________________________________
“The year was ‘71. The writ of habeas corpus had been suspended. This meant you could
be tried and sentenced for a crime without you ever being brought before a judge. Activists
saw this as creeping militarization in play. True enough, the very next year, ‘72, martial law
fell hard on the country.
“I saw Tony only twice after that. We had scattered. On our heads were an Arrest Search
and Seizure Order (ASSO) signed by Defense Minister Johnny Enrile…and Tony and I, to
escape arrest, joined the Underground, but landed different work assignments.
“Clandestine was the word. We communicated in quiet, through letters sent in secret,
written in code, on innocuous cigarette paper, in the tiniest folds, to be hid thoughtfully in the
lining of the sole of a shoe.
“That first time, we met in España, near the railroad tracks, at his mother-in-law’s grocery
store, which he was now managing. He could not get a job in the few publications allowed to
operate. His name being prominent—he also had a famous soldier-brother who joined the
rebels—he would’ve been arrested on his first day. So there I found him, doing the grocery
inventory on rolls of toilet paper and boxes of tissue, and his manner was the same as when he
was president of 150 campus papers: calm, inscrutable, soft-spoken, engaged.
“As I left him, I felt strange. I thought of him, and many intellectuals like him, now
scattered everywhere, making do with anonymous jobs that were honest and necessary but
none of which tapped an iota of their skills and gifts.
“The next time we met, I felt even stranger. We were in a tiny apartment off West Avenue.
Four of us, friends who had become attached to each other after living together at CEGP
[College Editors Guild of the Philippines] headquarters several days a week for many months.
Tony and Babes Calixto were leaving for the countryside, to do political organizing. Two of us
wanted to say proper goodbyes. We talked through the night—about family, preparations, the
land trip, baon. We did not talk about danger or risk. We stopped only when sleep overtook us
on the long banig under the low-hanging kulambo. Then my memory blurs. I don’t know now if
we hugged. We might have thought it too bourgeois. I would never see them again.
“In ‘74, while I was in prison, news came to me that Tony and Babes were dead. Tony in
Aklan, Babes in Iloilo, two days apart on the month of February…
“The Underground was not about hiding and waiting for a dictator to die; it was about
bringing down a dictator and working very hard to make it happen. The Underground was
also a complex network of allies, organizers, artists, cultural workers, donors, lawyers, nuns,
and writers. Writers joining the Underground all produced something—literary, historical,
journalistic. I found myself doing journalism with a very small group: a teacher/organizer; an
artist/photo journalist; an ex-Collegian editor/mechanical engineer; and a veteran
journalist/poet/translator.
“Every day it was just the five of us living together in apartments we abandoned
constantly, to stay a step ahead of the enemy. Over 15 months, we moved five times. We had
left our families, it was safer for everyone that way. And to relieve them from the burden of
knowing but having to act like they did not, we could not tell them where we were.
“When I think about it now, my parents must have done a lot of praying. Soldiers had
already knocked on our house, presented the ASSO signed by the minister, and rifled through
my clothes, books, drawers, on a night I happened to sleep in the home of a workmate I was
recruiting to become part of our support group. Mama and Papa must have done the nightly
rosary for their eldest child who could be anywhere, living among strangers. They need not
have worried really. I was never among strangers. I had found myself a family.
Readings in Philippine History
A MARTIAL LAW STORY: Below is an excerpt of Jo-Ann Q. Maglipon’s (2019) story of her
Martial Law life as a journalist.
Readings in Philippine History
“We took care of each other. At the very least we tried to be sensitive, no one went around
shouting. Well, except that one time when the teacher/organizer, the oldest among us, picked
a loud fight with me for no reason. Turned out his blood sugar was high and he hadn’t eaten,
and when someone quickly cooked him an egg, he was as good as new. Except for that one
time, we were really always polite with each other.
“I remember it was my turn to go to market to buy our precious bangus, the only thing our
budget could get us. Our UG house was in Novaliches, so I was off to Cloverleaf. What I did
not tell anyone was that, at 22, I had never been alone in a marketplace. I did not know the first
thing. Keeping brave, I tried to remember the chatter of the guys. They had said something
about fish having “pulang hasang” when it was fresh. Eureka! So I looked hard for red gills,
picking every bangus that was red. When I got back, I found out the fish were nearly almost all
spoiled! The men didn’t say much, but I caught on because they all converged in the kitchen,
washing and cleaning all the fish right away, salting them, soaking them in vinegar, and just
doing things to them. Turns out, they were saving the week’s supply of bangus from the trash
bin. I had thought that red gills meant red eyes because the gills were so close to the eyes! So I
had bought every red-eyed bangus in Cloverleaf. I noticed they just never again sent me to the
market after that. But, I was good at cleaning house, so I did a lot of that.
“We may have been nice and polite, but we did not live like the bourgeoisie, with their
endless prattle about life’s essential meaning over nice prolonged lunches. We had no time.
There was always something to read and write. Our kind of prattle had to do with grammar
and styling issues, with strict journalistic rules on sourcing data and fact-checking, not to
forget the all-important proofreading. We were proud of our Taliba ng Bayan, even done in
primitive stencil, and our paper would go down in protest history as the first Underground
paper to appear under martial law.
“Of course, this was no light reading. Anyone caught with the paper in his hands faced
quick arrest and detention, if not torture; anyone caught producing the paper faced even
worse. Indeed, Obet Verzola, our ex-Collegian editor/mechanical engineer, and Pete Lacaba,
our journalist/poet/translator, go down as two of the most heavily tortured writers in Camp
Crame.
“After prison, returning to mainstream media was neither easy nor genial. Marcos knew
the value of writers. That is why his No. 1 Letter of Instruction had to do with closing down
newspapers, magazines, tabloids, even campus publications.
“So, I taught myself not to report news but to tell stories. No getting into the picture. No
revealing outright whose side you were on. No spelling out how the reader should feel.
Leaving characters and conflicts to reveal themselves through quotes, color, texture, tone,
geography, description. Write poor without saying poor. Write massacre without saying massacre.
The words had to fall, but with a soft thud.
“We only had four major newspapers, all of them owned by cronies. Editors held on to
their jobs. Hiring an ex-detainee even as a freelance contributor was, to them, a mite risky. So
they gave you the runaround. They were polite, they let you talk about your article, but they
did not publish. I tried hard to understand where they were coming from. I suppose they told
themselves that, in rejecting my story about a village that soldiers had set fire to, they retained
their positions as editors and were then around to publish the other stories that would come.
Yes, why lose everything for one piece about villagers where no one was famous?
“Those times, I felt pretty much alone. I was a freelance writer and in the bottom of the
totem pole. To an editor, I was dispensable. What hurt was not just the rejection (not an easy
thing on any day), what hurt was the thought that so many journalists, years into martial
law—when watchdogs were getting lazy, when civil libertarians were getting bolder, when
there was now a bit of breathing room—so many journalists still had not found their courage.
When the country needed to know, it was devastating to see courage still in such short supply.
And yet, I looked to their courage to keep what little I had. To think I was alone would weaken
me.
The Martial Law years
(Source: retrospect.ph)
http://www.positivelyfilipino.com/
1. What was the Underground movement?
2. What was life like in the Underground movement?
3. Why was the Marcos administration so wary about the mass media people?
Readings in Philippine History
“It was not an inspired time. Most reporters were just grateful to have jobs. They could live
with the censorship, shrug it off as a bite of reality. And then there were the other workers:
machinists, typesetters, proofreaders, drivers, HR personnel, technicians. They were all just
grateful the presses were open. They had families to feed…
“I guess the lesson here is: We all need the courage of one another to be rid of a dictator—
whether it is the Strongman then or the Strongman now.
READ TO LEARN
________________________________________________________________________________
Readings in Philippine History
PHILIPPINES AFTER MARTIAL LAW: The New Society. Below is an excerpt of Pres.
Marcos’s (1981) speech on a “New Philippines, a New Republic.”
“Sixteen years ago, on this same sacred ground, we shared together a vision of Filipino
greatness.
“It was this vision which guided us in the gravest crises; we owe to it our triumphs; it has
kept us whole.
“You will recall that on my second mandate, I gave it a definition– the New Filipinism. I
said then that ‘the New Filipinism represents the discipline and the ethic of independence, that
it seeks the substance rather than the shadow of freedom, that it develops independence
beyond formality to reality.’
“I asked you, the Filipino people, whether we should venture into a new world of
possibility or retreat to the safety of a familiar but sterile past, and your answer was– we
should cross the frontier.
“Twelve years have passed since we enunciated the New Filipinism. We have not only reexamined our outlook on ourselves and the world; we have, in fact, changed it– as well as the
world’s regard for us. That foreseeable future of re-examination of our basic political and
social institutions has come to pass: we have radically changed our institutions; we created a
new social and political order. In sum, we changed what needed to be changed.
“Sixteen years ago, we woke up to a world in change. Now we are in a world of crisis and
contradictions. The Third World nations need to be self-reliant in a world that is irrevocably
interdependent. All nations recognize the imperative necessity for a new world economic
order but few nations, especially the rich, would accept a change in their own economies.
There is a clamor for peace and a preparation for war. We need to cooperate but persist to take
advantage. Meanwhile, the poor, which make up two-thirds of the world’s peoples, are
bewildered and resentful of the high professions and low intentions of the privileged.
“It is against this setting that we have dedicated ourselves to the pursuit of a vision– Jose
Rizal’s century-old prophecy of a New Philippines. We are also infected with the world’s
malaise, a particular reflection of its crises and contradictions. We are not, therefore, exempt
from the difficulties of the times.
“Still, we have seen to the transformation of society. Institutions like barangay democracy
have been established in order to give our people true control of their lives in community. At a
time when the common people of many nations no longer feel sovereign in their lives, our
own people, through the barangays, have a sense of purpose and control. The institutions, let
us frankly admit, are imperfect; they are young. But they are anchored on a philosophy that
Filipinos recognize as their own– the philosophy, or the ideology, if you will, of national
liberation.
“But where institutions are the protection of men, it is men who run them, and in this there
are more imperfections still. The reason for the failure of some is obvious: they have not
‘internalized,’ as Mabini once pointed out in the original revolution, the principles and tenets
of the New Society. Thus we have experienced and heard of abuses and injustice, of privilege
and indifference, illnesses of old which plague our national life, which can no longer be
endured either by this leadership or by our people.
“These illnesses– the social cancer, as it were– have their roots in the colonial past. They
should no longer be a part of us. We must, therefore, resist all the blandishments of the
merchants of mendicancy, the propagators of the past, the advocates of colonial restoration.
Social injustice, graft and corruption, the abuse of power and the misuse of privilege, were
partly collaboration with and partly resistance of an abject people to a government which was
not theirs. But we now live basically on our own terms. We have no right to betray ourselves.
“This was the noble purpose of the sacrifices and lives of our heroic forefathers. It was for
this purpose that they established the first authentic Filipino republic– the first Asian
A year after the reelection of Pres. Marcos (third term), an “Intelligence Assessment”
by U.S.A.’s CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) regarding Philippine conditions after
Martial Law was lifted (in 1981) was written. An excerpt is provided below. [Note: This
document was kept “secret” until its approved release in 2008]
“KEY JUDGMENTS. One year after the lifting of martial law, progress toward greater
democracy in the Philippines remains limited. President Marcos continues to politicize the
judiciary and to keep the interim National Assembly weak, and he retains nearly unlimited
executive powers. His use of power in the new political environment has been restrained so far,
but he has been quick to warn the media, the moderate opposition, labor unions, and student
groups against overstepping their bounds.
“Poor economic performance continues, creating an unfavorable climate for political
liberalization. Many of the business elite have been alienated by a government bailout
operation that benefits corporate empires owned by Marcos’s political allies. The weak
economy has forced Marcos to surrender control over important components of economic
policy to his technocrats, who are implementing World Bank-and IMF-initiated policy reforms
that squeeze the business elite even further. An unintended result of the reform program is
that the government is more vulnerable than ever to charges by radical groups that it is the
pawn of foreign interests.
“Marcos probably intends to maintain a firm grip on the instruments of political control
over the near term in the hope that the mere appearance of liberalization will be sufficient to
keep the opposition divided. He is simultaneously gambling that the economy will improve
and eventually help turn back the recent growth of in domestic insurgencies and disaffection
among the middle class and the industrial elite. In the meantime, his domination of the
political arena is causing defections to extremist groups that may prove more formidable
adversaries in the long run.
“The United States will be increasingly caught up in Philippine political developments
over the next year or so. On top of current controversy over a pending bilateral extradition
treaty and the activities of Marcos’s opponents in the United States, negotiations for the 198384 review of the military bases agreement are rapidly approaching. Marcos wants to maintain
his government’s stable image but could be forced to take repressive measures if his
opponents succeed in turning base negotiations into a nationalistic cause celebre. In the course
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Republic– nearly a century ago and it is the purpose of our New Republic, which we
inaugurate today, keeping faith with the vision of unity, equality, and liberty.
“What is then new in our republic is its fidelity to our historical legacy and its repudiation
of the colonial past, in so far that its opportunism and mendacity have left their mark upon us.
“From you, my countrymen, I ask the utmost commitment, the limits of your capacities as
citizens, the endurance of all hardships and sacrifices for the common good– not as a personal
demand but as a way of your keeping faith with the vision of our race.
“Give all that you can give to your country, and, God-willing, I will give you, with your
support, a society that will respond to all your needs for a decent and honorable life.
“Let us call on the intransigent to realize their just purposes with us; let us awaken the
unconscious and enlighten the misled; let us listen to our detractors in honest counsel. Let us,
in sum, get together, bind the wounds of the past, and, in one united effort, realize the
aspirations of our people. !
“We must also be firm in our resolution and not compromise our aims. History is a
merciless and at times even a cruel judge. As your president, I will risk the judgment, but as
your fellow-countryman, I urgently appeal to you to spare the next generations from the
retribution which could be brought about by our own complacency.
“We must liberate ourselves for the sake of a new republic, the inevitable child of the new
society.
“As I asked you twelve years ago, I ask you now: let us cross one more frontier!
Readings in Philippine History
of pursuing its strategic interests, the United States may inadvertently work to put political
liberalization on hold.
“REPACKAGING MARTIAL LAW. In an emotional ceremony at Malacanang Palace,
Marcos ended eight years of martial law in January 1981. Citing economic gains and progress
in restoring law and order, the President took what many observers hoped would be the first
step toward restoring democracy. To ensure his continued dominance in a strong executive
branch, however, Marcos held a plebiscite in April to amend the 1973 Constitution. The
amendments instituted a French-style mixed presidential-parliamentary system with a sixyear presidential term. Marcos was reelected to the presidency I June in an election that
virtually all major opposition groups boycotted and criticized as a fraud.
“Marcos’s broad executive powers and his ability to limit dissent have not changed over
the past year. Although the lifting of martial law may have enhanced Marcos’s political image
abroad, he retains crucial powers:
• To suspend the writ of habeas corpus for all crimes against national security.
• To issue any order he may deem necessary to meet a crisis, including powers of
preventive detention, closing down the media, and controlling admissions to
schools.
• To issue—and probably antedate—presidential decrees, in effect retaining broad
legislative powers he held under transitory provisions of the 1973 Constitution.
• To transfer cases from civilian courts to military tribunals established during
martial law. Although the tribunals are to be dismantled once about 50 remaining
cases are concluded, this is unlikely to happen soon.
• To control industrial labor relations.
“NEUTRALIZING THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. Although the end of martial law
signaled the transfer of legislative authority to the National Assembly, Marcos can circumvent
its power through the continuing use of presidential decrees. During martial law all
presidential decrees, proclamations, orders, acts, and instructions became law unless explicitly
overturned by the interim National Assembly—called into session only at the discretion of the
president. Over 1,000 decrees became law in this manner. The opposition claims that as many
as 250 of the decrees are secret—that is, they are listed merely by umber in the official gazette,
with their texts unpublished. Although the exact number of such decrees is unknown, we
believe the claim is true.
“Marcos thus can tap an unpublicized and unchallengeable inventory of his own rules,
though circumstances in the past year have not required him to do so extensively. He can
detain and try political opponents for unspecified crimes, and he has invoked an unpublished
decree on subversion in the case against opposition leader Benigno Aquino who currently
resides in the United States. Moreover, decrees allow the president to circumvent the
legislature in matters clearly not of an emergency nature, as happened recently when Marcos
granted tax amnesty by presidential decree.
“Nonetheless, Marcos’s use of these powers has been restrained. The lifting of martial law
has been accompanied by an increased level of tolerance for certain opposition activity.
Student demonstrations have occurred with some frequency—and for the most part without
incident. The press, although largely controlled by people loyal to Marcos, has been more
vocal on political issues than it had been.
“POLITICIZING THE JUDICIARY. Marcos has further rendered the court system
politically beholden to the executive branch over the past 12 months. Through the Judiciary
Reorganization Act of 1980, signed into law in August 1981, Marcos can fire all judges—
ostensibly to streamline the judiciary and remove incompetent or corrupt justices. Rehiring
will take place only after each judge is investigated, and Marcos will make all final decisions
on reappointments to the bench.
“According to conversations with officials in the US Embassy, even pro-Marcos judges are
appalled by this blatant takeover of the judicial system. Some who did not feel the
Readings in Philippine History
independence of the judiciary was threatened during martial law now are highly critical of the
President’s actions.
“The failure of the courts to develop as an institutional counterweight to presidential
power is illustrated by the record of the Supreme Court since martial law was lifted. Although
the Supreme Court warned the military against violating individual human rights in a
decision last September, one justice admitted that the decision lacked teeth and could not be
enforced. Since then the court has affirmed the authority of military courts to try cses pending
from the period when martial was in effect, has upheld anti-subversion laws, and has
reaffirmed the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus in certain cases, although it will
continue to hear individual cases that seek a review of the writ.
“THE ECONOMY AND LIBERALIZATION. An economy deteriorating along with the
recession in industrialized countries has created a poor climate for political reform. In 1981 the
economy posted a lower growth rate—officially 4.7 percent—than any recorded under martial
law. Tight money policies and stable international oil prices enabled Manila to nearly halve
inflation to an annual rate of about 12 percent late in 1981 but at the cost of high interest rates
and rising unemployment. Over 9 percent of the labor force of 18 million is now officially out
of work, and at least one-third of those who are working are seriously underutilized.
Unemployment in metropolitan Manila, moreover, hit 26 percent last December, about twice
the level of mid-1980.
“Not assuaged by the hike in the minimum wage last March to just under $4 a day, labor
has taken advantage of the lifting of martial law to express pent-up grievances. The country
experienced 138 strikes in the first four months of 1981, with 111 in politically strategic Manila.
A liberal new labor code provided impetus to strike activity throughout 1981, and walkouts
were up 400 percent from the same period in 1980. Marcos retains control over industrial
relations; however, should he decide he needs to enforce labor discipline. The new labor code
still outlaws strikes in strategic industries, and the President has the right to deem any strike
“against the national interest” while forcing compulsory arbitration. He has used this power
sparingly thus far, probably to avoid appearing heavy handed at a time of presumed political
reform.
“Corporate bankruptcies were numerous and more spectacular during 1981 than at any
other time in recent years. A financial crisis early in the year required a controversial bailout of
several large corporations, including four of the country’s top 15 businesses. Distressed firms
faced slow sales and rising raw material costs at a time that escalating international interest
rates were boosting repayment obligations on their foreign debts. Philippine banking
authorities began a $650 million rescue operation in exchange for equity positions in many of
the firms. Other firms were forced by the government to merge with healthier corporations to
increase equity capital. Marcos surrendered authority over the program to his technocrats to
reassure nervous foreign creditors and investors that corporate financial affairs would be put
on sounder footing.
“The bailout operation—which Marcos and his technocrats genuinely believe is necessary
to head off a major business crisis and protect the country’s foreign credit rating—nevertheless
has alienated members of the Philippine business elite because Marcos’s associates were
assured a continuing flow of credit at a time the Central Bank was denying it to other
borrowers. The technocrats, moreover, further alienated industrial oligarchs by pursuing IMFand World Bank sponsored economic reforms with particular vigor. The inflow of $200 million
in World Bank loans for industrial restructuring and a two-year $472 million standby credit
from the IMF required measures that hit many businessmen hard. Tariff reductions, a
deteriorating exchange rate, and a market-determined interest rate policy are proving
especially troublesome to businesses selling in the domestic market.
“Despite almost certain benefits over the long term, economic reform may be alienating
other important presidential constituencies. Because urban unemployment is concentrated in
manufacturing, the sector targeted by World Bank and IMF reform measures, the reforms have
won Marcos few friends in the countryside, where falling international prices for Philippine
Readings in Philippine History
agricultural products, particularly coconuts, have hurt living standards. An effort by Prime
Minister Cesar Virata in September 1981 to reform the coconut industry produced protests and
mass demonstrations by farmers. One short-term result of economic reform, therefore, is that
many Filipinos now associate the World Bank, the technocrats, and the government itself with
economic policies that make their lives more difficult.
“DECLINE OF THE POLITICAL MIDDLE. The lifting of martial law has done little to
improve the fortunes of the moderate opposition. The presidential election held last June was
boycotted by most opposition groups after Marcos refused their demands for better access to
the media and more time to campaign. After his reelection, some opposition leaders
questioned the wisdom of abstaining from elections that might have strengthened their
position for future contests.
“The opposition remains fragmented and incapable of resolving party squabbles. The
precarious unity of an umbrella organization of political groups opposed to Marcos—the
United Democratic Organization (UNIDO)—was again tested in December when the
formation of two new opposition parties caused further bickering.
“The moderate opposition also remains divided by simple geography—a separation that
Marcos readily exploits. During martial law, many of the established opposition leaders fled to
the United States either to escape political or financial harassment or because they believed
that they could lobby for Philippine democracy more effectively from outside the country.
“Foremost among the US-based opposition is former Senator Benigno Aquino, the one
man credited with having the political acumen and personal magnetism to defeat Marcos in a
free election. Aquino’s fortunes have waned, however, since Marcos released him from prison
in 1980 to go to the United States for heart surgery. When Aquino failed to return to the
Philippines as agreed after his health improved, and instead extended his stay to accept a
fellowship at Harvard, he lost some credibility. His continued absence from the Philippines—
especially his failure to return to lead the opposition during the 1981 presidential election—has
led many Filipinos to further question his commitment.
“POLARIZATION OF POLITICS. While Marcos outmaneuvers the moderate opposition
at every turn, his actions and the weak economy are encouraging groups at the extremes of the
political spectrum. The Communist New People’s Army (NPA) and its National Democratic
Front (Natdem, NDF now) organizations increasingly are looked upon as an attractive political
alternative, especially by the young. Their propaganda—cloaked in nationalistic trappings and
critical of the role of foreign investors, foreign private banks, the IMF, and the World Bank—is
finding a receptive audience among those dissatisfied with their financial plight. The boycott
of the 1981 election that the moderate opposition called for was in many areas engineered by
the NPA and Natdem groups long active at the grassroots level. Moderate opposition groups
are reporting defections to the left and have felt compelled to adopt more hardline rhetoric.
“Even major figures in the traditionally conservative Catholic Church have spoken out
over the past year. Cardinal Jaime Sin recently defended rebel priests who have gone over to
the NPA and claimed that they are merely ‘identifying with the people around them’. His
remarks prompted the government rebuttals in the press that attempted to link at least seven
priests to subversive organizations.
“The presence of the military in much of the countryside is resented and abets political
polarization. The military, having become a dominant force in rural areas during martial law,
retains considerable responsibility for preserving peace and is particularly visible in areas of
insurgency. Human rights abuses by the military continue. Further detracting from the
military’s image is the recent emergence of extremist vigilante groups that are reportedly
linked to senior officers, including Defense Minister Enrile. The massacre of 45 civilians in
Samar last September was reportedly committed by a quasi-official group of former and
present members of the military called the Lost Command.
1. What was President Marcos’s vision of greatness for the Filipinos?
2. What is the main idea behind Marcos’s “New Filipinism”?
3. What was the CIA’s assessment of the economy of the Philippines a year after the
lifting of martial law? What were the evidences that justify such assessment?
4. How about the CIA’s assessment of political conditions in the Philippines? What
evidences were given to justify such assessment?
5. In your opinion or based on other sources, was martial law more beneficial or
harmful to the socio-economic and political conditions of the Philippines? Justify
your answer.
Readings in Philippine History
Ferdinand Marcos is sworn in as President of the Philippines, 30th of June
1981. (Author: Philippine Presidential Museum and Library)
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FerdinandMarcos1981Oath.jpg
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 7.1.1 Martial Law and the New Society
Readings in Philippine History
CROSSWORD PUZZLE: Using the given clues, readings, and other references, answer
correctly the puzzle below.
Module 7. Contemporary Philippines (1986-Present)
Unit 13: Transformations under a “restored” democracy
Lesson 8.1. People Power: A story of the 1986 EDSA Revolution
Lesson outcome:
1. Describe the events that led to the 1986 EDSA Revolution
2. Describe the events during the 1986 EDSA Revolution
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will learn about the events leading to the EDSA
Revolution of 1986. You will also learn about the events that that took place during the
revolution.
READ TO LEARN
________________________________________________________________________________
“During those momentous four days of February 1986, millions of Filipinos, along
Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) in Metro Manila, and in cities all over the country,
showed exemplary courage and stood against, and peacefully overthrew, the dictatorial
regime of President Ferdinand E. Marcos. More than a defiant show of unity—markedly,
against a totalitarian rule that had time and again proven that it would readily use brute force
against any and all dissenters—People Power was a reclaiming of liberties long denied.” (“A
history of the Philippine political protest,” par. 1)
PRELUDE TO THE 1986 EDSA REVOLUTION. Below is a chronology of selected events
leading to the 1986 EDSA Revolution penned by Angela Stuart-Santiago (n.d.) of
Edsarevolution.com [viewed from Marcos’s men who turned their back against the
president].
“1981. Early in the year, amid preparations for Pope John Paul II's first visit to the
Philippines, Marcos lifted martial law but retained extra-legal powers. Midyear, he was reelected to a six-year term, defeating Alejo Santos and Bartolome Cabangbang. He
appointed Fabian Ver [head of the National Intelligence and Security Agency (NISA) and
the Presidential Security Command (PSC)] chief of staff of the Armed Forces, bypassing
Lieutenant General Fidel V. Ramos.
“1982. In July, Enrile received reports of plans to eliminate him and the "MND (Ministry of
National Defense) boys." To protect themselves, Enrile's chief security aide, Lieutenant
Colonel Gregorio "Gringo" Honasan, with four others founded the AFP Reform Movement,
later known as the RAM. With Enrile's blessings, Honasan started building up their
armory and expanding their base.
“1983. In July, Marcos turned down offers by Enrile and Ramos to resign. On August 7,
Marcos underwent surgery for a renal transplant. Acute rejection occurred; the
transplanted kidney was removed forty-eight hours later. On August 21, Aquino returned
from self-imposed exile in the United States and was slain as he stepped off a China Air
Lines plane at the Manila International Airport; his funeral drew millions of Filipinos to
the streets in defiance of the dictator. In December, Ramos's Special Action Force joined up
Readings in Philippine History
In the Official Gazette (n.d.), this we can read:
with Enrile's Security Operations Group; the two units underwent battle training under
the supervision of British mercenaries.
Readings in Philippine History
“1984. In the elections for the Batasang Pambansa in May, Ninoy's widow, Corazon ‘Cory’
Cojuangco Aquino, threw her support behind opposition parties UNIDO (United
Nationalist Democratic Organization) and PDP-LABAN (Pilipino Democratic Party—
Lakas ng Bayan). Despite allegations of fraud on the KBL side, her candidates won 56 seats
out of 183. In October, the Fact-Finding Board found Ver, 24 other soldiers, and one
civilian indictable for the murder of Ninoy Aquino; Ver went on leave of absence and
Ramos was appointed acting chief of staff. In November, Marcos underwent a second
renal transplant. Rumors of Marcos dying and Ver taking over were rife. Enrile began to
admit publicly that he would like to be president in the future, when Marcos was no
longer interested in the position.
“1985. In February, Ver et al stood trial before the Sandigan Bayan for the Aquino
assassination. In March, the RAM went public at the homecoming ceremonies of the
Philippine Military Academy (PMA). In his speech to the graduating class the next day,
Ramos confirmed the need for reforms and proposed sweeping changes to strengthen the
demoralized military in the face of a mounting Communist insurgency. Soon after, Colonel
Jose Almonte, former director of a Marcos think-tank, joined RAM.
“In July, Marcos removed the Integrated National Police from Enrile's ministry and
placed it directly under presidential control. In August, opposition Members of Parliament
filed a motion to impeach Marcos, citing culpable violation of the Constitution and
allegations of "hidden wealth." The RAM firmed up coup plans for the day after Christmas.
US Senator Richard Lugar, head of the U.S. Senate’s committee on foreign relations, sent a
member of his staff, Frederick Brown, to Manila to evaluate the deteriorating situation.
Brown concluded that one of the few promising developments was the emergence of the
RAM, a group that the Pentagon and CIA happened to be quietly encouraging.
“In September, a US defense attache confirmed that Malacañang had issued secret and
undated warrants for the arrest of RAM leaders.
“In October, in Washington D.C., a secret strategy meeting attended by retired General
Edward G. Lansdale discussed 2 questions: whether to keep the U.S. bases in the
Philippines; if yes, how to shift control of the AFP from Ver to the RAM. US Senator Paul
Laxalt visited Marcos to convey Reagan's concerns about the communist threat and to
discuss CIA director William Casey's idea of holding snap elections, if only to disarm his
liberal critics in America. Newspaper publisher Joaquin "Chino" Roces launched the Cory
Aquino for President Movement (CAPM). A week later, Cory agreed to run if (1) Marcos
called for snap elections, and (2) if the CAPM gathered, as promised, a million signatures
endorsing her candidacy.
“On November 3, Marcos declared on American television that he would run in a snap
presidential election three months hence. On November 19, the Batasang Pambansa set
February 7 as the date for the snap polls. On November 30, Cory Aquino was presented
with more than a million signatures drafting her to run against Marcos.
“On December 2, Ver et al were acquitted by the Sandigan Bayan of complicity in the
Aquino assassination. The very next day, Cory declared her candidacy under the UNIDO
banner, with former Senator Salvador “Doy” Laurel as her running mate.
“On December 23, the Communist Party of the Philippines sounded the call to boycott
the snap elections. On December 28, Ambassador Leticia Ramos Shahani, a sister of Lt.
Gen. Fidel Ramos, announced her resignation from the Philippine Foreign Service to
campaign for Cory Aquino. On December 31, KBL stalwarts began defecting to UNIDO.
IBM Philippines refused to take part in the COMELEC's plans to computerize the election.
Readings in Philippine History
“1986 January. Their coup plans on hold, the RAM launched "Kamalayan '86," a series of
prayer rallies and consciousness-raising seminars funded by anti-Marcos businessmen led
by Jaime Ongpin to impress upon members of the military the need for clean and honest
elections. Meanwhile, in separate meetings, key officers sketched Cory Aquino and Fidel
Ramos their coup plans. The reformist military tried, and failed, to convince Cory that she
had no chance of winning at the polls.
“February 4. A 21-member bi-partisan delegation of US senators, congressmen, and
private citizens arrived in Manila to monitor the election.
“February 5. An estimated million, the largest political gathering in the nation's history,
attended Mrs. Aquino's miting de avance. NAMFREL (National Movement for Free
Elections) announced it would post poll-watchers to prevent fraud in the counting. At least
five banks, known to have ties with the Marcos regime, experienced a run.
“February 7. Election Day. NAMFREL mobilized 400,000 volunteers to monitor voting,
challenge wrongdoing, and guard against fraud. Broadcast alerts over Radio Veritas urged
volunteers into troubled areas to stop ballot boxes from being stolen or tampered with.
“February 8. Cory Aquino took the lead in NAMFREL's tally of precinct results. She
vowed massive protests and daily street demonstrations if cheated. The government's
counting proceeded more slowly and showed Marcos leading.
“February 9. Led by Linda Kapunan, 30 computer technicians manning the COMELEC
tabulation machines walked out of their posts to protest alleged deliberate changing of
election results. A multinational team of observers cited cases of vote-buying, intimidation,
snatching of ballot boxes, tampered election returns, and the disenfranchisement of
thousands of voters, especially in Metro Manila, by the ruling party.
“February 10. Enrile warned of greater political instability. "Any untoward events may
cause the country to swing either to the extreme right or to the extreme left." In either case,
he said, only the Communist Party would benefit. Ver said that the recent election was "the
most peaceful in the history of the country," and exhorted AFP men to keep up the good
work.
“February 11. LABAN leader Evelio Javier, former governor of Antique, was gunned
down in broad daylight. The Batasang Pambansa formally began the canvass of election
returns. Reagan said "hard evidence" of fraud was lacking, and he would send Philip
Habib to mediate between the ruling party and the opposition camp. Cory Aquino asked
"friends abroad" to set aside "short-sighted self-interest" and stop supporting "a failing
dictator." This, as President Marcos invited her to join his government and "actively
participate" in a planned Council of State.
“February 12. The Philippine peso fell drastically to an all-time low of P20 to a dollar,
dropping by 75 centavos from its rate the day before.
“February 13. President Marcos took a virtually irreversible lead over opposition
candidate Cory Aquino in the Batasan's official canvass of votes. This, despite efforts of
opposition MPs to point out defects in almost all certificates of canvass opened by Speaker
Nicanor Yniguez. Statistical improbabilities were also cited.
“February 14. The Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) issued its
strongest statement ever, warning that a government which ‘assumes or retains power
through fraud’ would have ‘no moral basis.’ President Marcos's lead widened to 1.5
million votes, with only 1.1 million votes remaining uncanvassed.
“Marcos called a meeting of senior generals – Ver, Ramos, Josephus Ramas of the
Army, Vicente Piccio of the Air Force, Brilliante Ochoco of the Navy, and Prospero Olivas
of the Metropolitan Command. They discussed the disciplining of military reformists and
arrest of their leaders; the arrest and assassination of opposition leaders – Neptali Gonzales,
Ramon Mitra, Homobono Adaza, Luis Villafuerte, Aquilino Pimentel, Rene Saguisaag, Joe
Concepcion, Dante Santos, Ting Paterno, Jaime Ongpin, Vicente Jayme, among others; the
declaration of a state of emergency; and the arrest and liquidation of Enrile.
Readings in Philippine History
“February 15. The Batasang Pambansa formally proclaimed Marcos winner of the
February 7 elections; all 50 opposition Members of Parliament walked out in protest. Trade
Minister Roberto Ongpin, speaking for the economic technocrats, assured Marcos of
support if he undertook military, political, and economic reforms; Marcos signed an
agreement to that effect. Philip Habib arrived in Manila.
“February 16. At a ‘victory rally,’ Corazon Aquino called for coordinated strikes and
the boycott of crony media, 7 banks, Rustan's department store, and San Miguel
Corporation in a civil disobedience campaign aimed at overthrowing Marcos. Marcos
announced that Ver had resigned as AFP chief of staff and NISA director-general and that
Lt. Gen. Ramos would serve as chief of staff. The White House grudgingly admitted that
the election ‘was marred by fraud and violence perpetrated largely by the ruling party’
and instructed Habib to work out a compromise with Cory Aquino.
“February 17. Marcos extended Ver's term to the end of February to allow him to wind
up his affairs. Habib met with Marcos, then with Cory. Cory bluntly refused anything less
than Marcos's removal from office. She announced that she would go around the country
to sound her call for civil disobedience and non-violent protest actions; her first stops,
Cebu and Davao, the coming weekend. (Habib also met privately with Ramos and Enrile
over the next few days.)
“Crony banks, corporations, and media were hit hard by the boycott. Deposit
withdrawals were reportedly heavy not only in the seven banks in Cory's boycott list but
also in banks either partly or wholly owned by known Marcos cronies. Nestle pulled out
its ads from government TV Channel 4 and newspaper Bulletin Today. San Miguel-A
shares went down to as low as P11.50 per share, while B shares went down to P14.50 per.
“The financial fiasco extended to the beverage industry. Beer quaffers suddenly shifted
to gin or hard drinks. Restaurants, eateries and cafes refused to serve San Miguel beer as
well as Coca Cola, Sprite and Royal True Orange. A small number also stopped drinking
Pepsi Cola, Seven-Up and Mirinda, thinking that these softdrinks were also under the
control of a crony.
“February 18. The peso fell to P22.04 to the dollar. NAMFREL chairman Jose
Concepcion, Jr. said at least 3.27 million voters, mostly from areas considered as
opposition bailiwicks, were unable to cast their votes in the February 7 election. Enrile's
American friends warned him that Ver was positioning his forces around Metro Manila.
“February 19. The US Senate voted 85 to 9 in favor of a declaration that the snap
election in the Philippines was marked by "widespread fraud." Col. Irwin Ver placed the
Presidential Security Command on red alert. American bishops announced their support
of the local clergy's election protests.
“February 20. Testifying before a US House subcomittee, Assistant Secretary of State
Paul H. Wolfowitz disclosed that Reagan's offer of new aid was ‘in abeyance’ as long as
Marcos remained in office. Diplomats from 15 nations – Austria, Switzerland, Norway,
Finland, Sweden, Japan, Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, France, Spain, Belgium, Italy,
Denmark, and West Germany – called on Mrs. Aquino who told them she was determined
to assume the presidency "at the earliest possible time." Jeepney drivers, consumerists,
students, and academicians joined the boycott wagon. RAM set the coup for Sunday,
February 23, at 2:00 AM. Col. Almonte detailed the plans to Gen. Ramos.
“February 21. Marcos admitted he was "nervous" about the decisions of foreign
governments to boycott his February 25 inauguration and that he was launching a
diplomatic offensive to inform foreign governments about what transpired in the polls. In
a 35-minute meeting with Habib, Aquino advised the envoy to "wait and see...let events
speak for themselves." Ver informed Marcos that Ramos and Enrile and his Trade Minister
Roberto Ongpin were involved with RAM in a CIA plot to assassinate the President. Enrile
received information that Ver had ordered his men to prepare for a series of arrests. Enrile
then wrote a letter of resignation which he said he would deliver to Malacanang the
following Monday.
1. What were the significant roles of the following to the events leading to the EDSA
Revolution of 1986? (You might need additional references to answer this
question)
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
Fidel V. Ramos.
Juan Ponce Enrile
Gregorio Honasan
Benigno S. Aquino Jr.
Corazon C. Aquino
Catholic Church
NAMFREL
U.S. government
Readings in Philippine History
“Despite rumors of a weekend coup by RAM and suggestions that she stay put in
Manila, Mrs. Aquino said she would fly to Cebu Saturday morning as scheduled to pursue
her campaign for civil disobedience.
“In less than a week since Aquino's call for a boycott of banks and business
establishments either owned by or aligned with cronies, there was a total of P1.78 billion in
withdrawals from crony banks and the Philippine National Bank, Security Bank & Trust
Company, Republic Planters Bank, and Traders Royal Bank. The first to get their money
out of the crony banks were groups belonging to the clergy; in Union Bank, the clergy
represented at least 12% of its deposit base. As a result, deposit upsurges were recorded in
Bank of the Philippine Islands, Metropolitan Bank and Trust Company, and Citibank.
Bulletin Today, the country's largest circulated newspaper (circulation 350,000) trailed the
Philippine Daily Inquirer, Malaya, and The Manila Times. Rustan's department store was
empty; most of its customers moved over to SM Shoemart, Anson's, and Robinson's.
“The political opposition said it was ready to set up a provisional government with
strong backing from concerned military officers and their men if Marcos insisted on
remaining in power. ’Mrs. Aquino and I have been approached by sufficiently high
military officers’ who had secretly pledged support for the opposition and the democratic
process, Laurel said. He emphasized that he was not calling for a military take-over. ‘We
just want to let Mr. Marcos know that his threat to use the military against the people will
not work out.’
READ TO LEARN
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Readings in Philippine History
THE 1986 EDSA REVOLUTION. Below is a story narrated by Gloria Ramos Viola (2011),
a 41-year old woman who, together with his husband, courageously joined the throng
of anti-Marcos protesters at EDSA in February 1986.
“We were still recovering from contusions and trauma from a van that turned turtle while
on a convoy to ferry the ballot boxes to QC Hall when [my] husband and I were disturbed by
the news on vote counting at the Philippine International Convention Center.
“There were computerized programs alright – but they were slanted to manipulate the
vote counts and make the then dictator win again. We felt helpless and hopeless – in hushed,
desperate tones we talked of joining the outspoken and daring guys up there in the boondocks
and entrust our four kids to my mother-in-law, then 61 years old with a heart condition. We
prayed as a couple – as we never did before.
“I was sobbing because I was torn between leaving my kids and joining my husband in the
movement whoever, wherever they were. When we got out of our room, determined in the
next steps we were going to take, the TV set was on, and yes – praise God!- the computer
technicians doing the counting (manipulation, actually) at PICC were walking out in protest of
the crookedness of it all!
“We didn’t have to go to the boonies after all. There was an observable growing number of
parents, adults and youth who had some national and social conscience and were slowly
gathering steam to speak out and be heard after more than two decades of being deaf, dumb
and blind.
“February 21, Friday afternoon. We joined a group of couples to facilitate a weekend
seminar up in a retreat house in Angono, Rizal. We called the group Christian Parenting For
Peace and Justice – the more peaceful, albeit slow, way to awaken the consciousness and
conscience of the parents regardless of faith group or leaning. I was a Methodist wife of a
Catholic husband mixing with the Jesuit-led group; it was comfortable and comforting to
know I was counted in the group.
“Before the second talk would end, the radio was agog with very picturesque description
of what was going on in Camp Aguinaldo – Fidel Ramos and Juan Ponce Enrile, both Ilocanos,
had just felt the Gabriela Silang running in their veins, and decided to stick together to fight
that old, sick Ilocano guy in Malacanang. And their supporters were multiplying so quickly.
Even Jaime Cardinal Sin became their staunchest supporter. Somewhere there was an
underground broadcasting station that urged people to band together and make everything
right, once and for all.
“We decided it was pointless to go on with the weekend; we all wanted to go down the
mountain, as Moses did, and be with the people.
“The EDSA section in front of Camp Crame and Camp Aguinaldo seemed quiet and
peaceful when we reached the place so we all decided to go home and get some sleep while
waiting for any development. We went home to Muntinlupa, bundled our four kids and
whatever food provision in the house, blankets, towels, sets of clothings, and decided to move
to their lola’s place in Dansalan near Boni[facio] Ave. There, we would all be closer to each
other and to my in-laws.
“Feb 22, Saturday early morning, my sister -- then with the AFP -- called to say she was
running low on infant formula and rice. The soldiers had locked all gates and they couldn’t get
out. His husband was then on a commercial ship between Russia and Norway and since I was
her manang and I lived closest to her, she turned to me for help.
“We borrowed a friend’s Tamaraw [car] so we could carry about three sacks of rice to
bring to Camp Aguinaldo with advice to my sister that she meet us at the first gate closest to
the corner – I would hurl the two cans of infant formula over the gate to her, the rice she could
divide among themselves in the barrio.
Readings in Philippine History
“I failed to meet my sister – I was crying with the milk in my hands: my nephew was
going to die of hunger! I prayed that she would remember to cook ‘am’ and add a scoop of
milk if only to feed the baby. We gave the rice to the soldiers by the gate – their own families
needed to eat, too, so maybe that was all right.
“We were headed home to Boni Ave cruising through EDSA when we met the guy
shouting out in his megaphone: ‘We need vehicles to barricade Ortigas Avenue – the tanks are
coming! They are coming!’ When we reached the EDSA-Ortigas corner, there was no vehicle in
sight yet – I remember asking my husband if the AUV we borrowed had any war insurance
rider and he said it didn’t matter anymore – we had to be there on the barricade line, the first
and only one!
“I was so scared – I needed to pee, the waiters at Tropical Hut were closing up but I asked
them to let me use their toilet just for a minute. It seemed like the longest pee-minute I ever
had – still shaking, I went out expecting to see the lonely red Tamaraw in that huge corner. But
I couldn’t anymore see the borrowed vehicle – there was a ten-deep formation of all kinds of
vehicles, huge and tiny, old and new, luxury and all-utility! It was a sea of vehicles – and as I
craned my neck to look for my husband, we heard the roaring of tanks coming.
“Then the tide of human faces gripped in fear but praying so sincerely to bombard the
heavens with their prayers, rushed to the direction where the tanks seemed to be heading to.
Nuns, clerics, young, old, couples, singles – they were all there. Holding on tight to my
husband’s arm, we moved as close as we could to where the tanks were. Just behind the nuns
– they won’t hit the nuns, right? The cadence of the litanies grew louder, now with sobs and
shrieks punctuating every line – but the tanks kept moving closer – and closer.
“I must have closed my eyes – I didn’t relish the thought of looking into the eyes of the
soldiers as they went rat-ta-tat on us – and I held my breath. Then the tanks suddenly stopped
– and everything was so heavenly quiet. We stopped breathing: they were not moving. Why –
what? Then one by one, the soldiers came out slowly of their metal shells - and shyly waved
their hands at the crowd. The screams of joy were deafening! I looked into the eyes of the first
soldier I met – they were kind and smiling – he was thirsty and hungry, too. He was friendly!
They all were! They all looked like my own nephews, my neighbors, my kin! They couldn’t
fire at civilians who were not their enemies!
“February 23, Sunday. A phone call woke me up – it was my good friend, Carolyn
Seymour of Idaho: ‘Gloria, are you safe there? You are that close to EDSA I know – you all can
come and live with me here.’ Only then did I realize that the event was known and seen
worldwide – and that friends around the world knew what was happening in Metro Manila.
“After a quick shower and a heavy breakfast, we carried the baskets of bread for the
soldiers, and jugs of water too. The Chinese neighbor who owned the sari-sari store gave some
biscuits and crackers, the pediatrician and ob-gyn couple sent along boiled bananas – anything
we accepted for the soldiers.
“The food was never enough – but there were smiles and handshakes for everyone. We
walked the stretch from Boni Ave to Camp Aguinaldo – we didn’t feel tired at all because
everyone else was walking, everyone was a friend, a comrade. But the dictator wouldn’t give
up yet.
“And people slept on the sidewalk – everyone felt safe in the company of strangers who
were actually their countrymen, their compatriots. Since we couldn’t go to hear mass, our
priest-leader said the mass right where the people were. Imagine right this minute how so
many voices can move as one in perfect cadence to recite the Lord’s Prayer. There was no
Catholic nor Protestant version – it was the entire nation calling on the Heavenly Father to
listen to a united cry! I felt goosebumps over me – I just wanted to sob, and the more I tried to
stop the sounds from coming out, the louder they became. I thought my chest would break
open – the emotion building up inside me was just too much to take.
“February 24, Monday. There was some kind of victorious cheering, and momentarily,
people were shouting for joy – but the news was just a hoax. That guy should have been shot –
Readings in Philippine History
he was playing a cruel joke on the mounting emotions of the crowd. We walked home that
night to take a shower and to get some more food and water provisions.
“We hugged the kids, told them to stay put at lola’s place no matter what. And if they run
out of food or snacks, they can ask our Chinese neighbor to just list down what they get from
his store. We were getting tired – we were walking more slowly now but still we made it to
our unofficial camp in front of Camp Aguinaldo. That night, we were decided to camp out –
the kids were safe and warm at home. We could make this sacrifice for their future – yes, their
future.
“The walk to and from Camp Aguinaldo wasn’t as tiring anymore but the euphoria was
dying slowly. Or was it just my imagination? Less and less people were going – were we
giving up? Were we well equipped to do this for days – and months? Soon, I must stop too, to
mother my kids who were by that time feeling orphaned. I told myself – tonight I will sleep
here in EDSA. But tomorrow, I will attend to the meals of the four little ones left with their lola.
Just let me sleep here for tonight – the day’s newspaper will be my bed and with my husband
near me, nothing can go wrong.
“February 25, Tuesday. Daylight was breaking – I cannot even say if we even slept a wink
at all – even the other faces were still there with us: expectant, hopeful, determined. No bath,
not even some water to gargle last night’s dried saliva away, nor to wash the dust from the
face. We all looked alike – smelled alike. Nobody seemed hungry and thirsty though. I didn’t
know whether it was the third day, or fifth day – I was tired, and I lacked sleep and I promised
to myself that by noontime, I had to be with my kids; see if they all had taken their bath and
they have broth on the table. I wasn’t thinking of saying goodbye to my husband – I was just
going to leave him, he will be safe with our group – with the crowd. Omigosh, I even forgot he
had to take his medication regularly for his heart condition! What have I been thinking! He
could drop dead any moment! Everything seemed to be in s-l-o-w- m-o –
“’The Dictator has just left Malacañang! The family has just left for Hawaii! Now we are
FREE, FREE, FREE!’
“Not another cruel joke, right? We’ll skin the guy who is shouting such crap!”
“Listen to the radio! June Keithley has just announced it – verified source. The DICTATOR
and his FAMILY and COHORTS have boarded the plane for HAWAII!”
“Picture the jubilation in your mind – Juan embracing Pedro, Jane hugging Petra, Jose
jumping up and down and Maria, sobbing, crying uncontrollably. Picture them all as they
danced for joy, for liberation, for thanksgiving. I was quiet - I almost left the camping ground –
I would have missed the moment!
“I am glad I was there, too. I felt life began for me again - at age 41! I gazed at my
husband’s eyes – I could have married him again that moment – but it is enough consolation
for me to know we were there – together. Right then and there, I knew we could move on
together no matter what the cost will be.
“Rosaries vs. Bullets”
1986 EDSA People Power
Revolution
Source:
https://alchetron.com/
Readings in Philippine History
Source:
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/
Lesson 8.2. Philippine government since the 1986 EDSA Revolution
Lesson outcome:
1. Identify the major challenges and achievements of each administration
since 1986
2. Discuss the challenges and achievements of each administration
3. Identify personalities based on their policies, programs and/or ideas
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will do a library or internet research about the
Philippine administrations since the EDSA Revolution of 1986.
RESEARCH TO LEARN
________________________________________________________________________________
Readings in Philippine History
Conduct a research about each of the following administrations. Identify and discuss
briefly the major challenges (problems) and major achievements (programs) of each
administration.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Corazon C. Aquino Administration (1986-1992)
Fidel V. Ramos Administration (1992-1998)
Joseph E. Estrada Administration (1998-2001)
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo Administration (2001-2010)
Benigno Aquino III Administration (2010-2016)
Rodrigo R. Duterte Administration (2016-present)
A. Corazon C. Aquino Administration (1986-1992). Below is the inaugural speech of
Pres. Cory Aquino, which she delivered at Club Filipino, San Juan on February 25,
1986:
“My brothers and sisters:
“I am grateful for the authority you have given me today. And I promise to offer all
that I can do to serve you.
“It is fitting and proper that, as our people lost their rights and liberties at midnight
fourteen years ago, the people should formally recover those lost rights and liberties in the
full light of day.
“Ninoy believed that only the united strength of the Filipino people would suffice to
overturn a tyranny so evil and so well-organized. The brutal murder of Ninoy created that
unity in strength that has come to be known as “Lakas ng Bayan”–people power.
“People power shattered the dictatorship, protected those in the military that chose
freedom, and today, has established a government dedicated to this protection and
meaningful fulfillment of our rights and liberties.
“We became exiles, we Filipinos who are at home only in freedom, when Marcos
destroyed the Republic fourteen years ago.
“Now, by God’s grace and the power of the people, we are free again.
“We want to make a special appeal to those who have not yet joined us. Do not engage
in any further action against the people and instead, be among those who will lend a hand
to rebuild the country. (Source: Javante-De Dios, Daroy, Kalaw-Tirol (1988). Dictatorship and
Revolution. Conspectus Foundation Inc.; pp. 761-762.)”
B. Fidel V. Ramos Administration (1992-1998). Below is a lengthy excerpt of Pres.
Fidel Ramos’ inaugural speech, which he delivered at the Quirino Grandstand,
Manila:
“The temper of the people. I see three elements in the stirring message of our people in
the elections.
“First, they spoke out against the old politics. They declared their resolve to be led
along new paths and directions–toward the nation we long for–a nation peaceful,
prosperous and just.
“Second, they reaffirmed their adherence to the secular ideal–of Church and State
separate but collaborating, coexistent but each supreme in its own domain. In this spirit, I
see myself not as the first Protestant to become President, but as the twelfth Filipino
President–who happens to be a Protestant and who must be President of Muslims,
Christians and people of all faiths who constitute our national community.
“Third, our people spoke of their faith that we Filipinos can be greater than the sum of
all the problems that confront us, that we can climb higher than any summit we have
already scaled…
“Let us begin by telling ourselves the truth. Our nation is in trouble. And there are no
easy answers, no quick fixes for our basic ills. Once, we were the school of Southeast Asia.
Today our neighbors have one by one passed us by.
“What is to be done? There are no easy tasks, no soft comforts for those chosen by
circumstances to forge from the crucible of crisis the national destiny…
“First, we must restore civic order. For without stability, businesses cannot run,
workers cannot create wealth, liberty cannot flourish, and even individual life will be
brutish and precarious.
“Then, we must make politics serve–not the family, the faction or the party–but the
nation.
“And we must restructure the entire regime of regulation and control that rewards
people who do not produce at the expense of those who do. A system that enables persons
with political influence to extract wealth without effort from the economy…
“Healing political wounds. Foremost among our concerns must be to bind the wounds of
the election campaign and restore civility to political competition, for our people are
weary of the intrigues and petty rivalries that have kept us down.
“I will continue to reach out to all the groups and factions making up the political
community. As early as possible, I will consult with the leaders of the Senate and the
House of Representatives to work out the priorities of the legislative agenda.
“I call on our mutinous soldiers and radical insurgents to give up their armed struggle.
I will work with Congress in fashioning an amnesty policy that will enable errant
reformists to re‑enter civil society...
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“Continuity and a beginning. Over the last 94 years, 11 Filipino leaders before me have
enacted this ceremony of democratic transition, which signifies for our Republic both
continuity and a new beginning.
“This consecration of the Presidency binds us to the past, just as it turns our hopes to
the future.
“My courageous predecessor, former President Corazon C. Aquino, restored our civil
liberties – and then defended them tenaciously against repeated assaults from putschists
and insurgents.
“She has made our democracy a fortress against tyrants. Now we must use it to enable
our people to take control of their lives, their livelihood and their future.
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“Return to economic growth. Next in our priorities is to nurse the economy back to health
and propel it to growth.
“We must get the entire economy to generate productive employment ‑ keeping in
mind that for each citizen, a job means not merely material income, but social usefulness
and self‑respect.
“Here, too, we must begin with the basics–the social services that Government must
provide, but has not; foundations of economic health, which we should have set up long
ago, but have not.
“Both farm and factory must be empowered to produce more and better.
“Deregulation and privatization shall set free our industries from the apron strings of
the State.
“Dismantling protectionist barriers and providing correct incentives and support
shall make our industry more efficient and world-competitive–and our exports, the
spearhead for economic revival and growth.
“What we do for industry, we will supply in equal measure for agriculture, primarily
because almost half of all our workers still live on it. And equally because agriculture is
the foundation for our industrial modernization…
“A moral war on poverty. I have asked Mang Pandoy and his family to be my guests in
this inaugural ceremony–as proof of my resolve to obtain for families like theirs all over
the country the humanities of life. Poverty we must learn to regard as another form of
tyranny, and we must wage against it the moral equivalent of war.
“In this work of expanding the life‑choices of the poorest among us, my Government
will work hand in hand with non-government organizations and people’s organizations.
“Throughout the campaign, I heard it said over and over that our national decline
derives not from any flaw in the national character ‑ or any failing of the individual
Filipino–but from government’s historic failure to lead.
“We cannot deny the logic of that verdict. For when the systems, rules and conditions
are fair and sound, we Filipinos have excelled– sometimes to the astonishment of the
world.
“My administration will prove that government is not unavoidably corrupt–and that
bureaucracy is not necessarily ineffective.
“Graft and corruption. We will confront more with action results than with words. We
will go after both the bribe-takers and the bribe‑givers. The bigger the target, the greater
will be the Government’s effort.
“We will prove that effective and efficient government is possible in this country. Not
just in national administration, but in the governing of our local communities.
“The road to development is by now much traveled. We Filipinos have lacked not the
way, but the will. This political will, my Presidency shall provide.
“Our foreign relations. In foreign relations, we shall strive to strengthen ties with old
friends and trading partners and we shall endeavor to develop new friendships.
“My Government begins its term in a world transformed. The tide of freedom rising
everywhere should help along our efforts to make democracy work here at home.
“By the gift of Providence, our archipelago is strategically located in the critical sea
lanes of Asia and the Pacific. This geopolitical fact shapes our relations with the world–a
sense of responsibility for the building of peace and stability in our region, and a
recognition of opportunity in our quest for development.
“Doing as Rizal prescribed. If we are to attain what Rizal wished for his posterity–“More
law and greater liberty”–we must do as he prescribed. We must stifle our dissensions and
summon once more the spirit of this nation.
“As Rizal foresaw, the time has come to tell ourselves that if we wish to be saved, we
must redeem ourselves. And in this work of self‑redemption, we must ‘expend the whole
light of our intellect, and all the fervor of our hearts…’
“Before us lies the challenge: Come then, let us meet it together. With so much for us
to do, let us not falter. With so little time left in our hands, we cannot afford to fail.
“And with God’s blessing for all just causes, let us make common cause to win the
future.” (Source: Trinidad Fernandez, et. al., ed. Ours must be a Nation of Empowered People: The
Inauguration of President Fidel V. Ramos [Makati City: Studio 5 Publishing, Inc. 1993])
C. Joseph E. Estrada Administration (1998-2001). Below is an excerpt of Pres. Joseph
Estrada’s English-translated inaugural speech delivered at the Quirino Grandstand,
Manila on June 30, 1998:
“The light is fading, the day is almost over, and yet this late afternoon is the morning of a
new day. The day of the Filipino masses. One of their own is finally leading them…
“If I seemed impatient, it was only for peace. We must put yesterday behind us, so we
can work for a brighter tomorrow. I did not mean for us to forget the past. I don’t. But I
hope we will not let the past get in the way of a future that calls for cooperation to achieve
peace and prosperity.
“Finally, I felt that the common people have waited long enough for their turn, for
their day to come.
“That day is here.
“And it comes not a moment too soon on the centennial of the birth of Filipino
freedom.
“One hundred years after Kawit, fifty years after independence, twelve years after
Edsa, and seven years after the rejection of foreign bases, it is now the turn of the masses
to experience liberation.
“We stand in the shadow of those who fought to make us free—free from foreign
domination, free from domestic tyranny, free from superpower dictation, free from
economic backwardness. We acknowledge a debt of gratitude to Jose Rizal, Andres
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“Private irresponsibility. Certainly, there can be no more tolerance of tax evasion,
smuggling and organized crime–no matter how highly placed those who commit it. Nor
can we continue to turn a blind eye to the social costs of unbridled profit.
“The loss of our forests, the desiccation of our soil, the drying‑up of our watercourses,
and the pollution of our cities—these are the public consequences of private
irresponsibility. We must stop this profligate use and abuse of our natural resources,
which are ours only in trust for those who will come after us.
“Some of us think that empowerment means solely the access of every citizen to
rights and opportunities. I believe there is more to this democratic idea. Our ideology of
Christian democracy, no less than its Muslim counterpart, tells us that power must flow to
our neighborhoods, our communities, our groups, our sectors and our institutions–for it is
by collective action that we will realize the highest of our hopes and dreams...
“Today, in the midst of our trials, we must learn how strong we can be– if only we
stand together. This nation, which is the collective sum of our individual aspirations,
cannot remain divided by distrust and suspicion. Either we rise together–above our selfcentered bickerings and factional quarrels–or we fall into the pits we have dug for one
another.
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Bonifacio, Emilio Aguinaldo, Manuel Quezon, Ramon Magsaysay, Cory Aquino, Fidel
Ramos, and the magnificent twelve of the 1991 senate who voted for Filipino sovereignty
and honor.
“These are the men and women who gave birth to the idea of Filipino freedom; who
struggled in war to give it recognition; and worked in peace to make it come true. Cory
Aquino brought freedom back after it was taken away and Fidel Ramos showed how
power should respect the people’s freedom of choice in elections…
“It is time. Time to speed up the improvement of the living conditions of the common
people. Time for them to have a fairer share of the national wealth they create and a bigger
stake in their own country.
“Some will say we cannot rush these things. First, focus on the economy again. Of
course, we must improve the economy. How else can the people’s lives improve? But why
not both together? Why must economic progress always be at the people’s expense?...
“Six years after Cory Aquino, the foundations of a strong economy were laid. In the
six years of the Ramos administration, the economy was paying big dividends to its
biggest stockholders. This time, why not to the common people as well, for a change?
Must we always measure progress only by the golf courses of the rich?
“I hope this message will not be taken badly by the rich. It has always been their turn,
and it is also their turn again. For it is the priority of my administration to create the
environment of peace and order in which business does well. But, surely, it is time for the
masses to enjoy first priority in the programs of the government.
“As far as resources permit, to the best of our ability and the limit of our energy, we
will put a roof over their heads, food on their tables and clothes on their backs. We will
educate their children and foster their health. We will bring peace and security, jobs and
dignity to their lives. We will put more infrastructure at their service, to multiply their
productivity and raise their incomes...
“There is no excuse for the spread of crime in any society, unless government is an
accomplice. There is no criminal organization or criminal activity that can stand up to the
government if the government is sincere about stamping it out.
“We know that the major crimes in this country are committed by hoodlums in
uniform. We know they are protected by hoodlums in barong and acquitted by hood-lums
in robes. We know that the most damaging crimes against society are not those of petty
thieves in rags, but those of economic saboteurs in expensive clothes: the dishon-est
stockholders, the wheeling dealing businessmen, influence-peddlers, price-padders and
other crooks in government.
“I promise to use all the powers of government to stamp out crime, big and small.
“There will be no excuses and no exceptions. I sent friends to jail before; it was not
my fault that the courts let them go.
“No government is so powerless that it cannot protect its citizens, especially when
they are victimized by government agents.
“No government is so helpless, it cannot prosecute criminals, especially when the
criminals are officials operating in the open.
“And the government of a country, where most of the people are hungry, need jobs
and lack education, cannot allow its taxes to be stolen or wasted, its assets thrown to
friends, the national patrimony conceded to foreigners, and the best opportunities limited
only to those who can afford...
“Government cannot afford to feed all the hungry in our country, but it would be a
crime if any money for food went to government officials and fixers instead.
“Government cannot afford to build all the roads that are needed, but it would be a
crime to build fewer roads to line more pockets.
“Government cannot afford to bring back the millions of overseas Filipino workers to
jobs and dignity back home, but we shall protect their interests abroad and their families
back home.
“Government cannot afford to give all the youth the complete education promised by
the Constitution, but it would be a crime if any money for education was misspent on
inferior textbooks and substandard classrooms built by pork barrel…
“What I promise is not big. What I envision is ordinary. My promises are made to be
fulfilled in a working day; they are hopes of ordinary Filipinos like myself, in
circum-stances less than ideal with the economic recession, but they are long overdue.
“I want to bring peace to our lives and harmony to our society. I want to bring order
to our streets and justice to our institutions. I want to impart energy to our economy and
more equitableness in the distribution of its fruits.
“I want every Filipino, rich or poor, to feel that the safest place in the world for him is
his own country.
“And, lastly, I hope to bring all Filipinos together so as to achieve that power of
common purpose that will enable us to escape the crisis of our region and achieve our
centennial dream...” (Source: Manuel L. Quezon III, 20 Speeches that Moved a Nation [Pasig City:
D. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo Administration (2001-2010). Below is an excerpt of Pres.
Gloria Arroyo’s inaugural speech delivered at Our Lady of Edsa Shrine,
Mandaluyong:
“In all humility, I accept the Presidency of the Republic. I do so with both trepidation
and a sense of awe.
“Trepidation, because it is now, as the Good Book says, a time to heal and a time to
build. The task is formidable, so I pray that we will all be one – one in our priorities, one in
our values and commitments, and one because of Edsa 2001.
“A sense of awe, because the Filipino has done it again on the hallowed ground of Edsa.
“People Power and the oneness of will and vision have made a new beginning possible.
I cannot but recall at this point, therefore, Ninoy Aquino’s words:
“’I have carefully weighed the virtues and the faults of the Filipino, and I have come to
the conclusion that he is worth dying for…’
“I am certain that Filipinos of unborn generations will look back with pride to EDSA
2001, just as we look back with pride to Mactan, the Katipunan and other revolts, Bataan
and Corregidor, and EDSA ’86.
“The Filipino, crises and all, is truly worth living and dying for.
“Ngunit saan tayo tutungo mula rito?
“Jose Rizal, the first to articulate self‑determination in a free society, provides the
answer.
“Rizal counseled the Filipino to lead a life of commitment. ‘He must think national, go
beyond self.’
“’A stone is worthless,’ Rizal wrote, ‘if it is not part of an edifice.’
“We are the stones, and the Philippines is our edifice…
“We must be bold in our national ambitions, so that our challenge must be that within
this decade, we will win the fight against poverty.
“We must improve moral standards in government and society, in order to provide a
strong foundation for good governance.
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Anvil Publishing, in cooperation with Platypus Publishing, 2002], 98-101.)
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“We must change the character of our politics, in order create fertile ground for true
reforms. Our politics of personality and patronage must give way to a new politics of party
programs and process of dialogue with the people.
“Finally, I believe in leadership by example. We should promote solid traits such as
work ethic and a dignified lifestyle, matching action to rhetoric, performing rather than
grandstanding.
“The first of my core beliefs pertains to the elimination of poverty. This is our
unfinished business from the past. It dates back to the creation of our Republic, whose
seeds were sown in the revolution launched in 1896 by the plebeian Andres Bonifacio. It
was an unfinished revolution, for to this day, poverty remains our national problem. We
need to complete what Andres Bonifacio began. The ultimate solution to poverty has both a
political and an economic aspect…
“We need to promote a new politics of true party programs and platforms, of an
institutional process of dialogue with our citizenry. This new politics is the politics of
genuine reform. It is a structural part of the solution.
“We have long accepted the need to level the playing field in business and economics.
Now, we must accept the need to level the playing field in politics as well. We have long
aspired to be a world class economy. Now, we must also aspire to develop a world class
political system, one in tune with the 21st Century…
“To extend the opportunities to our rural countryside, we must create a modernized
and socially equitable agricultural sector.
“To address the perils, we must give a social bias to balance our economic development,
and these are embodied in safety nets for sectors affected by globalization, and safeguards
for our environment.
“To ensure that our gains are not dissipated through corruption, we must improve
moral standards. As we do so, we create fertile ground for good governance based on a
sound moral foundation, a philosophy of transparency, and an ethic of effective
implementation.
“Considering the divisions of today, our commitment will entail a lot of sacrifices
among us all, as we work to restore the dignity and pre‑eminence of the Filipino.
“Join me, therefore, as we begin to tear down the walls that divide. Let us build an
edifice of peace, progress, and economic stability.
“People Power has dramatized the Filipino’s capacity for greatness.
“People of People Power, I ask for your support and prayers. Together, we will light
the healing and cleansing flame.” (Source: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph)
E. Benigno Aquino III Administration (2010-2016). Below is an excerpt of Pres.
Noynoy Aquino’s inaugural speech:
“Ang pagtayo ko dito ngayon ay patunay na kayo ang aking tunay na lakas. Hindi ko
inakala na darating tayo sa puntong ito, na ako’y manunumpa sa harap ninyo bilang
inyong Pangulo.
Hindi ko pinangarap maging tagapagtaguyod ng pag-asa at
tagapagmana ng mga suliranin n gating bayan.
“Ang layunin ko sa buhay ay simple lang; maging tapat sa aking mga magulang at sa
bayan bilang isang marangal na anak, mabait na kuya, at mabuting mamamayan.
“Nilabanan ng aking ama ang diktatura at ibinuwis niya ang kanyang buhay para
tubusin ang ating demokrasya.
Inalay ng aking ina ang kaniyang buhay upang
pangalagaan ang demokrasyang ito. Ilalaan ko ang aking buhay para siguraduhin na ang
ating demokrasya ay kapaki-pakinabang sa bawat isa. Namuhunan na kami ng dugo at
handang gawin itong muli kung kinakailangan.
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“Tanyag naman ang aking mga magulang at ang kanilang mga nagawa, alam ko rin
ang problema ng ordinaryong mamamayan. Alam nating lahat ang pakiramdam na
magkaroon ng pamahalaang bulag at bingi. Alam natin ang pakiramdam na mapagkaitan
ng hustisya na mabalewala ng mga taong pinagkatiwalaan at inatasan nating maging ating
tagapagtanggol.
“Kayo ba ay minsan ring nalimutan ng pamahalaang inyong iniluklok sa puwesto?
Ako rin. Kayo ba ay nagtiis na sa trapiko para lamang masingitan ng isang naghaharihairang dewangwang sa kalsada? Ako rin. Kayo ba sawang-sawa na sa pamahalaang sa
halip na magsilbi sa taumbayan ay kailangan pa nila itong pagpasensiyahan at tiisin? Ako
rin.
“Katulad ninyo ako. Marami na sa atin ang bumoto gamit ang kanilang paa - nilisan
na nila an gating bansa sa kanilang paghahanap ng pagbabago at katahimikan. Tiniis nila
ang hirap, sinugod ang panganib sa ibang bansa dahil doon may pag-asa kahit kaunti na
dito sa atin ay hindi nila nakikita. Sa iilang sandali na sarili ko lang ang aking inaalala, pati
ako ay napag-isip din – talaga bang hindi na mababago ang pamamahala natin ditto?
Hindi kaya nasa ibang bansa ang katahimikang hinahanap ko? Saan ba nakasulat na
kailangang puro pagtitiis ang tadhana ng Pilipino?
“Ngayon, sa araw na ito – dito magwawakas ang pamunuang manhid sa mga daing
ng taumbayan. Hindi si Noynoy ang gumawa ng paraan, kayo ang dahilan kung bakit
ngayon, magtatapos na ang pagtitiis ng sambayanan. Ito naman ang umpisa ng kalbaryo
ko, ngunit kung marami tayong magpapasan ng krus ay kakayanin natin ito, gaano man
kabigat.
“Sa tulong ng wastong pamamahala sa mga darating na taon, maiibsan din ang
marami nating problema. Ang tadhana ng Pilipino ay babalik sa tamang kalagayan, na sa
bawat taon pabawas ng pabawas ang problema ng Pinoy na nagsusumikap at may
kasiguruhan sila na magiging tuloy-tuloy na ang pagbuti ng kanilang sitwasyon.
“Kami ay narito para magsilbi at hindi para maghari. Ang mandato ninyo sa amin ay
pagbabago – isang malinaw n autos para ayusin ang gobyerno at lipunan mula sa
pamahalaang iilan lamang ang nakikinabang tungo sa isang pamahalaang kabutihan ng
mamamayan ang pinangangalagaan…
“Sigaw natin noong kampanya: ‘Kung walang corrupt, walang mahirap.’ Hindi
lamang ito pang slogan o pang poster – ito ang mga prinsipyong tinatayuan at nagsilbing
batayan ng ating administrasyon.
“Ang ating pangunahing tungkulin ay ang magsikap na maiangkat ang bansa mula
kahirapan sa pamamagitan ng pagpapairal ng katapan at mabuting pamamalakad sa
pamahalaan.
“Ang unang hakbang ay ang pagkakaroon ng tuwid at tapat na hanay ng mga pinuno.
Magsisimula ito sa akin. Sisikapin kong maging isang mabuting ehemplo. Hinding hindi
ko sasayangin ang tiwalang ipinagkaloob ninyo sa akin. Sisiguraduhin ko na ganito rin
ang adhikain ng aking Gabinete at nga mga magiging kasama sa ating pamahalaan.
“Naniniwala akong hindi lahat ng nagsisilbi sa gobyerno ay corrupt. Sa katunayan, mas
marami sa kanila ay tapat. Pinili nilang maglingkod sa gobyerno upang gumawa ng
kabutihan. Ngayon, magkakaroon na sila ng pagkakataong magpakitang-gilas. Inaasahan
natin sila sa pagsupil ng korapsyon sa loob mismo ng burukrasya…
“Sa mga kapuspalad nating mga kababayan, ngayon, ang pamahalaan ang inyong
kampeon…
“Ang sinumang nagkamali ay kailangang humarap sa hustisya. Hindi maaaring
patuloy ang kalakaran ng walang pananagutan at tuloy ang pang-aapi.
“My government will be sincere in dealing with all the peoples of Mindanao. We are
committed to a peaceful and just settlement of conflicts, inclusive of the interests of all –
may they be Lumads, Bangsamoro or Christian.
“We shall defeat the enemy by wielding the tools of justice, social reform, and
equitable governance leading to a better life. Sa tamang pamamahala gaganda ang buhay
ng lahat, at sa buhay na maganda, sino pa ang gugustuhing bumalik sa panahon ng pangaapi.
“Kung kasama ko kayo, maitataguyod natin ang isang bayan kung saan pantaypantay ang pagkakaton, dahil pantay-pantay nating ginagampanan an gating mga
pananagutan.
“Walang lamangan, walang padrino at walang pagnanakaw. Walang wang-wang,
walang counterflow, walang tong. Panahon na upang tayo ay muling magkawang-gawa.
“The people who are behind us dared to dream. Today, the dream starts to become a
reality. Sa inyong mga nag-iisip pa kung tutulong kayo sa pagpasan ng ating krus, isa lang
ang aking tanong – kung kalian tayo nanalo, saka pa ba tayo susuko?
“Kayo ang boss ko, kaya’t hindi maaaring hindi ako makinig sa mga utos ninyo. We
will design and implement an interaction and feedback mechanism that can effectively
respond to the people’s needs and aspirations. (Source: https://macaupcg.dfa.gov.ph/)
F. Rodrigo R. Duterte Administration (2016-2022). Below is an excerpt of Pres. Rudy
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Duterte’s inaugural speech at Malacanang Palace:
“No leader, however strong, can succeed at anything of national importance or
significance unless he has the support and cooperation of the people he is tasked to lead
and sworn to serve.
“It is the people from whom democratic governments draw strength and this
administration is no exception. That is why we have to listen to the murmurings of the
people, feel their pulse, supply their needs and fortify their faith and trust in us whom they
elected to public office.
“There are many amongst us who advance the assessment that the problems that
bedevil our country today which need to be addressed with urgency, are corruption, both
in the high and low echelons of government, criminality in the streets, and the rampant
sale of illegal drugs in all strata of Philippine society and the breakdown of law and order.
True, but not absolutely so. For I see these ills as mere symptoms of a virulent social
disease that creeps and cuts into the moral fiber of Philippine society. I sense a problem
deeper and more serious than any of those mentioned or all of them put together. But of
course, it is not to say that we will ignore them because they have to be stopped by all
means that the law allows.
“Erosion of faith and trust in government – that is the real problem that confronts us.
Resulting therefrom, I see the erosion of the people’s trust in our country’s leaders; the
erosion of faith in our judicial system; the erosion of confidence in the capacity of our
public servants to make the people’s lives better, safer and healthier.
“Indeed, ours is a problem that dampens the human spirit. But all is not lost.
“I know that there are those who do not approve of my methods of fighting criminality,
the sale and use of illegal drugs and corruption. They say that my methods are unorthodox
and verge on the illegal. In response let me say this: I have seen how corruption bled the
government of funds, which were allocated for the use in uplifting the poor from the mire
that they are in. I have seen how illegal drugs destroyed individuals and ruined family
relationships.
“I have seen how criminality, by means all foul, snatched from the innocent and the
unsuspecting, the years and years of accumulated savings. Years of toil and then, suddenly,
they are back to where they started.
“Look at this from that perspective and tell me that I am wrong.
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“In this fight, I ask Congress and the Commission on Human Rights and all others who
are similarly situated to allow us a level of governance that is consistent to our mandate.
The fight will be relentless and it will be sustained.
“As a lawyer and a former prosecutor, I know the limits of the power and authority of
the president. I know what is legal and what is not.
“My adherence to due process and the rule of law is uncompromising.
“You mind your work and I will mind mine.
“’Malasakit. Tunay na Pagbabago. Tinud-anay nga Kausaban (Compassion. Real
change.)’ – these are words which catapulted me to the presidency. These slogans were
conceptualized not for the sole purpose of securing the votes of the electorate. ‘Tinud-anay
nga kabag-uhan. Mao kana ang tumong sa atong pang-gobyerno (Real change. This is the
direction of our government).’
“Far from that. These were battle cries articulated by me in behalf of the people hungry
for genuine and meaningful change. But the change, if it is to be permanent and significant,
must start with us and in us…
“Love of country, subordination of personal interests to the common good, concern and
care for the helpless and the impoverished – these are among the lost and faded values that
we seek to recover and revitalize as we commence our journey towards a better Philippines.
The ride will be rough. But come and join me just the same. Together, shoulder to shoulder,
let us take the first wobbly steps in this quest.
“There are two quotations from revered figures that shall serve as the foundation upon
which this administration shall be built.
“’The test of government is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who
have much; it is whether we provide for those who have little.’ – Franklin Delano Roosevelt
“And from (Abraham) Lincoln I draw this expression: ‘You cannot strengthen the weak
by weakening the strong; You cannot help the poor by discouraging the rich; You cannot
help the wage earner by pulling down the wage payer; You cannot further the brotherhood
by inciting class hatred among men.’
“My economic and financial, political policies are contained in those quotations, though
couched in general terms. Read between the lines. I need not go into specifics now. They
shall be supplied to you in due time…
“I abhor secrecy and instead advocate transparency in all government contracts,
projects and business transactions from submission of proposals to negotiation to
perfection and finally, to consummation.
“Do them and we will work together. Do not do them, we will part sooner than later.
“On the international front and community of nations, let me reiterate that the Republic
of the Philippines will honor treaties and international obligations.
“On the domestic front, my administration is committed to implement all signed peace
agreements in step with constitutional and legal reforms.
“Let me remind in the end of this talk, that I was elected to the presidency to serve the
entire country. I was not elected to serve the interests of any one person or any group or
any one class. I serve every one and not only one.
“That is why I have adapted as an article of faith, the following lines written by
someone whose name I could no longer recall. He said: ‘I have no friends to serve, I have
no enemies to harm.’
“Prescinding there from, I now ask everyone, and I mean everyone, to join me as we
embark on this crusade for a better and brighter tomorrow.
“Why am I here?... The past tense was, I am here because I love my country and I love
the people of the Philippines. I am here, why? Because I am ready to start my work for the
nation.” (Source: Presidential Communications Office)
Readings in Philippine History
“Philippine presidents since 1986”
Source: https://www.google.com/
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 8.1./8.2. 1986 EDSA Revolution & beyond
WHO SAID WHAT?: Identify who is being referred to or is associated with the phrase.
Choose you answer from the “answer box”. Write your answer on the space provided
before each number. [Do an internet search.]
NINOY AQUINO
JOSEPH ESTRADA
CARDINAL SIN
CORY AQUINO
RODY DUTERTE
NOYNOY AQUINO
GLORIA ARROYO
1. “‘Kung walang corrupt, walang mahirap.’ Hindi lamang ito pang
slogan o pang poster – ito ang mga prinsipyong tinatayuan at
nagsilbing batayan ng ating administrasyon.”
2. “What really matters in the game among nations is national
strength and military capability to maintain national security,…and
to uphold national sovereignty and honor of the nation. Nothing
less and nothing more.”
3. “As we break from the past in our quest for a new Philippines, the
unity, the Filipino’s sense of history, and his unshakeable faith in
the Almighty that prevailed in EDSA ’86 and EDSA 2001 will
continue to guide and inspire us.”
4. “People power shattered the dictatorship, protected those in the
military that chose freedom, and today, has established a
government dedicated to this protection and meaningful
fulfillment of our rights and liberties.”
5. “Walang kaibigan, walang kumpare, walang kamag-anak o anak
na maaaring magsamantala sa ngayon… [N]ag-aaksaya lamang
kayo ng panahon. Huwag ninyo akong subukan.”
6. “Kung walang mamumuno, tayo mismo ang hahakbang. Tayo
mismo ang magtutulungan. Tayo mismo ang bibitbit sa isa’t isa…
Gagampanan natin ang anumang tungkulin para daigin natin ang
anumang pagsubok, sa ngalan ng ating kapwa.”
7. “We Filipinos are not the kind of people to kill brother Filipinos...
Our way must be the way of peace… I challenge you to prove to the
world that we are men of integrity, men of true valor, whose loyalty
is to God and to the country.”
8. “I know that there are those who do not approve of my methods of
fighting criminality…I have seen how illegal drugs…ruined family
relationships… Look at this from that perspective and tell me that I
am wrong.”
9. “Our nation is in trouble. And there are no easy answers, no quick
fixes for our basic ills… We must make hard decisions. We shall
have to resort to remedies close to surgery–to swift and decisive
reform.”
10. “I have asked myself many times: Is the Filipino worth suffering, or
even dying, for? I have carefully weighed the virtues and the faults
of the Filipino and...he is worth dying for because he is the nation’s
greatest untapped resource.”
Readings in Philippine History
LENI ROBREDO
FIDEL RAMOS
JUAN ENRILE
Module 8. Bringing history alive
Unit 14: Local narratives
Lesson 9.1. Writing my personal narrative
Lesson outcome:
1. Write a short personal narrative about life experiences
Lesson overview: In this lesson, you will learn about the basics of doing personal
narratives. Your final output will be a written account of your past (recent or a long time
ago) experience in life.
READ TO LEARN
________________________________________________________________________________
Readings in Philippine History
Jennifer Xue (2020), a staff blogger at ProWriting Aid.com, tells us about personal
narratives.
“We're more accustomed to personal narratives than we realize. When we were
little, our parents read children's personal narratives to us. In high school and college,
students had to write personal narrative essays, particularly when asked to express
opinions on a situation, thing, or individual.
“As readers, we're fascinated by memoirs, autobiographies, and long-form
personal narrative articles, as they provide a glimpse into the authors' thought
processes, ideas, and feelings. According to Psychology Today, personal narratives
allow authors to feel and release pains, while savouring moments of strength and
resilience. Such emotions provide an avenue for both authors and readers to connect
while supporting healing in the process.
“Personal narratives are written inside and outside of academia. They can range
from personal responses to books or events written by students to bestselling
memoirs.
“Personal narratives focus on personal growth, reflections, and lessons. They are
popular due to their easy-to-digest format and because humans are empathizing
creatures.
“We can better understand how others feel and think when we were told stories
that allow us to see the world from their perspectives. The author's "I think" and "I
feel" instantaneously become ours, as the brain doesn't know whether what we read is
real or imaginary.
“In academia, a narrative essay tells a story which is experiential, anecdotal, or
personal. It allows the author to creatively express their thoughts, feelings, ideas, and
opinions. Its length can be anywhere from a few paragraphs to hundreds of pages.
“Outside of academia, personal narratives are known as a form of journalism or
non-fiction works called "narrative journalism." Even highly prestigious publications
like the New York Times and Time magazine have sections dedicated to personal
narratives.
“In a nutshell, a personal narrative can cover any reflective and contemplative
subject with a strong voice and a unique perspective, including uncommon private
values. It's written in first person and the story encompasses a specific moment in time
worthy of a discussion.
Why write a personal narrative? Familysearch.org (2018) answers the question: ‘Why
create a personal history?”
“Ask yourself these questions – if your parents, grandparents, and other ancestors
did not leave life histories, do you wish they had? Do you wish you could read about
Readings in Philippine History
“6 Guidelines for Writing Personal Narrative Essays [Note: These are not “hard”
rules]. Writing a personal narrative essay involves both objectivity and subjectivity.
You'll need to be objective enough to recognize the importance of an event or a
situation to explore and write about. On the other hand, you must be subjective
enough to inject private thoughts and feelings to make your point.
“With personal narratives, you are both the muse and the creator – you have
control over how your story is told. However, like any other type of writing, it comes
with guidelines.
“1. Write Your Personal Narrative as a Story. As a story, it must include an
introduction, characters, plot, setting, climax, anti-climax (if any), and conclusion.
Another way to approach it is by structuring it with an introduction, body, and
conclusion. The introduction should set the tone, while the body should focus on the
key point(s) you want to get across. The conclusion can tell the reader what lessons
you have learned from the story you've just told.
“2. Give Your Personal Narrative a Clear Purpose. Your narrative essay should
reflect your unique perspective on life. This is a lot harder than it sounds. You need to
establish your perspective, the key things you want your reader to take away, and
your tone of voice. It's a good idea to have a set purpose in mind for the narrative
before you start writing.
“Let's say you want to write about how you manage depression without taking
any medicine. This could go in any number of ways, but isolating a purpose will help
you focus your writing and choose which stories to tell. Are you advocating for a
holistic approach, or do you want to describe your emotional experience for people
thinking of trying it?
“Having this focus will allow you to put your own unique take on what you did
(and didn't do, if applicable), what changed you, and the lessons learned along the
way.
“3. Show, Don't Tell. It's a narration, so the narrative should show readers what
happened, instead of telling them. As well as being a storyteller, the author should
take part as one of the characters. Keep this in mind when writing, as the way you
shape your perspective can have a big impact on how your reader sees your
overarching plot. Don't slip into just explaining everything that happened because it
happened to you. Show your reader with action.
“4. Use ‘I,’ But Don't Overuse It. You, the author, take ownership of the story, so
the first person pronoun "I" is used throughout. However, you shouldn't overuse it, as
it'd make it sound too self-centered and redundant.
“5. Pay Attention to Tenses. Tense is key to understanding. Personal narratives
mostly tell the story of events that happened in the past, so many authors choose to
use the past tense. This helps separate out your current, narrating voice and your past
self who you are narrating. If you're writing in the present tense, make sure that you
keep it consistent throughout.
“6. Make Your Conclusion Satisfying. Satisfy your readers by giving them an
unforgettable closing scene. The body of the narration should build up the plot to
climax. This doesn't have to be something incredible or shocking, just something that
helps give an interesting take on your story. “
Readings in Philippine History
their lives? If so, it is likely for your descendants to feel the same way if you don’t. A
record of your life can be a great gift to those who come after you. Words in print can
be read and reread, pondered over, and returned to. The words your teenager rejects
now may become clear and precious when he or she rereads them later in life.
“You could have a great effect on those who follow you. Your example, trials, and
triumphs can strengthen and motivate others. A famous, biblical example is Job of the
Old Testament, who suffered many trials. ‘Oh that my words were now written! oh
that they were printed in a book! That they were graven with an iron pen and lead in
the rock forever!’ he mourned (Job 19:23-4 KJV). His words were written, and so his
triumph over tragedy and his faith have remained an example of devotion to people of
the world for thousands of years.
“Writing your history can also provide you with an opportunity to evaluate your
life. It may help to clarify your direction in life. Writing about your past, even if it was
not idyllic, can help you cope with feelings and create an opportunity to find
understanding and forgiveness.”
There are different ways of writing personal history: biographies, journals, narratives,
records of milestones, scrapbooks, oral histories, electronic recordings, online photo
books.(Familysearch.org, 2018) For our case, you, my dear students will be doing a
narrative, a personal narrative. Or maybe, you can do a mix of the different types of
personal history. Again, FamilySearch.org describes what narratives are.
“Narratives are another form of personal history. This particular kind of narrative
documents memorable events and are usually brief.
“Many people find it useful to set aside a time each week to write their narratives.
For example, one woman spends an hour writing each Sunday afternoon while her
young children take a nap. During each session, she writes two or three short
narratives. These narratives can later be polished and compiled into a longer history.”
Familysearch.org (2018) provides its own tips on writing personal histories.
“Do not be too critical of your writing skills. In the beginning, it is more important
to get the information, stories, feelings, and events recorded first. Late, you can polish
what you’ve written. These suggestions may help you begin your personal history:
“Begin your narrative at an exciting point in your life. You do not have to begin by
listing your date of birth. Get your readers interested first, and then they will enjoy
learning the facts later.
“Do not worry about style, grammar, punctuation, or other composition
technicalities at the beginning. Write however feels most comfortable for you.
“Be visual with your words. Include background information about the location or
local history at the time a memory or event took place. Describe clothing, rooms,
expressions, and so on that were involved. Try to recapture the emotions of people.
Give enough detail about the situation to make things interesting Do not let your
writing become just a list of dates and places with stories and a background to bring
them to life.
“Be willing to laugh at yourself. Let your personality and humor shine through in
your writing.
“Do not be afraid to write about your weaknesses, as well as your strengths. If you
feel comfortable writing about mistake you’ve made, elaborate on what you learned
from them and what consequences followed.
“Always be truthful and honest about your life. If something is too uncomfortable
to share, just exclude it and move on.
“Be wary of extremely sensitive issues, especially if other people were involved.
It’s important to be careful of libeling or embarrassing others.
“Remember your story doesn’t have to be told in chronological order. Digress
whenever you feel like; these digressions may just be the most interesting parts of your
story.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I would like to share a brief narrative I wrote back in 2014. This might not be a perfect
example of writing a narrative, but I would just like you to have an idea of how I write
my thoughts on [electronic] “paper”.
“Almost 17 years ago. A hot April afternoon.
“The school principal and the subject teacher were seated at the back of the room.
They were my judges. This was it. I had to impress them with my teaching style. I
had to get their nod so I could be hired.
“Feeling tensed, I greeted the
‘Good afternoon Sir,’ they responded.
students.
Good
afternoon
class!
“For the first five minutes or so, I was so conscious of my voice, my gestures, my
statements. The words I was uttering seemed to be forcing their way out of my
throat. My knees were a little shaky and so I took one step closer to the students
seated in front. My body felt warmer. Sweat gently flowed from one of my armpits.
Perhaps, this was adrenaline rush.
“It was not for long and I felt more relaxed, more confident, but the sweating
continued. My ears and eyes felt warm all throughout the demonstration. I guess
my ears were all red. The teaching ordeal ended with my armpits, nape, and back
sticky with sweat.
“The teaching demonstration had a rough start, I suppose; no thanks to my pesky
stage fright. Despite it, I managed to put up a satisfactory performance. Needless
to say, I got hired.” (tecsonline.weebly.com)
Readings in Philippine History
“Clad in faded blue long-sleeved polo shirt, dark blue trousers, newly shined
shoes, I stepped into the classroom for a teaching demonstration. This was
required by the school administrator who had interviewed me two days earlier.
NAME: ______________________________________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________
DATE: _____________
Exercise 9.1.1 My personal history
Readings in Philippine History
You have been reading a lot of primary and secondary sources in this course. Well, that
is because this is a “Reading” subject. But for your final output, you will write your twopage personal history. This time, your first-hand narrative will be read. Hence, you will
produce a primary source for others (me and your friends and family) to appreciate.
Readings in Philippine History
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Readings in Philippine History
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