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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SANTA CRUZ
3 2106 00045 4055
REPUBLIC
An
OF
VIETNAM
Introduction
VIETNAM
EMBASSY OF VIETNAM
WASHINGTON , D. C.
to
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
The Land
.
3
The People •
6
A Glimpse of Vietnam's History ·
10
National Emblems
21
Written and Spoken Language
25
A Glimpse of Vietnamese Literature.
28
Music
31
Classical and Reformed Theatre .
34
The Arts of Vietnam
38
Scenic Sights and Places of Interest
41
•
Traditional and Popular Celebrations and Festivals
•
44
The Moral and Religious Universe .
48
Conclusion
55
•
The text of this brochure originally appeared in
Vietnamese Realities , a publication of the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs , Republic of Vietnam.
THE
Viet Nam is a long, narrow strip of land
in the shape of a letter « S ». Beginning with
the top, arched against the great land mass
of China, the coast curves around the Gulf
of Tonkin and then pushes out into the South
China Sea, dipping its tail finally into the
Gulf of Siam.
Many Vietnamese compare their country
to the shape of a dragon, the long, narrow
regions of the Center forming the slender
body and the regions of the South forming
the head, mane and front legs. Vietnamese
geomagicians have been quick to point out
that in that position, the Vietnamese dragon
portends a national reunification. Others have
compared their country to the silhouette of
of a phoenix, which, like the dragon , has its
head in the South. Still others have seen
Viet Nam in the symbolic form of the ubiquitous bamboo carrying pole laden at either
end with heavy baskets of rice. The Center
forms the long balance , with the delta
regions of the North and South forming the
heavy load of rice , which is so abundantly
furnished by the deltas of the Mekong and
Red Rivers.
Location
Viet Nam has a total territory of 327,000
square kilometers, and a coast line which
meanders along a distance of over 2100 miles,
forming a lacy border to hem the immense
carpet of the Pacific Ocean.
According to the agreement signed at The
Geneva Conference on July 21 , 1954, the
national territory was divided at a line of
demarcation along the 17th parallel. Thus,
the separate parts can no longer by described
in a single characterization ; and the term
Viet Nam will be used only in reference to
the geographic entity, common history, and
to ethnographic and linguistic peculiarities ,
as well as to the common traditions and the
artistic and literary heritage of the entire
Vietnamese people .
South of the 17th parallel , The Republic
of Viet Nam extends over a 178,128 square
kilometer piece of territory, as well as
numerous offshore islands. The coastline is
LAND
about 1,000 kilometers long, while the width
of the country varies from 200 kilometers to
as little as 60 kilometers. The Republic is
bordered by Laos and Cambodia on the west,
and by the Communist portion of Viet Nam
north of the 17th parallel.
Topography
The contour of Viet Nam is distinguished
by the contrast between the deltas of the
eastern coast line, and the spiny ridge of
mountain ranges along the western border.
The latter rest on a large platform of primary
terrain, with roots extending as far inland
as Central Asia ; and across the China Sea,
linking up with the isles and mountains of
Indonesia. In the dawn of time, vertical
geophysical movements created a series of
platforms or plateaus marked by frequent
faults. From these faults , lava and basalt
spewed out under pressure to form the fertile
volcanic soil of the « red lands » of the plateaus of Boloven, lower Kontum, Darlac ,
Djiring and eastern South Viet Nam.
North Viet Nam is characterized by a
small delta area resulting from the progressive silting over of a shallow gulf, and
by a large mountainous region which ends
in circular arcs northwest of Hanoi and south
of the Red River.
Central Vietnam consists of a narrow
corridor scarcely 120 kilometers wide at
most, and less that 40 kilometers broad near
Dong-Hoi . To the south, the coast describes
a convex curve against the ocean. From the
Trang Son mountain range, several perpendicular ramifications jut into the sea, interrupting the continuity of the coastal deltas
and dividing them into box-like compartments which communicate with each other
through passes in the mountains.
South Viet Nam has resulted from the
simultaneous silting in of a gulf of the Quaternary Era, and the emerging of a shallow
submarine platform . With the exception of
a few peaks in the north and east, the whole
consists of an unbroken alluvial plain , whose
65,000 square kilometers seldom rise more
than two meters above sea level.
3
If Egypt is the cradle of the Nile River,
Viet Nam is unquestionably the cradle of the
Mekong, one of the largest rivers in Asia.
Springing from the mountains of Tibet, it
forms part of the boundary between Laos
and its neighbors Burma and Thailand, then
crosses through Cambodia and Viet Nam,
before emptying into the China Sea. Near
the border between Viet Nam and Cambodia ,
the river divides into two main branches ,
the anterior and posterior, or Cis-Bassac and
Trans-Bassac. Both branches channel into
several sinuous and intertwining arms before
reaching the sea . Northeast of the Mekong,
other rivers , including the Saigon River, the
Western and Eastern Vaico , form a delta
which is one with that of the Mekong . The
volume of silt deposited by these rivers
reaches a billion cubic meters of mud per
year. At the mouth of the Mekong, and
around the Camau peninsula , this silt increases the amount of mud in the territory
of South Viet Nam by encroaching on the
sea at the rate of about 80 meters per year.
Climate
Situated between the Tropic of Cancer
and the Equator, Viet Nam has a tropical
climate ; and the alternation of the monsoons
and dry seasons determines the pattern of
life. The lowering of pressure in Central Asia
engenders the Southwest Summer monsoon ,
whose wet winds blow through the Gulf of
Thailand, the region of the deltas and the
plateaus , from mid-May to November. The
average rainfall in these regions during the
monsoon season is 165 centimeters per year,
which represents some 80 % of the average
annual total of 200 centimeters . The amount
of rainfall may vary greatly in different
sectors of the same region , and vary in
inverse proportion between the altitude and
the quantity of rainfall.
The
chain,
Vietnamese North- South mountain
however , presents a considerable
barrier to the monsoon rains. Owing to the
altitude of this long range of mountains ,
rains rarely reach the covered vegetation.
This is a common phenomenon in mountainous areas where the under vegetation protected versant is heavily watered , while the
cover receives only slight and sporadic
rainfall.
During the Winter monsoon, winds blowing from the northeast are shunted south
along the mountain barrier from September
through December. Precipitation from the
4
winter monsoon diminishes rapidly, however,
south of Hue in Central Viet Nam.
The summer and winter monsoons bring
little rain to the Phan Rang region though ,
which remains a veritable dust basin with
an average annual rainfall of only 60 centimeters. Typhoons are rare, but from time to
time they cause severe damage , especially
in the coastal region of Central Viet Nam.
For the peasants, variation in the amount
of rainfall is equally as important as the
alternation of the wet and dry seasons. The
amount of precipitation may change by as
much as 100 % in succeeding years, and a
long drought may be ended by an even more
disastrous flood.
The monsoons do not have an appreciable
effect on temperatures, however. The average
mean temperature in the plateau region of
the south varies from 25 degrees centigrade
in December and January to 29 degrees
centigrade in April . The temperature begins
lowering in May, at the start of the Summer
monsoon season, and reaches a minimum in
February at the end of the winter monsoon,
due to the north winds which blow in from
Central Asia. In the delta, on the one hand,
the hot season is normally dry, and it begins
in February, at the end of the winter monsoon season, and lasts until mid-May when
the summer monsoon begins. The higher
regions northeast of Saigon have nearly the
same weather as the southwest, except that
the average temperature is lower and the
rains are somewhat more abundant .
In the plateau regions, the average monthly
temperature varies between 18 degrees centigrade in December and January, and 26
degrees centigrade in April. The contour
line of the temperature variations is almost
identical to that of the deltas. The average
relative humidity
90 percent.
varies
between
75
and
The eastern littoral regions have the
greatest differences of temperature . Their
monthly average runs between 20 degrees
centigrade in December and 30 degrees centigrade in June . The temperature begins to
decline in July and reaches its minimum at
the end of the Winter monsoon season. The
average relative humidity varies between 70
and 90 percent . It never freezes in Viet Nam .
except on mountain peaks and in certain low
valleys in the plateau region. Such a climate ,
which favors vegetation throughout the year,
would allow two and even three crops per
year if it were complemented with proper
irrigation .
Vegetation
Two-fifths of Viet Nam is covered by vast
natural forests - not counting the huge
acreage of industrial forests belonging to the
rubber plantations. If rubber plantations are
added, the total national reserve covers an
acreage of 5,680.000 ha south of the 17th
parallel ; and the wooded acreage of the
Republic of Viet Nam constitutes 32 % of
Viet Nam's total.
There is a wonderful diversity of folk lore
and legends concerning the forests and jungles, which have always been at the heart
of our civilization.
Sundown in the countryside :
Regarding cultivation, the high plateaus
are perfectly suited to industrial crops such
as tea, coffee, kenaf, and the market-garden
variety of vegetables, as well as to the growing of flowers, while the sedimentary, grey,
or volcanic lands of the pre-delta , medium
region are generally suited to the cultivation
of rubber-trees and pepper. The alluvial
lands, for their part, grow an abundance of
rice, and various kinds of fruits — grapefruit,
mangoes, guava, cashew nuts, sapodilla, lucuma, rambutan, durian, pineapple, longan,
banana, jackfruit, and an infinite variety of
other tropical fruits, which qualifies Viet
Nam as one of the world's richest orchards.
Boy riding water buffalo .
5
THE
PEOPLE
Viet Nam has always been a center of
meeting and amalgamation for large AustroAsiatic migrations. Peoples of different civilizations who came to settle in her territory
and its surroundings came from the islands ,
and beyond the oceans, as well as from the
Central Asian highlands . Peoples such as the
Champa, the Tchen-La , and the Founan ,
prospered for a time , but faded one after
another, leaving the « Vietnamese Fact » to
survive in the present.
How better to explain this tenacity of the
Vietnamese people than to delve back into
the very origins of our people , and to reconstruct their evolution through the centuries
―
their unceasing displacements and constant struggles.
Complexity of Origins
Since the beginning of the Twentieth Century, many scholars have undertaken the
study of the origins of the Vietnamese people.
As a result, a body of hypotheses has been
assembled, a quick review of which will be
of interest, if only to give a general idea of
the complexity of the problem.
cent to the Pacific Ocean. In that era, dissident princes who resisted the imperial
power had their fiefs confiscated . The Emperor turned the seized fiefs into a kingdom ,
the crown of which was presented to a descendent of Emperor Vu , known as << the
Great Vu ». Enthroned in 1042 B.C. , the new
prince included among his successors the
prominent Keou Tsien (Cau Tien) , who has
been adored by the Viet as their ancestor ,
under the ritual title of Lac Long Quan, or
Sovereign of the Dragon's Lineage. It was
he who, in the beginning of the Fifth Century B.C. , took over the realm of the Bach
Viet, or, « One Hundred Far Principalities » ,
which included what is now North Vietnam .
Having a strong fleet at his disposal, he
sent off one of his sons to the mouth of
the Red River with a numerous body of
colonists, and thus founded the « Viet
Principality » (Viet Chuong) , which he bequeathed to his heirs. The new acting-prince
received the dynastic title Hung, or Lao,
which descended to fifteen successive kings
of his line.
delta prior to the Fourth Century B.C.
According to Aurousseau , the Chinese routed
the Viet (Yue) in 333 B.C. from the low
valley of Yang-tse-Kiang, forcing them to
emigrate south along the coast, finally settling the lower valley of the Red River.
Louis Finot, on the other hand , has
deduced the existence of a race of farmers,
hunters and fishermen , probably totemists ,
although this custom was without precedent
in Indochina , it was practiced among certain
island peoples as is proven by similar illustrations of nautical, choreographic and warlike scenes on ancient drums made of bronze.
Such scenes figure in the mystical traditions
of the Dyak of Borneo and the Battak of
Sumatra .
This hypothesis was further developed by
Claudius Madrolle , who argued that the term
<< Viet » was the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation of two characters used to designate a
meridional region of ancient China. One of
the two symbols meant << favorable » , or
Moreover, according to G. Coedès, there
existed in a still remoter epoch, a community
of culture throughout Asia and including
Viet Nam, whose common characteristics
were the tilling of the soil, similar vocabularies and certain essential rites such as the
<< beneficent » , according to one expert, and
the other, in much more common usage , had
the meaning « beyond » or « distant » . Thus ,
their combination connotes a « far country » ,
blackening and filing of the teeth, water
rites, bronze drums, kite-flying, tattooing , use
of noria and betel, houses built on pilings .
Aurousseau and Chavannes do not admit
the presence of Vietnamese in the Red River
in relation to the capital of the Chinese
Empire. This appelation was given in the
Eleventh Century by the Tcheon (Sung)
Dynasty to the meridional territories adja-
6
and cultivation of areca ; to this list , LeroiGourhan adds the practice of cock fighting,
peacock breeding, mulberry cultivation , cotton spinning, and husking rice by means of
a double cylinder device.
From the ethnic point of view, scholars
such as Mansuy, Colani , Fromajet, Patte and
Sourin have discovered in the territory of
Viet Nam vestiges of five prehistoric races :
The Melanesian, Indonesian, Negritos, Australoids and Mongoloids, occasionally with
wholly pure characteristics, but more commonly with crossbred traits. The two prevailing elements have been Indonesian and
Mongoloid.
This people, active, tenacious , persevering
and courageous, traversed the Indochinese
central massif, the last barrier of the gigantic
central Asian chain, and through that long
corridor marched south, along the China Sea.
Professor Olav Janse , an American scholar
of Swedish origin , conjectured that the primitive community of the Vietnamese people
was set up in the valley of the Song Ma
River, in the present province of Thanh Hoa
located in the extreme north of Central Viet
Nam .
Researches undertaken in the Dong Son
area of that province by Prof. Janse uncovered bronze drums which he states were
fashioned in the Yue Tche (Nguyet Thi)
technique . Yue Tche was a tribe native to
western China. Other research by Janse at
the ancient tombs of Lach Truong, also in
Thanh Hoa province , unearthed bronze statuettes which seem related in design to those
of the Greek deities Pan and Dionysus .
Finally, according to Professors Huard and
Durand, it was on the remnants of the subsi-dence of the Gulf of North Vietnam, further
levelled by the silt deposits of the Red River,
that the primitive Vietnamese nucleus was
formed . That nucleus was made up of an
Indonesian substratum which included Thai
elements. Later, this primitive complexion
was mongolized by Chinese invasions.
This hypothesis agrees with the theory of
the musicologist Georges de Gironcourt. The
latter's study of the folk songs of the Tonkinese central region and of North Annam's
coastal strip permits affirmation that the
upper part of the Tonkin delta is the native
land of the Vietnamese and that the most
ancient musical traditions discoverable are
those of the ancient citadel of Co Loa (Old
Conch) , in which are found the tomb of King
An Duong, and other historic monuments.
(257-206 B.C. ) .
Finally, it is significant that recent excavations undertaken in Co Loa have unearthed
several arrowheads made of bronze , probably
dating back to the reign of An Duong , who
used such weapons to defend his citadel
against the invading troops of the Chinese
general Trieu Da. We are therefore inclined
to believe that the Co Loa spiriform citadel
was the mother cell of the Vietnamese people
Thanks to the invulnerability of the conch,
which was founded on rock to resist the
tempests, the Vietnamese at the dawn of
their history left the littoral of the Gulf of
Tonkin and proceeded south over hill and
dale , beyond 2,000 kilometers of obstructions
for twenty centuries in succession to eventually reach the Gulf of Thailand in the
year 1714.
Ethnic Traits
Vietnamese of former times presented
clearly defined ethnic traits such as those
described by Confucius in order to distinguish the Viets from the Chinese in the
Teaching of Rites (Kinh Le) . They had the
wrinkled forehead , the divergent big toe
(Giao Chi) , short hair, and body tattooing.
The wrinkles on the forehead were cited as
proof that the Viets were a curious and
inquiring people, who took an interest in the
phenomena of nature as well as in fine
letters. They called their nation Van-Lang ,
the nation of « cultured people » . Their big
toes, so prominently separated from the
others, were said to denote an ability to cross
the muddy and slippery rice fields and to
climb the mountains with equal ease. They
practiced the short hair cut with a view to
better fighting, and tattooed their bodies in
order to achieve oneness with the big marine
snakes, the Giao Long.
During the long march south, the brachicephalic Vietnamese, « with a bright color
as of meal cakes » , probably came in from
the Yang-tze Kiang or Blue River, mixing
and amalgamating with the aboriginal elements of the Indochinese peninsula . The
latter, of Melano-Indonesian origin, mesocephalic or slightly dolichocephalic , are
characterized by their diminutive size , and
their dark complexion .
This ethnic mixing, through long centuries
of hybridization and common life , gave birth
to a relatively homogenous race. The Vietnamese have a medium height of one meter
50, to one meter 60 centimeters, and are
generally sustained by a strong musculature
which provides exceptional endurance.
Being of a peace-loving nature , the Vietnamese nevertheless know how to react
7
vigorously against adversities to defend their
freedom and right of living, for they were
constantly threatened during their long history by their powerful neighbors to the
north, and attacked several times by their
neighbors to the south.
works, and for their particular inlayings .
They devote much of their lifetime to the
decoration of their homes , and their artistic
concerns grow ever stronger with the embellishment of tombs and pagodas.
According to the viewpoint of foreigners ,
the Vietnamese are << industrious , prolific ,
artists, traditionalists and subtle in the art
of adaptation. » Like the Chinese, they are
a people of the delta and rice fields. They
worked hard and scrupulously, and thus
they succeeded in gradually conquering the
alluvial lands of the regional deltas. Their
exceptional effort as well as their prolific
nature prompted them to march south in
The Ethnic Minorities
line with a Trojanesque expansion, gathering into colonies made up of warrior plowmen.
The social order is primarily patriarchal.
Ownership of land usually belongs to family,
and only one-fourth of the cultivated areas
are community-owned . Since the land is
allotted to the sons within a family, the
communalization of land is a continual practice . The eldest son is generally given an
extra plot, to assure him of being able to
practice proper worship of the ancestors. The
fertile south offers larger estates due to its
lower population density.
The community is strongly organized . This
is evident from the picture of the country
itself, which illustrates the sparsity of isolated habitations, and the overcrowding of
areas surrounding the Town Halls, called
<< dinh » , which serve as theatres, auditoriums, banquet halls and temples of the local
deity. The Town Hall is normally identifiable
by its large, horned roof. The people's habitation is of a rectangular shape , made of cob
and thatch, and built on terrain secured
from floods, either on mounds along the
rivers, or at the foot of the hills. Especially
in the south, the habitations with roofs made
of palm prevail, but these have given way
increasingly to roofs made of tile or tin. Each
habitation has a room of honor, dedicated to
the worship of ancestors. Such a room is
provided with two files or tablets , which
represent the two parental lineages. The
garden is generally surrounded by a fence
of bamboo, or thorny cactus.
Diligent and intellectually lively, the Vietnamese normally show great respect for
learning ; and scholars are personalities to
be cited and admired . With a long artistic
tradition, the Vietnamese are remarkable for
their bronze, lacquer, wood and ceramic
8
Being a migratory platform, or, more accurately, a reception center for more or less
itinerant people, either from the mainland
or from the ocean, the Indochinese peninsula
has long been an ideal « reserve » for ethnic
minorities, whose mores, customs and roles
within the national community deserve examination.
There are many such groups, but this
study will be limited to the main divisions
among them, such as the Cham, the MalayoIndonesian and the Chinese.
The Cham. The last representatives of this
old race are found in the areas of Da Nang,
Phan Rang, and Phan Thiet, either near the
littoral regions, or in two other enclaves those of Tay Ninh and Chau Doc Provinces.
This group settled in the Hue region in the
Tenth Century and then gradually retreated
southward under pressure from the Vietnamese. The majority of them reached the
high plateaus, while the remainder became
absorbed, or interbred with the new arrivals.
Through mixing with the Malayo-Indonesian
elements, the ethnographic differences between the Vietnamese in the north and those
in the south became considerable, and continue to the present. Influenced by the cultures of India, and by the Khmers, their
neighbors, the Cham created a culture which
was quite brilliant, as is illustrated by
research in Mi Son and in the Tra Kieu area,
in the vicinity of Da Nang, and by the ruins
of the Poh Nagar Temple in Nha Trang.
This minority group now numbers some
thirty thousand people. Then men usually
wear a << sarong » , a kind of long skirt, while
the women dress in a white or blue tunic
with narrow sleeves , generally complemented
by a scarf.
The Cham of the south of Central Viet
Nam are ordinarily Brahminist (Kahpir) ,
while the groups living in Cambodia and in
other parts of South Vietnam are generally
Mussulman (Bani) and prefer to deal in
colored fabrics.
The Malayo-Indonesians. Montagnards of
Indonesian origin are called « Kha » by the
Laotians, and « Pnong » by the Cambodians.
They make their home in the Western high
plateaus. Their ethnic pattern is composite,
and is similar to that of the Cham, while
their languages bear a kinship to that of the
Khmers.
The stalwart Montagnards, who number
about 500,000 , have always resisted foreign
influence. In recent years, they have been
increasingly brought into the national life,
and are considered as Vietnamese citizens
<< out of the ordinary run . » Delta people call
them <<Compatriots of the Highlands » (Dong
bao Thuong) .
This roaming population, with restricted
wanderings , use the « ray » , or « slash and
burn » process to cultivate the hard rice
which is not transplanted. Included in this
overall grouping are the « Muong » of the
southern section of Central Vietnam , who
are specialists in the hunting of elephants.
Their villages are identified by elongated
houses, and a large meeting house which can
exceed 200 meters in length and may accomodate up to two hundred persons. Their
habitations are built on pilings, the gables
decorated with buffalo horns. They live
according to a system which is dominated by
matriarchy. The basic clothing for men is a
loin cloth, while the women wear a skirt plus
assorted jewelry and adornment. The main
tribes are the Rhade , the Jarai , the Banhar,
and the Sedang.
The Chinese are essentially a merchant
class. It is believed that they were in business
in the Mekong delta as long ago as the
reign of Angkor. They first settled in small
groups in this area, exporting the local
staple product, rice, and importing fabrics.
They grouped into small but highly organized
colonies in quest of new markets. It was the
Chinese who founded Saigon's twin city of
Cholon (The Great Market) in 1778. Frequently, the Chinese are found practicing
handicrafts in the cities.
Demographic data
Due to the warfare which has continued
for over two decades , reliable statistics are
simply unavailable at the present time. The
best estimates, however, indicate that the
Republic of Viet Nam had a population of
roughly 15,730,000 in 1965 .
The least populous province is Quang Duc ,
located in the central highlands, with less
than 34,000 people. There are nine provinces,
and two independent cities (Cam Ranh and
Vung Tau) whose populations are under
100,000.
In the fertile
delta
land , however, the
population density is considerably higher.
Almost 40 % of the people live in the
southern delta ; and the capital city of
Saigon has a population somewhere in the
neighborhood of two and one half million.
The Chinese. Expansion of the Vietnamese
toward the south was the result of another
pressure
that of the Chinese , who also
sought to make headway in that direction .
Notwithstanding, the majority of the Chinese
who are now settled throughout the peninsula came by sea from the mainland during
a secular emigration engendered by the
Included in the population of The Republic
of Viet Nam are some 1,000,000 refugees ,
who fled from the Communist regime in the
North in 1954. The successful resettling of
these people did not solve the refugee pro-
changing regimes on the mainland . They
now number some 730,000 persons, nearly all
of whom have adopted Vietnamese nationality. Less than 2,500 still retain their original
nationality.
blem, however. In the years 1964-1966 alone,
over one million Vietnamese became refugees
within their own country, forced into undesired mobility by the terrorism of the
Communist Viet Cong in the countryside.
9
A
GLIMPSE
OF
VIETNAM'S
The history of Viet Nam has evolved
through diverse fortunes, sometimes progressing, sometimes not , like that of other
nations. In seeking a historical constant , one
might say that Viet Nam, in its progressive
expansions southward , has always been conscious of pressure from her powerful neighbor
to the north, China.
The Quasi-Legendary Epoch
Like any other old nation in the world,
Viet Nam has her own legends concerning
the origins of the race in the dawn of time.
According to the National Annals, illustrious King Lac Long, of the Hong Bang
Dynasty and grandson of The God of the
Seas, married an immortal called Au Ço, a
descendant of the angels of the mountains.
From this union , one hundred boys were
hatched from one hundred eggs carried in
a pouch by Au Co ; and all the sons were
handsome and stalwart . Then, the King and
the fairy, conscious of the transitory nature
of human existence , and the elusiveness of
human happiness , decided to part. Au Co
went up to the mountains along with fifty
of her sons, and Lac Long went down to the
sea with the others. From this separation,
the kingdom of One Hundred Principalities
(Bach Viet) came into being, including a vast
zone adjacent to the Yang-tse-Kiang in the
North, the Champa in the south, the China
Sea in the east, and the Tseu Chouan in the
west.
Of these principalities, the most powerful
and best organized was the Lac Viet, or Van
Lang - literally, the « country of the lettered » - the area of which included present
day North Viet Nam, and the northern
part of Central Viet Nam. This Kingdom
supposedly endured from 2879 B.C. until
258 B.C., and had 18 kings. Thus, the 18 Hung
Vuong kings of the Hong Bang Dynasty
reigned for some 2622 years
which would
mean an average of 150 years each. So we
must assume that there must have been
many lesser kings whose names were forgotten long before the period of recorded
history.
10
HISTORY
Somewhere in the northern part of Viet
Nam , meanwhile, there was a Kingdom
known as Thuc ruled by the Thuc Dynasty.
King Thuc Vuong had asked the southern
King, Hung Vuong XVIII , for his daughter's
hand in marriage. When the Thuc King's
request was refused , he became enraged and
a feud developed between the two family
dynasties. One of King Thuc Vuong's nephews, Thuc Vuong Phan, profitted from the
the degeneracy and debachery of Hung
Vuong XVIII to invade and conquer the Van
Lang Kingdom in 257, B.C. , thus ending the
Hong Bang dynasty.
The combined kingdoms were then known
as Au Lac, and were ruled by Phan, who
assumed the name of An Duong Vuong.
King An Duong sought to protect his reign
by constructing a spiral-shaped citadel , which
was called Loa Thanh, or The City of Shell.
In this endeavor, the King was said to have
received the divine help of the Gold Turtle ,
who equipped the King with a supernatural
cross bow which made him invincible. This
weapon derived its magic from an attached
claw offered by the Gold Turtle himself. The
remaining ruins of The City of Shell still
exist in the village of Co Loa , in Phuc-An
province, North Viet Nam.
To the north, however, the powerful
Chinese King, Shih Hwang-ti, of the Ch'in
Dynasty, sent his General, Do Thu, on a
mission to conquer the lands to the south ;
and the Tan dynasty then divided into three
parts, the conquered lands, including the
Kingdom of Au Lac which King An Duong
Vuong had been forced to surrender.
One of these three regions came to be
governed by the Chinese general, Trieu Da.
Capitalizing on the decay of the Tan
dynasty, Trieu Da killed all the Chinese
who were still loyal to the Emperor, and
expanded the territories under his control.
Trieu Da, who had by this time adopted the
customs of the Viets, married his son Trong
Thuy to the princess My Chau , daughter of
King An Duong. In the year 208, the fiftieth
year of An Duong Vuong's reign, the princess
connived in a plot with her husband , so the
story goes, and the pair managed to make
off with the magic crossbow which had heretofore made her father, King An Duong
Vuong, invincible. Thus it was that Trieu Da
was able to benefit by his son's marriage to
conquer and annex the Kingdom of Au
Lac. Unfortunately, his daughter-in-law, the
princess, was beheaded by her father , who
drowned himself in the sea before the invaders could reach his citadel.
Trieu Da reigned as absolute monarch
under the royal name of Trieu Vu Vuong,
and his new, enlarged kingdom was renamed
Nam Viet. This dynasty lasted for 70 years,
from 208 B.C. until the beginning of the
Chinese domination.
During the years of the Trieu Dynasty,
Nam Viet had come gradually into the sphere
of Chinese influence. In return for payment
of tribute to the Court of the Han Emperor,
the kingdom of Nam Viet received protection from and exchanged envoys with, the
Chinese. Prince Anh Te , heir-apparent to the
Nam Viet throne, was sent in his father's
stead to pay the tribute demanded by the
Chinese. When Anh Te returned in 125 B.C.
to succeed his deceased father as king, he
brought his Chinese concubine with him and
named her as his Queen. Anh Te , who ruled
under the name of Trieu Minh Vuong , died
after a rule of twelve years, and was succeeded by his young son.
The Chinese, desiring more complete control, sent an envoy to win over the young
king. The Chinese Queen Mother, who had
been this envoy's lover before she was taken
as Prince Anh Te's concubine , conspired
with the envoy to bring her son, the child
king, to the side of the Chinese. Just in time,
the plot was uncovered , and the top mandarin of the Nam Viet Court exposed the
plan and denounced the betrayal. The other
Court officials rushed in to help , killing the
the plotters and the young king, and proclaiming the eldest son of Trieu Minh Vuong
(Anh Te) as king, since this son was born of
a Vietnamese woman.
These developments, of course, did not
please the Chinese. Less than a year later,
in 111 B.C. , the Chinese King, Vu De , sent
two generals and five regiments to invade
the territory of Nam Viet. The mandarins ,
powerless against such a force , were captured along with the new king, and all were
killed.
Thus began the era of Chinese domination ,
which lasted for some ten centuries with
only brief interruptions.
The Period of Chinese Domination
After the overthrow of the Trieu in 111
B.C. , Nam Viet was made a Chinese province
and was known as Giao Chi.
Two of the Imperial Commissioners who
were sent to govern Giao Chi were wellloved by the governed peoples. Tich Quang,
who arrived in 2 or 3 A.D. , devoted himself
to bringing civilization and teaching morality, and thus won the respect of the
people. Nhan Dien, who came to govern in
about 29 A.D. , became famous as a generous
man, who taught the art of cultivation to the
people, who had previously lived by hunting
and fishing.
Nhan Dien's successor, To Dinh arrived in
34 A.D. , and was a harsh and cruel governor.
In the year 40, he executed Thi Sach, one
of his subjects, thus provoking the revolt led
by Thi Sach's wife , Trung Trac, and her
sister, Trung Nhi. The two sisters raised an
army to fight against To Dinh, and they were
soon joined by volunteers from other districts. The sisters declared themselves the
Queens of the restored territory, but their
reign was short-lived . The next year, China
sent her finest generals and troops to reclaim
the territory, and the sisters were defeated
in the year 43. Cornered by the pursuing
Chinese troops, the two famous heroines
committed suicide by jumping into the Hat
River, at the point where the Day and Red
Rivers meet.
Following the defeat of the Trung sisters ,
the second period of Chinese domination
lasted from the year 44 until 543, and the
country was administered as a Chinese
province.
The period of the second Chinese domination is sometimes known as the « period of
the Chinese civilizing governors. » In the
course of these five centuries plus one year,
life in the province of Giao Chi , as it was
then known (later, it was called Giao Chau) ,
was completely patterned after the Chinese
model.
It was also in this period that the nucleus
of the future Champa kingdom, called Len
Yi, was formed ; and the period was characterized by Chinese campaigns against the
Champa.
A cruel Imperial Commissioner again
provided the cause for revolt against the
Chinese. A scholarly man of Chinese origin ,
Ly Bon, raised an army and defeated the
Chinese in 541. After crushing a subsequent
11
Chinese raid in 543, Ly Bon proclaimed
himself king in 544, and renamed the territory Van Xuan. In 545 , however, the Chinese
reestablished their rule.
The following years were marked by a
see-saw battle between the Chinese and the
Viets periods of Chinese domination alternated with insurrections which permitted
the founding of several short-lived Vietnamese dynasties, including the early Ly, the
later Trieu , and the later Ly. This confused
and chaotic period ended in 602 with the
consolidation of power in China under the
Tuy Dynasty. The last Ly king, Ly Phat Tu,
was forced to acquiesce to Chinese demands
and yield up the country to a third period
of Chinese domination.
The third period of Chinese domination,
which lasted from 603 until 938, was characterized by even more intense efforts to
implant the Chinese civilization . During this
period, the country was divided and renamed
An Nam Do Ho Phu (Protectorate of An
Nam ) and Tran Nam Do Ho Phu (Protectorate of Tran Nam) .
Under the Chinese Tang Dynasties (618690 and 923-936) , the country was ruled
through the Kao P'ing government (Cao
Bien) , which founded the Dai La citadel and
initiated a strong administrative structure.
However, the period was marked by several
insurrections. In general, the Chinese domination was the long night of Viet Nam's
history - a night ten centuries long, during
which Chinese civilization became deeply
rooted in the country.
The Great National Dynasties
The long Chinese domination was brought
to an end in the Tenth Century. In the battle
of Bach Dang, which has become famous in
Vietnamese history, Ngo Quyen led the
troops which routed the Chinese invaders
from the country and subsequently founded
the first national dynasty in 939. For ten
centuries in succession, eight dynasties took
turns in reigning over the Vietnamese dominion, all continually devoted to the task of
building and expanding the kingdom .
The Ngo Dynasty , 939-967 , established the
first capital of the country at Co Loa, on the
ancient site of the City of Shell. Upon the
death of Ngo Quyen in 967, the kingdom fell
into chaos, and was partitioned into twelve
fiefs , thus beginning the era of the « Twelve
Su Quan » , or the « Twelve Feudal lords. >>
12
From this anarchic era, the first independent Viet Nam emerged . Faced once
more with the threat of a powerful China,
the protegé of one of the twelve lords, Dinh
Bo Linh, was able to reunify the country.
Under the name of Dien Hoang De, he
founded the Dinh Dynasty, 968-980 , and called his kingdom Dai Co Viet. By means of
an agreement with China, Dinh Bo Linh was
able to obtain the acceptance of the country's
independence in return for a triennial payment of tribute. This arrangement with
China continued until the 19th Century and
the advent of French colonization.
In 980, Dinh was assassinated by a mad
visionary, and was succeeded by his sixyear old son. A general of the Le family
managed to gain control, however, by killing
all of his opponents in the Court, and entering into illicit relations with the Queen
Mother. In the meantime, the Chinese Emperor sought to profit from the wakness of
the young King by sending an army to annex
Dai Co Viet. In this crisis the general Le
Hoan dispossessed the child of Dinh , and
proclaimed himself King.
This so-called Early Le Dynasty lasted
from 980 to 1009. Le Hanh repulsed the
Chinese, but offered to continue the payment
of tribute in order to maintain friendly relations with China. The first Le king died in
1005, and after seven months of fighting
among the princes, the king's third son
assumed the throne. This son had ruled for
only three days when he was assassinated
by his younger brother, whose reign of torture and terror lasted for four years. The last
Le king died in 1009, thus ending the Early
Le Dynasty which had been marked by a
series of battles against China in the North ,
and against the Champa in the South.
The Early Le Dynasty was followed by
the Great Ly Dynasty, 1010-1225 , which
numbered nine kings. The first Ly king was
Ly Cong Uan, whose early history is obscure
According to legend, his mother conceived
him by a genie while on her way to the
pagoda . When he was three, she gave him
to a Buddhist monk of the pagoda, who
adopted him. After the death of the last Le
king, several high officials of the Court
joined in a plot with a number of Buddhist
monks to bring Ly Cong Uan to the throne,
thus establishing the Ly Dynasty.
While still a prince , the last Ly king had
been forced into exile, during which time
he married the pretty daughter of a rich
fisherman named Tran, who provided lodg-
ing for the exiled prince . When the prince
managed to return to power and became
king, he made his wife the official Queen.
The Queen, however, used her new influence
to increase the power of her own family,
which soon grew to be an independent military power, and , in effect , ruled the country .
Weak, and becoming insane , the king became
a bonze after ruling for fourteen years, and
abdicated his throne in favor of his little
seven year old daughter . The real power was
held by the Queen mother , however, and by
her cousin, Tran Thu Do, who was the
highest ranking member of the powerful
Tran family at that time. Thus, Tran Thu
Do managed to marry the little Queen to his
eight year old nephew. The young Queen
then abdicated in favor of her eight year
old husband, thus ending the Ly Dynasty.
After Tran Thu Do managed to make his
nephew the king, he proceded to secure the
rule of the Tran by murdering the members
of the Ly royal family, and compelling all
Vietnamese who bore the family name of Ly
to change their names to Nguyen. The Tran
Dynasty, which was thus established in 1225 ,
endured until 1400. The efforts to unify and
organize the country continued during this
period. Buddhism retained its former privileged position, although it was considerably
altered in this period through contacts with
other beliefs and customs. In particular, the
influence of Confucianism expanded greatly
during the rule of the Tran. The examination
system for the recruitment of officials, which
was introduced during the first period of
Chinese domination, was revived . Also , the
custom of joint rule by the king and the
heir-apparent was begun during the Tran
Dynasty in order to prevent a recurrence of
the bloody feuds which had frequently arisen
over earlier succession disputes.
Externally, this dynasty was marked by
conflicts with the Mongol Dynasty in China,
and with the Champa Kingdom in the South.
The Mongols, under Kublai Khan, had defeated the Tong Dynasty in China and
established the Nguyen Dynasty in its place.
Seeking to attack the Champa, they demanded the right to cross the Vietnamese
territory. When the Vietnamese refused , the
Mongols attacked the vastly outnumbered
Vietnamese. The great Mongol army, numbering some 500,000 men, was repulsed by
the whole-hearted efforts of the Vietnamese,
led by the king's brother, Tran Hung Dao,
who is considered one of Viet Nam's great
military heroes. Without pausing to recuper-
ate from the ravages of the battles with the
Mongols, the Tran turned southward. The
Tran king married his sister to the King of
Champa in 1307 in order to extend the Tran
territory. But the Champa king died the next
year, and a series of wars with the Champa
ensued .
The Tran Dynasty, which had begun with
ambitious educational , agricultural and dikebuilding programs, was by now paying for
its policy of over-extension and continual
warfare. The rice paddies , long neglected in
wartime, were no longer able to produce
sufficient food, and the peasants were suffering acutely under the increasing burdens of
war, famine and insecurity . The new Chinese
dynasty of the Ming to the North was also
a potential danger for the declining power
of the Tran.
As the Tran Dynasty continued to decline ,
another leader emerged to assume increasing authority and influence. This man was
Le Qui Ly, a minister to the Court. Le Qui
Ly was a descendant of the Chinese family
of Ho ; but the name had been changed
when one of Le Qui Ly's ancestors was
adopted into a Vietnamese family by the
name of Le.
Through the marriage of his aunt to the
King, Le Qui Ly was able to further consolidate his position , until he had gained effective control over the ever-weakening Tran
kingdom . While the Tran were still the
nominal rulers of the country , Le Qui Ly
began to implement his own policies of
fiscal, educational and administrative reforms. All the coins in the realm were called
in, a paper currency issued , and restrictions
were placed on the amount of land which
one family could own. In the administrative
field, Le Qui Ly altered the Confucian system
of competitive exams, and appointed his
loyal followers to office in order to increase
his power .
When the Tran king abdicated in favor
of his three year old son, Le Qui Ly had
the former king hanged , and assumed the
regency himself.
The practice of enthroning heirs beforce
the king's death, which had been adopted
by the Tran in order to assure a smooth
succession, created a duality of influence
which ultimately caused the downfall of the
dynasty. The last Tran king, however, was
the son of Le Qui Ly's own daughter ; so ,
rather than killing his grandson, Ly simply
dethroned him.
13
Having usurped the throne in 1400, Ly
reverted to using his ancestral family name
of Ho, and established the Ho Dynasty. After
changing his own name , he changed the
name of the country from An Nam to Dai
Ngu. After a reign of only one year, Ly
followed the custom of the Tran and abdicated in favor of his son, although Ly
continued to exercise power himself and
energetically advanced his programs of reform. The army was reorganized and enlarged ; and Ly is credited with the invention
of a kind of galley for the use of his fleet.
Taxes were revised, and the ports were
opened to trading vessels, which were also
subject to taxation . The examination system
was again modified to require more practical
knowledge of peasant life, mathematics, and
current events, in addition to the Confucian
classics which had previously been required.
Legal reforms were begun, and a medical
service was established .
Externally, however, the Ho Dynasty was
encountering difficulties in its relations with
the Champa , and with the Chinese Ming
Dynasty. Before Ly's far-sighted policy could
take root, the Ming invaded. Ly's son had
been granted recognition as King by the
Chinese, who were deceived by the lie that
there were no remaining descendents of the
Tran. The Chinese quickly discovered the
ruse, and immediately established liaison
with those who were still loyal to the Tran.
The Chinese promised to restore the Tran
Dynasty, and the loyalists were soon joined
by large numbers of aristocrats, whose
interests were being threatened by Ly's
reforms.
The Chinese invaded in 1406 with 5,000
men, along with a son of the last Tran king.
The Chinese were defeated and the Tran
king's son beheaded ; however, the Chinese
used this as an excuse to launch a larger
invasion on the pretext of restoring the
rightful Dynasty of the Tran. It is said that
the Ho forces did not fight enthusiastically,
because the people felt that the Ho Dynasty
had usurped power from the Tran unfairly.
Furthermore, the expense of continual warfare against the Champa, and the taxation
levied on holders of public lands had undermined the people's support for the Ho
regime ; and the limitation of land holdings.
which Ly had instituted in order to further
increase the power of the state made the
regime as unpopular with the rich as it was.
with the poor .
Realizing this, the Chinese marked bits of
wood with messages proclaiming their inten-
14
tion to restore the Tran, and threw these
weapons of psychological warfare into the
river. Carried by the current, the Chinese
message was widely distributed , and served
to increase the dissention of the people. The
next year, the Ho were defeated , and the
Dynasty ended in 1407, having lasted for
only seven years.
As the Chinese moved in, they sought to
reestablish their former protectorate of Giao
Chi. The Chinese victory, however, was
premised on the assumption that the Tran
Dynasty would be restored ; and it was for
this reason alone that the Chinese had been
supported by the Tran royal family, and by
those members of the ruling class who expected their privileges to be restored with
the return of the Tran. When the Chinese
claimed their right to reestablish a protectorate on the grounds that no descendant of
the Tran existed , they immediately found
themselves confronted with a dangerous
movement of popular dissidence . Having
resorted to foreign assistance and gambled
their nation's independence in order to regain
their personal interests, the Tran learned a
bitter lesson about treachery.
An attempt to wrest back power from the
Chinese was made by a prince of the Tran
family, who raised an army and rallied the
people for a time , proclaiming himself Emperor Gian Dinh in 1407. In 1408 , Gian Dinh
won a spectacular victory over a far superior
force of Chinese. But his success was short
lived . Gian Dinh beheaded two generals who
had objected to his over-enthusiastic zeal in
desiring to launch another attack without
waiting for reinforcements. This act resulted
in a considerable loss of support for Gian
Dinh. Although the resistance was kept up
for several more years, it was eventually
washed away in blood , and the country was
again placed under direct Chinese administration.
Under the Ming domination , the people
were subjected to the worst exploitation and
suffering of their entire history. The Chinese
attempted, at the same time, to denationalize
the local population. The great literary and
historical works were removed to China, and
Chinese classics were substituted for instruction in the schools . Vietnamese women forced
to wear the Chinese fashion of vest and
pantalons , and men had to wear their hair
long, in the Chinese style. In fact, all the old
customs -- even the chewing of betel were forbidden , and local religious rites were
replaced by Chinese.
Forced labor was used to extract all
manner of riches from the earth and sea for
shipment to China. In addition , the Chinse,
as well as those local officials who cooperated
with them, profitted by levying exorbitant
taxes on everything from salt to silk-worm
cocoons.
The oppressed people, determined to end
the harsh Chinese rule, found a leader in a
man named Le Loi. Le Loi came from a
famous and wealthy family of aristocratic
landowners, and was known for his courage,
honesty and generosity. In 1418, Le Loi
organized a resistance in his own village of
Lam Son, in Thanh Hoa Province. Styling
himself as the « Prince of Pacification, » Le
Loi launched a guerrilla war against the
Chinese which was to last for over ten years.
Three times , Le Loi was forced to return
to the mountains , which were his « safe rear
base. » Once, when cornered, Le Loi was
saved only because one of his lieutenants
sacrificed his own life by making the Ming
believe he was Le Loi. After killing the
lieutenant, the Ming withdrew, only to be
attacked again by the true Le Loi. By following Tran Hung Dao's guerrilla tactic of
attacking the weakest targets, and withdrawing before a stronger force, Le Loi's
resistance forces gradually eroded the power
of the Chinese. Le Loi pioneered another
precept of guerrilla warfare as well : his
forces maintened the strictest discipline , even
when they were starving, and were absolutely forbidden to plunder the villages they
occupied. Thus, Le Loi was able to win the
support of the population, while the Chinese
found themselves in hostile territory.
Le Loi was not lacking in the skills of
psychological warfare, either. Nguyen Trai,
a scholar and patriot, sought out the new
leader. With his clever propaganda and stirring writings, he contributed greatly to making Le Loi something of a legendary hero in
his own time.
The population was by this time in a state
of general rebellion, and revolts broke out
throughout the North in support of Le Loi .
Le Loi thus had time to consolidate his forces
while the Chinese were occupied with quelling these rebellions ; and the subsequent
campaigns against the Chinese were successful. Finally, using the policy of employing
ruse when confronted with superior strength ,
Le Loi organized a mock defeat to fool the
Chinese reinforcements. Lured into the trap ,
the Chinese general was ambushed and
beheaded, and the rest of his army was
defeated in later battles of the same year,
1427.
According
ing Chinese
But in order
pressure to
to the peace terms, the remaintroops were evacuated in 1428.
to save face, the Chinese exerted
have some descendant of the
Tran Dynasty put on the throne, since restoration of the Tran had been the pretext for
the Chinese invasion. During the negotiations,
Le Loi attended to the formality of reestablishing the Tran Dynasty ; and Tran Cao
was chosen to act as nominal ruler. King
Tran Cao was well aware that he was to be
a puppet, however, and that he would be
dishonored by not being permitted to exercise
the authority due a king. Therefore , King
Tran Cao attempted to flee . Pursued, captured and returned , King Tran Cao was
made to drink poison, whereupon he died.
Le Loi then became king under the name
of Le Thai To. The Le Dynasty was thereby
founded in 1428, and the name of the country
was changed from An Nam to Dai Viet, or
the « Great Viet. »
It was during this period that Christianity
was first introduced to the country. The
romanized << Quoc Ngu » script was developed
by the Jesuit missionary, Alexandre de
Rhodes ; and this form of writing later
supplanted the then-current Chinese-type
<< Nom » characters.
In the peace accord , it was agreed that the
custom of paying a triennial tribute to China
would be retained, but in practice the Le
ruled independently. Immediately, Le Thai
To (Le Loi) devoted himself to the task of
reconstructing the war-devastated country.
The army was cut from 250,000 to 100,000
men, and a rotational system was established
to allow four-fifths of the men at a time to
return to their fields, thus alieviating the
serious problem of food shortages. The judicial system and penal code were reorganized
to promote the national austerity campaign
designed to overcome the conditions of social
and economic chaos resulting from the war.
To develop a corps of able administrators ,
the College of National Sons was founded ,
which admitted students on the basis of
merit, thus permitting gifted children from
poor families to receive advanced training.
Le Thai To died in 1433 at the age of 49,
and was succeeded by his eleven year old
son, Le Thai Tong. Quickly disposing of his
Regent, Le Thai Tong governed ably despite
the hardship of several natural disasters
15
which led to poor harvests. On a visit to
Nguyen Trai, the scholar and former propagandist for Le Loi , the young king was
overwhelmed by the writer's beautiful concubine, and took her with him. Shortly thereafter, the king died of poisoning, and was
succeeded by his two year old son, Le Nhan
Tong. The writer, Nguyen Trai, was suspected of having poisoned the king in revenge
for the loss of his concubine . Nguyen Trai
and three generations of his family were
killed.
The Queen Mother acted as Regent for the
child king, and under her rule new regulations for private ricelands were issued, a
large canal was dug, and a successful campaign against the Champa was waged.
But the intrigues of the royal Court prevented the national development which had
seemed assured with the removal of Chinese
domination. The Queen Mother and the child
King, Le Nhan Tong, were murdered by Le
Nhan Tong’s elder brother , Nghi Dan, who
had formerly been the heir-apparent. But
although he was the son of the Queen, Nghi
Dan was not the son of the King, and when
this became known, Nghi Dan was replaced
as heir-apparent by Le Nhan Tong. Nghi Dan
ruled for eight months after usurping the
throne when he was killed by officials of the
Court, who established the number four son
as king .
The new king, Le Thanh Tong, reigned for
thirty-six years, during which the country
enjoyed an outstanding period of prosperity.
While revising the tax system and promoting agriculture , Le Thanh Tong was primarily
concerned with customs and morals. He
ordered the people to cease spending large
sums of money on building pagodas and
carrying out the marriage and death rites,
and to spend their money in more useful
ways.
cessity of being generous, honest, industrious,
virtuous, and thrifty.
The reorganized military forces were also
placed under strict discipline. A successful
campaign against the Champa in 1471 provided relief for the problems of insufficient
availability of land and increased population
pressure, paving the way for the southern
migrations. Often, this expansion was accomplished by the soldier-farmers who set up
militarized agricultural communities. The
security of their rice fields thus assured , the
Vietnamese established their culture as they
moved south, and the Champa were gradually assimilated .
Le Thanh Tong died in 1497, and was
followed by two competent but short-lived
kings . The next king, Le Uy Muc, had apparently not studied the moral teachings of his
grandfather, Le Thanh Tong. Muc began by
murdering his grandmother and two of his
ministers , and continued to reign with extravagent cruelty for five years.
Overthrown by his cousin, Muc died either by suicide or murder, it is not clear
which. Revolts were widespread , and the
equally corrupt cousin fared no better than
his predecessor. A court official raised an
army, claiming he was going off to repress
the revolts ; but instead, he used the army
to invade the palace and kill the king. The
king's son was installed as the new ruler,
but had reigned for only three days when
he, too, was murdered - this time by the
brother of the official who had led the revolt.
The next king, suspicious of the feuding
officials, placed his trust in a fisherman by
the name of Mac Dang Dung, who had
fought his way up to the Court. As was the
case with Ho Qui Ly 130 years before , Mac
Dang Dung was able to exploit the weakness
of the decaying dynasty to increase his own
A great author and poet himself, Le Thanh
Tong commissioned the writing of a national
history, and was an enthusiastic promoter of
education. The king also considered it his
responsibility to concern himself with the
morality of the people. To this end , he
power. The worried king resorted to plotting
the overthrow of his « advisor », and fled the
ordered that twenty-four articles governing
personal conduct be read before each public
gathering. For the most part, these rules
dealt with duties of family members toward
one another, prohibitions against letting
young girls and boys associate with each
other, the requirement for wives to be kind
to their husband's concubines, and the ne-
turing the king, whom he later killed . Three
years later, in 1527 , Mac Dang Dung established the Mac Dynasty, forcing the Le
officials to recognize it, and murdering the
royal family and all of the officials who
remained loyal to the Le . Many mandarins
committed suicide , but many others joined in
the organization of a resistance movement.
16
palace by night in order to seek the help of
one of his generals. While the general was
making up his mind, however, Mac Dang
Dung attacked, killing the general and cap-
The Le loyalists appealed to the Chinese
to restore the Le Dynasty. China prepared
for an invasion, while at the same time
demanding that Mac Dang Dung offer his
submission. Mac Dang Dung rushed forth to
meet the Chinese - with gifts. Dung and his
entourage, moreover, had tied themselves
with ropes as a gesture of subservience.
The Chinese were favorably impressed , and
agreed to the continuation of the Mac Dynasty - for a price.
The Le did not give up easily, however ,
and the resistance forces regrouped under
the leadership of Nguyen Kim, son of a
former Le general. Further support was enlisted for the cause when Nguyen Kim
married his daughter to another general by
the name of Trinh Kiem. Having proclaimed
a Le descendant as Emperor , the two generals
sallied forth to battle the Mac, and after a
series of victories, the Western capital was
retaken in 1543. But two years later, Nguyen
Kim was murdered by a Mac officer, who
surrendered himself to the enemy in order
to poison their leader at the first opportunity.
The Le's military power then passed into
the hands of Kim's son-in-law, Trinh Kiem.
Trinh Kiem withdrew to Thanh Hoa, at the
edge of the Red River delta, and established
the Southern Court in the name of the Le.
With the Mac still in control of the Northern
Court, the country was divided into rival and
warring states by 1545.
By this time , the power of the Southern
Court was completely in the hands of the
Trinh, although the Le remained the nominal
rulers for reasons of expediency. Nguyen
Kim, the late founder of the revolution
which had brought the Trinh to power, had
two sons. Wary of the possible power of
these two , Trinh Kiem killed one of them in
a move designed to assure his own authority.
The remaining son, Nguyen Hoang, fearing
the same fate, pretended insanity for a while.
Then, in 1588, he obtained permission from
the Trinh to leave the North, and was later
(1566) made Governor of the troublesome
southern provinces of Thanh Hoa and Quang
Nam .
When Trinh Kiem died in 1570 , the military command of the Southern Court was
assumed by his elder son, the inept and
debauched Trinh Coi. Trinh Coi's younger
brother, Trinh Tung, wasted no time in
plotting to overthrow his brother ; and the
Mac took advantage of this squabble to
launch another attack. Trinh Coi surrendered
to the Mac, which allowed the military
power of the Southern Court to fall into the
hands of his brother, Trinh Tung. Trinh
Tung then had the Le king killed , and enthroned another Le who was more to his
liking ; after which, Trinh Tung returned to
the business of the war with the Mac.
The wars between the two continued indecisively until the Northern Emperor, Mac
Mau Hop , was captured by the Trinh and
beheaded after three days of public torture.
The Mac Dynasty is usually reckoned as
having ended with Mac Mau Hop's death in
1592, after lasting for 65 years, although the
Mac retained control of a small area, the
province of Cao Bang, in the Northern
frontier region .
Benefitting from China's earlier recognition
of the Mac Dynasty which was still in force,
the Macs continued to enjoy a kind of privileged position under the Ming, and , after
1644, the Manchu Dynasty in China. When
the Mac supported a disloyal governor in
southeast China, however, the Manchu Emperor withdrew his protection, and in 1667 ,
the country was finally reunited with the
agreement of China's new Thanh Dynasty.
After the death of Mac Mau Hop in 1592 ,
the remaining son of Nguyen Kim , Nguyen
Hoang, had left his southern refuge to aid
the Trinh in the struggle against the Mac
remnants , despite the mistrust which had
arisen between the Nguyen and the Trinh.
But, when revolts broke out against the
Trinh in 1600 , Nguyen Hoang returned to his
southern residence . The North continued to
be torn by wars and intrigues under the
tyrannical rule of the Trinh ; and an abortive plot by the Le king and one of Trinh
Tung's sons against the Trinh ended in Trinh
Tung's killing his disloyal son as well as
the Le king. Power then passed to Trinh
Tung's eldest son, who ruled on behalf of
the figurehead Le king who was subsequently
installed.
Meanwhile, the South prospered under the
increasingly independent rule of Nguyen
Hoang, who enjoyed the support of the militarized agricultural colonies which had been
settled in the southern region.
When Nguyen Hoang died in 1613 , his son,
Nguyen Phuc Nguyen , assumed control and
ruled with absolute authority under the
name of Lord Sai. Thus, the country was
again divided , and the Nguyen family
became masters of the country to the South
of the Song Giang River, which is located
slightly above the 17th Parallel that defines
17
the present division of Viet Nam. Both the
Nguyen and the Trinh, however, claimed
allegiance to the Le Dynasty.
the Vietnamese expansion, and the new lands
provided a solution to the Nguyen's problems
of population pressure.
The Trinh tried unsuccessfully to dislodge
the Nguyen in 1620, after which the Nguyen
ceased paying taxes to Hanoi's Trinh rulers.
When the Nguyen twice disobeyed the
Trinh's summons to come and explain this
action, war broke out. Between 1627 and
1672, the Trinh sent seven expeditions against
the Nguyen. But the Nguyen had built two
great walls across the narrow central corridor, thus defending themselves against invasions from the North's superior forces, which
were being aided by the Dutch. Portuguese
aid, however, made the Nguyen stronger in
armaments ; and the failure of all seven
campaigns left the North considerably weakened. In 1672, the Trinh finally agreed to a
division of the two territories at the boundary
of the Linh River. After fifty years of civil
war, the Trinh and the Nguyen settled down
to a period of peaceful coexistence, which
lasted for slightly more than 100 years.
The South readily absorbed , too, the influx
of refugees who left the insecurity and
tyranny of the Trinh in the North, as well as
numerous Chinese immigrants. The Chinese
were especially active in trading, and by 1700,
commercial trading was well-established' and
flourishing.
During this time, the Trinh reorganized
their administration to promote honesty and
efficiency, requiring all officials to take
periodic examinations and weeding out incompetents. Unhappily, this well-intentioned
program ended when money was needed to
quell revolts, and the practice of selling
administrative posts was instituted.
The penal code , too, was altered by the
Trinh, and the punishments of bodily mutilation were abolished. In the past, a thief
was sometimes punished by cutting off a
finger or two , or - in the case of more
by chopping off one or
serious offenses
both hands.
A more uniform taxation system was devised, and minted coins were used as the
standard currency in the northern kingdom.
The cruel reign of Trinh Giang (1729-1740) ,
however, resulted in the outbreak of more
riots and revolts, thus preventing the continuation of earlier progressive policies .
In the South, meanwhile, the administration was also reorganized , and officials were
grouped according to functional categories .
Taxes were determined according to the
quality of the land as well as quantity.
The greatest significance of this period ,
however, is that it marked the opening up
and settlement of the vast rich lands of the
Mekong River delta. The Cambodian population in the area provided little resistance to
18
With the system of a highly centralized
government, however, local autonomy was
extremely strong ; and this pattern was reinforced by the relative isolation of independent local economies . Thus , the enormous
expansion of territory was not matched by
the economy, which remained static , and
village-oriented . Despite these conditions ,
though, the Vietnamese managed to survive
as a single people. Their unity of customs
and traditions was preserved intact by the
stability of the village system , and the
peasants' way of life , which was the same
in all regions.
Laws for the protection of the peasants
were ineffective both in the North and in
the South, and the lot of the peasant grew
progressively worse. Rebellions erupted with
increasing frequency ; but more importantly,
the insurrections were coming to be dominated by peasant elements, rather than by
aristocratic political dissidents. As contacts
with the West increased , moreover, the justemerging forces of popular revolution in
the West added impetus to the Vietnamese
movement which was already underway.
The Tay Son brothers came up from the
masses, and profitted by the occasion of
internal disorders to raise the colors of liberation. They routed both the lords of the
Nguyen and Trinh by 1777, and put the last
sovereign of the Le line to flight. One of
the brothers , Nguyen Hue , became Emperor
under the title of Quang Trung, and thanks
to him, the national unity as finally restored
for a brief time. Unfortunately, he died in
1792 without being able to assure the continuation of his dynasty .
Meanwhile, in the South, Nguyen Anh
the successor of the Nguyen lords - resumed
the attack against the Tay Son , who became
weaker and weaker. Nguyen Anh succeded
in reunifying the country in 1801 , after a
27 year struggle. In this endeavor, Nguyen
Anh enlisted the support of the French missionary, Monseigneur Pigneau de Behaine,
the Bishop of Adran. The Bishop negotiated
a treaty with France , which would have
brought French military aid to Nguyen
Anh in exchange for certain territorial and
trading rights. The promise of aid was
withdrawn later, but the Bishop of Adran
proceeded on his own to raise troops and
money. With the help of these recruits.
Nguyen Anh's army was trained in the use
of Western military techniques. The Bishop
died in 1799 and Nguyen Anh continued his
campaign without the advice of his trusted
and loyal friend .
In 1802 , Nguyen Anh completed his military victory over the Tay Son with the
seizure of Hanoi , and proclaimed himself
Emperor, assuming the royal name of Gia
Dinh. The country was then known as Viet
Nam .
The Nguyen Dynasty, founded by Gia
Dinh, embarked on a massive reconstruction
program. For a time, things went very well,
since Europe was then preoccupied with the
Napoleonic wars, and Gia Long concluded
that a policy of non-involvement with the
West was not only desirable , but practicable.
Gia Long was succeeded by his son, Minh
Mang, who was known to be hostile to
Western influence , on the grounds that it
undermined the traditional Confucian social
order. External conditions , however, had
changed, and the ultimate confrontation with
the West was unavoidable.
The French Colonization.
Hostility against the West increased.
The Nguyen emperors issued stronger and
stronger edicts against the incursion of foreigners , and especially against Christian
missionaries ; but all of these injunctions
went unheeded . Any actions taken to enforce
the edicts served only to incite the West.
French admirals attempted to interfere in
the policy of the Nguyen governments and
subsequent invasions and military operations
finally led to the signing of two treaties, in
1862 and 1874, which made Viet Nam part
of the French Empire. The kingdom of the
late Emperor Gia Long thus became part of
a geographical entity called French Indochina, which included two other nations .
Cambodia and Laos.
Due to the methods of French administration , Viet Nam was partitioned into three
regions Tonkin in the North, Annam in the
Center, and Cochinchina in the South. While
the latter was administered directly, the
others , Tonkin and Annam became French
protectorates with a kind of autonomy under
an emperor of Nguyen descent, whose power
was mainly symbolic.
The introduction of Western civilization
and the demands of the French colonial
economy did indeed undermine the traditional order, as Minh Mang had predicted it
would. The class structure and the educational systems were drastically altered . The
upheaval and instability created by the
attempts to transform a traditional society,
coupled with the resentment and hostility
which resulted from the loss of sovereignty
provoked a continuing resistance to the
French rule. Opposition took every possible
form , ranging from poetic satires and formal
petitions to armed revolt. But as in centuries
past, ordinary Vietnamese citizens were excluded from participation in government
above the village level. At times, hopes of
reform were encouraged by changes in the
French government itself, or by the appointment of a more liberal Governor-General.
Before any of the reforms were implemented,
however, World War II intervened to change
the course of events .
The Recovery of National Independence.
After the fall of France in 1940, the Vichy
government retained authority in Indochina
until the occupying Japanese assumed power
in March, 1945. One month later, the Emperor
Bao Dai proclaimed the independence of Viet
Nam under Japanese protection , and formed
a national government with the patriot and
scholar, Tran Trong Kim as Premier. Thereafter, a series of governments succeeded
and sometimes competed with - each other.
At the end of the war, French troops were
landed to reoccupy their former colony, and
immediately encountered the fierce resistance of Vietnamese nationalists, determined
to protect their newly-won independence.
Periodic attempts to negotiate a settlement
were made during the nearly ten years of
fighting which ensued . In France, the war
became increasingly unpopular, while the
Vietnamese were united in the common
cause of national independence . Finally, the
Geneva Agreement of July 21 , 1954 was
signed, granting Viet Nam its long sought
independence. The joy of Viet Nam was
marred, however. Since the Communists had
gained control of the nationalist forces in
the North, the country was divided into two
parts. The Communists were allowed to rule
in the North (Democratic Republic of Viet
Nam) , separated by the demarcation line of
19
the Seventeenth Parallel from the free regime in the South (Republic of Viet Nam) .
From 1954 until
ruled by President
torial regime was
national stability
the initial period
1963, South Viet Nam was
Ngo Dinh Diem . His dictaeffective in achieving the
essential for coping with
of crisis ; but with the
Republic. Since then, several civilian and
military governments have taken turns in
office in Saigon, with varying success, prior
to the formation of a National Directory on
June 19, 1964. This latter groups the main
military leaders of the Armed Forces of the
Republic, and has installed a War Cabinet
to effectively direct the struggle against the
Communist aggression and to advance the
work of the Revolution, kindled in the
triumph of November 1 , 1963.
development of greater internal stability, the
regime became less, rather than more flexible
in its policy. Thus, the people, who had
fought so hard and so long, were frustrated
in their desire for true freedom. Externally
as well, the Vietnamese were being threatened with a possible loss of freedom, as the
Communist North began its campaign of
terrorism and guerrilla warfare designed to
conquer the South .
they will nevertheless reshape their country
in the direction of the ideals they are now
fighting and dying for. To this end, national
elections have been held , and steps are care-
At last, on November 1 , 1963, a great revolution, jointly managed by the Army and
the people, upset the dictatorial regime of
Ngo Dinh Diem, and installed the Second
fully and courageously being taken through
the minefield of war to establish the free,
representive, Constitutional form of government which our people so ardently desire
and are so heroically fighting for.
Hue : The Imperial City .
Despite the condition of warfare in the
country, the Vietnamese are determined that
Shown here are the Ngo - Mon Gate and
in the background the 120 - foot flagstaff flying the flag
of the Republic of Vietnam .
20
20
NATIONAL
EMBLEMS
Names of the Nation
12.
Dai Viet under the Le dynasty and the
warlords of the Nguyen (1428-1802)
To define Viet Nam, the name of our
country, we go back to its origin, following
successive changes which have occurred
during our long and glorious history.
13.
Viet Nam under the Emperor Gia Long
(1802-1832)
14.
Dai Nam under the Emperor Minh
Mang and his successors (1832-1945 ) . The
French terms Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina were used concurrently to
describe the Vietnamese portions of
Indochina .
15.
Viet Nam, re-used in April, 1945 by the
first national government headed by
Tran Trong Kim .
The word << Viet » is the Vietnamese pronounciation of a Chinese character which
means « far-off ». It also means « to traverse »> ,
to go beyond », « to pass through », « to get
over >
» , << to draw oneself up » or « to sit up
again ». The word « Viet » thus indicates a
country far from China, which tends to pass
over obstacles, to sit up again and spread.
The word « Nam » means « south » . So the
name Viet Nam means the « South of the
Viets » or << the South populated by the
Viet ».
But before coming to this name which is
considered definitive or official, our national
toponym has undergone many changes and
morphological transformations , which are
interesting to note :
Van Lang under the dynasty of Hong
Bang or Lac Vuong (5th century B.C.
to 257 B.C.)
2.
3.
Au Lac under the dynasty of the Thuc
(257-207 B.C.)
Nam Viet under the
Trieu (207-111 B.C.)
dynasty
Concerning our present national name,
Viet Nam, it is advisable to recall the important role of the diplomatic mission headed
by Le Quang Dinh, the Armed Forces Minister of Emperor Gia Long, who was sent
to China in 1802. In effect, the Vietnamese
monarch wanted the Chinese emperor to
approve the new Vietnamese national name
of Nam Viet . Ambassador Le Quang Dinh
pleaded as follows :
of the
4.
Giao-Chi under the Chinese Early Han
( 111 B.C. -203 A.D. )
5.
Giao-Chau under the Chinese Later Han
(203-544)
6.
Van Xuan under the Early Ly (544-603)
7.
An Nam under the Tang dynasty (603939)
8.
Dai Co Viet under the dynasty of the
Tran and their successors (969-1054)
9.
Dai Viet under the Ly and Tran dynasties (1054-1400)
10.
Dai Ngu under the Ho dynasty ( 14001407)
11.
Thus, we have known at least twelve
different national names, and almost all of
them contain the word « Viet » , which indicates our ethnic origin. This ethnic group is
distinct from that of the Han of the Yellow
River in China.
An Nam under the Chinese Ming dynasty (1407-1427)
The new King of the Nguyen has
succeeded in realizing what the former
reigns of the Tran and Le could not
the reunification under his rule of both
the old land of An Nam and the new
land of Viet Thuong. Consequently, we
would like to ask permission to change
the ancient name of An Nam to Nam
Viet ( An Nam plus Viet Thuong) .
The Emperor of China , after consulting
principal dignitaries of his Court, held that
the name Nam Viet might evoke the memory of kingdom of Trieu Da . As this ancient
kingdom had also included the two Chinese
provinces of Kuang Tong and Kuang Tsi , the
proposed name of Nam Viet could lead to
misunderstandings or even hide territorial
ambitions ! He solved the problem by reversing the order of the two words , and thus the
national name of Viet Nam was consecrated .
21
The National Flag
The national flag of Viet Nam was officially
adopted by an Ordinance of June 14, 1948 ,
signed by the Chief of the Temporary National Government of Viet Nam. The Ordi-
The translation of the National Anthem
is as follows :
CALL TO THE CITIZENS
nance specified the characteristics of the flag
with the following words :
O People ! The country nears its freedom day.
The national emblem is a flag of
yellow background , the height of which
is equal to two-thirds of its width. In
the middle of the flag, and along its
entire width, there are three horizontal
red bands having each a height equal to
one-fifteenth of the total height, and
being separated from one another by
spaces of the same dimensions .
Together we go forward to the open way.
Remembering our centuries of history,
Brothers from North to South reunite,
With hearts young and pure as crystal
Multiply our efforts and do not spare our
ardent blood.
No danger, no obstacle can stop us.
The flag was flown for the first time on the
ship Dumont D'Urville, which was moored
at the Bay of Along for the ceremony of the
signing of the Franco-Vietnamese treaty
which established , in principle, the unity and
independence of Viet Nam.
The yellow background is the traditional
color of the ancestral land, symbolizing the
golden rice grains and the metal considered
one of the most precious by humanity. The
three red bands represent the three regions
of Viet Nam , North, Central and South ,
reunited in the national community. Red, a
vibrant color, is symbolic of success.
Despite the partition of Viet Nam after
the signing of the Geneva Accord in July,
1954, subsequent national governments have
preserved this flag in order to clearly mark
the continuity of the struggle waged by the
Vietnamese people for their territorial integrity and national independence .
Our courage remains unwavering in the
face of a thousand dangers.
On the new way, our look embraces the
horizon
Anh who can repress the soul of our
youth ?
O people ! Going until the end is our
resolution .
O people ! To give all is our oath .
Together we go forward for the glory of
the Fatherland.
We fight for the immortality of the Lac
Long race.
After the signing of the Geneva Accord,
the national anthem was retained
for the
same reasons mentioned above with respect
to the national flag
with slight modifications to better adapt it to the prevailing
circumstances. Notably, the original title of
<< Call to the Youth » was changed to « Call
to the Citizens ».
National Anthem
The national anthem of Viet Nam is entitled « Thanh Nien Hanh Khuc » (Call to
the Youth) . It reflects the eagerness of the
present generation in its struggle for national
independence.
The national anthem was composed by
Luu Huu Phuoc ; and, due to its haunting
rhythms and great patriotic impetus , it
immediately conquered the youth. Consequently, it was adopted as the national
anthem by an Ordinance of June 14 , 1948 of
the first Temporary National Government
of Viet Nam .
22
National Coat of Arms
The traditional Coat of Arms consisted of
a shield or banner or varied forms, having
the stylistic representation of a dragon - a
legendary and totemic animal of multiple
symbolic significance. Also included on the
Coat of Arms were the unicorn, tortoise and
phoenix. Together, they make up the quartet
of the traditional motifs and emblems of
Viet Nam .
The Dragon. The Dragon (« Long » ) is a
fabulous beast which the Vietnamese mytho-
logy represents with the head of a camel,
horns of a deer , eyes of a fish, ears of a buffalo ,
body and neck of a snake , scales of a carp,
claws of an eagle, and feet of a tiger. A long
barb hangs on each side of its mouth, and a
precious stone shines brilliantly on its tongue. The summit of its head is decorated
with a protuberance which is a sign of great
intelligence . Finally, it has a crest of 81
scales running the entire length of its backbone. A dragon is said to breathe a kind of
smoke which can be transformed at will
into fire or water. It lives with equal ease
in the sky, in the water, or underground . It
is immortal and does not reproduce, because
the number of dragons always increases
with the metamorphosis of the « Giao Long » ,
which are fabulous reptiles - half lizard and
half snake
that automatically become
dragons after ten centuries of existence.
Despite its awesome appearance , the dragon does not incarnate the spirit of evil, and
the Vietnamese have always considered the
dragon as a symbol of power and nobility.
That is why the dragon was chosen as the
special symbol of the emperors. The emperor
was considered to be the son of Heaven. The
dragon having five claws was found on the
official dress of the emperor , and the dragon
having four claws decorated the official dress
of high dignitaries of the Royal Court.
The Unicorn . The unicorn (<<
(« Ly » or
<< Lan ») is also an incredible animal invented by Sino-Vietnamese imagination. The
unicorn brings to mind the English griffin ;
it is represented with the body of an antelope, the feet of a horse , and the tail of a
buffalo ; and on the head of the male
unicorn, there is a single horn , the extremity
of which is covered with an excrescence of
of flesh. The unicorn is considered as the
symbol of intelligence and goodness , and
appears only on very special occasions. For
example, when Confucius was born in 481
B.C. , a unicorn is said to have put in an
appearance .
The Tortoise . The tortoise (« Quy >> or
<< Rua >>) represents the double symbol of
Heaven and Earth. Its oval and convex shell
represents the vault of heaven, while the
square plaque on its underside symbolizes
the surface of the Earth .
The tortoise is the emblem of longevity
and perfection, and is generally represented
with a coral branch in its mouth , a crane
on its back, and a box containing the sacred
book of <<« Lac Thu » placed under its back.
This book serves as a reminder of the invention of a diagram representing the division
of the universe into male and female principles ; this diagram as made by Emperor
Dai Vu (2205-2197 B.C. ) , and was inspired
by his study of the sacred tortoise's shell.
The crane on the back of the tortoise is the
symbol of longevity, seen mostly in temples
dedicated to Confucius, emperors and local
spirits. In principle , the symbol of crane is
not used in Buddhist pagodas. The tortoise
is believed to live ten thousand years, and
the crane one thousand years ; thus, the
presence of this symbol means , « May you
be remembered for one thousand years, and
may your cult endure for ten thousand
years. »
Generally, the images of the tortoise and
the crane which are found in temples are
made of lacquered and gilded wood ; sometimes only the crane is made of wood , and
the tortoise of stone . Some of these cranes
are more than three meters high, and are
placed in pairs before the altar. Vietnamese
also make copper reproductions of the crane.
In this case, the lotus flower usually held
in the mouth of the crane is hollow, and can
hold a candle. Such cranes are commontly
placed on ancestral altars.
The Phoenix. The Phoenix ( « Phuong » or
« Phung » ) is an imposing bird , belonging to
the same family as the phoenix of Occidental
mythology , although only the latter is said
to be re-born from its ashes. In Oriental
mythology, the phoenix is considered the
paragon of virtue and grace. It is for this
reason that queens used the phoenix as their
principle emblem, while emperors used the
dragon. Learned men make a distinction
between « phuong » , which is the male
phoenix, and « hoang » , which is the female.
The phoenix , as conceived by Oriental
imagination, has a gallinaceous bill , neck of
a snake, breast of a swallow, back of a tortoise , and tail of a fish . It is able to stand on
the waves of the sea, owing to a supernatural
power which allows it to « soar from the
East, fly mightily over the Con Lon mountains, quench its thirst in the torrent of De
Tru, and bathe its wings in the sea of Nuoc
Thuy, before taking a rest on the Don Huyet
mountain . >>
The phoenix is full of movement, grace,
pride and nobility : the wings stretch out
23
widely with their rigid quills, the caudal
feathers light up in flame, and the feet are
nervously arched . Clenched in its bill are
either two scrolls or a square box with long
bands, containing sacred books .
According to tradition, the song of the
phoenix includes all the five notes of the
traditional musical scale ; its feathers include
the five fundamental colors and its body is
a composite of the six celestial bodies : the
head symbolizes the sky ; the eyes, the sun ;
the back, the moon ; the wings, the wind ;
the feet, the earth ; and the tail, the planets.
The phoenix perches only on very high
places, preferably on the Ngo Dong tree
which is used for making musical instruments.
The phoenix appears only in peaceful and
prosperous times, and hides itself when there
is trouble. Thus, it is the sign of peace and
the symbol of concord.
A
Studious youngsters doing homework
24
WRITTEN
AND
SPOKEN
Vietnamese is the language spoken by
some 30 million people throughout Viet Nam.
Origin of the Vietnamese Language
The origin of the Vietnamese language is
the subject of debate among linguists. It is
usually put in a language family by itself
along with Muong, a language spoken by a
group of highlanders in North Viet Nam.
Although it is evident that Vietnamese did
not have its origins in Chinese , the influence
of China has always been strong in Viet
Nam, and thousands of Chinese words have
been incorporated into the Vietnamese language. Many of these words reflect the nature
of the northern influence throughout the
early period of Chinese domination. Chinese
philosophic , literary, religious , governmental
and military terms are found in great
numbers in Vietnamese, although the pronounciation has changed and their relationship to Chinese is not always clearly
discernable.
LANGUAGE
There are several mutually intelligible
dialects in Vietnamese, the boundaries of
which were defined by Henri Maspero in
1943. The << Haut Annam » group includes
both the speech of the Tonkinese of the Red
River delta and of North Annam, and the
speech of the southern Cochinchinese, prevalent from Tourane to the Mekong delta.
The second group includes the dialects of the
coastal areas between Tourane and Vinh.
Contemporary Vietnamese sometimes make
a different, subjective distinction between
« northern » , « central » and « southern » dialects. The northern speech, according to this
characterization, is marked by sharpness, or
<< choppiness » , with greater attention to the
precise distinction of tones. The southern
speech, in addition to certain uniform differences from northern speech in the pronounciation of consonants, does not distinguish
between the « hoi » and « nga » tones ; and ,
it is felt by some to sound more laconic and
musical. The speech of the Center, on the
other hand, is often described as being
<< heavy
because of its emphasis on low
tones.
The Six Tones and Their Phonetic Symbols
Vietnamese
is
basically
a
monosyllabic
language having six tones, which give the
language a sing-song effect. A word can be
repeated with any one of six tones to indicate six different meanings. The tones are
represented by the following signs :
No marker, mid level
High-rising
Low-falling
(sắc)
Falling-rising, constricted
( huyện )
( hỏi )
High-rising broken
(nga)
Low-falling short constricted
(nặng)
For example, the word <<« ma
ma »>> has six
different meanings according to the tone
which the word carries :
(ma)
phantom , ghost
cheek
(má)
but, which, who
(mà)
tomb
horse
(mã)
young rice seedling
(ma)
(má)
Concerning the tones in the Vietnamese
language , it has been suggested by some
authors that Vietnamese was originally basically a polysyllabic language. The polysyllabic words were later simplified by way
of contraction due to the influence of the
languages of continental Asia
most particularly, Chinese, which is essentially a
monosyllabic language. Thus , some words
which were polysyllabic in the 17th century
have now become monosyllables by way of
contraction.
Three Systems of Writing
<< Chu Nho ». Vietnamese was first written
using the Chinese writing system called
<« chu nho ». Beginning sometime around the
9th century, following the period of Chinese
domination, all government and official
transactions, education, correspondence and
literature used the Chinese characters . This
<< chu nho >> system was still used by scholars
until a few decades ago , and in fact, Vietnamese still request the services of scholars
25
skilled in <<« chu nho » for lettering the banners
and placards which are traditionally found
at weddings, funerals, and festivals.
« Chu nom ». Vietnamese writers, however,
desired a language of their own in which to
transcribe their national history and literature. Gradually, a new writing system known
<< vulgar >> or << demotic >>
as « chu nom »
script ― was evolved . Nguyen Thuyen, a poet
of the 13th century, is believed to be - if
the man responsible for
not the inventor
spreading and popularizing « chu nom » . In
this system, Chinese characters were borrowed and altered ; they resembled Chinese
characters , but were often unintelligible to
the Chinese themselves. In « chu nom » , two
Chinese characters were usually combined ,
one of which indicated the meaning of the
Vietnamese word, while the other indicated
pronunciation. The « chu nom » system, however, was extremely cumbersome and was
used only in literature and non-official documents ; <« chu nom » was never accorded
recognition as the official language.
« Quoc Ngu ». Around the 17th century,
Catholic missionaries developed a Romanized
script to represent the « quoc ngu » or « national language » in order to translate prayer
books and catechisms.
According to Professors Huard and Durand ,
the use of the Latin alphabet to record languages using Chinese characters was probably tried for the first time in 1548 by
Yajiro, a Japanese who became converted to
the Catholic faith and was thereafter baptized by Saint Francis-Xavier. Shortly thereafter, missionaries taught Catholicism to
Japanese living in Faifoo, Central Viet Nam ,
using the Japanese language with romanized
books (romaji) published by the Japanese
Jesuit Press. It was only a short jump from
that to the attempt to romanize the Vietnamese language. Thus, on the pattern of the
romaji, the « quoc ngu » was created .
Although an international and collective
undertaking, the « quoc ngu » is generally
said to have been invented by Alexandre de
Rhodes, a French Jesuit missionary whose
Portugese-Latin-Vietnamese dictionary was
published in 1651. Monsignor Pigneau de
Behaine ( 18th century) and Monsignor Taberd (1838 ) later continued the works of
Alexandre de Rhodes .
While the romanization received only a
reserved welcome in China and Japan, it
obtained an extraordinary success in Viet
Nam. It gave the country an unequalled tool
of cultural and intellectual development.
26
However, the beginnings of « quoc ngu >
met with difficulties. For a long time , it
remained the exclusive instrument of Catholic priests , and the masses continued to
ignore the new system of writing. The knowledge of the traditional system of writing was
essential for anyone who wanted to present
himself for the triennial examinations. Thus,
<< quoc
came
under
effect,
ngu » was adopted and officially bepopular only when Viet Nam was
French domination (1864-1945) . In
French authorities popularized « quoc
ngu » with the objective of eliminating the
Chinese-type « quoc nom » characters, and
thereby simplifying problems of publication
and drawing Viet Nam closer to Western
practices.
At the beginning of the present century,
Nguyen Truong To , a great Vietnamese reformer, presented to the Royal Court a petition requesting the adoption of the « quoc
ngu » as the official writing. His request
was not accepted because scholars of the
time were reluctant to abandon the older
traditions .
But, the most popular writers of North
Viet Nam followed the example set by their
colleagues in South Viet Nam by writing in
<< quoc ngu » without waiting for the decision
of the Royal Court. This movement on behalf
of << quoc ngu » soon reached considerable
proportions, especially when the famous letter of Phan Boi Chau was published. In this
letter, the well-known nationalist revolutionary Phan Boi Chau, who was living in
Tokyo at the time , stressed the need for
education. The patriotic sentiments of the
Vietnamese people - especially the youth were stirred.
In 1906 , the French administration set up
the Council for Improvement of Education ,
which ordered the study of « quoc ngu » as
a secondary subject in schools. In 1908, the
Royal Court of Hue created the Ministry of
Education, having the task of applying the
new school curriculum in « quoc ngu » . At
last, from 1915 to 1919 , a series of decrees
was promulgated which abolished triennial
literary examinations for the recruitment of
governmental officials. In North Viet Nam ,
the last triennial examinations in Chinese
characters was organized in 1915 , and the last
one in Central Viet Nam's Imperial city of
Hue was held in 1919. From then on, « quoc
ngu » became the accepted form of popular
national writing, bringing to an end the use
of Chinese-type « chu nom » characters.
The secular prestige of the Chinese characters did not disappear until long after the
adoption of « quoc ngu », however ; and its
decline occurred first in the South, where
Chinese classical influence was less pronounced, and Western influence was greater.
The romanized writing has permitted the
art of printing to develop and innumerable
printing houses have been established in
Viet Nam. Moreover, since the country became independent in 1945, the progress of
the press has exceeded the most optimistic
predictions. Daily newspapers and magazines
of all persuasions continue to compete for
the attention of a large and eager reading
public.
Coconut plantation in the Mekong Delta
27
A
GLIMPSE
OF
VIETNAMESE
LITERATURE
Literature in Chinese Characters
The Emperor of the South must rule the
South .
Examples of Vietnamese literature written
in Chinese characters are abundant , and include the most ancient of available texts.
During the period of Chinese domination
(from the Second Century B.C. to the Tenth
Century A.D.) in which it was written, however, this literature was marked by the
almost total absence of critical spirit. Moreover, in almost all the masterpieces of the
This is the rule of God, written in the
Book of Heaven.
The barbarian invaders who dare raid
our country
Will quickly see their audacity bring
them to destruction
period, it is rare to find expressions of purely
Vietnamese sensibilities . Rather, a heavy
overlay of Chinese influence predominated .
Literature in « Chu Nom »
In poetry, the rules governing Chinese
verse forms were applied , and the ideas
and sentiments were similar to those ex-
bined and adapted to record the Vietnamese
was the << Van Te Ca Sau >>
language («
< Ritual Invocation Addressed to Croco-
pressed in Chinese poems. Perhaps some
originality could be found in descriptive or
historical poems ; but even in these, the poets
could not rid themselves entirely of Chinese
influence .
The first literary texts were written by
Buddhist monks of the Ly Dynasty (11th
and 12th centuries) , when Buddhist influence
was stronger than Confucianism and Taoism .
Their subjects invariably dealt with the
vanity of the world , aspiration for Nirvana,
the Paradise of the Void, the serenity of
solitude meditation , and the joys to be found
in the contemplation of calm and tranquil
rites.
In addition to the Buddhist monks, Confucian scholars and princes also began to
write in prose and verse . Since the Tran
Dynasty ( 1225-1380) , a highly productive
source of literature was the Imperial Court,
which accumulated a rich collection of poems
composed by Emperors and dignitaries of the
Court. The Emperors Ly Thai Tong and Ly
Nhan Tong, for example were prominent
authors ; General Ly Thuong Kiet ( 1015-1105 )
and Prime Minister To Hien Thanh were
also well known as great scholars and
writers. During a famous battle against the
Chinese, General Ly Thuong Kiet used his
talent as a poet to encourage his troops with
the following quatrain :
28
It is believed that the first text in « Chu
Nom » - a kind of Chinese character com-
diles ») ; it is a poem which aims at expelling
crocodiles from the Hong Ha River.
Written in 1282 by Nguyen Thuyen, the
poem was burnt during the exorcizing ceremony and its ashes were then thrown into
the Hong Ha River. The crocodiles departed.
Nguyen Thuyen got the family name of
« Han » because Han Du in China had earlier
succeeded in expelling crocodiles from a river
using the same technique .
Nguyen Thuyen , or Han Thuyen , was a
native of Thanh Lam district , Hai Duong
Province, North Viet Nam. He received the
Thai Sinh degree (the equivalent of a Ph.D.
in Letters) in 1256, during the reign of
Emperor Tran Thai Tong ( 1225-1257) . He was
the author of a collection of poems entitled
<< Phi Sa Tap » , written for the most part in
<< Chu Nom » characters ; and it is believed
that his works were responsible for the
popularization of « Chu Nom ».
Regardless of the shortcomings of the
<< Chu Nom »
> , it should be recognized that
this form of writing resulted in the lessening
of Chinese influence in Vietnamese literature. Having thus loosened itself from the
constraints of Confucianism , Vietnamese literature was able to develop in its own way,
and reached its full glory around the 19th
century.
In fact, even by the end of the 14th century, a long, moralistic fable of 802 verses had
been composed by Ho Huyen Quy, and this
fable , << Trinh Thu » (« The Virtuous Rat » ) ,
set the tone for future literary products .
Since then, there appeared a rapid succession of masterpieces which proved that the
Vietnamese language could express the most
delicate sentiments and describe the most
difficult things in their most subtle manifestations. Two of these works which became
especially popular were « Chinh Phu Ngam »
(<
<
« Complaints of Warriors ' Wives ») by Mrs.
Doan Thi Diem, and « Cung Oan Ngam
Khuc » (« Elegy to an Odalisk » ) by Nguyen
Gia Thieu . Among the novels in verse , « Hoa
Tien >> (<<« Flowered Papers » ) by Nguyen Huy
Tu, and << Kim Van Kieu » by Nguyen Du,
attained the highest literary quality.
<«< Kim Van Kieu » has been translated into
many Oriental and Occidental languages , and
is unanimously accepted by the Vietnamese
as their greatest literary masterpiece . This
poem of 3254 verses relates the 15 years of
misadventures by which befell the three
youths , Kim Trong, Thuy Kieu and Thuy
Van. Thuy Kieu , a young girl of good family,
had everything a lady could desire. Not only
was she endowed with a superior intelligence, but she was also gifted in the arts of
music and poetry. Moreover, whe was exceedingly beautiful - so beautiful that she
provoked the jealousy of Heaven.
Kieu's father , victim of a calumny, was
arrested by the local authorities and beaten
.
up. His only hope out of this misfortune was
bribery. Out of filial piety, Kieu voluntarily
sold herself for three hundred gold coins , and
used the money to secure her father's release
from prison. This, however, meant that she
had to break her promise of marriage to Kim
Trong, a young scholar. Thereafter, Kieu led
the unhappy life of a prostitute. But, before
leaving home to start her new life of misery ,
Kieu told her younger sister, Thuy Van, of
her love for Kim Trong, and asked Van to
marry Kim Trong in her stead .
During the next fifteen years , which were
filled with hardship and shame, Kieu always
remained loyal to the memories of her first
love , her family and her native land. After
her last misfortune , she attempted suicide by
jumping into a river, but she was rescued .
Finally, she was able to find her family
again, and Kim Trong, who still loved her
as before . However, she refused to marry
him and said that their love must remain
platonic , so that she could preserve the little
honor which she still had.
This is a troubled and extraordinary love
story, imbued with the Oriental philosophy
so cherished by the author - Buddhist resignation and submission to fate . According to
the Vietnamese moral concept , a person
worthy of his name may not serve two different dynasties. Nguyen Du was forced to
serve Gia Long, the founder of the Nguyen
Dynasty, after he failed to restore the Le
dynasty. Thus, « Kim Van Kieu » reflects the
frustration of the author, who wanted to
remain faithful to his first oath of loyalty ,
but was prevented by cruel events from
doing so.
Literature in Quoc Ngu
With the invention of Quoc Ngu - the
phonetic transcription of Vietnamese using
romanized script
first the missionaries ,
then the Vietnamese writers, had an ideal
instrument for communicating their ideas.
Since the second half of the 19th century ,
the Quoc Ngu was taught in schools and
won more and more favor with the public.
Graduates of Catholic schools were especially
instrumental in diffusing the new form of
writing. This was particularly true in South
Viet Nam , where Petrus (Truong Vinh ) Ky
published the first daily newspaper in Quoc
Ngu ( the « Gia Dinh Bao » or « Gia Dinh
Daily » ) , as well as translations of numerous
Occidental classics . One of his collaborators
was Paulus ( Huynh Tinh) Cua , who was
also a Catholic and author of a well-known
dictionary in the Vietnamese language .
Western influences were already reflected
in the literature of this period . The use of
logic and simplicity gradually replaced the
numerous literary allusions and figures of
speech which typify the Chinese style .
At the beginning of the 20th century,
romanticism was introduced through the
translation of Western books into Vietnamese .
Two authors of remarkable erudition , Nguyen
Van Vinh and Pham Quynh , contributed
significantly to the diffusion of Western
ideas and the enrichment of Vietnamese
literature .
In
1925, the first
novel
of modern
or
Western style appeared : « To Tam » . (The
title of the novel is taken from the name of
29
literature
spread
among
the
its principle character) . This book aimed at
Occidental
breaking with the thousand year old traditions, and was really a declaration of war
against the Confucianist strictures which held
masses to inspire feelings of independence ,
liberty and social justice.
that marriages must be the result of reason,
and not of sentimental motivation. At the
same time, the book showed respect for the
human aspects of man, emphasizing the
intrinsic worth of the individual.
Since that time, great schools of philosophical and political thought eminating from
It is largely due to the real sense of liberty
acquired from the emergence of national
independence that Vietnamese literature of
recent times has adopted a universal and
humanistic course. For the first time in two
thousand years, writers and poets were guided by the ideal of contributing to the progress
towards a new society.
NIZUHONG
The above painting by the Vietnamese artist Tran Dzu Hong
depicts one of Vietnam's most famous literary works :the
poem " Kim Van Kieu " which tells the story of a young girl
who could never marry the man she loved .
She is shown in
this painting playing for her lover after having endured
many trials .
30
MUSIC
Since poems and dramas are frequently
set to music, the development of Vietnamese
literary and musical tradition are frequently
inseparable. Situated at the crossroads of two
powerful cultural currents - the Chinese
and the Indian - Viet Nam has been deeply
influenced by these elements, whose identifying characteristics are evidenced in Vietnamese music .
Folk Music
As in all other countries in the world ,
Vietnamese oral literature is composed
mainly of popular songs , the origins of which
are rooted in the era preceding recorded
history. But perhaps much more than in
other countries, these songs of the people
stream of rites and rituals , folk songs were
the water from the Fountain of Youth which
preserved hope and kept alive the spirit of
Vietnamese traditions and customs.
Origins and Evolution of Vietnamese Music
Concerning the origins of Vietnamese
music, one must mention the discoveries of
1924 at that time, archeological excavations
in the village of Dong Son, Thanh Hoa province, North Viet Nam, unearthed bronze
drums and coins on which were engravings
representing two men, one seated astride the
other's back, playing a « khene >>
an instrument made of several flutes tied together.
Drawings on the drums depicted warriors ,
one of them playing a << khene » and the
have a profound sensibility and poetic sense
which make them the real masterpieces of
our literature.
others playing castanets of a type still in use
today. Since the Dong Son findings dated
from the period of the Han Dynasty (around
200 B.C. ) , one can conclude that the Viet-
There are songs for different professions ,
such as the work chants of the boat rowers
and wood cutters ; there are love songs,
satirical songs, smoking and joking songs.
There is also the equivalent of the Western
medieval verse-chronicles sung by strolling
minstrels. These songs relate mostly to heroic
deeds, but sometimes deal withthe lives of
pirates and brigands as well. Reflecting the
soul of the laboring masses
expressing
namese already had their own indiginous
music prior to the advent of the Christian
era.
their happiness , sadness , patient resignation
or courageous revolt - the folk songs of Viet
Nam are always vivid, with a winged touch.
They are less artificial and less speculative
than all the other types of literature , and
the natural expressions used in popular song
the beauty of their imagery and the pertinence of their observations
go beyond the
rigid frame of Confucianist ethics.
Since their language itself is essentially
musical, the Vietnamese people sing spontaneously on all occasions, whether they are
at work or play. Echoing the preoccupations
of the individual , the folk songs of Viet Nam
reflect the vivaciousness , quickness, candor ,
ironic wit and common sense of the Vietnamese people. During the long ten centuries
of Chinese domination, when the national
life seemed to be coagulated in the stagnant
Prior the Christian era, the earliest
music had a folkloric rather than a national
character. It was typified by rounds sung
as accompaniment to mystico-religious or
ritualistic dances, and the use of drums ,
<< khenes » , castanets and cymbals .
From the Second to the Tenth centuries ,
Vietnamese music experienced an almost exclusively Chinese influence , the dominant
cultural influence of the period . The five tone
musical scale of Chinese music was adopted .
and utilized without innovation.
From the 11th to 14th centuries, with
the advance of the Viet toward the South,
contacts with the Champa introduced new
elements into Vietnamese music which resulted in the development of the « southern
laments » and the enriching of the five tone
scale with two supplementary notes.
The period from the 15ththrough the 18th
centuries was marked by great developments
in the art of music , with innovations on the
styles of the Chinese and Chams. It was
during this era that songs accompanied by
31
castanets (<< hat a dao » ) first became popular,
and this style has continued to the present
day, notably in the North. The words of these
songs came from the works of eminent liter« Hue >> songs - boat songs from
ary men. <
the Perfume River - and « guessing game »
songs , sometimes called « mirador games » ,
first came into vogue , along with songs from
the southern part of the demarcation river
(Gianh River) . In the North, music described
as being << from the northern part of the
demarcation river » flourished .
The contemporary period is notable first
for the codification, then the modernization
of Vietnamese music under the influence
of Occidental traditions. The Vietnamese
Generally speaking, the « northern tunes »
express optimism and liveliness , while the
<< southern tunes » bear the imprint of contacts with the Champa and Fou Nam kingdoms. In fact, in the middle of the 15th
century, following a victorious campaign
against the Champa, the favorite song of the
Cham king was introduced to the Imperial
Court. One hundred and fifty years later,
King Ly Cao Tong commissioned the composition of « Chiem Thanh Am » ( « Cham
Melody » ) , whose name indicates its source
of inspiration. The « southern tunes » are
characterized by nostalgic plaints, moody and
melancholy, which are particularly expressive of the spirit of Hue, a city dominated
by the influence of the langorous Perfume
River.
theatre, after passing through a period in
which traditional opera thrived , became the
renovated theatre thanks to the substitution
of new tunes from the South , where this
kind of operetta is especially popular. More
recently, composers trained in European
schools have produced a large body of work
which has enjoyed great popularity. Most of
these tunes are based on Western rhythms .
Instrumental Music
We have already seen how Vietnamese
music , after adopting the five tone scale of
the Chinese system, added new tones to it.
As completed , the Vietnamese scale has nine
tones, which have the following approximate
correspondence to the Western scale :
The Classical Repertoire
The classical Vietnamese music includes
two principal types : the «northern tunes >>
(« Dieu Khach ») on the one hand, and the
<< southern tunes » ) (« Dieu Nam ») on the
other.
Concerning the origins of the northern
tunes, the Annals relate that in 1285 , on the
cccasion of Tran Hung Dao's great victory
over the Mongol invaders, a theatre troupe
which accompanied the aggressive forces was
captured along with its entire orchestra. The
troup was immediately incorporated into that
of the Imperial Court , and its performances
reached a large segment of the popular audience .
Later, in 1470 , during the reing of Le
Thanh Ton , two members of the National
Academy , Tran Nhan Trung and Do Nhuan .
were entrusted with the task of studying
Chinese music and its methods with a view
to adapting it to the Vietnamese . Three committees were thus created : the first for symphonic music, the second for music education ,
and the third for the popularization of musical arts.
32
Ho
Do
xu y sang
fa
re mi
xe
sol
cong
la
phan
ti
luu u
do re
For a correct transposition , the notes « mi »
and « ti » should be diminished by a quarter
tone.
Besides supplementing the five tone scale ,
the Vietnamese have also modified the
Chinese instruments to better suit the Vietnamese temperament. We have thus created
the « nhi » , « tranh » , « nguyet » , « ti » , and
which every
the « five perfects »
« tam >>
cultivated person should play attractively.
The « nhi », or violin, with two strings of
braided silk, is a rovana having a long handle
and a sounding case covered by a snake-skin
membrane. It emits melodious sounds , while
conserving the clarity of tone for which the
the related Chinese and Indian instruments
are noted .
The << tranh » is a zither with 16 brass
strings , invented by Emperor Phuc Hi of
China (2852 B.C. ) . Its sounding case is made
of Ngo Dong wood , an Asian plaintain . The
instrument is placed in front of the musician ,
who uses his right hand to regulate the pitch
and vibrata, while plucking the strings with
his left hand
The « nguyet », better known as the « kim » ,
is a sort of guitar with a long neck, which
emits muted and particularly melodious
sounds. Its two strings made of silk braid
are, in fact, incapable of producing much
volume, but they can produce extremely harmonious modulations.
The « ty » or « ty ba » is also a derivative
of the ancient lute. It is a pear-shaped guitar
with a small resounding case that becomes
narrower towards its upper end to form the
neck. It has four strings made of braided silk.
Classical Conceptions and Modern Trends
According to Confucian ethics , music should
contribute to social harmony and bring peace
to the human heart. Associated with the
rites, it should play its role in a disciplined
society by contributing to the preservation
of the social order, good manners , and respect
for tradition.
The « tam >> is another type of guitar which
has three silk strings, as its name indicated.
This static concept stems from the fact
that the traditional repertoire contains only
a limited number of tunes, consecrated and
adapted for use in specified circumstances,
such as theatrical performances , accompaniment for the royal ballets, religious ceremonies and burial music.
Besides these « five perfects », there is
another instrument worth mentioning it is
the « dan bau », which consists of a trapezoidal wooden resounding case, on which is
stretched a brass string. Fastened at one end
to a peg and at the other to a flexible bamboo
plate, the string passes again and again
through a gourdshaped wooden amplifier. It
is the thin, bamboo plate which permits modulations of greater amplitudes than those
obtained with a Hawiian guitar.
The impact of modernization has caused
some to fear that traditional music might
disappear altogether ; but fortunately, it has
not. If the younger generations prefer the
new music of Western inspiration, the old
music continues to be popular among the
masses. In this subject, one should recognize
the important role played by the National
Conservatory, which is designed to assure
the preservation of the nation's musical
heritage and, at the same time, to train new
artists and composers.
B
A Vietnamese classical orchestra
33
CLASSICAL
AND
REFORMED
Origin and Evolution of Vietnamese Theatre
Classical Vietnamese theatre was originally
called << Hat Bo » or « songs with gestures » :
later, the theatre was known as « Hat Boi >>
or << songs with show dress ». The classical
theatre presented tragi-comedies and comic
operas. It is an original synthesis of songs,
dances and dramatic acting, whose interpretation aims at the essential, at the concentration of effects, and the stylization of gestures.
while at the same time serving an educational purpose .
THEATRE
the Vietnamese were able to adapt the
foreign influence to their own genius ; and
from the Chinese theatre, they created a
national art form remarkable for its vigor
and originality.
In the course of the last centuries, a continuous process of modification and innovation
enabled the « Hat Bo » to exert a profound
influence on the people as an instrument of
civic and moral education .
The Patron Saint of the Theatre
The origins of the classical Vietnamese
theatre can be traced back as far as the
bronze age, when the « Lac >> - ancestors of
the Vietnamese people - founded an independent state, based on a hierarchical and
feudalistic society .
A great festival took place every Spring.
to mark the beginning of the planting season.
This custom still existed in the recent past ,
though in less colorful form, in the « Thai »
area of the North Vietnamese Highlands , and
in the delta of the Red River. Numerous
entertainments were organized on this occasion dances, comic pantomimes, the singing
of rounds, etc.
As previously stated, during the war
against the Chinese invaders , Tran Hung
Dao captured an entire Chinese theatrical
troup , led by Ly Nguyen Cat , a talented performer. The troup was composed of twelve
actors and actresses, who could play every
character
warriors, honest and faithful
mandarins, traitors , servants , etc. Ly Nguyen
Cat was entrusted with the task of training
young Vietnamese , selected by the Imperial
Court, as dancers in the Chinese opera . The
finest artist trained by Ly Nguyen Cat was
Lien thu Tam , who distinguished himself in
a play entitled « Vuong Mau Hien Dao »>>
(«
< Offering the Divine Peach » ) .
Enriched by the addition of the Chinese
talent, the << Hat Bo » rapidly became an art
form greatly appreciated by the public . Poets
and scholars contributed their share by
providing the « Hat Bo » with a considerable
repertoire of new material. Thus , thanks to
their vitality and their ability to assimilate ,
34
Like any other art, the « Hat Bo » has its
own Patron Saint, whose effigy - an earthen
statuette dressed in brocade - invariably
accompanies the troupes in their perigrinations . The statuette , which represents a
young boy, is placed in a carved wooden
niche, behind a vase in which offerings of
joss sticks are planted . Before his appearance
on stage, each actor prostrates himself four
times before the Patron Saint , called « Ong
Lang », in order to avoid losing his memory
and voice .
Legend has it that « Ong Lang » was a
prince whose favorite entertainment was the
theatre . For fear of punishment from his
father the king, he attended performances
on the sly. One evening, the actors played
so well that the delirious public invaded the
stage to acclaim them. Under the sudden
weight, the stage
a frail scaffolding made
of wood and bamboo - collapsed on the
prince's head and killed him instantly. But
his soul survived to protect the guild of
comedians . He is credited with breathing
inspiration into them, giving them good voice
and facilitating their improvisations on stage.
The men of the theatre eventually canonized
him , after having miracles accomplished to
their benefit.
Scenery, Staging and Gestures
Hat Bo » is essentially suggestive.
The
One has , in fact , to rid oneself from the
limited confines of the stage and employ a
good deal of imagination . Thus , a few chairs
may represent a mountain range ; an overturned chair, a hill ; a chair on a table, a
throne. A silken screen stretched between
two staffs forms an impassable bulwark ; a
table may represent a court room, a counter
or a restaurant ; and a branch may substitute
for a forest. The staging poses no real problems for the spectator, however, since the
symbolism is standardized .
Some of the pantomimes are clear : to open
or shut a door or gate , the actor makes an
expansive gesture in the air. In other cases ,
the actors proceed with more subtle allusions : a man waving a flag decorated with
fish may, for instance, be indicating that the
stage is innundated with floods, or that a
windstorm is in full swing.
The absence of scenery and the lack of
accessories and technical equipment compels
the actor to adopt a set of unvarying, conventional gestures, which are either noble
and rhythmic or affected and grandiloquent,
to picture the feudal society of olden times.
Some stylized gestures have a symbolic significance as, for instance, the showing of a
chrysanthemum, which is meant to indicate
the splendor of Autumn, with its blue skies,
bright moonlit nights, silver waves on the
lakes, and the quietness and magnificence
of its twilights ; the showing of an orchid
twig represents renewal by its sparkling
colored blossoms and intoxicating perfume ;
the lotus is used to symbolize purity, plenitude, nobility and liberty.
Each gesture has its own meaning, and to
each sentiment there is a corresponding motion. To express sadness , for example, the
whether he is playing the role of
actor
a beggar, a pirate , a prince or a priest automatically executes the proper gesture
which corresponds to the emotion in question.
There are, moreover, gestures appropriate to
each character and particular to each scene,
which the actor must learn by rote and
accomplish faithfully in an undeviating
order. One understands why the training of
an actor sometimes requires many years !
Makeup, Costumes and Head Gear
In the << Hat Bo », the artist resorts to
many artifices of makeup, the function of
which is to transfigure the actors into standardized character types. The colors thus
applied indicate the character's temperment
and customary behavior pattern.
The art of make-up is in itself highly
demanding. One needs an excellent memory
to recall the masks of several hundred characters. The painter's hand must be steady
and really skillful for the reproduction of
the strange arabesques on the actors' faces,
done with lamp-black, vermillion and assorted colored powders . Generally speaking, each
actor is responsible for the preparation of
his own make-up ; and except for the « Tho
Dia » (« God of the Earth » ) , who wears a
real mask, all masks are painted on the very
faces of the actors.
If the make-up operates under strictly
conventional rules, so to do costumes and
hair-dressing require a great concern for
correctness . Costumes are virtually indentical with those which would be worn by
the character in real life , although some
embellishments may be added to accentuate
the effects of stage lighting. Moreover , some
costumes and head- gear are invariable. The
King at the Imperial Court, for example,
always wears a long, silken tunic of yellow
color with very large sleeves , decorated with
red or gold dragons. In addition, the costume
required of a king calls for a hat called
« quan mien » - a kind of double culotte
decorated with nine dragons in gold thread ,
inlaid with glass jewels. A red belt fitted
with copper plates, and black leather boots
shaped like the prow of a gondola must also
be worn. In battle uniform, the same costume
is worn, but with the trousers wrapped
around the legs and tucked into the boots,
and an apron embroidered with dragons worn
over the tunic.
The Queen wears a long tunic of yellow
or white silk with narrow sleeves embroi-
Initiated devotees follow the representa-
dered with a phoenix and a hat decorated
with nine phoenixes set in sparkling stones,
bordered by pendants and trinkets . A decorated apron is also worn over her trousers.
tions carefully, and anticipate the gestures.
Woe betide the acting apprentice, who
through negligence or forgetfulness - omits
one word, one movement or one pantomimic
gesture ! He is immediately booed , challenged , and often draws a fine from the leader
of the troupe .
Civil mandarins wear long tunics embroidered with unicorns, with large sleeves having silk balancing-flaps, considered full dress
at the Imperial Court. A belt embroidered
or inlaid with turtle scales , black leather
boots , high black hats and red pompons completes their costume.
35
Military mandarins wear the same costume
as the civil , except for the hat. A red hat is
used to indicate a mandarin who has received
the << First Doctor of the Nation » degree ;
and a red and blue hat indicates a recipient
of the highest award in military competitions.
A tunic in blue or red with narrow sleeves
The
Hat Bo » also presents dances, such
as the lantern dance , the fan dance, and the
libation dance , in which the artists execute
choreographic figures, often very original .
The Classical Theatre Repertoire
and a simple belt is also part of the military
mandarin's costume.
The repertoire of « Hat Bo » is very diversified and includes works which are real
Orchestral and Choral Effects
It has been said that the classical Vietnamese theatre is a kind of opera. Indeed ,
all the plays are accompanied by songs , and
are characterized by the alternation of arias
and recitations. A small orchestra , usually
located in the wings to the right of the stage,
accompanies.
The orchestra includes a vertical violin
(<<
« nhi » ) , a guitar with silken strings (<«< don
kim ») , an a flute (« sao » ) , a trumpet (<<
« ken
loa » ) , a clarinet (« ken tau » ) , and a long,
narrow drum (« trong com ») . The music
consists of popular tunes arranged according
to the maestro's inspiration . The bass is a
large tom-tom, given to a spectator whose
social rank or personal competence make
him deserving of this honor. The person so
honored is expected to indicate his approval
of any part of the performance by beating
on this drum.
The orchestra, however, only accompanies
the songs, which hold the greatest interest
for the spectators. To show their satisfaction
.
or enthusiasm , the spectators throw coins on
the stage , which are picked up by a supernumerary for distribution to the cast. The
audience does not applaud as in the West.
The representations necessarily begin with
.
a prelude dedicated to the King or First
Notable. This prelude is a kind of liturgical
song expressing wishes for prosperity and
longevity, sung by the best actor of the troup
and punctuated by the orchestra.
There are two main series of tunes which
are used in the « Hat Bo » : the « Hat Khach >>
or << songs of the North », and the « Hat
» or << songs of the South » . The songs
Nam >
of the North, or Springs songs, include
melodies expressing a cheerful exaltation
and promises of happiness and peace. They
are five or seven-line poems. The « songs of
the South » are plaintive ballads, characterized by sadness, nostalgia, despair and
lassitude .
36
masterpieces. Written in a polished style,
and according to certain rules of versification and composition, the « Hat Bo » plays
are adaptations of famous episodes in the
history of China or Viet Nam. The author
refrains from any invention himself, and
must follow exactly the outlines of the
anecdote, the novel, or the legend . Formerly,
it was in the tradition of the best authors to
remain anonymous ; but with the simultaneous rebirth of literature, Buddhism and
the classical theatre in the 16th century,
poets began to sign their works.
The most famous writer of the time was
Dao Duy Tu ( 1572-1634 ) , an eminent scholar
and strategist, native of Thanh Hoa province
in Central Viet Nam. Banned from the literary competitions for being the son of a
comedian, he emigrated to the South. Fortune did not smile on the young man
immediately, however, and he began his life
in this new country as a common buffalo- boy
for a nobleman . He composed a long poem
called « Ngoa Long Cuong » (« The Hill of
the Reclining Dragon ») , which was a kind
of profession of faith , hinting at the existence
of a man of great learning and virtue , who
awaited his hour. The poem was widely
circulated among the local peoples, who
believed that they saw in the author the
reincarnation of Khong Minh , the great
Chinese strategist of the Three Kingdoms
Era. Dao Duy Tu's reputation as a literary
man soon came to the attention of the provincial governor, who rewarded the poet
with his daughter's hand in marriage. Dao
Duy Tu later became First Consellor to the
Lord of Cochinchina, built the famous « Dong
Hoi Well », and contributed greatly to the
defeat of the Northern attackers . It was Dao
Duy Tu who initiated the South Vietnamese
into the techniques of the classical theatre ,
the sole entertainment which he enjoyed
during his exile . At his death, he was
elevated to the rank of Marquis , and buried
in Binh Dinh province, the birthplace
many highly reputed actors.
of
The most noted successor of Dao Duy Tu
was Dao Tan, one of Dao Duy Tu's descendents. Born in 1846, Dao Tan received the
« Licence en Lettres » degree , and started his
life as an author in 1872. A talented dramatist, he bequeathed to posterity a large
number of plays. He died in 1908 , to the great
sorrow of theatre lovers, who erected a
sanctuary to his memory at Viet Thanh, and
another on the Chinese island of Hai Nam .
The Reformed Theatre
The revival of the classical theatre by Dao
Tan at the end of the 19th century did
not last long. Paralleling the political upheavals of the time, Vietnamese society was
subject to profound disturbances resulting
from the impact of Western influence and
modernization. The classical theatre was gradually losing ground to a new type of the
theatre known as « Cai Luong », the << Reformed Theatre », which originated in South
Viet Nam, where Western influence was
more pronounced.
The principle supporting song in the Reformed Theatre was and is the « Vong Co >>
- literally, « Nostalgia for the Past >>
which was first sung in 1919 in Bac Lieu
province. Its author was a musician named
Cao van Lau, better known as Sau Lau. The
song was primarily an adaptation of a song
Hanh Van » (« Wandering Clouds >>) ,
called
a very popular classical tune of the north.
The Reformed Theatre itself was born one
year earlier, in 1918, with a play written by
Tong Huu Dinh . This play, entitled « Luc
Van Tien », was a kind of operetta in which
one of the principal melodies was « Tu Dai >>
(« The Four Generations >>) — itself derived
from the song « Tu Dai Canh » (Scenic views
of the Four Generations ») , a classical song
from the former Imperial city of Hue.
After a rather indifferent start, Tong Huu
Dinh, encouraged by his friends, formed a
troupe and presented to the public a four-act
play on the theme « National Loan ». Later,
he received the assistance of many other
artists and together, they founded an itinerant troupe which was warmly received
throughout Cochinchina in the prewar period.
Their success was greatly enhanced, moreover, by the introduction of the phonograph
in 1923.
After a golden age during the years from
1930 to 1945, the Reformed Theatre faced the
formidable competition of motion pictures
and modern music. Great efforts were made
to maintain the popularity of the Reformed
Theatre, however, and the success of this
effort can be judged by the ever-increasing
numbers of large theatrical troupes, and the
enormous popularity enjoyed by the stars.
Unlike the Occidental theatre, where all
subjects are freely treated, the Vietnamese
theatre remains rooted in the old traditions,
thus maintaining its educative role both in
civic virtues and family morals. A real
<< school of great souls », dedicated to the
exaltation and illustration of the permanent
values of the nation and the people, this
theatre bears within itself the reasons which
preclude any doubt as to its future vitality.
The River of Perfumes in Hue .
37
THE
ARTS
If one had to define by some formula , the
Vietnamese concept of art, one should first
take note of the fact that in Viet Nam, the
artist always feels himself attached to his
natural and social surroundings ; in other
words, every work of art is considered part
and parcel of the total environment, which
is itself determined by the natural laws of
harmony and equilibrium. Seen in this context, art works participate in the universal
and social order. A source of inspiration for
the artist, this order would be reflected in
his own creations.
While simple decorations seek only to be
pleasant, a work of art, in the Vietnamese
concept, should have a significance, constitute a symbol, and reflect a bit of the ideal
life of serenity and peace for which every
man longs. In the West, a rivalry can exist
between Man and Nature, and a work of
architecture can be viewed, for example, as
a triumph of Man. In Asia , on the other hand,
and particularly in Viet Nam, an artist forbids himself to regard his work in this way.
Thus, Asian architecture seeks to avoid
offending the majesty of Nature by deliberately adjusting the scale of each project to
achieve unity and harmony with the natural
environment. For these reasons, while the
Occidental seeks to heighten buildings to the
grandest possible limit, Chinese and Vietnamese prefer to use horizontal extensions,
which combine with natural surroundings.
Owing to their respect for spiritual values,
the Asians in general, and the Vietnamese in
particular, see to it that their artistic creations evoke a continual recognition of philosophic , poetic , and historical ideals.
Architecture
Traditional Vietnamese architecture is
essentially landscape painting. It is characterized by elaborate horizontal extensions ,
and by the regularity and symmetry of its
lines. Some of the best examples of Vietnamese architecture are found in pagodas ,
temples and royal tombs ; the orientation of
the latter was determined by the calculations
of geomancers, who positioned the tombs in
a way which was supposed to allow the dead
38
OF
VIETNAM
to benefit from the most favorable Earth
currents. The plan of a religious building
was determined by the necessities of the
cult. Large spaces were always arranged to
permit the gathering of crowds, the defiling
of processions, and the celebration of public
festivities. The attached yards and buildings
were always positioned before a more remote
sanctuary, thus creating the impression of a
symbolic Path of the Buddha leading toward
Salvation, or of an entrance leading ultimately to the resting place of the gods. The
roofs of these structures were always massive, seeming to press down on the pillars
which slanted at an angle to the ground.
This construction has enabled the buildings
to resist the violent storms of the monsoon
season ; and, even if they collapse, they
rarely have their roofs blown off.
To judge such an architecture, however,
one should examine these creations of Man
in the context of the natural surroundings,
since the majesty of Vietnamese architecture
lies not in its volume, but rather, in its
perfect harmony with the natural setting.
This characteristic , moreover, is not peculiar
to the magnificent royal palaces alone ; one
finds it also in a narrow, winding path leading by numerous stages to the hill-top , which
is crowned with a minute architectural jewel.
In brief, Vietnamese architecture is an art
of discreet equilibrium and harmony ; it is
modest, unspectacular and rarely colossal.
Unfortunately, the material used by our
architects has always been wood, bamboo,
and baked earth
materials which cannot
withstand a tropical climate. Stone , and
metals such as bronze , iron , zinc, gold and
silver have been used, but in such modest
quantities that they have seldom survived
the ravages of war and political upheaval.
Thus, examples of ancient architecture have
survived only in a few instances.
Painting
The traditional Vietnamese painting specialized in the representation of religious and
mythological scences. The renovation of this
art is due, for the most part, to the former
Ecole Supérieure des Beaux-Arts de Hanoi », whose high standards have been
continued in the South by the Gia Dinh
Advanced School of Arts . From these sources,
a young, vigorous and promising generation
of artists has emerged , whose style remains
specifically Vietnamese ; and the period prior
to the Second World War in particular, was
the flourishing of an artistic renaissance.
Moreover, the ancient Asian art of silk
painting has attracted a large number of
young artists, who have developed new techniques and produced absolutely remarkable
effects. In ancient times, this art was practiced by scholarly calligraphers, who turned
their talents to painting scenes from nature.
Also, before the advent of photography, carefully realistic portraits on silk were produced
as a necessary requirement for the rites of
ancestor worship.
Sculpture
Vietnamese sculptors were not greatly
influenced by the Chinese schools. Theirs
was an innate art, so to speak, and was
developed with the construction of temples
and pagodas, which were adorned with
veritable pantheons of Buddhas or local
deities.
Our sculptors had no other tool than a
cabriole-shaped chisel, which was struck
with a kind of mallet. With such rudimentary
tools, they could not make concave or undulating surfaces, which is why most of the
wooden statues were assembled by sticking
several pieces together with a glue made of
kaolin and lacquer. One peculiar detail to be
noted is that all of the statues of divinities
have distorted faces, so as to impress the
faithful.
As for stone sculptors, they created only
a few statues and bas-reliefs. Most often ,
able specimens of this art have been discovered here and there during excavations of
ancient tombs, and while digging the irrigation canals which interlace the national
territory .
It was related in Annals that , even before
the reign of Emperor Trieu Vu De (207-137
B.C.) , the fabrication of table services had
begun. As a matter of fact, it was during this
period that potters developed the specialized
tools they required to obtain the most perfect
and unusual shapes . The « Monograph of
Thanh Hoa » relates that the new techniques
of using molds and lathes were first taught
by a Chinese potter to a Vietnamese living
in Hai Duong province, North Viet Nam. The
latter spent lengthy months learning the
secrets of this art, and reproducing the models of his Chinese teacher. As a gesture of
gratitude, he presented his mentor with 20
taels of pure gold for his return trip to China.
The new ceramic techniques were rapidly
adopted, notably in Bat Trang (Hung Yen)
and Tho Ha (Bac Ninh) , where, after the
death of both the teacher and his student,
the inhabitants erected two temples dedicated to the memory of the departed.
Like other arts, the Vietnamese ceramic
art has benefitted from modern techniques
and Occidental artistic notions. Moreover,
the application of modern techniques has
resulted in the growth of the ceramic industry, thereby contributing to the nation's
economic development .
The Lacquer Art
The Vietnamese have known the techniques of lacquerwork since ancient times.
However, the lacquer art came into its own
only under the reign of Le Nhan Ton ( 14431460) , when a mandarin of the Imperial
Court was sent to China with the mission of
they confined themselves to the sculpting of
stylized animals, drums, steles and other
objects designed to ornament the pagodas
and tombs. These sculptors had very few
artistic pretensions ; they were, in fact, little
more than assistants to the scholars and
of learning a trade capable of providing the
peasants with new resources. When he returned to Viet Nam after several months in
China, the mandarin had been initiated in
monks in charge of the official and religious
architecture.
The use of that material was then littleknown in our country , where people used it
only for the waterproofing of barges, and
exported most of their lacquer to China. The
first testings of lacquerwork production using
the methods learned by the mandarin were
disappointing : the Vietnamese could not fix
the gold and silver designs onto the wood in
Ceramics
The production of ceramics in Viet Nam
dates back to the oldest antiquity. Innumer-
the techniques of Chinese lacquerwork.
39
the manner in which the Chinese embellished lacquered surfaces. Moreover, the colors did not dry properly, and they tarnished
quickly.
But far from being defeated, the mandarin
asked for and received permission from the
King to return to China. There , he succeeded
in penetrating the secret of the business ,
which consisted of covering the wooden surface beforehand with a coat of gum and
kaolin. Their technique now adjusted , our
workers' success was assured . In acknowledgement of his deed , the Binh Vong inhabitants erected, by order of the King, a temple
to the memory of the mandarin , Tran Tuong
Cong, who has since been regarded as the
Patron Saint of the lacquerers.
Lacquer is a product of vegetable origin
a resin extracted by tapping the « cay son >>
tree. In its natural state , the lacquer is a
creamy-white fluid , which can be made black
by mixing it for 40 hours in an iron container
with a certain quantity of resin. The iron
oxide blackens the lacquer, while the resin
gives it a brilliant gloss. The ancient colored
lacquers were obtained by adding natural
substances, such as vermillion , Persian seed,
safflower, orpiment, gold and silver sheets
and mother of pearl - all of which get their
color only with the passage of time. Today,
chemicals are used to achieve the same effect.
The woods used in lacquer products are
French okume plywood and teak. The teak
is used in the making of furniture frames as
well as for smaller articles, while the surfaces are made of the plywood .
The actual process of lacquering begins
only after the wood has been pre-treated
with a fixative coating, filled and sanded
a process requiring several weeks. The true.
lacquering is then begun, and requires ten
40
base-coats of lacquer, each of which must be
dried for one week, then thoroughly sanded
before the next coat can be applied . For the
11th and final coat, a specially prepared
lacquer is employed . This is the crucial stage,
for all success depends on the quality of this
ultimate coat. A very fine lacquer, thoroughly
sifted and blackened by the iron-oxide , is
required. The article must then be shielded
from any dust , which would spoil the finish.
One week later, a new sanding is necessary,
but this time with an extremely fine coal
powder and whitewash. The worker must
polish endlessly with his palms, until the
surface becomes brilliant.
There are several methods of embellishing
lacquer. The Chinese method , called « Fou
Tcheou » , consists of painting with a colored
lacquer on a background of contrasting color.
The Vietnamese method called « Hanoi >> is
frequently used by Vietnamese master-lacquerers, and requires great care and meticulousness ; in contrast to the Chinese method ,
the finished surface is smooth to the touch.
The artist begins embellishment of the lacquer after the sanding of the eighth coat. For
inlaying, materials such as mother-of-pearl,
gold and silver sheets, and ― more recently
- broken egg shells are used . Once finished,
the embellishment is left to dry before
several black coats are applied . Then, the
sanding is resumed until the decoration
reappears, and the decorated surface is
completely smooth . Another method of embellishing is the « relief » method , whereby
the finished surface is engraved using a
stylus.
There is no common rule in lacquer-work.
It is a highly individual art, and Vietnamese
master-lacquerers have a thousand and one
jealously-guarded secrets which make the
works of each one different and distinctive.
SCENIC
SIGHTS
AND
The variety of scenic spots, the diversity
of customs, the juxtaposition of remnants of
former civilizations with modern buildings,
all
the contrasts of climate and vegetation
make Viet Nam a country unexcelled in
touristic attractions ; and for the native
people as well as for visitors, Viet Nam
exercises a mysterious fascination .
PLACES
OF
INTEREST
its tree-lined
Saigon is a stylish city
streets are lively and colorful . Tu Do (Liberty) Street is the main street of downtown Saigon, designed to cater to the desires
of the many visitors, and great varieties of
luxury articles combining the styles of East
and West are offered for sale here.
Many public buildings erected in the be-
This is a land of easy accessibility. The
capital , Saigon, is a cross-roads between
India, Malaysia, Burma, Thailand , Indonesia,
the Philippines, China and Japan. The Tan
Son Nhut airport is one of the busiest passenger terminals in the world , and the Saigon
River port is able to accomodate the big
ocean liners.
Not far inland from the coastline stretches
the seemingly endless green mantle of the
rice paddies. The ground here is perfectly
flat, and the water of the rivers and canals
continues the evenness of these vast plains.
To the west lie the mountain ranges, with
jungle covered approaches and dense forests
at their base. In a setting of wild and splendid beauty, the exotic flora and fauna of
Viet Nam mingle their mysteries.
Art adds to the splendors of nature : the
lands are covered with temples, pagodas ,
funeral monuments, fortresses and citadels .
Even in the countryside, there are numerous
monuments commemorating sages and emperors.
The following paragraphs list the main
points of interest which are currently accessible to tourists. An eventual end to the
war and the reestablishment of security will
permit the visitor to make all sorts of fascinating excursions into areas presently
inaccessible .
The Delta
The importance of Saigon is explained by
its location at the gateway to the vast and
densely populated paddy -rich region of the
delta. Furthermore, it is connected with the
delta region by as many as 2.500 kilometers
of waterways .
ginning of the 19th century bear a nowoutmoded but gracious architectural style ,
which contrasts dramatically with the slim
lines of modern constructions. This mélange
of architecture is not the least of the capital's many charms.
A visit to the many pagodas and temples
in the vicinity of Saigon is worthwhile because of their picturesque appearance, as
well as their historical significance . Among
these are the Vietnamese pagodas of Giac
Lam , Giac Vien , Phung Son , Van Hanh and
Xa Loi, which houses a relic of the Buddha ;
the India Chettys' temples, the Chinese pagodas in Cholon, and especially the famous
temple of the Emperor of Jade in Dakao are
also extremely interesting.
The Botanical Garden is also a major place
of interest, because of its collections of
orchids and equatorial plants, ranked among
the best in the world . The Zoological Garden
is located in the same place, and a great
variety of wild beasts can be seen there.
The National Museum, also located on the
grounds of the Botanical Garden , was founded in 1929, and shelters art collections which
are unmatched in their splendid representation of the great civilizations of Indochina
and other ancient Oriental civilizations.
Adjoining Saigon is the Chinese town of
Cholon, which literally means «the great
market » . It is truly a Chinese town, with its
own picturesque setting and activity. It is
worth it to make a special visit to Cholon at
night, when the neon-lit streets are packed
with cosmopolitan crowds. Luminous advertising panels, restaurants, entertainment and
pleasure places compete to attract the potential customer. Gourmets can find on Dong
Khanh , Tan Da , and Nguyen Tri Phuong
Streets, renowned restaurants , where Chinese meals for every taste are being served .
41
Gracious and painted , and schooled in the
traditional art of hospitality, are the singers.
who perform to the accompaniment of stringed instruments, which emit strange melodies
of the East, and seem to enhance the refinements of the Chinese cooking.
While in the Chinese town , you should
take the opportunity to visit some typical
Chinese pagodas, such as the Seven Congregations ' Pagoda, the Fu Kien style pagodas,
and the colorful temples on Cay Mai Street.
In Saigon , as in Cholon, what matters most
- besides visiting some places of interest is to let yourself be caught up in the particular environment of the place. The Vietnamese, Chinese, Indians, Americans and
Europeans represent a strange mixture of
civilizations which seem to enhance the aura
of perpetual festivity.
Leaving Saigon through the suburb of Da
Kao and the Avalanch Canal, you will reach
the capital of Gia Dinh, a province rich in
historical vestiges . There, the tomb of the
eunuch Marshal Le Van Duyet - who served
Emperor Gia Long, the architect of Vietnamese reunification - is most deserving of
a visit. Destroyed by Emperor Minh Mang in
1831 , the temple was restored by his successor, Thieu Tri. It was here that people
used to come to take oaths of good faith if
they couldn't afford to go before the courts of
justice . Not far from this temple is the tomb
of the Bishop of Adran , ornamented with an
inscription recalling the friendship which
bound that prelate to the first ruler of the
Nguyen Dynasty.
Only 32 kilometers from Saigon , Bien Hoa
is built on the banks of the Dong Nai River.
Nearby, the various hunting areas such as
the Chua Chan plateau and the Lagna Plain
abound in large and small game. While in
Bien Hoa, visiting the Buu Son temple, one
cannot fail to admire a stone statue of Cham
origin, dating from the 15th century ; this
statue was extracted from a tree trunk ,
where it had been hidden for several centuries. Close by, another place of interest for
the tourist is the famous School of Ceramics
and Bronze Sculpture .
Sailing along the Dong Nai River, one
reaches the Tri An Falls , located 68 kms .
from Saigon. Here , the water falls from a
height of eight meters, forming a 30 meter
wide liquid sheet . In the rainy season , the
Falls feed the Tri An dam at the average of
over 100,000 cubic meters of water per
minute .
42
A stay in South Viet Nam would be incomplete, however , if you failed to visit Cap
Saint Jacques (Vung Tau ) , located on the
coast just to the east of Saigon. From Saigon,
the traveller can drive to the Cape on the
new 35 km. long Bien Hoa highway, the
construction of which began in 1958 with
American aid funds. It was opened to traffic
in 1961. Erected on both sides of the highway
are plants and factories which comprise a
major part of Viet Nam's industry.
The Highlands
One of the most pleasant trips one can
make in South Viet Nam is to Nha Trang,
via a circuitous route which passes through
the mountain resort of Dalat. From Saigon ,
the traveller arrives first in Thu Duc, then
Bien Hoa, and thereafter reaches the Lagna
Plain and the abrupt Blao pass, whose slopes
drop deep into luxurious growths of tropical
flora, bracken, tuft-twisted bamboos, and
trees which reach up as high as 50 meters .
The route then runs in the vicinity of the
32 meter high Bobla Falls, and leads to the
famous tiger hunting area of Djiring. From
Djiring, the route crosses the Dan Hin area ,
passes by the Pongour Falls
one of the
most beautiful in Indochina
as well as
the Gougah and Lien Khuong Falls . In
approaching Dalat, the road winds through
the pine-covered mountains, offering from
time to time a spectacular view of the Langbian Plateau .
Another itinerary passes through Phan
Thiet ; and any traveller fond of panoramic
views can admire vistas which exhibit every
change imaginable - from the tropical jungle
to mountain ranges .
The city of Dalat itself was founded in
1893 by Dr Yersin, one of the most prominent
students of Pasteur. The site of Dalat favored
the creation of an elegant and harmonious
small town, surrounded with flower gardens
and groves of pine trees. Charming villas
with well cared for gardens and lawns are
common in Dalat . A large lake in the middle
of the city is the center for nautical sports ;
and there are plenty of tennis courts , as well
as a golf course which is one of the best in
the Far East.
The Dalat area is also a paradise for the
hunter. A two-hour drive from the town
leads to several game-rich areas , abounding
in deer, roes, peacocks , pheasants , wild boar,
black bear, wild caws, panthers, tigers .
gaurs and elephants. Professional guides are
available.
Because the weather is cool throughout
the year, Dalat was designated as the repository for the Imperial Archives, which makes
the city a must for scholars as well as vacationers . Also due to the cooler climate, the
National Government has encouraged the
founding of a university and other educational institutions in Dalat , including the
National Military Academy.
Central Viet Nam
Nha Trang. Leaving Dalat and descending
to the coast, the traveller will reach city of
Nha Trang, which has some of the finest
beaches in the world. Coral reefs in the bay
are visible from glass - bottomed motor boats,
which are available for off-shore excursions.
The National Oceanographic and Fisheries
Institute is also located in Nha Trang.
The group of Poh Nagar sanctuaries , dominated by a 23 meter high tower, recalls
the past grandeur of the Cham civilization.
There are seven such monuments in the
vicinity of Nha Trang, and they date back
to the 13th century. The most ancient seems
to be the Central Tower, destroyed by
Malayan corsairs in 774 and rebuilt by the
Cham king, Satgavarman , in 784. But the
principal element of the group is the 23
meter high North Tower, built in 817 with
huge bricks stuck together with a kind of
resinous glue.
According to a legendary story , the goddess
Poh Nagar was the inventor of << eagle
wood ». She married the heir to the throne
of China, but following a family squabble ,
she fled to Viet Nam on board a craft made
of the << eagle wood » . Since then, China has
been deprived of this precious substance.
But the legend does not end there. In effect ,
when the Chinese prince realized his spouse
did not intend to return, he chartered a junk
flotilla and sailed for Viet Nam , indending to
bring her back by force if necessary. The
goddess, however, was determined to break
with him , and she caused a tidal wave to
sink the entire fleet. Later, the wrecks of
some of the junks were supposedly transformed into rocks , which are still visible at
the mouth of the river in Nha Trang.
Tourane ( Da Nang ) . The Bay of Tourane ,
which can be admired from the nearby Hai
Van (Clouds) Pass , is exquisitely beautiful ,
and has been favorably compared with the
famous Bay of Naples .
Research undertaken at the Cham centers
of Mi Son and Tra Kieu in the vicinity of
Da Nang, have uncovered the existence of
a highly refined art, akin to the Khmer , and
dating form the 6th century. The finest specimens of this art belong to the collection
of the Da Nang Museum.
Hue. To the north of Da Nang is the former
Imperial Capital of Hue. The beauty and
fineness of the women there are proverbial .
It is, however, within the Citadel , the walled
Imperial City, that the characteristics of
Vietnamese civilization can best be grasped .
The vast Citadel has a walled perimeter
stretching for ten kilometers along the banks
of the tranquil Perfume River. Built in the
Vauban style, with square walls intersected
by fortified gates, the Citadel was the residence of the Emperor, as well as thousands
of courtesans and members of the Imperial
household. Within an inner enclosure , the
Imperial Palace jealously conserves the majesty and mystery of its monuments, yards
and portices .
Surrounding the city of Hue is the Plain
of Tombs, dominated by the « Emperor's
Screen » two hills which have been artificially joined to form a barrier , which is
supposed to defend the city against evil
spirits.
Before reaching the Plain of Tombs, however, the traveller can admire the impressive ,
pine-covered Promenade of Sacrifices, which
contains the altars dedicated to Heaven and
Earth. Every three years, the Emperor came
there to offer the prayers of the people to
the Emperor of the Sky.
The six principle Imperial tombs to visit
are those of Gia Long , Minh Mang , Thieu Tri ,
Tu Duc , Dong Khanh and Khai Dinh . These
mausoleums have been celebrated in the
writings of numerous Vietnamese authors .
and notably by Pham Quynh , who described
the tombs of the Nguyen Dynasty, whose
unforgettable charm derives from the harmony between the monuments and their
natural setting. They represent the patient
and inspired work of an artist whose intention was to embellish the landscape, as if he
were expressing the universal spirit which
broods in these palaces of silence , where the
winds whisper softly through the branches
of the solitary pines . Indeed , one can hardly
find words adequate to express the feeling
of strange quietude and mildness that entreats the visitor to meditation , in this setting of deep solitude and mystery.
43
TRADITIONAL AND POPULAR CELEBRATIONS AND FESTIVALS
Each people has a certain number of festivals of its own. Whether these celebrations
derive from popular traditions or commemorate historic events , each one has its own
characteristics and particular rites .
Among the holidays listed on the calendar,
there are those whose origins are unquestionable foreign, such as the « Thanh Minh »
Festival (« Pure Light » ) , which bears the
stamp of Chinese influence even in the
smalllest particulars. The same is true of the
feast called « Vu Lan » (« Forgiveness of the
deceased's sins or All Soul's Day » ) which
has both Hindu and Chinese origins, and
introduced into Viet Nam by the
Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) Buddhists. In
effect, the << Vu Lan » celebration is simply
a variant of the « Ullumballa » cult, encouraged by Buddha himself in order to halt
the masacre of game in India at the period
of the year when the animals flee the
monsoon floods.
In addition to these , there are many popular feasts which are typically and purely
Vietnamese. The main traditional feasts are
listed below in chronological order, according
to the lunar calendar.
1.
Nguyen Dan, Lunar New Year's Day
2.
Trang Nguyen, or Feast of the Laureates
3.
Han Thuc , or Feast of the Cold Food
4.
Thanh Minh, or Pure Light Festival
5.
Doan Ngo, or Feast of the Double Five
(the 5th day of the 5th lunar month)
6.
That Tich , or Feast of the Double Seven
(7th day of the 7th lunar month)
7.
Vu Lan, or All Soul's Day
8.
Trung Thu , or Mid-Autumn Festival
9.
Trung Cuu , or Double Nine Day
10.
Tao Quan,
Gods.
or Feast
of the
kitchen
Tet Nguyen Dan : The Tet or Vietnamese
New Year's Day begins the first day of the
first month of the lunar year. Tet Nguyen
Dan, which means Feast of the First Morning, is considered the most important, attractive and picturesque one of the whole year.
44
Tet is a feast of sounds , perfumes, and colors.
The warmest and liveliest colors are displayed in shop windows, in house interiors.
and in the new clothes made for the occasion :
the blood red of banners lettered in Chinese
characters — the creamy-white of the chryssaffron yellow
anthemums in full bloom
of the tangerines - bright green of juicy
grapefruit -- vivid orange slices of water
melon
garnet red of roasted pigs, and
multicolored robes of the women... all combine to reveal the splendor of nature and
the intense joy of living ; augmenting this
effect are musical sounds, firecrackers , and
the most diverse aromas, varying from the
subtle perfume of flowers to the pungent
odor of the incense sticks. On this occasion ,
the tailoring shops are swamped with orders ,
and people of all classes spend their money
of the purchase of the most extravagant
items, in order to greet the New Year
properly.
Properly speaking , the solemnities begin
days prior to Tet. The head of the family
lights candles on the ancestral altars and
burns sandalwood in the incense burners.
Then, tray- loads of delicacies and paper
articles representing a heron , a horse, a pair
of high boots, a courtier's robe and a mandarin's cap are presented to the household
gods. This is the <«< Bidding farewell to the
kitchen gods » ceremony, who are supposed
to ascend to Heaven to present their report
on the behavior of the members of the family
of which they are the guardians. The head
of the family bows down before the altar ,
inviting the gods to taste the exquisite meals
and the perfumed liquors. After the ritual
genuflexions are performed , the head of the
family expresses the wish that the report to
be made on high will be not unfavorable to
the family. The offerings in paper are then
burned. With their brand-new clothing the
kitchen gods will be fit for their stay in the
Heavens, and the horse furnished to them
will make their journey less tiring. Exploding firecrackers mark their departure for the
Heavens . Following the offerings to the
household gods is the family meal, which is
composed of the dishes taken from the altar.
This is a Tet's eve feast and the whole family celebrates it together.
But this is only the beginning , and the
preparations for the Tet continue at feverpace . The women wrap glutinous rice to
make Tet pudding and prepare meat paste .
The children busy themselves with polishing
bronze ustensils incense burners, perfume
pots and spitoons to make them radiant.
The house must be made meticulously clean
and tidy. The interiors are adorned with
flowers and ideograms, which are painted on
banners and hung on the walls. Flower pots
and artificial plants are arranged to represent
to centenary trees, and appear in almost
every corner of the living room. Pillars are
covered with parallel scrolls bearing poetic
wishes for longevity, prosperity and the like.
A high bamboo pole surmounted with amulets and tufts of leaves is planted in front
of the house as a signal for the deceased
relatives and benevolent spirits to enter the
family household and as a warming to the
malevolent spirits to go away.
The last day before the Tet, from noon .
the streets are empty of people and markets
are closed. In each house , big candles placed
on the altars of the ancestors are lighted and
incense sticks burned . Aloe wood is burned
in perfume pans sending up spirals of blue
smoke. Prepared meals are arranged on the
altar and the whole family gathers to await
the return of the spirits of the dead . Custom
dictates that the return takes place exactly
at midnight, and the living descendents must
be on hand to greet them , standing in front
of the altar in a respectful posture . Salvos
of firecrackers mark the welcome ceremony
and continue until dawn. In the house, the
perfume of incense adds to the aura of
mystery. The members of the family take
turns bowing down in front of the altar,
three times each , saying a formula of welcome to the ancestral spirits. The glasses are
kept filled with perfumed liquors. The head
of the family makes three genuflexions and
murmurs an invitation to the spirits of the
deceased ancestors to attend the first Spring
feast. From this moment, all human problems
and worries are set aside . A general truce
begins, warding off all the concerns of daily
existence .
All the words and actions on this first
morning are to be carefully checked , because
they may be omens : superstition reigns
supreme. Everybody lies in wait for the first
animal cry to be heard . Will it be a cock ?
If so , it portends bad crops, because the
gallinaceae will eat all the grain ! Or a
buffalo ? We will have a toilsome year ahead !
If a dog's bark is heard first, we will have
no fear of theft.
At dawn, everybody gets up ealier than
usual. The children put on their new clothes ,
always a cut larger than their body size
because of the wish of their mothers that
they grow fast during the New Year. The
parents receive wishes of happiness and
longevity respectfully voiced by their children, who bow before them .
But what is most characteristic of this first
day of Spring is its religious aspect. While
copious meals taken from the altars are
served to the children , the grown-ups abstain
from eating before visiting the pagodas and
temples.
Social calls on the New Year's Day are
rare, because the personality of the visitor
influences the fate of the visited family for
the next 365 days . A person in mourning , or
a pregnant woman must abstain from making
calls. Only visits by virtuous and fortunate
people are appropriate for the inauguration
of a happy year. New Year's Day callers must
be people holding a good social position, or
the parents of many children. Courtesy or
good neighborhood calls should be delayed
to the following days. Certain families take
the precaution of closing their homes to
unexpected visitors, and solicit instead the
visit of a prominent person who will assure
them good luck. Wishes of prosperity , longevity and happines are generally exchanged .
It is forbidden to squabble with one another
during the first days of the New Year, and
words of anger and coarse language are
forbidden. Further, it is a bad omen to break
kitchenware . Sewing and sweeping are also
forbidden, because that means toil and sweat
for the rest of the year. Furthermore , the
movement of the broom on the floor would
mean the expulsion of the Spirit of Prosperity from the family. Everyone is careful not
to utter the name of any animal, whether it
be dogs, monkeys , pigs or any other creature,
since this would attract misfortune.
In the meantime , ritual ceremonies go on.
The offerings to the ancestors and other
spirits are renewed and each trade has its
own cult the laborer pays a pious tribute
to his plough, and the craftsman to his tools .
and the protecting gods of these implements
receive offerings of flowers and incense ,
alcohol and meals .
As for the intellectuals , they welcome the
New Year with their paintings glorifying
flowers and Spring, and this is the period of
45
the year when literary production is the most
abundant. The walls in the houses of the rich
and poor alike are literally covered with
Chinese characters painted on scarlet paper.
A sample, glorifying the renewal of Nature
is entitled ,
<< I open the shutters looking out on the
yard.
Spring is back.
<< Pairs of white butterflies
<< Beating their wings
<< Dance on the enchanted flowers . >>
(Poem by King Ly Thanh Tong) .
Evenings are spent in an atmosphere of
general jolliness . Games of chance, riddles
and the declamation of ancient verses are
favorite distractions. This is also the period
of the year when the traditional theatre
attracts the most spectators, because everyone seeks there an omen for the future.
At dusk, on the third day of the festival,
the families bid farewell to the spirits of the
ancestors . To mark the separation, much
votive paper is burned , to symbolize the gold
and silver which will be needed on the long
journey to the other world.
On the 7th day the bamboo pole is removed
from the yard and people return to their
daily lives and normal occupations , free of
any dreams. However, the Tet is not over and
the festival will continue informally among
many people until their resources are completely expended .
The Other Feasts of the Year : After the
Tet Nguyen Dan comes the Trang Nguyen
(First Laureat) feast, observed on the 15th
day of the first lunar month . It is an evening
party, whose origin is traced to the time
when the Emperor used to stage a banquet
on the night of the first full moon . The most
prominent scholars of the kingdom were
invited to attend , and while drinking perfumed liquor , each man would compose an
extemporaneous poem on a theme chosen by
the Emperor. Gradually, the Trang Nguyen
feast was transformed into a religious feast ,
during which people make pilgrimages to
temples and pagodas to implore divine benediction . As an old saying puts it, « The 15th
day of the First Lunar month prevails over
all other dates of the year for the pious
practices. >>
The next festival does not occur until the
Third Day of the Third lunar Month when
the Han Thuc (Cold Meal) feast takes place.
On this occasion , young men and girls used
to walk around lakes or on river banks and
throw flowers into the water. Women and
46
maidens of the aristocratic families went out
to pick mulberry leaves for the silk worms,
because
according to tradition - the production of silk could be good only if started
at that period of the year. On returning
home , people eat « Banh Chay » or « Banh
Troi », a kind of sweetened paste made out
of glutinous rice. The tradition requires that
these cakes be eaten cold to honor the
memory of Gioi Tu Thoi , a mandarin who
had saved his king, but later was forgotten
by him. Bitter and sad, Gioi Tu Thoi allowed
himself to die in a forest fire rather than
return to accept a position in the Court of
the ungrateful king. That is why, on the
anniversary of his death people abstain from
eating hot food, for fear that the fire will
rekindle the sadness of his ancestors.
Fifteen days after the Spring Equinox (the
30th day of the Third lunar month) , comes
the Thanh Minh (Pure Light) festival. This
is the period of the year when the sky is
the most serene, the light the brightest, and
the weather the finest. This weather is conducive to out-door walks , and the people
take advantage of the occasion to visit cemetaries and clean the tombs.
The Doan Ngo Feast (Double Five ) is
celebrated on the 5th day of the 5th lunar
month , when the principle of Yang (the
positive element) is at its apogee. With the
Summer Solstice , the Yang begins its declining course , giving way to the Yin (the
negative element originating Cold and Darkness) which ascends until the moment when
the equilibrium of the two principles is
achieved at the Autumnal Equinox. On the
occasion of the Doan Ngo Feast , people used
eat large quantities of fruit, and vegetables,
and to have their nails hennaed . The women
set their necklaces with amulets, and the
children have multicolored threads tied
around their wrists to frighten away the
evil spirits. At noon , the whole family walks
to the woods to collect medicinal herbs to
dry and store , because the samples picked
on that day are believed to cure parasitic
diseases and to provide an antidote for snake
poisoning. It was also claimed that on this
occasion no wall lizards could be found.
The That Tich (Dark Seven) or Double
Seven feast (7th day of the 7th lunar month)
commemorates the unlucky romance between
the Celestial Cowherd and the Spinner.
Moved by the love of the lowly cowhead
for his daughter, the Emperor of Jade agreed
to their union ; but the newly married couple
gave themselves up to their passions to the
point of forgetting their respective occupations. The cowherd neglected his cows and
the Spinner her loom. Infuriated by this
behavior, the Emperor of Jade decided to
isolate them from each other, and drew the
Milky Way as a separation line between
them. They were permitted to meet each
other briefly, however, once a year on the
7th day of the 7th month . In order to enable
them to cross the Milky Way, a bridge was
periodically cast across it , built by the crows .
The bridge was called the Crow Bridge and
the Milky Way was called the Ngan Ha (the
Silver River) . Thus, the legend explains ,
crows become bald at that period of year as
a result of their efforts to carry stones to
build the bridge . Every year, as the day of
the Happy Meeting approaches, the Spinner
is overjoyed with gratitude and sets out to
produce as much silk as possible, thus filling
the sky with pieces of downy, white silk
called the << Virgin thread . » The night of the
meeting she sheds pearly tears of joy, which
drop to the earth in a fine and beneficial rain
called << Mua Ngau » (the Cowherd rain) .
The Vu Lan (Forgiveness for the Sens of
the Dead) feast coincides with the 7th lunar
month's full moon ( 15th day) . This is the
occasion for each person to offer prayers
for the redemption of sins committed by
deceased relatives and wandering souls. According to legend , a man named Muc Lien,
alias La Boc, was extremely intelligent, and
a model of filial piety. He lost his father
while still young, and lived with his mother,
a very cruel and covetous woman. Grieved
at his mother's behavior, Muc Lien left the
family home for another region , where , by
dint of hard work and frugality, he soon
became a rich man and sent his mother
a big sum of money, which she quickly
squandered . To cheat her son, she took
refuge in a pagoda and pretended that she
had spent the money supporting saintly
activities and charitable actions. When he
returned to his native village , Muc Lien
learned the sad truth , and his heart was
heavy with grief. A little later, the mother
died . Muc Lien then built a hut near her
tomb, and continued to live there as a pious
son, mourning her death for three consecutive years. At the end of the mourning
period , Muc Lien set out for the country of
the Lord Buddha and implored Buddha to
accept him as a disciple .
One day, after becoming a monk, he
decided to visit the Thien Thai pagoda ,
where the spirits of the dead gathered to
await their next reincarnation. There , he
found the spirit of his father , but not of his
mother. Buddha explained that his mother
was still in Hell , being purged of the innumerable sins she had committed during
her lifetime ; and he granted Muc Lien permission to visit her there . When he returned .
Muc Lien fell down at the feet of the Buddha
imploring pardon for his mother. Moved by
such filial piety , Buddha ordered him to go
to Vuong Xi where the mother had been reincarnated as a dog. Making use of his
supernatural powers, Muc Lien was able to
return his mother to human form and thereafter devoted himself to teaching her the
doctrines of Buddha.
This festival thus is dedicated to the
virtue of filial piety, by which devoted
children can intercede on behalf of their
ancestors.
The Trung Thu (Mid -Autumn) festival
falls on the 15th day of the 8th lunar month,
when the moonlight is believed to exert its
most benevolent influence on the earth .
Scholars and poets would glorify the occasion in verse, while the youths stayed up
till dawn, exchanging spirited love songs to
attract the attention of the old Man in the
Moon (Nguyet Lao) and the Moon Lady (Ba
Nguyet) , the mystic personages whose role
it was to twist the red wool thread of
Hymen. As for married people, they drink
tea and eat moonshaped cakes, while contemplating the Buffalo Keeper resting at the
foot of the ancient banyan tree, whose image
is etched on the bright surface of the moon.
The moon also houses the Great Palace of
Coldness , reserved to the Princess Hang Nga ,
whose beauty was immortalized , thanks to
miraculous drugs stolen from the Goddess
of the West. The palace was one visited by
Emperor Duong Minh Hoang, who reached
it by way of a luminous bridge, prepared
for him by a Taoist priest. The Emperor was
greeted on the moon by fairies of incomparable beauty and charm, who danced to
the accompaniment of sensual music in an
enchanted setting. To commemorate this
journey, people organize paper lantern and
torch processions, as well as lion dances
which greatly appeal to the children .
The
Trung
Cuu
(Double
Nine)
feast
reminds people of the rapid passage of time,
and during this festival poets organize trips
to the mountains in search of still green
spots. They walk in small groups, wandering
for long hours, and drinking liquors while
enjoying the sight of the surviving splendours of Autumn.
47
THE
MORAL
AND
Among the Vietnamese, the honest man
is born amidst traditions and rites ; as an
adolescent , he seeks to improve himself
through culture ; and in maturity , he aims
at wisdom through following the spiritual
path . This pattern is not an abstract ideal .
but a way of life which often leads to an
attitude of tolerance and detachment. The
bulk of the Vietnamese people lived for
centuries in this environment of ancestral
beliefs and religious doctrines.
Popular Beliefs
Nowhere on earth, according to the philosopher Jung , does a society exist which is
not convinced of the immortal and transcendental nature of the human soul, embodied in a psychic principle capable of
surviving the disintegration of the body.
With the Vietnamese , as with a great number of others who have lived under Chinese
influence , this psychic principle consists of
a number of more or less pure elements : man
possesses three souls (<« hon » ) , and seven
vital principles ( « phach » ) . Whereas the
three souls command the superior functions
(life , intelligence . perception) , the seven
vital principles are concerned with the visceral functions . For this reason , woman is
said to have nine vital principles instead of
seven, because of her supplementary responsibilities of childbearing . The plants have
only the soul-life (« sinh hon ») , whereas the
animals have an additional sensory soul
(<«
< giac hon » ) . Human beings , having a monopoly on intelligence . are the only creatures
which possess three souls , of which the << linh
hon » is the transcendental one . While the
principles related to the organic functions
wane with life , the « linh hon » possesses the
capacity for survival. This is the origin of
the Cult of the Ancestors , which Confucius
elevated to level of a moral duty , regulated
by strict rites.
According to pure Confucianist doctrine .
one must honor the dead on a par with the
living ; and the greatest misfortune conceivable is to die without leaving a male descendant to perpetuate the Cult of the Ances-
48
RELIGIOUS
UNIVERSE
tors . Later , this rule was relaxed to permit
daughters to carry on the cult, in case there
were no male descendants . If a man dies
without leaving any descendants at all, however, the souls of the dead , for lack of
homage and honor on the occasions of traditional feasts and anniversaries, are doomed
to eternal wandering - one of the most
appalling maledictions which could afflict
any family. It is thus that the custom of
polygamy among the Vietnamese was explained, and justified in the eyes of the law :
it more or less assured that there would be
a descendant to perpetuate the cult. Adoption was considered to be a last resort.
The cult of the ancestors is accompanied
by a certain number of beliefs and practices,
some of them deriving from Confucian
teachings , and others originating from popular superstitions and Taoist rites. Many
poeple , whether scholars or common folk.
believe that the souls of their ancestors are
the natural protectors of the family line :
it is to them that prayers are addressed , imploring . for example, the curing of a sick
child ; their influence, and the sum of good
actions they accomplished in the lifetimes .
are also used to explain success in business ,
in examinations , and all other fortunate
developments .
In wealthy families, the ancestors' altar
is a piece of furniture of great value , made
of hand-carved wood, red and gold painted,
on which are arranged copper candlesticks
and perfume pans . The names of the ancestors for the past four generations are inscribed on mahogany tablets : beyond that
generation , the dead are supposedly already
reincarnated . The altar itself is placed in the
main room of the house , where it is ordinary
shielded from view by a red silk curtain.
Carved and painted panels fixed on the walls
or against the pillars, bear inscriptions whose
texts are usually composed by scholars who
are personal friends of the family. But
whether the ancestors' altar is richly adorned, or consists merely of a white-painted .
ordinary wooden table , it is always the place
where the entire family gathers on the
occasions of the main feasts of the year. It
is the rallying place - a symbol of family
solidarity. Around the altar, in the presence
of the ancestors, all discord must disappear :
and it is before the altar that major decisions
are made. and marriages consecrated .
The cult of the ancestors , which has no
connection with religious faith, exerts a
profound influence on the daily life of the
Vietnamese people. The recollection of the
ancestors
the fear of offending them or
soiling their reputations
coupled with the
desire to please them , are sources of inspiration, which guide the actions of the descendants. Even for a hardened sinner , to lack
respect for the ancestors is the worst offense
imaginable .
The cult of the ancestors can act as a substitute for religion , and many Vietnamese
content themselves with it. But this cult is
only a consequence , or a sort of continuation
of the respect owed to the parents beyond
their terrestrial existence . Thus, filial piety
and the cult of the ancestors are but two
aspects of a single obligation . Filial piety
stems from the idea that a child is indebted
to his parents for all the sacrifices they made
for his upbringing and education. The child
thus owes his parents many favors and kindnesses , in addition to gratitude for the
greatest kindness of all
the gift of life.
Consequently . the child owes submission to
the authors of his existence , no matter what
his age. When his parents grow older, he
ought to prove his gratitude by providing for
their wants . As in the words of a popular
song :
The kindnesses of my father are comparable to the Thai mountain .
Those of my mother, to a perennial Spring.
With great fervor I venerate my father
and my mother
In order to conduct myself as a pious son.
In every family , as a rule , a part of the
inheritance will be set aside for use the cult
of the ancestors , to assure the perpetuation
of the rites. This part of inherited property
is called «<< worshipped property » (« huong
hoa >> ) , and is entrusted to the most worthy
of the heirs, frequently the eldest son , who
receives a life annuity from this source . For
fear that any impious son might venture to
sell this <«< inalienable » property, the Gia
Long Code stipulated that any descendant
who attempted illicitly to sell the property
bequeathed to him by his parents, and designed to cover the expenses of the ancestral
cult. will be severely punished .
Confucianism
The doctrine of Confucius is set forth in
the four classical texts called « Tu Thu »
and in the five canonical works called
<< Ngu Kinh » . The origins of the world did
not hold much interest for Confucius and
this is why he chose to dedicate himself
instead to social problems. He founded his
doctrine on the basis of etiology . As a realist.
he proceded as a sculptor would, realizing
that the final form can be molded only after
the starting materials have been properly
prepared. Thus, the stability of a regime
depends on an ideal, and this ideal can have
value only if it is based on great examples
from the past.
Starting with this conception , Confucius
instituted the cult of the ancestors, which
places the dead relatives in the very heart
of the household ; since this time, the family
has been required to respect this tradition ,
because none would dare to offend or provoke the souls of the dead.
In order to comprehend the doctrine of
Confucius, it is necessary to sketch the main
lines of his philosophy, which encompasses
his conception of the universe, of man and
his principles of government - in short, all
his guiding ideas.
Cosmology . According to Confucius , in the
beginning there was no God, but rather ,
an ether which was laden with molecules
called << Khi » , which carried within themselves a creative and moving force called
«< ly », the force of gravitation . The ether,
which was inert in the beginning, was transformed by the action of this force with the
result that matter was created . Living creatures in turn , were created from the matter
thus produced . According to Confucius, the
world undergoes periodic changed
at the
beginning of each one of these great transformations , all molecules are freed to move
unhindered in space. Under the influence of
the << Ly » gravitational force , a sort of
cosmic fermentation takes place , and in this
way the matter for the following period is
produced . The lighter molecules then rise to
form the firmament, while the heavier ones
descend to make up the planets . All of the
creatures which are produced from this original cosmic matter are categorized as either
male or female , and are thus subject to the
general laws which govern male and female
behavior.
49
The Innate Goodness of Man. According to
Mencius, the most distinguished of Confucius' disciples, man is inherently good ;
and to preserve this inherent goodness, it is
only necessary to keep passions in check. If
men do not live up to their potential goodness, it is because they neglect their intellect,
which atrophies in the hum-drum routine of
everyday life . The wise man, in contrast to
the ordinary man, improves himself through
study ; he knows himself, and is the master
of his passions. For this he will be honored
by his heirs, and his soul will have peace in
the hereafter. In sum, those who do good are
rewarded and those who do evil must suffer
the consequences .
Self-Perfection. According to Confucius,
there are four rules which must be followed
the model woman should possess the four
essential virtues : skill with her hands ,
agreeable appearance, prudence in speech,
and exemplary conduct.
Propagation of Confucianism in Viet Nam.
Confucianism was introduced to Viet Nam
during the period of Chinese domination .
Later, even with the period of national independence , 939 to 1407, the Vietnamese did
not abandon the traditions of Confucianism .
Thus, it is clear that the politico-philosophic
system of Confucianism has left a profound
impression on the social structure of the
country. The Confucian system of competitive examinations was adopted by the Vietnamese to determine elegibility for admission to civil and military posts . Concerning
to achieve perfection . First, one must be
interested in everything which exists , and
second, be able to penetrate the secret , inner
essence of things. The third requirement is
clear thinking, and the fourth is a pure
heart.
these competitions, the Annals report that
they were first held in 1070, that a temple
of literature dedicated to Confucius and 72
wise men was built in 1075 , and that the first
Vietnamese Academy was instituted in 1086,
headed by Mac Hien Tich, a First Doctor of
the kingdom . Started at this time , the literary competitions were held almost without
Social Relations . Confucianism is a doctrine of social hierarchies, whose effectiveness has been demonstrated by history ; the
status quo was maintained by the doctrine
better than it could have been by the use
of force. Confucianism defines the attitudes
which each member of the society should
have by rigid rules ; and it prescribes the
formula for three all-important sets of social
interaction , called « Tam Cuong ». These
interactions are between ruler and subject,
interruption , even up to the beginning of
the Twentieth Century, and furnished the
country with competent military and civil
leaders. At that time, it was thought that the
requirements of a military education did not
differ very much from those necessary for a
ruler. Thus, Vietnamese generals were not
only military strategists, but were men of
letters as well ; and the orders of the day
were often written in poetic form.
« Quan Than » , between father and son, « Phu
Tu », and between husband and wife , « Phu
Phu ». It also dictates a moral code for the
man of virtue, « Quan Tu », who should be
a living example of the five cardinal virtues :
humanity, equity, urbanity, intelligence and
honesty. The man of virtue should also
follow a path of moderation : exaggeration
in any direction is to be avoided , and equanimity is to be cultivated. This attitude has
often been mistaken by Westerners for impassiveness, placidity , or even hypocrisy.
This moral perfection may be progressively
attained by traversing four essential steps :
the improvement of oneself, the management
of the family, the governing of the country,
and finally, the pacification of the world.
As for the woman, she should in all circumstances conform to the three obediences :
obedience to her father until she is married,
obedience to her husband after she leaves
her father's house , and obedience to her
eldest son, should she be widowed . Further,
50
As far as the distribution of wealth is
concerned, Confucianism teaches that poverty is less to be feared than injustice , since
the latter engenders hatred and jealousy.
The principle of communal autonomy is
so important in Viet Nam that it is unsurpassed in any other region of the world . An
old adage illustrates this very well : « The
customs of the village take precedence over
the laws of the King ». The administration
of the village is handled by a Council of
Notables , elected by the people . Since the
15th Century, each village has been required
to make an annual payment to the national
treasury .
The ancient Vietnamese society was, in
principle, divided into four loosely defined
farmers, artisans, merchants and
classes
scholars. No one was a prisoner of his class
at birth, because anyone at all could become
provided
a Governor or Prime Minister
that his culture and his merits enabled him
to win in the triennal literary competitions.
According to the principles of Confucianism , the State belongs to everyone. Any
ruler who possessed the Mandate of Heaven
was considered responsible for both the fortunes and misfortunes of his people . Since
the people knew the will of Heaven, it was
the duty of the leaders to respect the people's
desires - to love what the people love, and
to hate what the people hate. This concept
of democracy was condensed by Mencius in
the formula, « First comes the people, then
comes the state, and the King is negligible. >»
It is thanks to these egalitarian principles
of Confucianism that the Vietnamese were
able, during their long history, to accomplish
their social evolution and a democratic apprenticeship without bloodshed or disorder.
Buddhism
The origins of Buddhism in Viet Nam can
be traced to the Second Century.
The Philosophy of Buddha. For the Buddhist, life is seen as a vast sea of suffering ,
in which man wallows hopelessly. If effect,
the vicious circle of existence is renewed in
the course of endless reincarnations. Buddha
himself taught that, « All the pain which we
suffer is caused by Desire : desire for life ,
happiness, riches , power, and so on. If desire
were suppressed, the cause of pain would be
destroyed. » The essence of Buddhist teaching is contained in the concept of Kharma,,
the law of causality : the present existence
is conditioned by earlier existences, and will
condition those to follow. Thus, the virtuous
man should strive constantly to improve
himself by doing good deeds, and by renouncing sensual pleasures, so that he can
become conscious of the existence of Buddha ,
who is present in every living being. Consequently, desire must first be overcome ;
and a pure heart is necessary to break the
chains binding man to his earthly existence.
Greater and Lesser Vehicles. Born in India,
Buddhism spread rapidly throughout Asia.
Nevertheless , its disciples ― without wantcreated a schism. In fact, the form
ing to
of Buddhism which was taught by monks
who took the overland route differed significantly from the form taught by those who
crossed the Indian Ocean to the lands bordering the Pacific. Thus , the religion propagated
along the paths of the great historic migrations was the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle,
while the religion which was carried over
the maritime routes as Hinayana, or Lesser
Vehicle Buddhism. The Greater Vehicle Buddhism , in the course of its long migrations ,
was gradually modified to include a number
of minor Buddhas. On the contrary, Buddhism of the Lesser Vehicle kept all the
rigor of the teaching of the Buddha : pity,
morality, patience, zeal, contemplation and
knowledge.
Propagation of Buddhism in Viet Nam.
About two-thirds of Viet Nam's approximately 30 million people are of Buddhist faith.
Since the Second Century the Vietnamese
people were already acquainted with the
great Buddhist doctrine which stresses the
transitory nature of all things.
In its early stages, during the period of
Chinese domination, Buddhism did not receive any official support, since the Chinese
were mainly concerned with the doctrine of
Confucianism. The brief independence of
Viet Nam from 544 to 602, favored the expansion of Buddhism. But it was during the
third Chinese domination from 603 to 939
that real progress was made, thanks to the
arrival of two foreign missions of the Dhyana
sect.
In 939, Ngo Quyen overthrew the Chinese
and established a new regime. But the rebellion of the twelve feudal Lords thwarted
his ambitions. During this troubled period,
which lasted for three decades, Buddhism
marked time.
With the coming to power Dinh Bo Linh ,
Buddhism enjoyed an era of prosperity
which was to last until 1009. The Emperor
Dinh Bo Linh brought a monk into the Court,
who taught the Emperor the lessons of the
Dharma. In appreciation for this, the Emperor appointed the monk as head of the
Buddhist Clergy, which had just been
formed. Buddhism continued to benefit from
the favors of the Crown under later rulers
of this dynasty, and all the great scholars of
the Court were drawn from the Buddhist
Clergy. Thus , it is easy to understand why
the Court continued to give its protection to
Buddhism , and favored its expansion.
In the year 1009, a palace revolt put an end
to reign of the Le and brought to power a
mandarin by the name of Ly Cong Uan, who
assumed the royal name of Ly Thai To. He
immediately gave his protection to Buddhism , which was soon to attain the high
point of its development. The successors to
Ly Thai To continued to show their piety
and devotion to Buddhism. Under the reign
51
of Ly Thai Tong, 95 pagodas were built and
all the existing temples and statues of Buddha were restored. In 1049, the Emperor had
a dream in which he was led to the Palace
of the Lotus. As a result of this dream , he
ordered the construction of a temple in the
form of a lotus flower. This is the famous
single pillared temple in Hanoi . The third
king of the dynasty, Ly Thanh Tong, was a
living incarnation of Buddhist compassion.
During his reign, he ordered food and clothing to be distributed to the needy, and
granted pardons to numerous prisoners.
Under the reign of Ly Thanh Tong, Confucianism entered into the intellectual life
of the country via the competitions for recruiting new mandarins. These Confucianist
scholars, however, were not concerned with
Buddhism. At the beginning of the Tran
Dynasty, all the signs indicated that Buddhism would maintain its position despite
the renewed competition from Confucianism.
But after a period of uncertainty, Buddhism
was faced with the challenge of still other
competing doctrines. Notably, in 1414, Viet
Nam fell under the rule of the Ming Dynasty,
which instilled new vigor into Confucianism.
The Chinese governors destroyed many temples, and confiscated all the Buddhist books.
In 1428, Viet Nam recovered its independence ; but the Emperor Le Thai To instituted an examination for the monks, who
had to become laymen again if they failed .
Thirty years later, Buddhists were subjected
to strict surveillance , and were forbidden to
construct any new pagodas. Thereafter, Buddhism survived among the people only as
one element in a mixture of religious beliefs.
From 1528 to 1602, thanks to the struggle
between the Trinh in the North and the
Nguyen in the South, Buddhism regained
some lost ground : new Dhyana sects were
formed , and many monastaries were restored .
In 1601 , Nguyen Hoang ordered the construction of the Pagoda of the Heavenly Lady,
which can still be seen in the city of Hue.
With the coming to power of the Nguyen
in the South, however, Buddhism became a
political tool , and the monks were reduced
to the function of guardians of the pagodas.
They decay of discipline in the very heart
of the monastaries was to provoke a devastating decline of Buddhism.
Modern Buddhism . 1920 saw the beginning
of an organized movement for the restoration of Buddhism throughout the country.
Starting in 1931 , Associations of Buddhist
52
Studies were established in the South, the
Center, and North Viet Nam. The goal of
these Associations was the regeneration of
the Buddhist community, with a view to
providing the country with faithful and
educated monks. Many translations of both
Greater and Lesser Vehicle Buddhist texts
were distributed . The Dhyana sect, however,
died out, while amidism - which makes
Amitaba, the first historical Buddha , a metaphysical divinity - grew in popularity. The
popularization of the doctrine was supported
by all the Vietnamese social classes.
Unfortunately these advances were wiped
out by the Second World War. In 1948, the
monks reassembled in Hanoi. In 1949, an
orphanage, a private college and other works
of good will for the benefit of war victims
appeared both in Hanoi and in the provinces.
In South and in Central Viet Nam, the same
reorganization took place with equal success.
On May 6, 1951 , a National Congress at Hue
brought together many delegates from the
Buddhist Associations in the country. Among
other things, the Congress ratified the proposition of the Buddhist delegate from the
North, that Vietnamese Buddhism join the
World Association of Buddhism. The Second
World Congress which met in Tokyo in 1932,
gave Vietnamese Buddhism a chance to
demonstrate its vitality. All things considered, it can be said that Buddhism remains the
most wide-spread of Vietnamese religions.
Finally, let us mention the efforts to
renovate and reunify Buddhism which have
permitted the foundations to be laid for a
unified Buddhist Church, and the creation of
the Buddhist Institute for the Propagation
of the Faith, the Vien Hoa Dao.
Christianity
In comparison with the other religions of
Viet Nam , Christianity was introduced relatively recently. In fact, it was not until the
16th century that Christian missionaries
began preaching the Gospel to the Vietnamese ; and their efforts met with greater
success here than elsewhere in Asia. Also ,
because of the strong regionalism discussed
previously, the tendency was for large portions of a community to convert at the same
time ; as a result, the Catholic population is
for the most part grouped into separate communities , which possess a strong sense of
unity and coherence.
The first who arrived in Viet Nam to propagate the Catholic faith were Saint Oderic
de Pordenone and Saint Francis Xavier. En
route to China in the beginning of the 14th
century, the former stopped off in the
Champa kingdom, located in what is now
the province of Binh Dinh, South Viet Nam.
The latter, Patron Saint of the Orient, landed
in Central Viet Nam in the 15th century,
seeking refuge from a storm which arose
during his voyage to Canton.
Later, in 1533, the Emperor Le Trang Tong
issued a decred forbidding the teaching of
Christianity by a missionary named Inigs
Ingace in the villages of Ninh Cuong , Quan
Anh, and Tra Lu, in the province of Nam
Dinh. Nevertheless, the next fifty years saw
the arrival of a continuous stream of Catholic
missionaries from France , Spain and Portugal. In fact, the Spanish missionary, Ordonnez de Cevallos , was able to convert the
sister of Emperor Le The Tong in 1591 , as
well as several other members of the royal
family ; however, Vietnamese documents of
this period do not mention this.
Following the request of Alexandre de
Rhodes, Pope Alexander VII appointed the
first two Bishops for the Far East in 1659.
Lambert de la Motte and François Pallu who
were thus designated , took up their posts in
Viet Nam, with the former going to the
South, and the latter to the North. In 1668,
at Yuthia, Siam, the first four Vietnamese
priests were ordained by Msgr. Lambert de
la Motte ; and in the next year, acting for
Msgr. Pallu , he ordained seven more priests
in North Viet Nam. Msgr. Pallu , who was in
Rome at the time, requested that six new
Bishops be chosen for Viet Nam, from these
newly ordained native priests. However, circumstances did not permit this request to
be granted .
During the 17th century, persecutions of
Catholic priests and their followers took
many lives in the North as well as the South.
In the 18th century, the persecutions became
even more severe in 1750 , Vo Vung expelled
26 foreign missionaries at one time , and
there remained in the country only three
Vietnamese priests to carry on the work of
the Missions.
With the coming to power of Gia Long in
1802, the Church enjoyed a period of relative
peace, which was interrupted sporadically
under the reigns of Gia Long's successors ;
notably, during the reign of Tu Duc ( 18481983) , the persecution of Catholics was
resumed, since this Confucianist monarch
feared that the newer religion would undermine the traditional social order.
After all these vicissitudes , the peace of
the Church was reestablished in 1888. Since
then, the number of converts has continually
increased ; from 420,000 in 1840, their numbers grew to 1,237,000 in 1927. In 1933 , the
Vietnamese secular clergy saw the consecration of its first Bishop, Msgr. Nguyen Ba
Tong ; and since this time , the Vietnamese
vicarates have gradually been placed under
the jurisdiction of native Bishops ; although
as late as 1960 , there were still two which
remained under the direction of the Foreign
Missions in Paris.
In 1965 , there were reportedly 1,559,077
Catholics in the South's population of approximately 14,764,000 people — that is, roughly
10.5 %. As for the clergy, their number at
this time was 1771 priests, of whom 1,376
were Vietnamese ; also , there were 4,826
nuns , the majority of whom were Vietnamese.
One can only guess at the figures for North
Viet Nam. However, it is estimated that in
1960, there were approximately 793,000 faithful and 321 priests.
From the foregoing paragraphs, it is obvious that the dominant Christian influence
in Viet Nam has been Catholicism. Protestant religions got a much later start in Viet
Nam, and as a result have not achieved the
same popularity as the Catholic Church ;
however, especially since the end of World
War II, Protestant missionaries have taken
an increasing interest in Viet Nam, and their
influence has steadily, if slowly, increased .
Other Religions
Taoism. Vietnamese Taoism is derived
from the doctrine of Lao Tzu , which is based
essentially on the participation of man in the
universal order. This order, which is taken
for granted, depends on the equilibrium of
the two elements Yin (negative ) and Yang
(positive) , which represent the constant duality of nature rest and motion , liquid and
solid, light and darkness, concentration and
expansion, material and spiritual. The material world being imbued with these two
principles, the Taoist believes that whoever
is able to act according to these principles
could become the master of the world. This
belief, in turn, has promoted a certain mystycism, reflected in the magical practices of
certain sorcerers, who pretend to possess the
secrets of the universe. The Taoist refrains
53
from disturbing the Natural Order ; on the
contrary, he conforms to it in every circumstance. He considers the taking of initiatives
to be in vain ; and thus, he disdains the
active life, which is the basis for the Taoist
doctrines of passivity and absence of care.
These doctrines, which were adopted by
many Confucian scholars as well, are summed up in the Taoist maxim, « Do nothing
and everything will be accomplished simultaneously. » The restitution of the seal and
sword to the Emperor by the Imperial mandarins, who preferred retreat to honors and
fortune ; and the fabulous meetings between
fairies and immortals, which have so often
been set to verse in Vietnamese literature
are of Taoist inspiration .
The supreme divinity of Taoism is the
Emperor of Jade. With his Ministers of
Death and Birth , he controls the destiny of
men. This cult is replete with incantations ,
charms, amulets and the like , which once
made for prosperous trade , with the sorcerers intervening on every possible occasion
in life. With progress in education, however.
these practices have tended to disappear.
Among the many popular cults attached
to Taoism, two are particularly interesting.
The first is the cult of the « Chu Vi » , the
<< Spirits of the Three Worlds » : the Terrestrial, the Celestial, and the Aquatic , of which
the feminine divinities are the most famous.
This cult is served by female mediums, who
permit the faithful to communicate with the
divinities. The second cult, called the «<< Noi
Dao » (<<« Local Religion ) is typically Vietnamese. The principle deity of this cult is
the national hero , Tran Hung Dao, who is
believed to offer protection against evil
spirits. The priests of this cult are mediums.
Cao - Daism
Cao-Daism originated in South Viet Nam
in the beginning of this century. The founder
of this religion, Ngo Van Chieu, was formerly an administrative official in Phu Quoc
province. He was known as a holy man a sweet and inoffensive visionary, who believed passionately in spiritualism. This religion had no real form until 1925 , when the
Colonial Counsellor, Le Van Trung revised
the basis of the religion and established the
Cao Dai religion . Cao-Daism can be considered a mixture of religions, and includes
elements of Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism
and Christianity .
54
According to its believers, the spirit of
Cao Dai appeared in the form of a raven in
November, 1926 and traced cryptic messages
in the sand : « I am the Supreme Sovereign ;
it is I ; I am
the oldest of the Buddhas
also Cakya- Mouni ; I am Jesus Christ ; I now
take the name of Cao Dai to teach a new
religion. >>
Cao-Daism considers that the principle
founders of religions are nothing more than
successive reincarnations of the same entity,
the Supreme God , in different times and in
different places. Although there may be a
diversity of rituals due to differences of
geography, usage and customs, the essence of
all religions is the same. Thus, it is the
supreme heresy to oppose one religion to
another ; on the contrary, it would be preferable to assemble all religions under the
same banner and teach the spirit of concord
and brotherhood to the members of all religions. Cao-Daism counts 1 1/2 million believers, residing principally in South Viet
Nam , and there are several thousand residing in other countries as well. Cao-Daism
preaches faith in one God ; it recognizes the
existence of the soul and its successive reincarnations, as well as the post-humus consequences of human action, subject to the laws
of Kharma (causality) . It teaches respect for
the dead , the cult of the ancestors , love of
good and of justice , and the practice of virtue
and of resignation . It foresees the coming
of a Messiah, Minh Vuong, the just and enlightened King, to reestablish the golden age.
This original religious system claims « Universal excellence by unification of multiple
forms of religions » ; and it numbers among
its saints Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen, the Vietnamese
prophet Trang Trinh. Victor Hugo, and even
Sir Winston Churchill. The Holy See of CaoDaism is in Tay Ninh province, South Viet
Nam, at the foot of Ba Den (Black Lady)
mountain. This mysterious mountain shelters
a number of hermits, who collect medicinal
plants and act as oracles.
The Hoa Hao . The Hoa Hao is a Buddhist
sect, which originated in 1919 in the village
of Hoa Hao ; in the region of the delta. The
head of this new sect, Huynh Phu So, was
taught by a hermit of the Tra Son pagoda ,
where he was cured of a previously hopeless
illness. The holy man, a specialist in the
practice of acupuncture, taught him the practice of sorcery, the principles of magnetism
and hypnotism , and the art of fabricating
lucky talismens. When the hermit died,
Huynh Phu So returned to his village ; and
which have been fulfiled . And he healed
on the night of a storm, began a speak for
several hours without interruption, as though
he were possessed . He talked about a doctrine of Buddha, adapted to new circumstances, and declared himself to be the
successor of Buddha and the founder of a
new religion , « Phat Giao Hoa Hao » « Hoa
Hao Buddhism ») .
almost miraculously a number of individuals,
which impressed the people even more , and
thus assured the success of the new sect.
Hoa Hao Buddhism has 1 1/2 million adherents in the western part of South Viet Nam .
Among other religions found in Viet Nam,
we might mention Brahmanism and Islam,
which are practiced by the Hindus and the
Pakistanis, as well as by the Chams ; and the
Huynh Phu So was known for his declamations of semi -religious , semi-prophetic
verses. He recommended the simplification
of rites and the abolition of temples and
intermediaries, in order to enable the faithfull to enter into direct communication with
Bahai religion, which has been brought in
only very recently, and claims to be the
religion of the future. In a short time,
it has succeeded in assembling a rather
large following.
the All-Powerful. In his preachings , he
ventured to make prophesies, certain ones of
CONCLUSION
Ө
If the young of the cities have broken with
the traditions of the past and are open to the
influences of Western thought, which is more
or less colored by individualism, the older
people, on the other hand-especially in the
provincial bourgeoisie ― have not been able
to free themselves completely from the combined influences of the « Tam Giao » , the
triangle of Confucianism, Buddhism and
Taoism. Further, if Confucianism inculcated
the Vietnamese with the notion of the
primacy of duty, according to inflexible rules
and standards, Christianity brought the notions of love, charity and the equality of all
men in the eyes of God ; whereas Buddhism
had already taught goodness to all creatures,
as well as detachment from material things.
Because of the coexistence of these three
great philosophic systems, Confucianism,
Buddhism and Christianity, the Vietnamese
mind is not disposed to accomodate itself to
the rigidity of a monolithic dogma. The
subtlety and tolerance which this people
manifests at all times could only be compatible with diversity. Thus, no one should be
be surprised that Confucian pragmatism,
Buddhist self-denial and Christian charity
live together in harmony and recruit so many
adherents. Mostly, however, the existence of
this mosaic of religions is a living tribute to
the tolerance and generous spirit of the VietVietnamese people.
55
REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM :
PROVINCES AND CORPS AREAS
CHINA
Điện Biên Phủ
Hànội.
Haiphong
Laos
Quảng
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NORTH
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Đà Nẵng
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Kontum
CAMBODIA
Nha Trang
Bình
Đà Lạt
SOUTH
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Đinh
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200
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Thiện Ba Xuyên
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IV
An Xuyên
Binh
Thuận
Ninh
Thuận
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