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Understanding research methods: An overview of the essentials,
tenth edition
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DOI: 10.4324/9781315213033
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UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH METHODS
A perennial bestseller since 1997, this updated tenth edition of Understanding Research
Methods provides a detailed overview of all the important concepts traditionally covered
in a research methods class. It covers the principles of both qualitative and quantitative
research, and how to interpret statistics without computations, so is suitable for all students
regardless of their math background. The book is organized so that each concept is treated
independently and can be used in any order without resulting in gaps in knowledge—
allowing it to be easily and precisely adapted to any course.
It uses lively examples on contemporary topics to stimulate students’ interest, and engages
them by showing the relevance of research methods to their everyday lives. Numerous
case studies and end-of-section exercises help students master the material and encourage
classroom discussion.
The text is divided into short, independent topic sections, making it easy for you to
adapt the material to your own teaching needs and customize assignments to the aspect
of qualitative or quantitative methods under study—helping to improve students’ comprehension and retention of difficult concepts. Additional online PowerPoint slides and
test bank questions make this a complete resource for introducing students to research
methods.
New to this edition:
•
•
•
•
•
New topic section on design decisions in research
Additional material on production of knowledge and research methods
Significant development of material on ethical considerations in research
Fresh and contemporary examples from a wide variety of real, published research
Topic-specific exercises at the end of each section now include suggestions for further
steps researchers can take as they build their research project.
Michelle Newhart teaches sociology as an adjunct professor and works as an instructional designer at Mt. San Antonio College, a large, two-year college in California. A
contributor to more than a dozen nonfiction books as either an author or editor, she holds
a BA in sociology from the University of Missouri and an MA and PhD in sociology from
the University of Colorado Boulder.
UNDERSTANDING
RESEARCH
METHODS
An Overview of the
Essentials
Tenth Edition
Mildred L. Patten and
Michelle Newhart
Tenth edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of Mildred L. Patten and Michelle Newhart to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Pyrczak 1997
Ninth edition published by Routledge 2013
Editorial assistance provided by William Dolphin
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Patten, Mildred L. | Newhart, Michelle.
Title: Understanding research methods : an overview of the essentials / Mildred L. Patten
and Michelle Newhart.
Description: Tenth edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2017. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016058231| ISBN 9780415790529 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780415790536
(hardback) | ISBN 9781315213033 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Research—Methodology.
Classification: LCC Q180.55.M4 P38 2017 | DDC 001.4/2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016058231
ISBN: 978-0-415-79053-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-415-79052-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-21303-3 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9780415790529
CONTENTS
Prefacexii
Acknowledgmentsxiv
PART 1
Introduction to Research Methods
1
1. KNOWLEDGE AND RESEARCH METHODS
3
2. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
5
3. THE ROLE OF THEORY IN RESEARCH
8
4. EXPERIMENTAL AND NONEXPERIMENTAL
STUDIES12
5. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE STUDIES
16
6. TYPES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
19
7. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
KEY DIFFERENCES
22
8. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DECISIONS25
9. PROGRAM EVALUATION
29
10. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ETHICAL RESEARCH
STANDARDS32
11. ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH
35
vi
Contents
PART 2
Reviewing and Citing Literature
39
12. WHY RESEARCHERS REVIEW LITERATURE
41
13. LOCATING LITERATURE IN ELECTRONIC DATABASES
44
14. STRUCTURING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
49
15. CONNECTING THE LITERATURE TO YOUR STUDY
52
16. PREPARING TO WRITE A CRITICAL REVIEW
56
17. CREATING A SYNTHESIS
59
18. WHY ACADEMICS USE CITATION
62
19. INTRODUCTION TO STYLE GUIDES
65
PART 3
Basic Concepts in Quantitative Research
69
20. DECISIONS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
71
21. VARIABLES IN NONEXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
74
22. VARIABLES IN EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
78
23. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF VARIABLES
81
24. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES, PURPOSES, AND
QUESTIONS84
PART 4
Sampling87
25. BIASED AND UNBIASED SAMPLING
89
Contents
vii
26. SIMPLE RANDOM AND SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
92
27. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
95
28. CLUSTER SAMPLING
98
29. NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING AND QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH100
30. SAMPLING AND DEMOGRAPHICS
104
31. SAMPLE COMPOSITION AND BIAS
107
32. SAMPLE SIZE IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
110
33. SAMPLE SIZE AND DIVERSITY IN QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH114
34. SAMPLING IN THE MODERN WORLD
118
PART 5
Measurement121
35. INTRODUCTION TO VALIDITY
123
36. JUDGMENTAL VALIDITY
126
37. EMPIRICAL VALIDITY
129
38. JUDGMENTAL-EMPIRICAL VALIDITY
133
39. RELIABILITY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO
VALIDITY136
40. MEASURES OF RELIABILITY
141
41. INTERNAL CONSISTENCY AND RELIABILITY
144
42. NORM- AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS
147
viii
Contents
43. MEASURES OF OPTIMUM PERFORMANCE
150
44. MEASURES OF TYPICAL PERFORMANCE
153
45. MEASUREMENT IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
156
PART 6
Qualitative Research Design
46. INTERVIEWS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
159
161
47. OTHER METHODS FOR COLLECTING QUALITATIVE
DATA164
48. GROUNDED THEORY AND RESEARCH DESIGN
167
49. CONSENSUAL QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
171
50. DESIGNING CASE STUDY RESEARCH
174
51. MIXED METHODS DESIGNS
177
PART 7
Designing Experimental Research
181
52. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
183
53. THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
186
54. THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
189
55. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
192
56. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
195
57. CONFOUNDING IN EXPERIMENTS
198
CONTENTS
PART 8
Analyzing Data: Understanding Statistics
ix
201
58. DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
203
59. SCALES OF MEASUREMENT AND STATISTICAL TESTS
207
60. DESCRIPTIONS OF NOMINAL DATA
210
61. SHAPES OF DISTRIBUTIONS
213
62. THE MEAN, MEDIAN, AND MODE
216
63. THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION
219
64. THE MEDIAN AND INTERQUARTILE RANGE
222
65. UNDERSTANDING PROBABILITY IN INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS
225
66. INTRODUCTION TO THE NULL HYPOTHESIS
228
67. THE PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENT (r)
231
68. THE t-TEST
236
69. ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (F)
239
70. TWO-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
242
71. INTRODUCTION TO THE CHI-SQUARE TEST (χ2)
245
72. THE BIVARIATE CHI-SQUARE TEST (χ2) AND TYPES
OF ERROR
249
73. REGRESSION BASICS
252
74. PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS
255
x
Contents
PART 9
Effect Size and Meta-Analysis
259
75. INTRODUCTION TO EFFECT SIZE (d )261
76. INTERPRETATION OF EFFECT SIZE (d )264
77. EFFECT SIZE AND CORRELATION (r )267
78. INTRODUCTION TO META-ANALYSIS
270
79. META-ANALYSIS AND EFFECT SIZE
273
80. META-ANALYSIS: STRENGTHS AND
WEAKNESSES276
PART 10
Preparing Research Reports
279
81. THE STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH REPORT
281
82. WRITING ABSTRACTS
285
83. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
288
84. DESCRIBING PARTICIPANTS
292
85. DESCRIBING MEASURES
295
86. REPORTING RESEARCH RESULTS
298
87. WRITING THE DISCUSSION
302
88. PREPARING THESES AND DISSERTATIONS
305
Contents
xi
APPENDIX A: ELECTRONIC DATABASES FOR LOCATING
LITERATURE308
APPENDIX B: E
LECTRONIC SOURCES OF STATISTICAL
INFORMATION311
APPENDIX C: EXCERPTS FROM LITERATURE REVIEWS
315
APPENDIX D: S
AMPLE ABSTRACTS OF RESEARCH
REPORTS322
APPENDIX E: AN INTRODUCTION TO APA STYLE
325
APPENDIX F: AN INTRODUCTION TO ASA STYLE
329
Index333
PREFACE
Understanding Research Methods provides an overview of basic research methods for use in
courses offered in departments of sociology, psychology, education, criminal justice, social
work, counseling, communications, and business, as well as closely related fields that would
benefit from a survey of methods used in the social sciences.
WHY SHOULD STUDENTS HAVE AN OVERVIEW OF
RESEARCH METHODS?
•
•
•
•
Leaders in all fields rely on the results of research to make important decisions, such as
how to adjust work environments to improve employee productivity and satisfaction,
how to best address the problems of those who depend on social services, and which
types of educational programs produce the best results. If students hope to become
decision makers in their fields, they must understand research methods in order to
effectively sort through conflicting claims found in the research literature and arrive
at sound decisions.
Many students will be expected to conduct simple but important research on the job.
For instance, clinical psychologists are expected to track improvements made by their
clients, teachers are expected to experiment with new methods in the classroom, social
workers are expected to collect data on their clients, and many types of businesses use
Internet or other data to track traffic and learn about their customers.
All students will make lifestyle decisions that are at least in part based on research reported
in the media. Should an individual take vitamin supplements? Which make of automobile is superior if the buyer’s primary concern is safety? What are the best ways to
promote healthy child development in one’s children? Many types of answers are offered
online, on television, or in print through social media, newspapers and newscasts, and
in-depth articles. As a result of studying research methods, students can improve their
ability to identify research-based claims and consume information crucially.
Students may need to read and report on published research in other classes. They will be
more skilled at doing this if they have a solid understanding of basic methods of research.
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE TEXT
In order to make this textbook meaningful, the following distinct features have been
incorporated. Learning tools include the following:
•
Material is divided into short “topics” instead of long chapters. These short topics help
students take small steps through the exciting but highly technical field of research
methods. Long chapters used in other research methods books prompt students to take
big gulps, which often are not easily digested.
Preface
•
•
•
•
•
xiii
Topics build on one another. When a topic relies on previously covered material, it
begins with a reminder of what students should have mastered already. This helps students connect material, review appropriately, and make smooth transitions from one
topic to the next.
Technical jargon is defined in plain English and numerous examples make abstract research
concepts concrete. In field tests, students agreed that this book is comprehensible.
Exercises at the end of each topic encourage students to pause and make sure they have
mastered the concepts before moving on. This is important because much of the material in this book is cumulative. Mastering an earlier topic is frequently a prerequisite
for mastering a later topic.
Three types of exercises are offered at the end of most topics to suit different teaching
and learning needs. A set of questions tests comprehension of factual material. Discussion questions give students a chance to interpret and apply the material and work well
to stimulate classroom discussions. Research planning questions provide direction and
activities to help students plan a research project.
Statistical material is presented at the conceptual level. It shows students how to interpret statistical reports but does not include computational details.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
In addition to its key hallmarks, the tenth edition incorporates new content and features:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Several new topics have been added that help to contextualize research:
• Topic 1: Knowledge and Research Methods
• Topic 11: Ethical Principles in Research
• Topic 15: Connecting the Literature to your Study
• Topic 18: Why Academics Use Citation
• Topic 20: Decisions in Quantitative Research Design
• Topic 34: Sampling in the Modern World
• Topic 45: Measurement in Qualitative Research
• Topic 50: Designing Case Study Research
• Topic 51: Mixed Methods Designs
• Topic 65: Understanding Probability in Inferential Statistics
• Topic 73: Regression Basics
Several topics have been reordered and revised to create more coherence within the
different parts of the book and to represent different dimensions of the research
process.
Qualitative aspects of design and analysis have been more consistently threaded
throughout sections to ensure the topic is covered from start to finish.
New examples from recently published research have been added throughout to keep
this bestseller up to date.
New figures and graphs have been added throughout to offer more visual aids to learning research methods.
The appendices on electronic databases and electronic sources for statistics have been
updated and citation guidance for psychology and sociology has been moved from the
text to Appendices E and F.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Dr. Anne Hafner and Dr. Robert Morman, both of California State University, Los Angeles,
provided many helpful comments on the first draft of this book.
New material for subsequent editions was reviewed by Dr. Robert Rosenthal of Harvard
University and the University of California, Riverside; Dr. Deborah M. Oh of ­California
State University, Los Angeles; Dr. Richard Rasor of American River College; and Dr.
George W. Burruss, Dr. Nicholas A. Corsaro, and Dr. Matthew Giblin, all of Southern
Illinois University, Carbondale.
In preparation for the tenth edition, we received guidance from the following individuals: Daniel Choi, California State University, Fullerton; Richard C. Meyer, University of
Nebraska at Kearney; Janice H. Laurence, College of Education, Temple University; and
Julie A. Bardin, Florida State University. Special thanks to William Dolphin for his editorial assistance in preparing the tenth edition.
All of these individuals made important contributions to the development of this book.
Errors and omissions, of course, remain the responsibility of the authors. The tenth edition welcomes new coauthor and sociologist Dr. Michelle R. Newhart. It is our hope that
our combined disciplinary expertise and background across quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed methods research will expand the usefulness of this book for beginning researchers.
Mildred L. Patten
Michelle R. Newhart
PART 1
Introduction to Research
Methods
What is meant by research methods? Part 1 gives an overview of research methods and
explains the types of research conducted in the social sciences and education. Topics 1
through 3 introduce research methods as a way of generating knowledge. Topics 4 through
9 describe common approaches to research, and Topics 10 and 11 introduce ethical considerations that underlie all types of research.
TOPIC 1
KNOWLEDGE AND RESEARCH
METHODS
Research methods are the building blocks of the scientific enterprise. They are the “how”
for building systematic knowledge. Let’s take a moment to think about knowledge. How
do you “know” things? One way you know things is through your own personal experiences. Even as personal experiences are rich in depth and detail, and create a lot of meaning in life, they are also quite limited in scope. If you try to generalize what is true for you,
it is easy to overgeneralize and arrive at misleading conclusions for everyone.
Another fundamental way to gain knowledge is through the authority of others—your
parents, teachers, books you have read, shows you have watched, news and articles from
social media. This “second-hand” knowledge includes many diverse sources, and often
this knowledge is more than one step removed from where it originated. Life is made
simpler by inheriting knowledge from humanity’s vast collection, instead of relying only
on what you can discover for yourself. In fact, most people spend years attending school
to acquire a basic set of knowledge that seems relevant for living and working in today’s
world. Even though it can still take a long time to learn even a small proportion of the
knowledge that is available, the efficiency of being able to gain a lot of knowledge in
this way benefits us and allows us to continue to build and further what is collectively
known. However, not all information that is passed along is of equal value. While some
of the things that we learn on the authority of others is based on scientific research, certainly there is much more information that is based simply on opinion, common sense,
misinterpretation, or skewed information. It takes critical thinking skills to sort this out.
By learning about research, reading samples of research, and practicing research it is possible to expand your ability to think through knowledge and its acquisition in new ways.
When you learn the rules on which research is based, you are learning to generate knowledge in the tradition and practice of science. Regardless of the method selected, social science
research methods are designed to be systematic and to minimize biases. The goal is to
produce findings that represent reality as closely as possible, overcoming some of the hidden
biases that influence our conclusions when we are not systematic. As you will soon learn,
research involves making many careful decisions and documenting both the decisions and
their results. Decisions are important throughout the practice of research and are designed to
help researchers collect evidence that includes the full spectrum of the phenomenon under
study, to maintain logical rules, and to mitigate or account for possible sources of bias. In
many ways, learning research methods is learning how to see and make these decisions.
These days, research is everywhere. Whether you pursue an academic career or enter
an applied field, research skills are likely to have a valuable application. In academic
research, the application is obvious. Academic writing nearly always describes research
methods because academic work is judged first on the merits of its methods. Findings
must be supported by how the information was collected, and whether it was thorough
and unbiased, and addressed the research question appropriately. Outside of academia,
4
Introduction to Research Methods
more and more careers call on people to understand data, to design ways to solicit feedback or information, to actually collect the information, and to figure out through
analysis what the responses mean. For instance, people in many fields and sectors of the
job market want to understand who is using their products or services, how well they are
carrying out internal or market objectives, how well their employees are performing, and
who is interacting with their website or following them on social media. It is possible to
specialize in research and become an expert in answering questions of this type, but even
knowing some basic principles of research can help you to make intelligent and meaningful contributions. Knowing about research methods can also empower you in your
personal life because it can make you a wiser, more critical consumer of all information.
It can help you ask better questions about the information you encounter and ultimately
act as a better informed citizen.
The accumulation of knowledge through research is by its nature a collective endeavor.
Each well-designed study provides evidence that may support, amend, refute, or deepen
the understanding of existing knowledge. However, individual studies, no matter how
compelling, are rarely enough evidence to establish findings as “fact.” It is through the
ability to find similar findings across studies, and the variability that studies may find when
they ask questions in different ways and of different groups, that theories (covered in
Topic 3) grow to be established as our working knowledge. Much like language, scientific
knowledge is a living conversation in which new studies and new inquiries allow what we
know to grow and change over time.
■ TOPIC REVIEW
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What are three ways we “know” things?
What makes scientific knowledge different from other types of knowledge?
What makes knowledge biased?
Why do research reports include a section describing research methods?
What is the goal of research in the social sciences?
What makes research a collective endeavor?
■ DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Think about everything you know about schools. How much can you sort what you
know from personal experience? From the authority of others? If you were to do
research on schooling, what would you study?
2. Consider your chosen career path, or if you are not yet sure, bring to mind one career
path you are considering. How do you think knowledge of research methods could
help you in that career?
■ RESEARCH PLANNING
Think about a research interest that you have as you begin this book/course. Generate a
list of questions that interest you about this topic. Are there any aspects of this research
interest that seem especially prone to researcher bias?
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