Commercial Pilot Study Guide
Commercial Eligibility Requirements: FAR 61.123
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Be at least 18 years of age
Be able to read, speak, write, and understand English
Receive ground training and logbook endorsement from an authorize instructor required for the knowledge test in
appropriate aircraft category and class rating sought
Pass the required knowledge test on aeronautical knowledge areas listed in FAR 61.125
Receive required training and logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor for the practical test in required areas
from FAR 61.127(b)
Hold at least a Private Pilot Certificate
Pass required practical test on the areas of operations listed in FAR61.127(b) that apply to the aircraft category and
class being sought.
Meet aeronautical experience requirements from FAR 61.129
Commercial Aeronautical Experience ASEL: FAR 61.129
Must 250 Hours of flight time:
•
100 Hours in powered aircraft, of which 50 hours must be in airplanes
•
100 Hours of PIC
o 50 Hours in airplanes
o 50 hours in cross-country flight of which at least 10 hours must be in airplane
•
20 Hours of training on the areas of operation listed in FAR 61.127(b)(1)
o 10 Hours of instrument using view limiting device of which 5 hours must be in single engine
airplane
o 10 Hours of training in a complex, turbine-powered, or technically advanced airplane (TAA) that
meets requirements
o One 2-hour cross-country flight in single engine airplane in daytime conditions that consists of a
total straight-line distance of more than 100NM from original point of departure
o One 2-hour cross-country flight in a single engine in nighttime conditions that consist of a total
straight-line distance of more than 100NM
o 3 Hours in a single-engine airplane with an authorized instructor in preparation for the practical test
within the preceding 2 months
•
10 Hours of Solo flight time
•
10 Hours of flight time performing the duties of PIC on the areas of operations listed under FAR 61.127(b)(1)
o One cross-country flight of not less than 300NM total, minimum of 3 points, one 250NM leg from
original departure point
o 5 Hours in night VFR conditions with 10 Takeoffs and 10 Landings at an airport within an
operating control tower
•
50 Hours Maximum Credit toward total aeronautical experience for an airplane from Flight Training Device
that represents that category, class, and type. (61.129(i)(1))
Commercial Pilot Privileges and Limitations: FAR 61.133
1.
General. A person who holds a commercial pilot certificate may act as PIC of an aircraft
a. Carrying persons or property for compensation or hire, provided the person is qualified in accordance with
this part and with the applicable parts of this chapter that apply to operation; and
b. For compensation or hire, provided the person is qualified in accordance with this part and with the
applicable parts of this chapter that apply to the operation.
2. A person with a commercial pilot certificate with an airplane category and does not hold an instrument rating in the
same category and class cannot carriage or passengers for hire more than 50NM from the home airport or at night.
Definitions: AC120-12A
1. Common Carriage: (1) A holding out of willingness to (2) transport persons or property (3) from place to place (4) for
compensation
2. Private Carriage: Carriage for hire which does not involve “holding out”
3. Operational Control: With respect to a flight, means the exercise of authority over initiating, conducting or
terminating a flight. (you may be the pilot but who is calling the shots?)
4. Wet Lease: You provide the aircraft and the crew
5. Dry Lease: Client provides aircraft, you provide the crew. 91.501(c): you provide the aircraft and the crew, but operate
as a: Timesharing agreement; interchange agreement; or joint ownership agreement.
6. Holds Itself Out: Willing to furnish transportation within the limits of its facilities to any person that wants it. Signs,
advertising, Agents, Agencies, or Salesmen.
PIC Responsibilities and Documents Required: FAR 61.3 & 91.3
1.
Pilot Certificate with proper ratings
2. Government ID
3. Unexpired & Applicable Medical
Medical Requirements and Duration: FAR 61.23
Class of Medical
Privileges
Age Under 40
Age Over 40
1st Class
ATP, COMM, PVT, CFI, REC
12
6
2nd Class
COMM, PVT, CFI, REC
12
12
3rd Class
PVT, CFI, REC
60
24
*Duration in Calendar Months
Basic Medical Requirements:
1. U.S. Driver’s License & have held a medical certificate after July 14, 2006.
2. Physical Exam with a state-licensed physician, using comprehensive Medical Examination Checklist (Every 48
months to the day)
3. Complete a BasicMed medical Education course (Every 24 Calendar Months)
4. Aircraft cannot carry more then 6 occupants (includes you) & maximum certified takeoff weight not more than
6,000 lbs
5. Operate under VFR or IFR, within United States, at less than 18,000’ MSL, not exceeding 250 Knots
6. Flight not operated for compensation for hire
Endorsements: FAR 61.31 (EFIG) Everything, Fast, Tail Dragger, Gas
E – Complex – Retractable gear, flaps, controllable pitch propeller (logged ground and flight training, found proficient in the
airplane, received the appropriate logbook endorsements)
F – High Performance – Above 200 Horsepower (logged ground and flight training, found proficient in the airplane, received the
appropriate logbook endorsements)
I – Tail Wheel - (logged ground and flight training, found proficient in the airplane, received the appropriate logbook
endorsements)
G – Pressurized Cabin – Service ceiling or max operating altitude above 25,000’ MSL (logged ground and flight training, found
proficient in the airplane, received the appropriate logbook endorsements)
All Endorsements require:
1. Receive and logged both ground and flight training by an authorized instructor in same type aircraft;
2. Receive a one-time endorsement from and authorized instructor
Currency Requirements: FAR 61.56 & 61.57
FAR 61.56: Accomplish a biennial flight review with an authorized instructor within the proceeding 24 calendar months
FAR 61.57: In order to carry passengers, pilot must log, within the preceding 90 days, 3 takeoffs and landings in the same
category, class, and type aircraft. (If tail wheel or at night, takeoffs and landings must have been made to full stop; if night flight,
must be one hour after sunset to log; currency for night can only be done at night, however night landings to full stop count for
day)
Physical Condition: AIM 8-1-1 (IMSAFE – Personal Checklist)
I – Illness: Safest rule is not to fly while suffering from any illness
M – Medication: Do not fly on medication, FAA has banned medication list on FAA or call your AME
S – Stress: How do you know when you are stress? Flying under stress can lead to fatal mistakes
A – Alcohol: 8 hours bottle to throttle; Blood Alcohol Level below 0.04%; Never under influence or side effects
F – Fatigue: Acute (Short Term) | Chronic (Long term) Sleep, Recovery, Sleep Apnea, etc.
E – Emotion/Eating: Hungry, Argument, Death, Divorce, Upsetting events, etc.
Passenger Brief: (SAFETY)
S - Seatbelts/Shoulder harness: fastened for taxi, takeoff and landing; Seat is adjusted and locked in place; How to unlock the
seatbelt, etc.
A - Air Vents: Location and operation; Passenger discomfort; All environmental controls (what they can adjust or do they have
any questions)
F - Fire Extinguisher: Location and operation (PASS) Pull, Aim, Squeeze, Sweep methods
E - Exit Doors (and Windows) How to secure and operate; Evacuation plan; Emergency equipment and locations; Emergency
checklist
T - Traffic: Scanning, spotting, and notifying the pilot; Sterile cockpit expectations
Y - Your questions: There are no dumb questions; I prefer you to ask because it is more fun
3-way positive exchange of control
PIC authority
Aeromedical: AIM 8-1-2 & PHAK 17
Hypoxia – State of oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient to impair functions of the brain and organs
1. Hypoxic Hypoxia: Insufficient oxygen available to the lungs
2. Hypemic Hypoxia: Blood is not able to transport sufficient oxygen to the cells in the body (Usually due to anemia or
carbon monoxide poisoning)
3. Histotoxic Hypoxia: Inability of cells to effectively use oxygen due to drugs or alcohol
4. Stagnant Hypoxia: Oxygen deficiency due to inadequate blood circulation
Symptoms: Can be seen between 12,000’ and 15,000’ Euphoria, loss of coordination, narrowed vision, headache, decreased
reaction time, judgment, memory, and dizziness
Treatment: Lower altitude, Emergency decent, Supplemental Oxygen
Hyperventilation - Result of excessive loss of carbon dioxide into the body (Caused by; Stress, Fright, pain in which one’s
breathing rate and depth increase leading to unconsciousness)
Symptoms: Lightheaded, suffocation, drowsiness, headache, tingling in extremities, visual impairment
Treatment: Slow and controlled breathing (Try to re-establish CO back into the body)
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning - CO prevents the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the cells, resulting in Hypemic Hypoxia
(Your body can absorb CO up to 200 times faster than oxygen) CO is odorless, colorless, produced by all internal combustion
engines. Heater and defrost vents are the passageways for CO to enter the cockpit (If you smell exhaust take action immediately)
Treatment: Fresh air vents on, open windows, turn off heater/defrost, and/or use supplemental oxygen
Decompression Sickness - Not enough time to for the body to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed from diving, nitrogen
bubbles can form in the bloodstream, spinal cord, or brain as pressure decreases with altitude (Typically causes joint pains).
SCUBA - A pilot or passenger who intends to fly should allow the body sufficient time to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed
during diving. Controlled ascent - Wait 24 hours; non-controlled ascent below 8,000 - Wait 12 hours non-controlled ascent over
8,000 - Wait 24 hours
Alcohol & Drugs 91.17 - No person may act or attempt to act as a crewmember of a civil aircraft; 8 hours after consumption,
while under the influence, while using any drug that affects the person’s faculties in any way contrary to safety; or while having
an alcohol concentration greater than 0.04% BAC (Blood Alcohol Content)
Middle Ear & Sinus blockage:
•
Air pressure in the middle ear and sinuses normally equalizes with external air through the nasal passages.
•
Allergies, colds or sinus infections may block these small opening and prevent the pressure from equalizing.
•
If the air gets trapped, it may cause extreme pain, reduction in hearing or damage to the ear drums. This effect is
usually most
•
severe during descend.
•
To relieve this condition, try the “Valsalva Maneuver” pinch your nostrils and gently try to blow air out of your nose.
This
•
forces air through the Eustachian tube into the middle ear. It may not work if the pilot has a cold, sinus or ear infection,
or a
•
sore throat.
•
Consider seeing a physician if the condition doesn’t clear after the flight
Spatial disorientation and illusions:
3
systems the body uses for spatial orientation:
1. Vestibular System - Consists of organs in the inner ear by the way we are balanced
a. 3 semicircular canals sense movement in 3 axes: pitch, roll and yaw. The canals are filled with fluid,
which moves against tiny sensory hairs as the head is moved. The brain gets these signals and interprets a
sensation of movement
b. 2 otolith organs, the utricle and saccule, sense acceleration in the horizontal and vertical planes
2. Somatosensory System - Consists of nerves in the skin, muscles, and joints, along with hearing, sense position based
on gravity, feeling, and sound
3. Visual System - Visual cues from our eyes help the brain figure out spatial orientation
Vestibular illusions:
•
The leans - After leveling the wings following a prolonged turn, pilot may feel that the aircraft is banked in the
opposite direction of the turn
•
Coriolis Illusion - After a prolonged turn, the fluid in the ear canal moves at same speed as the canal. A head
movement on a different plane will cause the fluid to start moving and result in a false sensation of acceleration or
turning on a different axis
•
Graveyard Spiral - A pilot in a prolonged, coordinated constant-rate turn may experience the illusion of not turning.
After leveling the wings, the pilot may feel the sensation of turning to the other direction (“the leans”), causing the pilot
to turn back in the original direction. Since a higher angle of attack is required during a turn to remain level, the pilot
may notice a loss of altitude and apply back force on the elevator. This may tighten the spiral and increase the loss of
altitude
•
Somatogravic Illusion - Rapid acceleration stimulates the inner ear otolith organs in the same way as tilting the head
backwards. This may create the illusion of a higher pitch angle. Deceleration causes the opposite illusion of the
sensation of tilting the head forward and o the aircraft being in a nose-low attitude
•
Inversion Illusion - An abrupt change from climb to straight and level may create the illusion of tumbling backwards
due to the fluid movement in the otolith organs
•
Elevator Illusion - An abrupt upward vertical acceleration may create the illusion a climb, due to fluid movement in
the otolith organs
Visual illusions:
•
False Horizon - An illusion in which the pilot may misidentify the horizon line. May be caused by sloping cloud
formation, an obscured horizon, an aurora borealis, dark night with scattered lights and stars or the geometry of the
ground
•
Autokinesis - Staring at a stationary point of light in a dark or featureless scene for a prolonged period of time may
cause the light to appear to be moving. A pilot may attempt to align the aircraft with the perceived moving light,
resulting in loss of control
Optical illusions:
•
Runway Width Illusion - A narrow runway may create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is. A wide
runway may cause the opposite effect of the aircraft flying too low
•
Runway and Terrain Slope Illusion - An upsloping terrain or runway may create the illusion that the aircraft is at a
higher altitude than it actually is
•
Featureless Terrain Illusion - Also known as “black hole approach.” Flying over featureless or dark areas, such as in
an overwater approach, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is and may lead the
•
Water Refraction - Rain on the windscreen can create an illusion of being at a higher altitude due to the horizon
appearing lower than it is. This can result in the pilot flying a lower approach
•
Haze - Shooting an approach in haze may create the illusion that the runway is further that it actually is, or that the
aircraft is higher than it actually is
•
Fog - Flying into fog may create an illusion of a nose-up motion
•
Ground Lighting Illusion - Lights along a straight path, such as a road or lights on moving trains, can be mistaken for
runway and approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting systems, especially where few lights illuminate the
surrounding terrain, may create the illusion that the runway is closer than it actually is. This may result in the pilot
flying a higher approach than desired
ICEFLAGS:
I – Inversion illusion
C – Coriolis illusion
E – Elevator illusion
F – False Horizons
L – Leans
A – Autokinesis
G – Graveyard Spiral
S – Somatogravic illusion
Motion sickness - Caused by the brain receiving conflicting messages about the state of the body. Symptoms include general
discomfort, nausea, dizziness, paleness, sweating and vomiting
Drugs FAR 61.53: Prohibits acting PIC or any other capacity as required pilot flight crewmember, while that person
1. Knows or has reason to know of any medical condition that would make the person unable to meet the
requirement for the medical certificate necessary for the pilot operation, or
2. Is taking medication or receiving other treatment for a medical condition that results in the person being unable to
meet the requirements for the medical certificate necessary for the pilot operation
3. FAR 91.17 prohibits the use of any drugs that affects the persons faculties in any way contrary to safety.
Vision Types: 3 types of vision, each type functions under different sensory stimuli or ambient light conditions
1. Photopic Vision – Capability for seeing color and resolving fine detail (20/20 or better), but functions only in good
illumination
2. Mesopic Vision – Achieved by combination of rods and cones and is experienced at dawn, dusk, and during full
moonlight. Visual acuity steadily decreases as available light decreases. Color perception decreases because cones
become less effective. Most dangerous period for viewing.
3. Scotopic Vision – Experienced under low-light levels and cones become ineffective, resulting in poor resolution of
detail. (20/200 or less)
Required Documents: FAR 91.203 (ARROWEC)
A - Airworthiness Certificate (remains valid as long as the aircraft meets its approved type design, is in a condition for safe
operation and maintenance, preventative maintenance, and alterations are performed in accordance with CFR 14 Parts 21, 43, and
91)
R - Registration (expires three years after aircraft was registered or renewed - also expires: change of ownership, per request,
registered in another country, crash, or 30 days after death of the owner)
R - Radio licenses (required if operating outside the US, pilot & aircraft licenses, acquired from Federal Communications
Commission –FCC)
O - Operator’s Handbook (Pilot Operating Handbook – POH) 91.9 & 91.25
W - Weight & Balance (Official updated/current W&B located in the POH) Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) – Make Model
E – External Data Plate
C – Compass Deviation Card (if applicable)
Required Inspections: (AV1ATEES)
A - Annual Inspection (Every 12 months – Inspect the Aircraft) 91.409(a)
V - VOR* (Every 30 days) AIM 1-1-3 thru 1-1-8 & 91.171
1 - 100 Hour (Required for hire every 100 hours of flight time (Overflown by 10 hours for maintenance to inspect the “airframe”)
91.4099(b)
A - Altimeter* (24 calendar months) 91.215 & 91.413
T - Transponder (24 calendar months) 91.215 & 91.413
E - Electronic Location Transmitter ((ELT) (12 calendar months)) 91.207(d)
E - ELT Battery (1 hour of cumulative use or 50% of useable life) 91.207(c)
S – Static/Encoder* (24 calendar months) 91.411
* Only required for IFR flight
• An annual inspection may take the place of a 100-hour inspection, however the 100 hour will not cover an annual inspection •
100 hour inspection may be signed off by an Aircraft Maintenance Technician (AMT) who holds an Airframe and/or Power-plant
certificate (A&P), but an AMT who is an Authorized Inspector (AI) may sign off on annual inspections
Required “Day” VFR Equipment: FAR 91.205(b) (ATOMATOFLAMES)
A - Airspeed Indicator
T - Tachometer (Per each engine)
O - Oil Pressure Gauge (Per each engine)
M - Manifold Pressure Gauge (Per each engine)
A - Altimeter
T - Temperature Gauge (Only if liquid cooled)
O - Oil Temperature Gauge (Only if air cooled)
F - Fuel Quantity Gauge (Per Tank)
L - Landing Gear Position Indicator (Only if gears are retractable)
A - Ant-Collision Lights
M - Magnetic Compass
E - Emergency Location Transmitter (ELT)
S - Seatbelts
Required “Night” VFR Equipment: FAR 91.205(c) (ATOMATOFLAMES + FLAPS)
F - Fuses (One spare set or three spare fuses of each kind are required)
L - Landing Lights (If for hire)
A - Anti-Collision Lights
P - Position Lights/Navigation Lights
S - Source of Electricity
Required “Day + Night” IFR Equipment: FAR 91.205(d) (ATMOATOFLAMES + FLAPS +
GRABCARD)
G - Generator / alternator
R - Radios (two-way navigational equipment appropriate for the route to be flown)
A -Altimeter (sensitive = adjustable for barometric pressure)
B - Ball (slip-skid indicator)
C - Clock (shows hours, minutes and seconds and installed as part of aircraft equipment)
A -Attitude indicator
R - Rate-of-turn indicator
D - Directional gyro (heading indicator)
Minimum Equipment List: FAR 91.213 (MEL)
List of equipment that can be inoperative and the aircraft still be airworthy - Check Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) ATP Does not have MEL’s, however if equipment is inoperative;
• Remove equipment, make notation in the maintenance logbook, get a new weight and balance; or
• Placard equipment, make notation in the logbook, replace, or fix with same type part, ensure that there is another
notation in logbook which indicates that the part was replaced or fixed and has returned to service, remove placard.
ATAPERLPDL: Broken Equipment Procedure
A – Airworthy?
T – TCDS and/or Supplemental TCDS and/or FORM 337
A – AD’s
P – POH
E – Equipment List
KOEL: Kinds of Equipment List
MEL: Minimum Equipment List
R – Regs: 91.205, Part 43, Part 23
L – Legal: Any additional regs including and especially careless and reckless operation
A – Airworthy Still?
P – Placard
D – Deactivate
L – Log (usually with new W+B if removed)
VFR Altitudes: FAR 91.159
On magnetic course of 360* - 179* Fly odd thousands + 500’ (If cruising above 3000’ AGL)
On magnetic course of 180* - 359* Fly even thousands + 500’
Note: This is based on Magnetic Course (Whereas Magnetic Course is True Course corrected for Variation)
IFR Altitudes: FAR 91.179
On magnetic course of 360 – 179 Fly odd thousands (below 18,000’ MSL)
On magnetic course of 180 – 359 Fly even thousands (below 18,000’ MSL)
Special Flight Permit:
If an aircraft is not airworthy due to inoperative equipment, then a special flight permit can be issued. Special flight permits may
only be issued by a Designated Airworthiness Representative (DAR) and only if the aircraft is capable of flight. It is given so that
the aircraft may be flown to a maintenance location where repairs, maintenance, or alterations can be made (also to get a plane of
a hazardous position). You need to contact your local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) to get one.
Airworthiness Directives & Form 337’s:
Used by the FAA to notify aircraft owners/operators of upcoming conditions that may prevent their aircraft from continuing to be
airworthy
• Mandatory requirement - If not followed, aircraft will not be airworthy
• AD’s may be one time or reoccurring
• Regarding form 337’s pilot should look through maintenance records for documentation, FAA approval, and
signature
Pressure Altitude & Density Altitude:
Pressure Altitude (PA): Altitude above the standard datum plane; Altitude corrected for non-standard pressure Equation:
PA = 1000’ (29.92 – Current Altimeter Setting) + Elevation. PA can also be determined by reading the displayed altitude after
setting the Kollsman window on altimeter to 29.92.
Density Altitude (DA): Altitude corrected for non-standard temperature
• As temperature increases; DA increases and air density decreases
• As altitude increases; DA increases and air density decreases
• As humidity increases; DA increases and air density increases (AND VICE VERSA)
• As pressure increases; DA decreases and air density increases
Equation: DA = 120 (Current Temperature – ISA Temperature) +PA
• A decrease in air density means a high-density altitude and increase in air density means a lower density altitude
• The density of air has a significant effect on aircraft performance; Higher the density altitude the lower the aircraft
performance - vice versa
• With a lower air density; Power is less, since the engine takes less air; Thrust is less, since the propeller is less
effective in thin air; Lift is less, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
V-Speeds-KIAS: (Archer II PA-28-181)
V-Speed
VSO 45
VS1 50
VR 60
VX 64
VY 76
VG 76
VFE 102
VNO 125
VNE 154
Description
Stall speed in landing configuration
Stall speed with zero flaps
Rotation speed
Best angle of climb
Best rate of climb
Best glide speed
Maximum flap extension speed
Max structural cruising speed
Never exceed speed
Airspeed Indicator Marking
Bottom of White Line
Bottom of Green Line
Top of White Line
Top of Green Line
Red Line
VA 113
Maneuvering speed at 2550 lbs
VA 113
Maneuvering speed at 1634 lbs
Maneuvering Speed – Va is the maximum airspeed at which full abrupt control inputs can be made without causing structural
damage to the aircraft
• Speeds below maneuvering speed, the aircraft will stall before exceeding the design load limit factor
• Speeds above maneuvering speed, the design load limit factor will be exceeded before the aircraft stalls
• Va changes with weight (as aircraft gross weight increases, Va increases) AOA – heavier loaded aircraft must be
flown at a greater AOA than a lighter aircraft to maintain level flight. So, the heavier aircraft is closer to its stall before
reaching its structural load limit factor Inertia – a heavier
Types of speed – PHAK Glossary (ICETG)
• Indicated airspeed (IAS): Indicated on the airspeed indicator
• Calibrated airspeed (CAS): Indicated airspeed corrected for position and instrument errors
• True airspeed (TAS): Actual speed through the air, CAS corrected for non-standard temperature and pressure
• Ground speed (GS): Actual speed over the ground, TAS corrected for wind conditions
• Mach number: The ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound
Max Aircraft Airspeeds in the U.S.: FAR 91.117
•
Mach 1.0 (Speed of Sound): Above 10,000’ MSL
•
250 kts: Below 10,000’ MSL
•
200 kts: Under class B, or within a VFR corridor through Class B
•
200 kts: At or below 2,500’ MSL within 4NM of the primary airport of a Class C or D airspace.
•
If the aircraft minimum safe airspeed for any particular operation is greater than the max speed prescribed above, the
aircraft maybe may be operated at that speed.
Aircraft Systems: (Archer II PA-28-181)
Engine:
L - Lycoming; 4 cylinders, 360 cubic inch, rated at 180HP, at 2700 RPM
H - Horizontally opposed pistons, which are actually across from each other
A - Air-cooled; as opposed to water cooled, etc.
N - Normally aspirated; Meaning it is not turbo charged or supercharged
D - Direct Driven; Pistons are direct connected to the crankshaft, which is itself connected to the propeller (No gearbox)
• Engine ignition is provided through the use of engine-driven magnetos
• Carburetor Icing 5*C to 20*C (-20*F to 70*F)
Magnetos – A self-contained, engine-driven unit that supplies electrical current to the spark plugs; completely independent of
the airplane’s electrical system. PA-28-181 has 2 magnetos
•
If no drop in RPMs in a magneto check, Plead may be broken or disconnected, do not fly.
•
If great than normal RPM drop in a magneto check, could be fouled spark plugs, do not fly until corrected
Oil - 15w-50, 6-8 quart limit. ATP requires 6.5-8 quart limit (engine can run as low as 2 quarts)
Propeller - Sensenich two-blade, fixed pitch, metal (Aluminum), 76”, with a max of 2700 RPM,
•
Propellers are “twisted” to have a uniform lift
•
Cruise Propeller: High AOA, more drag, less RPM
•
Climb Propeller: Low AOA, less drag, High RPM
Landing Gear - Fixed, Tricycle, with oleo (air/oil) struts, nose wheel contains a shimmy dampener (Vibration/centers
nosewheel), nose is linked to rudder providing 20* turns to each side from the center.
Brakes - Hydraulically actuated disc brakes on the main landing gear wheel. Hydraulic fluid is Red. 2 brake pads per disc brake.
Flaps - Single slotted, manual flap system, lever between pilot seats and extends 0*, 10*, 25* and 40*
5 Types of Flaps:
1. Plain Flaps: hinge to the back of the wing, and they pivot down when you extend them. However, they're fairly
limited in the amount of lift they can create. That's because as air moves over the wing, it loses energy and starts to
separate from the wing. By extending flaps, the airflow separation is even more pronounced, creating a large wake
behind the wing.
2. Split Flaps: deflect from the lower surface of the wing. Split flaps produce slightly more lift than plain flaps, but
like their plain counterparts, they also produce a lot of drag
3. Slotted Flaps: They increase wing camber, like other flaps. When extended, they open a slot between the wing
and the flap. By opening a slot between the wing and the flap, high pressure air from the bottom of the wing flows
through the slot into the upper surface. This adds energy to the wing's boundary layer, delays airflow separation,
and produces less drag. The result? Lots of additional lift, without the excessive drag
4. Fowler Flaps: Increase the area of your wing by extending out on rails or tracks. In the first stages of a Fowler
flap's extension, there's a large increase in lift, but little increase in drag, making the setting ideal for takeoff in a
large jet. As they continue to extend, the flaps move downward more and more, creating a little more lift, but a lot
more drag.
5. Slotted Fowler Flaps: Fowler flaps often have a series of slots to add energy to the airflow as well called slotted
fowler flaps.
Camber - A measure of the curvature of the airfoil.
Boundary Layer - In fluid mechanics, thin layer of a flowing gas or liquid in contact with a surface such as that of an airplane
wing. The fluid in the boundary layer is subjected to shearing forces. A range of velocities exists across the boundary layer from
maximum to zero, provided the fluid is in contact with the surface. Boundary layers are thinner at the leading edge of an aircraft
wing and thicker toward the trailing edge. The flow in such boundary layers is generally laminar at the leading or upstream
portion and turbulent in the trailing or downstream portion.
Ailerons - Control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing and move
in the opposite direction from each other. Ailerons are connected by cables, bellcranks, pulleys, and/or push-pull tubes to a
control wheel or control stick. (We have Different Ailerons; Up 25º, Down 12.5º)
4 Types of Ailerons: All were developed to counter Adverse Yaw
1. Differential Ailerons: One aileron is raised a greater distance than the other aileron and is lowered for a given
movement of the control wheel or control stick. This produces an increase in drag on the descending wing. The
greater drag results from deflecting the up aileron on the descending wing to a greater angle than the down aileron
on the rising wing.
2. Frise – Type Ailerons: Pressure is applied to the control wheel, or control stick, the aileron that is being raised
pivots on an offset hinge. This projects the leading edge of the aileron into the airflow and creates drag. It helps
equalize the drag created by the lowered aileron on the opposite wing and reduces adverse yaw
3. Coupled Ailerons and Rudder: Coupled ailerons and rudder are linked controls. This is accomplished with
rudder-aileron interconnect springs, which help correct for aileron drag by automatically deflecting the rudder at
the same time the ailerons are deflected. For example, when the control wheel, or control stick, is moved to
produce a left roll, the interconnect cable and spring pulls forward on the left rudder pedal just enough to prevent
the nose of the aircraft from yawing to the right. The force applied to the rudder by the springs can be overridden
if it becomes necessary to slip the aircraft
4. Flaperons: Combine both aspects of flaps and ailerons. In addition to controlling the bank angle of an aircraft like
conventional ailerons, flaperons can be lowered together to function much the same as a dedicated set of flaps.
The pilot retains separate controls for ailerons and flaps. A mixer is used to combine the separate pilot inputs into
this single set of control surfaces called flaperons
Wings: 6 Types of Wings. We have Moderate Taper Wings
1. Elliptical - Most efficient, with low drag, but they stall suddenly and evenly across the wing
2. Regular (Rectangular shaped) - Stall from the root, but they create lots of induced drag at the tips
3. Moderate Taper - Tapered wings get thinner at the tips, which reduces drag. They tend to stall at the wing tips first
4. High Taper – Greater decrease in drag and increase in lift.
5. Pointed Tip - Great for going fast - and when we say fast, we mean supersonic speeds
6. Sweepback - Perfect for transonic speeds, and you'll find them on planes like the Boeing 747. But swept wings have
poor low-speed performance, and they typically need high-lift devices (slats and flaps) for takeoff and landing
Rudder: Rudder Travels 28º left and right
Stabilator: Stabilator travels up 14º and down 2º, while our Stabilator Tab travels up 3º and down 12º.
Stabilator vs elevator: Stabilator is when the whole surface moves. An elevator is when you have an elevator
deflection move from the rear of the stabilizer. Stabilators gives you more surface control, while elevators have a
smaller surface to deflect the airflow.
Anti-Servo Trim Tab: Decreasing the sensitivity of the stabilator, an antiservo tab also functions as a trim device to relieve
control pressure and maintain the stabilator in the desired position. When the trailing edge of the stabilator moves up, the linkage
forces the trailing edge of the tab up. When the stabilator moves down, the tab also moves down. Conversely, trim tabs on
elevators move opposite of the control surface.
Fuel System: Two 25-gallon tanks (One-gallon unusable fuel in each tank) 100 LL blue AVGAS. There’s one engine driven &
one electrically driven fuel pump. Electric pump is used during takeoff/landings (ATP uses it in all in-flight maneuvers, except
steep turns). There is a tab when you look in the tank that represents a 17 Gallon left mark.
Electric System: 28-volt DC electrical system, 24-volt battery, 70-amp engine driven alternator, 28-volt regulator, and an over
voltage relay. Alternator output is displayed on a digital ammeter on the instrument panel.
Oxygen Requirements: FAR 91.211
Below 12,500’; Crew and passengers are not required to provide or use supplemental oxygen
12,500’ and above; Crew must be on oxygen during the duration of the flight above that altitude for greater than 30 minutes
14,000’ and above; Crew must be on oxygen at all times
15,000’ and above; Crew must be on oxygen & all passengers must be offered and have access to supplemental oxygen Note: As
PIC you are responsible for all crew and passengers, be wise and use oxygen at lower altitudes than the FAR regulation provides,
to ensure safety of passengers
Oxygen Systems:
Three Basic Components on most Oxygen systems, weather they are portable or installed systems:
1. Storage System (containers) can be stored as a gas, liquid, or solid
a. Gaseous aviator’s breathing oxygen (ABO): More economical way of storing gas. Can be stored in high
pressure (1800-2200 psi) containers or low-pressure (400-450 psi) containers. Major disadvantage is the
weight and bulk of the storage containers. Cannot substitute medical grade or industrial grade oxygen for
ABO.
b. Liquid Aviators Breathing Oxygen (LOX): Liquid state. Advantage is that it has a 900 to 1 expansion rate.
(will expand to 900 gaseous liter of ABO) This will afford a 3 to 1 space and a 5 to 1 weigh saving over
ABO. Disadvantages is it must be stored at -197ºF and can cause frostbite if it encounters exposed skin.
c. Sodium Chlorate Candles: Solid state oxygen. Sodium Chlorate, when heated to 350ºF will decompose and
release oxygen. Advantage: Saves spaces and weight, 600 to 1 expansion ratio. Disadvantage: once chemical
reaction started, hard to stop. And produces a great deal of heat.
d. Molecular sieve oxygen generators (MSOG): Air we breathe is 21% oxygen. MSOG’s takes ambient air
and separates oxygen from inert gases, using that to supply oxygen to the aircraft. Military uses this system.
2. Delivery Systems:
a. Continuous flow: Delivers a continuous flow of oxygen from the storage. Very economical but wasteful
system. Typically used at 28,000’ and lower.
b. Diluter Demand: Designed to compensate for the short-comings of the continuous flow system. It gives user
oxygen on demand (inhalation) and stops the flow when the demand ceases (exhalation). This helps conserve
oxygen. The incoming oxygen is diluted with cabin air and provides proper percentage of oxygen depending
on altitude. Typically used up to 40,000’ MSL.
c. Pressure Demand: Provides oxygen under positive pressure. A forceful oxygen flow that is it intended to
slightly over-inflate the lungs. This will pressurize the lungs to a lower altitude, thus allowing you to fly at
altitudes above 40,000’.
3. Oxygen Masks and Cannulas
a. Nasal Cannulas: Continuous-flow devices and offer personal comfort. Restricted to 18,000’ service altitude.
b. Oral-Nasal Re-Breather: Most common and least expensive. Has external plastic bag that inflates every
time you exhale. Purpose of the bag is to store exhaled air, so it may be mixed with 100% oxygen from the
systems. Typically used up to 25,000’.
c. Quick-Don Mask: Must be able to put on with one hand in 5 seconds or less. Airtight seal. Rated up to
40,000’. Airlines use this mask.
d. Airline Drop-Down Units: (dixie cup) Continuous flow mask that looks like a oral-nasal rebreather but can
be used to high altitudes. Mask uses series of one-way ports that allow a mixture of 100% oxygen ans cabin
air into the mask. Exhalation is vented to the atmosphere, as a result the bag does not inflate. This mask can
be used safely up to 40,000’.
PRICE Check:
P – Pressure
R – Regulator
I – Indicator
C – Connections
E – Emergency
Pressurized Cabin: PHAK 7
•
•
•
•
•
Uses constant flow of outside air (Bleed Air) that is compressed to provide more oxygen to the cabin
Bleed valves let air out to regulate a constant pressure within the cabin, which allows continual flow of fresh air into
the cabin
Pressurization systems are designed to keep the interior cabin pressure between 12 and 11 psi at cruise altitude. On a
typical flight, as the aircraft climbs to 36,000 feet, the interior of the plane “climbs” to between 6000-8000 feet.
We don’t keep the cabin at 14.7 psi to simulate sea-level pressure and maximize comfort, because the aircraft must be
designed to withstand differential pressure. (that’s the difference between the air pressure inside and outside the
aircraft) The greater the differential pressure, the stronger (and heavier) the airplane must be built. It’s possible to build
an aircraft that can withstand sea-level pressure during cruise, but it would require a significant increase in strength and
weight. A 12-psi cabin is a good trade-off.
Two types of mechanical devices are installed on the fuselage to protect the pressurized section of the aircraft against
excessive pressure differential.
o Positive Pressure Relief Valves: Every pressurized aircraft has a maximum pressure differential limit.
Exceeding this limit (pumping too much air pressure into the fuselage) can cause damage – even blow
outdoors and windows. To protect the aircraft from over pressurizing, positive pressure relief valves are
installed. The devices (sometimes called butterfly valves) are spring-loaded to vent excess air pressure when
cabin pressure exceeds the maximum limit.
o Negative Pressure Differential Relief Doors: Negative pressure differential means the pressure outside the
cabin is greater than the pressure inside the cabin. This situation could occur during a rapid descent. Negative
pressure is bad because it pushes inward on doors and windows. These components are not designed for this
type of force.
•
•
•
•
•
Bleed air is fresh, clean, hot air taken from the compressor section of the engine before it is mixed with fuel or exhaust
gasses. Common uses for hot bleed air are wing and engine ice protection, cabin pressurization, engine starter motors,
and air driven hydraulic pumps.
Explosive Decompression - Change in cabin pressure faster than the lungs can decompress (High lung damage risk)
Rapid Decompression - Change in cabin pressure where the lungs can decompress faster than the cabin (Low lung
damage risk)
Primary danger is hypoxia, and if proper use of oxygen equipment is not accomplished quick enough, unconsciousness
may occur
Recovery from any decompression is the use of oxygen and an emergency descent
Effects of Forward and Aft Center of Gravity (CG)
Takeoff
FORWARD
Longer roll, harder to rotate
Landing
Cruise Speed
Potential for damaging nose gear
Slower cruise speed, an increase in drag and greater
angle of attack is required to maintain altitude
Stall Speed
Higher stall speed due to increased loading, and
critical angle of attack is reached at higher airspeed
More stable, because the CG is further from the center
of pressure, which increases longitudinal stability
Easier
Stability
Stall/Spin
AFT
Quick rotation, may liftoff before having enough
airspeed
Potential to flare too much and tail strike
Higher cruise speed due to reduced drag and a
smaller angle of attack required to maintain
altitude
Lower stall speed, because there is less wing
loading
Less stable, because the CG is closer to the center
of pressure, which causes
More Difficult
Right of Way Rules: FAR 91.113 (BGAAR)
Balloons; Gliders; Airships; Airplanes; Rotorcraft; *Aircraft towing gliders or refueling other aircraft has right-of-way over all
engine driven aircraft
• General; See and avoid other aircraft (Weather permitting)
• Distress; An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other aircraft
• Converging; Aircraft to the RIGHT have the right-of-way if same category, if different categories follow (BGAAR)
• Head on; Each aircraft should alter course to the RIGHT
• Overtaking; Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; Aircraft overtaking another shall alter course to remain RIGHT and
pass safely
• Landing; Aircraft on final have the right-of-way over others on the surface; When 2 aircraft are approaching final to land, the
lowest aircraft has the right-of way *Do not take advantage of any of the right-of-way rules (specially to cut in front of another
aircraft)
Must Know for Flight: FAR 91.103 (MWKRAFT)
N - NOTAMS: D, FDC, SAA, M, GPS and pointer NOTAMS
W - Weather: Forecasted weather and current weather 1(800) WXB-RIEF, DUATS, avitationweather.gov, ForeFlight, etc.
K - Known Delays
R - Runway lengths: Sectional, AF/D, Fore-Flight, etc.
A - Alternate Airports: Always plan for the unexpected
F - Fuel Requirements: VFR Day = Fuel to destination + 30 minutes | VFR Night = Fuel to destination + 45 minutes
T - Takeoff and Landing Distances: POH - Performance calculations
NOTAMS: AIM 5-1-3 (MDFGPS)
Notices to airmen: Time critical aeronautical information, which is either temporary or not known in advance to be printed on
charts and publications
M - Military: Pertaining to the U.S. armed forces; Airports and navigation aids that are part of National Airspace System (NAS)
D - Distant: Airport and navigation facilities; Runway or taxiway closures, personnel or equipment near or crossing, runways,
airport lighting, etc.
F - FDC: Flight Data Center; TFR’s, amendments to charts and publications
Types of TFR’s: FAR 91.137 & 91.145 (VANSS)
V – VIP (Presidential, Foreign Diplomats)
A – Airshow
N – National Security/Natural Disaster
S – Sporting events (Greater than 30,000 People)
S – Space (Rocket launches)
G - GPS: Pertaining to the outage or unreliability of GPS signal integrity in a given location
P - Pointer: Issued by a flight service station to highlight or point out another NOTAM
S - SAA: Special Activity Airspace; Issued when special activity airspace will be active outside published schedule times
Aerodynamics:
Aircraft Structure Components – Fuselage; Wings; Empennage; Landing Gear; Power plant
Course Definition – Example: You leave KGKY with a heading of 160* True Course (TC); Wind direction is from 190* with a
Headwind of 10kt, which provides a “Right” Crosswind of 6kt (-Left +Right) Wind Correction Angle (WCA) course now
becomes 166* (TH); Variation -E +W (East is least and West is best) of -4* (due to the isotonic lines in the area) changes course
to 162* (MH); Deviation card in the aircraft shows to use -1* if heading in a South direction, which concludes that your final
Compass Heading (CH) of 161*
• TC = True Course; Measured clockwise from true North (Charts)
• TH = True Heading; True Course corrected for wind (using E6B)
• MH = Magnetic Heading; True Heading corrected for Variation (Found on VFR Sectionals)
• CH = Compass Heading; Magnetic Heading corrected for Deviation (Compass card in the aircraft)
• MC = Magnetic Course: True Course corrected for Variation
TC +- WCA = TH +- VAR = MH +- D = CH
Four Forces of Flight:
1. Lift - Force produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the wing the opposes the downward force of weight
(Acts perpendicular to the flight path through the wings center of lift)
2. Weight - Combined load of the airplane itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage; Weight pulls the airplane
downward because of the force of gravity (Opposes lift and acts vertically downward through the airplane’s center of
gravity a.k.a. CG)
3. Thrust - Forward force produced by the power plant/propeller (Opposes or overcomes drag)
4. Drag - Rearward retarding force that opposes thrust caused by the disruption of airflow by the wing, fuselage, or other
objects (Acts in opposite direction of flight)
Level flight, the sum of the upward forces are equal to the sum of the downward forces and the sum of the forward forces
are equal to the backward forces
Stall - Occurs when the smooth laminar airflow over the wing is disrupted, in which it separates from the surface of the wing
resulting in enough loss of lift Unable to sustain level flight.
•
The aircraft will stall when the critical angle of attack (AOA) is reached
•
The aircraft will start at higher airspeed under increased load factor
•
Critical phases where a stall can occur; takeoff, landing, go around, and traffic pattern (Slow Airspeed on base to Final)
Spin - Is an aggravated, uncoordinated stall that results in autorotation about the vertical axis. Stages – Entry, incipient,
developed, and recovery
•
Both wings are stalled but one wing is stalled more than the other – Aircraft will spin in the direction of the “Most
stalled” wing
•
An airplane can spin at any airspeed or altitude
•
Critical phases where a spin can occur; takeoff, landing, go around, and traffic pattern
KNOW SPIN RECOVERY PROCEDURE; R – rudder opposite of spiral, E – elevator forward, A – ailerons neutral, P- power
idle (REAP)
Flying in Windy Conditions – If reported winds were 180* @ 15kt, gusting 30kt Equation; (Gust 30 - Wind 15) / 2 = 8kt added
to approach speed
Relative Wind – Direction of airflow produced by an object moving through the air; The relative wind for an airplane in flight
flows in a direction parallel with and opposite to the direction of the flight; Therefore, the actual flight path of the airplane
determines the direction of relative wind
Load Factor – The force applied to aircraft to deflect its flight from a straight line, whereas force produces stress on the structure
• LF is the ratio of the total air load acting on the airplane to the gross weight of the airplane
• LF is important to the pilot for two main reasons:
1. It is dangerous to overload the structure – an excessive load can result in the structure failure of an aircraft
2. An increase LF increases the stall speed and makes stalls possible at seemingly safe speeds
Pilotage – Navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints
Dead Reckoning – Navigation Solely by computations based on time, airspace, distance, and direction
Induced Drag & Parasitic Drag – PHAK 5
Induced Drag: Forms as result of the production of lift (As the AOA increases induced drag increases, as the speed increases
induced drag decreases)
Parasitic Drag; Is caused by an aircraft surface which deflects/interferes with the smooth airflow over the airplane (3 types =
Skin Friction; Form; and Interference drag) *Parasitic drag increases with airspeed
Wake Turbulence Avoidance – PHAK 5; Whenever the wing is creating lift, pressure on the lower surface of the wing is greater
than the upper surface; Air tends to flow form the high-pressure area below, upward to the low-pressure above the wing causing
wingtip vortices; Strength of the vortex is governed by the weight, speed and shape of the wing; An aircraft that is heavy, clean
and slow will create very strong wingtip vortices; Vortices drift back and sink below the aircraft’s flight path; Wake turbulence
is a hazard to any aircraft and should always be avoided; Upon Landing; Stay above and beyond a landing jet’s touchdown point;
Land prior to a departing jet’s takeoff point Upon Takeoff; Takeoff after a jet’s touchdown point; takeoff before and stay above
another departing jet’s flight path (Sidestep upwind if necessary)
Aiming Point – Point on the ground at which if the airplane maintains a constant glide path, and was not flared, it would strike
the ground
Stabilized Approach – Established and maintained constant glide path angle towards a predetermined “Aiming point” on the
landing runway; Based on the pilot’s judgment of certain visual cues, and depends on a constant final descent airspeed and
configuration
Ground Effect – Associated with the reduction of induced drag; During takeoff and landing when you are flying close to the
ground the Earth’s surface actually alters the 3D airflow pattern around the airplane because of the vertical component of the
airflow around the wing is restricted by the ground surface; Causes a reduction in wingtip vortices and a decrease in up-wash and
down-wash;
Takeoff – With the reduction of induced drag the amount of thrust required to produce lift is reduced; The airplane is
capable of lifting off at a lower-than-normal takeoff speed; If you can climb out before reaching normal takeoff speed
you can stall the aircraft and sink back to the surface
Landing – With decreased induced drag the amount of thrust needed for lift is less; Reduction of drag will seem to
make to the airplane “Float”; Power reduction is required during flare to help the airplane land
Left Hand Turning Tendencies:
1. Torque
2. P-factor
3. Spiraling Slipstream
4. Gyroscopic Precession
Adverse Yaw – A condition of flight which the nose of an airplane tends to yaw toward the outside of the turn This is caused by
the higher induced drag on the outside wing, which is also producing more lift. Induced drag is a by product with lift associated
with the outside wing.
Weather Information
Current Weather
Times Issued
Forecasted Weather
Times Issued
W – Weather Depiction
Every 3 Hours
W – Winds & Temp Aloft
2 Per day
R – Radar Summary
Every Hour
P – Prognostic Charts
4 Times daily
A – ATIS/ASOS/AWOS
Reports/Updates every Hour
A – Area Forecast
3 Per day
M – METAR
Reports Hourly
C – Convective Outlook
Varies
P – PIREP’s
Report as needed
T - TAF
Every 6 hours/4 times daily
S – Surface Analysis
Every 3 Hours
W - Weather Depiction Chart: Generated every 3 hours; Depicts areas of VFR/MVFR/IFR, Fronts, Troughs, and Squall lines;
Condensed Weather Station data and symbols to depict (Sky cover, ceiling heights, weather and obstructions to visibility)
R - Radar Summary: Issued every hour; Displays echo type, intensity, trend, coverage, location and movement
A - ATIS/ASOS/AWOS:
• ATIS = Terminal Information Service: Updated every hour by alpha numeric identifiers; Continuous broadcast of
recorded weather information including (Active runways, approaches, NOTAMS, and other important airport
information)
• ASOS = Automated Service Information: Reports hourly; Continuous broadcast of weather information; Reports
include (Station identifier, date/time/wind - direction and speed, visibility, sky condition, temperature/dew point, and
altimeter setting)
• AWOS = Automated Weather Observation System: Hourly reports, continuous broadcast of weather information,
Reports include (Station identifier, date/time/wind - direction and speed, visibility, sky condition, temperature/dew
point, and altimeter setting)
M - METAR = Meteorological Termination Aviation Routine Weather Report: Reports hourly, Reports include (Station
identifier, date/time/wind - direction and speed, visibility, sky condition, temperature/dew point, and altimeter setting); May also
include types of precipitation began, peak wind, or sea level pressure; Categories of cloud cover (CLR, FEW, BKN, OVC)
P - PIREP’s = Pilot Reports; Report of actual weather conditions encountered during flight; Reports include (Location, time,
altitude, sky cover, visibility, observed weather, cloud layers, temperature, wind, possible turbulence, and potential icing
S - Surface Analysis: Issued every 3 hours; Display isobars - connecting lines of equal pressure; Fronts and pressure systems may include radar
W - Winds & Temperature Aloft: Issued 2 times daily; Forecasted wind, wind direction, and temperature
P - Prognostic Chart: Reflecting the (or estimated) state of the atmosphere over a large area; 4 different types - Surface, Low,
Mid, and High; Times issued are (12, 24, 36, or 48 hour periods); Give possible weather changes over much shorter time frames
than general forecasts
A - Area Forecast: Issued 3 per day; A “TAF” like forecast for multiple states or regions; Forecasts include (Header,
precautionary statement, Weather synopsis, VFR clouds, a 12-hour forecast plus a 6-hour outlook); Use the same code as
METAR weather reports
C - Convective Outlook: Day 1 outlooks are updated 5 times a day; Day 2 outlooks are updated 2 times a day; Day 3 outlooks are
issued daily; Days 4-8 outlooks are issued daily; Outlooks graphically display potential convective weather thunderstorms in
color shaded regions in predictability from (Marginal, Slight, Moderate, High, Enhanced risk or predictability too low)
T - TAF = Terminal Aerodrome Forecast: Issued every 6 hours (4 times daily and valid for 24 hours); Forecasts show expected
winds, visibility, weather, sky condition, potential wind shear, and temperature
Significant Weather: AIM 7-1-6
1. Airmet: Advisories of significant weather phenomena; Describes conditions of intensities lower than those that require
the issuance of a SIGMET; Issued for 6 hours periods (Amended as necessary due to changing weather conditions);
Typically, weather that is hazardous to general aviation
a. Sierra - IFR Conditions and mountain obscuration
b. Tango - Moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds 30kts or greater and/or low-level wind shear
unassociated with convective weather
c. Zulu - Moderate icing and data providing freezing heights
2. Sigmet: Advises of non-convective weather that is potentially hazardous to ALL aircraft; Issued for 6 hour periods for
conditions associated with hurricanes & 4 hours for all events; Severe or extreme weather not associated with
thunderstorms; conditions including (Icing, turbulence, dust/sandstorms, and volcanic ash); Given alpha numeric
identifier from “November 🡪 Yankee” excluding “Sierra,” & “Tango” Convective Sigmet: Advises of convective
weather that is potentially hazardous to ALL aircraft; Severe or extreme weather associated with thunderstorms or
convective activity; Surface winds greater than or equal to 50kts; Hail, at the surface greater than or equal to ¾” in
diameter; Severe icing, turbulence, or wind shear due to thunderstorms; Conditions including (Tornadoes, embedded
thunderstorms, line of thunderstorms, thunderstorms producing precipitation greater than or equal to heavy
precipitation affecting 40% or more of an area at least 3000sq. miles.
Basic VFR Wx Minimums & Cloud Clearances: FAR 91.155
Take off Minimums:
Category
VFR
MVFR
IFR
LIFR
Ceiling
+3000’
1000’ – 3000’
500’ – 1000’
-500’
Visibility
+5 SM
3 – 5 SM
1 – 3 SM
- 1 SM
Thunderstorms:
•
The Three Conditions Required for the formation of Thunderstorms:
o 1. Sufficient water vapor (moisture).
o 2. An unstable temperature lapse rate. Stability is the resistance of the atmosphere to upwards or downwards
displacement. An unstable lapse rate allows any air mass displacement to further grow vertically.
o 3. An initial uplifting force (e.g., front passages, orthographic lifting by typography, heating from below,
etc.).
•
Three Stages in Thunderstorm Lifecycle:
o 1. Cumulus (3-5 mile height) – The lifting action of the air begins, growth rate may exceed 3000 fpm.
o 2. Mature (5-10 miles height) – Begins when precipitation starts falling from the cloud base. Updraft at this
stage may exceed 6000 fpm. Downdrafts may exceed 2500 fpm. All thunderstorm hazards are at their
greatest intensity at the mature stage.
o 3. Dissipating (5-7 miles height) – Characterized by strong downdrafts and the cell dying rapidly.
•
Thunderstorm Hazards: Limited visibility, Wind shear, Strong updrafts / downdrafts, Icing, Hailstones, Heavy rain,
Severe turbulence, Lightning strikes and tornadoes
Fog: A cloud that begins within 50 ft of the surface. Fog occurs when: The air temperature near the ground reaches its dew point,
or when the dew point is raised to the existing temperature by added moisture to the air.
Types of fog: (RUFPAS)
•
Radiation fog – Occurs at calm, clear nights when the ground cools rapidly due to the release of ground radiation.
•
Upslope fog – Moist, stable air is forced up a terrain slope and cooled down to its dew point by adiabatic cooling
•
•
•
•
Icing:
•
Freezing fog - Tiny, supercooled liquid water droplets in fog can freeze instantly on exposed surfaces when surface
temperatures are at or below freezing. Some surfaces that these droplets may freeze on include tree branches, stairs and
rails, sidewalks, roads, and vehicles. Freezing fog can cause black ice to form on roadways.
Precipitation fog - fog that forms when rain is falling through cold air. This is common with a warm fronts but it can
occur with cold fronts as well only if it's not moving too fast. Cold air, dry at the surface while rain is falling through it
evaporates and causes the dew point to rise
Advection fog – Warm, moist air moves over a cold surface. Winds are required for advection fog to form.
Steam fog – Cold, dry air moves over warm water. Moisture is added to the airmass and steam fog forms
Structural Ice - Two conditions for formation: 1. Visible moisture (i.e., rain, cloud droplets), and 2. Aircraft surface
temperature below freezing.
o Clear ice– The most dangerous type. Heavy, hard, and difficult to remove. Forms when water drops freeze
slowly as a smooth sheet of solid ice. Usually occurs at temperatures close to the freezing point (-10° to 0° C)
by large, supercooled drops of water
o Rime ice – Opaque, white, rough ice formed by small, supercooled water drops freezing quickly. Occurs at
lower temperatures than clear ice.
o Mixed ice – Clear and rime ice formed simultaneously.
•
Instrument ice – Structural ice forming over aircraft instruments and sensors, such as pitot and static.
•
Induction ice – ice reducing the amount of air for the engine intake.
•
Intake ice – Blocks the engine intake.
•
Carburetor ice – May form due to the steep temperature drop in the carburetor Venturi. Typical conditions are outside
air temperatures of -7° to 21° C and a high relative humidity (above 80%).
•
Frost – Ice crystals caused by sublimation when both the temperature and the dew point are below freezing.
Front - Transition zone between 2 different types of densities
1. Cold Front - Is defined as the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, replacing at ground level a warmer mass of
air, which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure
2. Warm Front - The forward edge of an advancing mass of warm air that rises over and replaces a retreating
mass of cooler air. As it rises, the warm air cools and the water vapor in it condenses, usually (but not always)
forming steady rain, sleet, or snow.
Air mass – A horizontally uniform body of air defined by temperature, humidity, pressure, and water vapor content; Air
masses cover many hundreds or thousands of square miles, and adapt to the characteristics of the surface below them
Stable Air vs Unstable Air - If a rising parcel of air is cooler than the surrounding atmosphere it will tend to sink back to
its original position. This is because cool air is more dense or heavier than warmer air. This is referred to as stable air. If a
rising parcel of air is warmer than the surrounding atmosphere it will continue to rise. This is because warm air is less
dense or lighter than cool air. This is referred to as unstable air.
Lapse Rate: When the temperature decreases at a standard rate as altitude increases. Standard Temperature lapse rate is
2ºC per 1000’. Higher than normal lapse rate causes for unstable air. Lower than normal lapse rate is stable air. The
Standard temperature lapse rate stops when you leave the troposphere. The Standard Pressure Lapse Rate is about 1” HG
per 1,000’ to 10,000’ then decreases.
Airspace
Class A: 18,000’ MSL to 60,000’ MSL; Overlaying the waters within 12NM off the 48 continuous states (including
Alaska); not depicted on the sectional; IFR rating, equipment, and rules; ATC clearance required’ Mode C with altitude
reporting transponder
Class B: SFC to the needs of a particular area; depicted as a solid Blue line on the sectional; must hold at least a Private
Pilot Certificate (Student Pilots may on enter specified Bravo airspace with proper endorsements); ATC clearance is
required before entering; 2 way radio, mode C, altitude reporting transponder; no defined airspeed restriction within
Bravo, 200kt airspeed restriction beneath the Bravo & in VFR corridors inside the Bravo (FAR 91.117); generally the
airspace above the nation’s largest/busiest airports
Class C: Inner core is 5NM radius, SFC to 4000’ AGL (or as depicted); outer core is 10NM, 1200; MSL to 4000’ AGL
airspeed restriction is 200kts airspeed restriction within 4NM radius, SFC up to 2500’ AGL & 250kt speed restriction
anywhere else within the Charlie; No specific certification required; depicted as solid magenta line on VFR sectional; 2
way radio , mode C with an altitude reporting transponder, must be establish 2 way communications before entering; above
class C, need mode C
Class D: 4 NM radius, SFC to 2500’ AGL (or as depicted – GKY is 2000’) 200kt airspeed restriction; no specific
certification is required; 2 way radio, depicted as dashed blue on the VFR sectional; Pilots of arriving aircraft should
contact the control tower and give their position, altitude, destination, and request(s); radio contact should be intimated far
enough from the Delta airspace boundary as to not create conflict (10-12 NM) Class E: Generally is the airspace is not
class A, B, C, or D, and it is controlled airspace, it is class E airspace; except for 18,000’ MSL; Class E airspace has no
defined vertical limit but rather it extends upward from either the SFC or a designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent
controlled airspace; VOR airways and above; No specific certification required; no specific equipment required; may be
depicted on the VFR sectional as dashed Magenta showing Echo airspace at the surface; “Everywhere else”
Class G: Uncontrolled airspace that has not been designated as class A, B, C, D, or E airspace; Typically SFC to 700’
AGL or 1200’ AGL, but can extend up to 14,500’ MSL, or as charted on the VFR sectional’ Depicted as faded Magenta
on the sectional; Class G “Covers the ground” Note: Golf and Echo airspace dimensions are both depicted with the
Magenta fade, Blue zipper line, or a Blue fade, but depending upon the side of the boundary will determine the class of
airspace and altitude
Special Use Airspace: AIM 3-4-1 (MCPRAWN)
Special Use Airspace
Color on VFR Sectional
Fly Through?
M – MOA
Red
Yes
C – CFA
Not Depicted
Yes
P – Prohibited
Blue
No
R – Restricted
Blue
Yes *with clearance
A – Alert
Red
Yes
W – Warning
Blue
Yes
N – NSA
Red
Yes
*In General:
Above 10,000’ MSL – Speed
Below 10,000 MSL – Speed
restriction on M1 91.817 &
restriction of 250 kts 91.117 &
Mode C required 91.215
Mode C not required 91.215
MOA: Military Operations Area; Defined vertical and lateral limits established for the purpose of separating certain
military training activities from IFR traffic; Pilots operating under VFR should exercise extreme caution while flying
through a MOA (Call to check if its “Hot” or “Cold”)
CFA: Controlled Firing Area; Contain activities which could be hazardous to non-participation aircraft; Not depicted on
the sectional
Prohibited: Areas contain airspace or defined dimensions within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited; Establish for
security or reasons associated with the “National wellbeing”
Restricted: Airspace identified by an whereas the flight of aircraft isn’t completely prohibited, but still subject to
restrictions’ Need clearance from ATC facility to fly in/through if active
Alert: Depicted on aeronautical chart to inform non-participating pilots of areas that may contain a high volume of pilot
training or any unusual type of aerial activity; Pilots should be particularly ALERT in these areas
Warning: Airspace extending 3NM outward from the U.S. coastline, that contains activity hazardous to non-participating
aircraft; Purpose of airspace is to WARN pilots of potential danger
NSA: National Security Area; Defined airspace where there is a requirement for increased security and safety for ground
facilities
Other Airspace:
Wildlife Refuge: Recommended to fly at least 2000’ AGL; Depicted by a Blue side by side dotted and solid line in the
sectional AIM7-4-6
SFRA: Special Flight Rules Area is an area of airspace where the ready identification, location, and control aircraft is
required in the interests of national security; Depicted on the sectional as a solid Blue blocked line
TFR: Temporary Flight Restriction is to protect persons or property in the air or the surface, provide safe environment for
operation of disaster relief aircraft, protect the President and Vice President, or other public figures, provide safe
environment for space agency operations AIM 3-5-3
TRSA: Terminal Radar Service Area are primary airport(s) which become Class D airspace; depicted on the VFR
sectional as a solid Black line; dimensions are tailored to area; pilots operating under VFR are encouraged to contact the
radar approach control; participation is voluntary, but still treat it as a Delta and follow the Delta operating procedures;
Provides separation for participating aircraft AIM 3-5-6
Other
Lost Procedures: (5 C’s) Climb, Communicate, Confess, Comply, and Conserve
•
Climb for a better view communication signal and navigation reception
•
Communicate with FSS, or ATC, or CTAF, etc.
•
VOR Crosscheck
•
Look for landmarks, terrain, lakes, etc.
Emergency Frequency & SQWK code – 121.5, 7500 = Hijacking, 7600 = Lost communications, 7700 = Emergency In
Flight Emergencies (ABCDE) –
• A = Airspeed; (Pitch for best glide speed “Vg” 76 knots in the Archer PA-28)
• B = Best place to land; Pick a landing site as soon as you can and get set up for it
• C = Checklist; Restart, Fire, etc. (Don’t spend enormous amount of time on this, especially if you are
already at a low altitude)
• D = Declare emergency; SQWK 7000 then if time permits, contact 121.5
• E = Execute the emergency’ Throttle CLOSE, mixture CUTOFF, mags OFF, master switch OFF,
alternator OFF, Fuel selector rotate to the OFF position, seat belts ON, doors OPEN, touchdown at the
lowest possible speed airspeed and avoid obstacles (Power lines, etc.)
Types of Hydroplaning:1. Dynamic (High Speed); 2. Reverted Rubber (Prolonged wheel lock heats water to
steam); Vicious (Smooth surface like a paint with a thin film of water on top)
Hazardous attitudes: (MIRIA)
• Macho = I can do it; Antidote = Taking chances is foolish
• Impulsivity = Do it quickly; Antidote = Not so fast, think first
• Resignation = What is the use; Antidote = I am not helpless, and I can make a difference
• Anti-authority = Don’t tell me; Antidote = Follow the rules, they are right, and there for a reason
• Invulnerability = It won’t happen to me; Antidote = It could very well happen to me
Runway Incursion: Any occurrence in the airport runway environment involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or
object on the ground that creates separation with an aircraft taking off, intending to take off, landing, or intending
to land. A.K.A. Any occurrence at a runway involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on a
protected area or surface designed for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.
Airport Signs & Markings: