How to Self Study
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YouTube Advice
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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IlU-zDU6aQ0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nqYmmZKY4sA
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ATmJb3bH2E0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBUhdwTt7ow
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uiNB-6SuqVA
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Environmental Conditions
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• Illuminate study area: Improve alertness, cognitive functions, concentration, focus and mood
• Clean Desk: Reducing distractions.
• Have a separate Studying Area
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Note Taking
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• Use Different colors like.
◦ DHCP – Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Automatically assigns IP addresses within given scope 67/68
• Do not write the entire text you read or everything that the person in a video says.
Take what is being said, mentally digest it and create a summary of what you have read
• When doing practice exams, note down your wrong answers and research it.
Expand yours notes accordingly
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Watching Videos
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• Watch a section and of the video, pause it. Create notes of that section.
• You can then review yours notes while watching that section again
• I turn on subtitles as well so that I can hear and read. Increasing stimulation
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After Sessions
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• Close your eyes and try to go though as much of your notes, this is good revision and ensures you did
not just write things down but was able to retain it
• Afterwards read through your notes, making sure you retained everything that you deem important.
• If you have a relative or room mate that cares enough about your education, try explaining them what
you have learned. Really helping you stimulate the hippocampus.
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Community
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• Partake in study groups
• Don’t hesitate to ask friends/people on platforms like discord
• Help others, if your studying CompTIA A+ and see someone ask about something, helping them can
increase the ability for you to retain the information. IF you are wrong and someone points that out.
This is also good, because we tend to try and not be wrong again.
Triggering stressors within your brains that then focus on learning why it was wrong.
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Nutrition
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• Attempt to get enough vitamins and nutrition. You will need to research this are recommended
requirements of daily intake differs for sex, age and weight. Professional in the field is of the most
knowledge and can help you optimize it to your specific needs.
If you cant afford help then just gather as much information of recommendations that describe your needs
• Finances does play a big roll in good nutrition, I had to decide sometimes. Bread of broccoli for
example. Substitute what you currently eat for something else.
• A multivitamin can help with this.
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Other
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• Try and exercise every day, even if only 30 minutes a day
• Be consistent with studying, try and study each day
• Attempt to minimize distractions if you have limited time
• Use things like white noise to help and focus when you study -preferably with earphones
• Be confident in your abilities
• Aim for 100% even if the exam only needs 75%.
• Use as much resources as you can when you cant afford to fail the first time like financially
• Failure is not something that must stop you if you do. Focus on fixing why you failed. Like on practice
exams, note down what you got wrong and why you got it wrong. Sometimes its not understanding the
question, sometimes it something you need to focus on more during your studies. Hell sometimes you
were correct and the practice exam was wrong (make sure of this though, doing research will tell you).
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Wrathy’s Concoction
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This part is optional but something I like to make. Either in the shape of shake or making my coffee like this.
Ginger, Cinnamon, Turmeric, Black Pepper, Cacao, Coconut Milk/oil and Instant Coffee (100% pure type that
does not contain glucose syrup, etc).
Ginger has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. It may help improve brain function, reduce
inflammation, and enhance cognitive performance.
Cinnamon is rich in antioxidants and has anti-inflammatory properties. It may improve cognitive function,
memory, and attention.
Turmeric contains an active compound called curcumin, which has potent antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties. Curcumin may support brain health, improve memory, and protect against
neurodegenerative diseases.
Black Pepper contains a compound called piperine, which enhances the absorption of curcumin from
turmeric.
By adding black pepper to the shake, you increase the bioavailability of curcumin and its potential benefits.
Cacao is a rich source of flavonoids, which are antioxidants that have been associated with improved
cognitive function and neuroprotective effects. Cacao may enhance mood, attention, and memory.
Coconut Milk contains medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs), which are a type of healthy fat. MCTs provide a
readily available source of energy for the brain and may enhance cognitive function.
Instant Coffee contains caffeine, which can improve alertness, focus, and cognitive performance. It may
temporarily enhance mental clarity and concentration. Including a small amount of salt in your shake helps
balance electrolytes and can support proper nerve function, including cognitive processes.
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Steps I take
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1) Watch a Video Series, Like TheMadInstructor’s
2) Take notes AFTER a section is completed
3) Review that same section whilst going through your notes to check if you missed anything
4) Do practice test, like wiley's effecientlearning.com has like a Chapter one questions for example
5) If you see something on the tests you don't know, research it.
6) All wrong answers, note is down with appropriate explanation
7) After doing that for the video series, I start going through a book. lets say the Sybex study guide as
an example.
8) Take notes that complement or add to your existing notes
9) After completing the book, take practice tests
10) Before making a decision on exam date. review the entire objective list, see something you don’t know.
or something you know but don't feel comfortable answering in an actual exam. Research it
11) when you can go through objective list and be like: ye I know these, gg book exam
12) whilst waiting for your voucher/exam day. Review already created notes.
REMEMBER!....
- Eliminate wrong answers!
- if it's a long question, READ THE LAST SENTENCE FIRST!
- If you get hit with an acrnonym you don't remember, USE THE
WHITEBOARD and make a note to yourself! - (A future question could
define that acronym for you!)
Go through objectives
- cross off known good
- read chapter
- watch video
- read chapter key section review
- keyword review, labs, questions
Review
after each section
review all again
section review quiz
then practice quiz
study pbqs
practice questions
Study practice exam.
Take tests over and over again until you get 90% on all 6 exams
and read the description for every answer and incorrect answer.
For every wrong question go and watch associated video
CompTIA Troubleshooting Methodology
The CompTIA troubleshooting methodology can be likened to the scientific method in some ways.
It’s a 6-step process that frames the problem and guides IT pros to identify and execute a solution.
The CompTIA troubleshooting methodology:
1. Identify the problem
2. Establish a theory of probable cause
3. Test the theory to determine the cause
4. Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution
5. Verify full system functionality, and, if applicable, implement preventive measures
6. Document findings, actions and outcomes
Let’s take a more in-depth look at each of these steps to determine what they really mean..
1. Identify the Problem
Identification is often the easiest step. It may be accomplished via an inbound phone call from a user, a help
desk ticket, an email message, a log file entry or any number of other sources. It is not at all uncommon for
users to alert you to the problem.
It’s important to recognize that the root cause of specific issues is not always apparent. For example, a failed
login attempt might seem to indicate a username or password problem, when instead the real issue may be
a lack of network connectivity that prevents the authentication information from being checked against a
remote server.
As troubleshooters, we want to be very careful to ensure we have identified the root cause of the error,
misconfiguration or service interruption before making any changes.
Specific steps here may include:
• Gathering information from log files and error messages
• Questioning users
• Identifying symptoms
• Determining recent changes
• Duplicating the problem
• Approaching multiple problems one at a time
• Narrowing the scope of the problem
2. Establish a Theory of Probable Cause
I’d like to start by pointing out the impreciseness of the words in this step. Words such as theory and
probable indicate a guess on your part, even if it is a guess backed by data. The way this step is written
acknowledges that the root cause (step one) may not have been accurately identified. However, the cause is
specific enough to begin troubleshooting.
This stage may require significant research on your part. Vendor documentation, your organization’s own
documentation and a good old-fashioned Google search may all be required to provide the basis for your
theory.
Specific steps here may include:
• Questioning the obvious
• Considering multiple approaches, including top-to-bottom or bottom-to-top for layered technologies
(such as networks)
One of the main issues that I’ve observed with newer troubleshooters is failing to question the obvious. In
my classes, I rephrase this as “start simple and work toward the complex.” Yes, I am aware that operating
systems, networks and cloud deployments are all very complex. However, that does not mean that your
issue is complex.
I have found over the years that careful note-taking is important at this point. Your notes can include data
copied from websites, web URLs, suggestions from your team members, etc.
3. Test the Theory to Determine the Cause
What’s most interesting about the first two steps is that they don’t require you to make configuration
changes. Changes should not be made until you are reasonably sure you have a solution that you’re ready to
implement.
This step is also part of the “information-gathering” phase.
Please note, it is not uncommon for experienced administrators to move very quickly and informally through
steps one, two and three. Problems and symptoms are often familiar, making it simple to predict the likely
cause of an error message or failed device.
At this stage, you may find yourself circling all the way back to step one: Identify the problem. If you test
your theory to discover the likely cause and find that you were incorrect, you may need to start your
research all over again. You can check in with users, dig more deeply into log files, exercise your Google-Fu,
etc.
Once you’re confident you’ve found the fundamental issue, the next step is to prepare to solve the problem.
4. Establish a Plan of Action and Implement the Solution
If you believe you know the root cause of the troubleshooting issue, you can now plan how to address it.
Here are some reasons to plan ahead before blindly jumping into a course of action:
• Some fixes require reboots or other more significant forms of downtime
• You may need to download software, patches, drivers or entire operating system files before proceeding
• Your change management procedures may require you to test modifications to a system’s configuration in
a staging environment before implementing the fix in production
• You may need to document a series of complex steps, commands and scripts
• You may need to back up data that might be put at risk during the recovery
• You may need approval from other IT staff members before making changes
Once you’ve completed this stage, you’re now ready to do whatever it is you believe you need to do to solve
the problem. These steps may include:
• Run your scripts
• Update your systems or software
• Edit configuration files
• Change firewall settings
Make sure that you have a rollback plan in place in case the fix you’re attempting does not address the
issue. You must be able to reverse your settings to at least get back to where you began.
In some cases, implementing the proposed fix may be quicker than the research phases that preceded it.
Those research phases are essential, however, to make sure you’re addressing the real issue and to minimize
downtime.
5. Verify Full System Functionality and Implement Preventive Measures
I once observed a failure at this very stage of troubleshooting. The support person in question was called to
investigate a printer that wasn’t working. When he arrived, he noticed the printer was unplugged. He
plugged it back in, grumbled about users not understanding computers, and walked away. What he failed to
realize, however, was that the printer was jammed and that the users had unplugged it while attempting to
fix the jam. The tech walked away without verifying functionality.
When possible, have the users that rely on the system test functionality for you. They are the ones that
really know how the system is supposed to act and they can ensure that it responds to their specific
requirements.
Depending on the problem, you may need to apply the fix to multiple servers or other devices. For example,
if you’ve discovered a problem with a device driver on a server, you may need to update the drivers on
several servers that rely on the same device.
6. Document Findings
Documentation is a pet peeve of mine. It comes from working as a network administrator for an
organization that had zero documentation. I was the sixth administrator the company had hired in five
years, and no one before me wrote down anything. It was a nightmare.
Documenting your troubleshooting steps, changes, updates, theories and research could all be useful in the
future when a similar problem arises (or when the same problem turns out not to have been fixed after all).
Another reason to keep good documentation as you go through the entire methodology is to communicate
to others what you have tried so far. I was on the phone once with Microsoft tech support for a failed
Exchange server. The first thing the tech said was, “What have you tried so far?” I had a three-page list of
things we didn’t need to try again.
Such documentation is also useful in case your changes had unintended consequences. You are more easily
able to reverse your changes or change configurations if you have good documentation on exactly what you
did.
Keep It Simple
This troubleshooting methodology is just a guide, however. Each network environment is unique and as you
gain experience in that environment, you’ll be able to predict the likely causes of issues.
If I could pass on one bit of wisdom to future support staff members, it would be the tidbit above regarding
starting simple. In my courses, one of the main troubleshooting checklists I suggest is this:
• Is it plugged in?
• Is it on?
• Did you restart it?
That may seem facetious and over-simplified, but those steps are actually worthwhile (in fact, it’s
worthwhile to double-check those steps). However, the real lesson is not those three steps, but rather the
spirit of those tasks, which is to start simple and work toward the more complex.
One thing the troubleshooting methodology does not address is time. In many cases, you will be working
within the confines of service level agreements (SLA), regulatory restrictions or security requirements. In
those situations, you must be able to accomplish the above steps efficiently.
Being deliberate about following a troubleshooting methodology can make you much more consistent and
efficient at finding and resolving system and network issues. I strongly encourage you to formalize such a
methodology for your support staff.
CompTIA A+ Certification Exam Core 1 Objectives (220-1101)
1.0 Mobile Devices
1.1 Given a scenario, install and configure laptop hardware and components.
• Hardware/device replacement
1.1 - Laptop Hardware
Laptop hardware
• Engineered to precise specifications
– A challenging repair
• Some laptops are easier to fix than others
– An ongoing learning process
• Understand the process
– The details will vary between laptop manufacturers
- Battery
Laptop batteries
• The power source when unplugged
– May be easily replaced or require a tear down
– Five minutes vs. one hour
• Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) and
– Lithium-Ion polymer (LiPo) are common
– No “memory effect”
– Charging the battery diminishes capacity
• Different form factor for each laptop
– Battery types and styles can vary
– Battery technology is changing constantly
- Keyboard/keys
Laptop keyboard
• The most-used component of the laptop
– Can be easy to replace
– A few screws and a single ribbon cable
– May not always be this simple
• Or connect an external USB keyboard
– Not very portable, but works in a pinch
Laptop keys
• Some repairs might require the removal or replacement of a key cap
– This can be a delicate procedure
• Check with the manufacturer’s instructions
– It’s very easy to accidentally break the key cap or the components underneath
- Random-access memory (RAM)
Laptop memory
• Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module SO-DIMM)
• Memory used in laptops and mobile devices
– Often easy to install and replace
• Some laptop memory is soldered to the system board
– No upgrade available
– Requires a full system board replacement
- Hard disk drive (HDD)/solid- state drive (SSD) migration
Migrating from HDD to SSD
• An impressive upgrade
– Move from spinning mechanical drive to solid state memory
– It’s almost like getting a new laptop
• Install an OS on the SSD
– Move user documents between drives
– Install any required applications
– Can be time consuming
• Image/clone the HDD
– No OS installation required
– Move everything from one to the other
• Imaging software needed
– Sometimes included with the SSD
– Many commercial and open source options
• Create an image file - One drive at a time
• Drive-to-drive image
– Image directly from one drive to the other
- HDD/SSD replacement
Laptop storage
• Magnetic disk
– Traditional spinning drive platters
– 2.5 form factors (3.5 inch for desktops)
• SSD (Solid-state drive)
– All memory, no moving parts
– Silent, fast access time, less latency
– 2.5 inch form factors
• M.2
– Smaller form factor
– No SATA data or power cables
– Easy to install and replace
Replacing laptop storage
• All internal
– Open a cover on the back
– Open the entire laptop
• Can be very modular
– Two screws and the drive slides out
• M.2 drives are even easier
– One screw
- similar to RAM installation
- Wireless cards
802.11 wireless and Bluetooth
• Wireless network connectivity
– Connect without wires
• 802.11
– Local area network (LAN)
– High speed, Internet access
• Bluetooth
– Personal area network (PAN) - Short range
– Connect peripherals and other nearby devices
• Physical privacy and security components
- Biometrics
Biometrics
• Sign in or unlock your laptop with a fingerprint reader or face recognition
– Something you are
• Requires additional configuration in the OS
– Hardware required for most options
• Relatively secure
– Faces and fingerprints are quite unique
- Near-field scanner features
Near-field communication (NFC)
• Short-distance networking
– 4 centimeters or less
– Data transfers or authentication
• Common on mobile phones and smart watches
– Payment method on your wrist
• Use it for authentication without typing a password
– Hospital workstations, warehouses, manufacturing
1.2 Compare and contrast the display components of mobile devices.
• Types
- Liquid crystal display (LCD)
LCD technologies
 IPS (In-plane switching) LCD - color accuracy – adobe
– Excellent color representation
– More expensive to produce than TN
 TN (Twisted nematic) LCD – fastest refresh rate – gaming
– The original LCD technology
– Fast response times (gaming!)
– Poor viewing angles - color shifts
 VA (Vertical Alignment) LCD
– A good compromise between TN and IPS
– Good color representation
– Slower response times than TN
1.2 Laptop Displays
Portable LCD
• Liquid crystal display
– Light shines through liquid crystals
• Advantages
– Lightweight
– Relatively low power
– Relatively inexpensive
• Disadvantages
– Black levels are a challenge
– Requires separate backlight
– Florescent, LED, etc.
– Lights are difficult to replace
- Organic light-emitting diode (OLED)
OLED
• Organic Light Emitting Diode
– Organic compound emits light when receiving an electric current
• Thinner and lighter
– Flexible and mobile - no glass needed
• No backlight
– The organic compound provides the light
• Tablets, phones, smart watches
– Very accurate color representation
– A bit higher cost than LCD
• Mobile display components
• WiFi antenna connector/ placement
Wi-Fi antennas
• Multiple antennas
– WiFi main and aux / Bluetooth
• Antenna wires wrap around the laptop screen
– It’s up high!
• Camera/webcam
Webcam
• Video capture - Built-in camera and microphone
• Usually includes both audio and video
– Specialized drivers and software
• Microphone
• Built-in to the laptop display
– Useful for video calls
• Not good for non-casual use
– Analog or USB microphones can help
Fluorescent vs. LED backlighting
• LED-backlit LCD display
– Backlight is LEDs instead of florescent
– LEDs around the edge of the screen
– An array of LEDs behind the screen
– The latest laptops are LED-backlit
• CCFL - Cold Cathode
– Fluorescent Lamp
– Higher voltage and power needed
– Added thickness to the display
– No longer a common backlight
– Older laptops will use these
• Touch screen/digitizer
- Touchscreen
• Merge laptop and tablet input
– Digitizer responds to touch - No keyboard required
• But often still available
– Many options for input - Use the best one for the job
- Digitizer
• Use a pen-like device as input
– Stylus input - Useful for graphical input
• Used commonly on laptop / tablets
– Or hybrid devices
• Inverter
Backlight and inverter
• LCD displays need a backlight
– Florescent lamp/LED to LCD display to your eyes
• Some laptops have inverters - Turn DC into AC
• Verify backlight
– Look closely and use a flashlight
• May need to replace the LCD inverter or display
– Choose carefully
1.3 Given a scenario, set up and configure accessories and ports of mobile devices.
• Connection methods
Connecting mobile devices
• Phones and tablets
– Many different ways to connect
• Wired and wireless connectivity
– Standards and options change through the years
• Used for synchronization, connectivity, backup, and identification
– Sometimes simultaneously
- Universal Serial Bus (USB)/ USB-C/microUSB/miniUSB
USB
Universal Serial Bus
– High-speed wired communication
– Used for charging and data transfers
• Micro-USB
– A smaller USB connection
– Common now worldwide
• Older devices may use Mini-USB
– Slightly larger
USB-C
• 24-pin double-sided USB connector
– Used for both hosts and devices
• Acts as a USB 2.0/3.0/3.1/4 connection
– Different signals can use the same connector
• Can transmit other signals
– DisplayPort, HDMI, Thunderbolt
- Lightning
Lightning
• Apple proprietary
– 8-pin digital signals
– iPhone and iPad devices
• Some advantages over Micro-USB
– Higher power output for phones and tablets
– Can be inserted either way
– Simpler design
- Serial interfaces
Serial interfaces
• DB-9 - also called DE-9
• Commonly used for RS-232 signals
– Recommended Standard 232
– An industry standard since 1969
• Serial communications standard
– Traditionally used for modem connections
• Now used as a configuration port
– Switches, routers, firewalls, etc
– Use a USB to DB-9 converter cable
- Near-field communication (NFC)
NFC
• Near Field Communication
– Send small amounts of data wirelessly over a limited area
• Built into your phone
– Payment systems, transportation, in-person information exchange
• Access token, identity “card”
– Short range with encryption support
- Bluetooth
Bluetooth
• High speed communication over short distances
– PAN (Personal Area Network)
• Connects our mobile devices
– Smartphones
– Tethering
– Headsets and headphones
– Health monitors
– Automobile and phone integration
– Smartwatches
– External speakers
- Hotspot
Hotspot
• Turn your phone into a WiFi hotspot
– Your own personal wireless router
– Extend the cellular data network to all of your devices
• Dependent on phone type and provider
– May require additional charges and data costs
• Accessories
- Touch pens
Touch pens
• Touchscreen pen / touch screen stylus / capacitive stylus
– Activate the interface without actually touching it
• Handwriting
– Note taking, signatures
• Precise selection
– Easier to see the screen
Active stylus
• Digital stylus
– A more advanced writing tool
• The stylus communicates directly to the device
– Pressure sensitivity, programmable buttons, etc.
• Must be compatible with the tablet
– e.g., Apple iPad uses an Apple Pencil
- Headsets
• Hands-free audio - Earphones and microphone
• Wired
– USB connections are common on laptops
– Connects to 3.5 mm TRRS (tip-ring-ring-sleeve) connector
– Analog audio jack
– iPhone can use Lightning port
• Wireless - Bluetooth headsets
- Speakers
• Mobile audio - Battery powered
• Wireless connection - Bluetooth link
• Stereo sound - Small package
- Webcam
Camera / webcam
• Internal or external
– Commonly external on desktops, internal on laptops/tablets/phones
• Accessible from multimedia applications, photo utilities, and video conferencing
– Real-time video communication
• Docking station - Docking station
– Use external keyboard and mouse
– Extend existing laptop interfaces
– Add additional functionality
– Desktop adapter cards
– Avoid cable issues
• Port replicator
Port replicator
– Similar to a docking station
– Does not commonly have an expansion card option
– Usually connects using USB
• Trackpad/drawing pad
Drawing pad
• Use an active stylus with an external digitizer
– Very precise input
Trackpad
• Replace the mouse
– Useful in tight working areas
– Common on laptops
• External options
– Battery powered
– Bluetooth connected
• Drag and tap
– Or use multiple finger input for right-clicking, zooming, and window control
• Enable and disable
– Avoid inadvertent mouse clicks and movements
1.4 Given a scenario, configure basic mobile-device network connectivity and application support.
Wireless/cellular data network (enable/disable)
Cellular Speeds
Name
Max Speed
168 Mbps down/34 Mbps
3G HSPA+
up
3.1 Mbps down/1.8 Mbps
3G EV-DO
up
4G LTE
150 Mbps
4G LTE-A
300 Mbps
5G
70 Gbps
Real World Speeds
20 Mbps
20 Mbps
40 Mbps
1 Gbps standing/100 Mbps moving
Cellular networks
• Mobile devices – “Cell” phones
• Separate land into “cells”
– Antenna coverages a cell with certain frequencies
- 2G/3G/4G/5G
• 2G networks
– GSM - Global System for Mobile Communications
– CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access
• Poor data support
– Originally used circuit-switching
– Minor upgrades for some packet-switching
3G technology
• 3rd Generation
– Introduced in 1998
• Upgraded data connectivity over 2G
– Incremental 3G updates improved speeds
– Usually several megabits per second
• Bandwidth improvement allowed new functionality
– GPS
– Mobile television
– Video on demand
– Video conferencing
4G and LTE
• Long Term Evolution (LTE)
– A “4G” technology
– Converged standard (GSM and CDMA providers)
– Based on GSM and EDGE
(Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution)
– Standard supports download rates of 150 Mbit/s
• LTE Advanced (LTE-A)
– Standard supports download rates of 300 Mbit/s
5G
• Fifth generation cellular networking – Launched worldwide in 2020
• Significant performance improvements
– At higher frequencies
– Eventually 10 gigabits per second
– Slower speeds from 100-900 Mbit/s
• Significant IoT impact
– Bandwidth becomes less of a constraint
– Larger data transfers
– Faster monitoring and notification
– Additional cloud processing
- Hotspot
• Turn your phone into a WiFi hotspot
– Your own personal wireless router
– Extend the cellular data network to all of your devices
• Dependent on phone type and provider
– May require additional charges and data costs
- Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) vs. code-division multiple access (CDMA)
GSM
• Global Communications
– Mobile networking standard
• 90% of the market
– Originally an EU standard
– Worldwide coverage
• Used by AT&T and T-Mobile in the United States
– Move your SIM card (Subscriber Identity Module) from phone to phone
• Original GSM standard used multiplexing
– Everyone gets a little slice of time
CDMA
• Code Division Multiple Access
– Everyone communicates at the same time
– Each call uses a different code
– The codes are used to filter each call on the receiving side
• Used by Verizon and Sprint
– Handsets are controlled by the network provider
– Not much adoption elsewhere
- Preferred Roaming List (PRL) updates
Updates
• PRL (Preferred Roaming List) updates
– CDMA networks (i.e., Verizon, Sprint)
• Allows your phone to connect to the right tower
– Can be updated over the air (OTA)
• Bluetooth
- Enable Bluetooth
- Enable pairing
Bluetooth pairing
• Connect a Bluetooth device
– Built-in security - Use or verify a PIN
• Pair the devices one time
– Future connections should be automatic
• Check with the manufacturer
– May prefer a specific sequence
– Discoverable mode isn’t always obvious
- Find a device for pairing
Bluetooth pairing process
• Enable Bluetooth on both devices
– Android and iOS: Settings / Bluetooth
• Set devices to discoverable mode
– May require key sequence on Bluetooth device
• Select discovered device
– Many devices may appear!
• Enter or confirm PIN
– Should be the same on both devices
• Test connectivity
– Devices should now communicate
- Enter the appropriate PIN code
- Test connectivity
• Location services
- Global Positioning System (GPS) services
GPS (Global Positioning System)
• Created by the U.S. Department of Defense
– Over 30 satellites currently in orbit
• Precise navigation - Need to see at least 4 satellites
• Determines location based on timing differences
– Longitude, latitude, altitude
- Cellular location services
• Mobile device location services and geotracking
– Maps, directions
– Determine physical location based on GPS, WiFi, and cellular towers
• Mobile device management (MDM)/mobile application management (MAM)
MDM (Mobile Device Management)
• Manage company-owned and user- owned mobile devices
– BYOD - Bring Your Own Device
• Centralized management of the mobile devices
– Specialized functionality
• Set policies on apps, data, camera, etc.
– Control the remote device
– The entire device or a “partition”
• Manage access control
– Force screen locks and PINs on these single user devices
MDM configurations
- Corporate email configuration
– User does not need to configure anything
– The MDM makes the changes on the device
– Account details, server address, communication method
- Two-factor authentication
– Require specific authentication types
– Biometrics, pseudo-random authentication app
- Corporate applications
– Allow or restrict app installation
– Prevent unauthorized app usage
• Mobile device synchronization
- Account setup
Configuring a mobile device
• Many settings are preconfigured
– Telephone / Text messaging
• Email
– Everyone handles email services differently
– Corporate email configurations can vary
• Data synchronization
– Based on data rates and speeds
– Important for backup and recovery
 Microsoft 365
Outlook, Exchange
– Microsoft’s email service
– Usually the same for Hotmail and Outlook.com
• Authenticate to Microsoft 365
– Username, password
• Select the items to synchronize
– Changes in Outlook will appear on the mobile device
• Same process for Google Workspace
– Formerly known as G Suite

Google Workspace
 iCloud
• Integrated into iOS and iPadOS
– Provide an iCloud username and password
• Select synchronization options
– Extensive customization
• Synchronize to macOS
– Use your desktop, laptop, or mobile device
- Data to synchronize
 Mail
 Photos
 Calendar
 Contacts
 Recognizing data caps
Synchronizing data
• Data types
– Mail
– Pictures, music, video
– Calendar
– Contacts
• Data caps and transfer costs
– Cellular vs 802.11
– Enable or disable network connections
– Control the use of cellular downloads
2.0 Networking
2.1 Compare and contrast Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) ports,
protocols, and their purposes.
• Ports and protocols
- 20/21 – File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
- 22 – Secure Shell (SSH)
- 23 – Telnet
- 25 – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
- 53 – Domain Name System (DNS)
- 67/68 – Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
- 80 – Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
- 110 – Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3)
- 137/139 – Network Basic Input/ Output System (NetBIOS)/NetBIOS over TCP/IP (NetBT)
- 143 – Internet Mail Access Protocol (IMAP)
- 161/162 – Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
- 389 – Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
- 443 – Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
- 445 – Server Message Block (SMB)/Common Internet File System (CIFS)
- 3389 – Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
• TCP vs. UDP
- Connectionless
 DHCP
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
- Connection-oriented
 HTTPS
 SSH
2.1 Introduction to IP
A series of moving vans
• Efficiently move large amounts of data
– Use a shipping truck
• The network topology is the road
– Ethernet, DSL, cable system
• The truck is the Internet Protocol (IP)
– We’ve designed the roads for this truck
• The boxes hold your data
– Boxes of TCP and UDP
• Inside the boxes are more things
– Application information


Ports: roadway for a specific type of data
All ports either TCP/UDP- define the standard for comms across the network
TCP and UDP
• Transported inside of IP
– Encapsulated by the IP protocol
• Two ways to move data from place to place
– Different features for different applications
• OSI Layer 4
– The transport layer
• Multiplexing
– Use many different applications at the same time
– TCP and UDP
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
• Connection-oriented
– A formal connection setup and close
• “Reliable” delivery
– Recovery from errors
– Can manage out-of-order messages or retransmissions
• Flow control
– The receiver can manage how much data is sent
 Work at layer 4 OSI model
 Verified connectivity; connection oriented
 Example: emails
UDP – User Datagram Protocol
• Connectionless - No formal open/close to the connection
• “Unreliable” delivery
– No error recovery
– No reordering of data or retransmissions
• No flow control
– Sender determines the amount of data transmitted
 Does not verify connectivity; connectionless
 Video streaming; gaming
Why would you ever use UDP?
• Real-time communication
– There’s no way to stop and resend the data
– Time doesn’t stop for your network
• Connectionless protocols
– DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
– TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
Communication using TCP
• Connection-oriented protocols prefer a “return receipt”
– HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
– SSH (Secure Shell)
• The application doesn’t worry about out of order frames or missing data
– TCP handles all of the communication overhead
– The application has one job
Speedy delivery
• The IP delivery truck delivers from one (IP) address to another (IP) address
– Every house has an address, every computer has an IP address
• Boxes arrive at the house / IP address
– Where do the boxes go?
– Each box has a room name
• Port is written on the outside of the box
– Drop the box into the right room
Lots of ports
• IPv4 socket
– Server IP address, protocol, server application port number
– Client IP address, protocol, client port number
• Non-ephemeral ports – permanent port numbers
– Ports 0 through 1,023
– Usually on a server or service
• Ephemeral ports – temporary port numbers
– Ports 1,024 through 65,535
– Determined in real-time by the client
Port numbers
• TCP and UDP ports can be any number between 0 and 65,535
• Most servers (services) use non-ephemeral (not-temporary) port numbers
– This isn’t always the case
– It’s just a number.
• Port numbers are for communication, not security
• Service port numbers need to be “well known”
• TCP port numbers aren’t the same as UDP port numbers
• Well-known port number
– Client and server need to match
• Important for firewall rules - Port-based security
• A bit of rote memorization
– Becomes second nature after a while
• Make sure you know port number, protocol, and how the protocol is used
FTP - File Transfer Protocol
o 20/21- file transfer protocol (FTP) SFTP= SSH with FTP (20/21/22)
 FTPS= FTP over SSL (secure socket layer- web browser traffic) (most secure) (990)
• tcp/20 (active mode data), tcp/21 (control) – Transfers files between systems
• Authenticates with a username and password
– Some systems use a generic/anonymous login
• Full-featured functionality - List, add, delete, etc.
SSH - Secure Shell
o 22- secure shell (SSH)- remote access (most basic) (secure ports 465 or 587)
• Encrypted communication link - tcp/22
• Looks and acts the same as Telnet
Telnet
o 23-telnet- unsecure, text based, remote access (do not select)
• Telnet – Telecommunication Network - tcp/23
• Login to devices remotely – Console access
• In-the-clear communication
– Not the best choice for production systems
SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
o 25- simple mail transfer protocol (SMPT)- sends/relays email
• SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
- Server to server email transfer - tcp/25
• Also used to send mail from a device to a mail server
- Commonly configured on mobile devices and email clients
• Other protocols are used for clients to receive email
– IMAP, POP3
DNS - Domain Name System
o 53- domain name system (DNS)- converts FQDNs (websites) to IP address
• Converts names to IP addresses - udp/53
- www.professormesser.com = 162.159.246.164
• These are very critical resources
- Usually multiple DNS servers are in production
DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
o 67/68- Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP)- automatically assigns IP address
• Automated configuration of IP address, subnet mask and other options - udp/67, udp/68
- Requires a DHCP server
- Server, appliance, integrated into a SOHO router, etc.
• Dynamic / pooled
- IP addresses are assigned in real-time from a pool
- Each system is given a lease and must renew at set intervals
• DHCP reservation
- Addresses are assigned by MAC address in the DHCP server
- Manage addresses from one location
HTTP and HTTPS
o 80- hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)- basic internet traffic (not secured)
o 443- hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS)- secure web traffic
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol
- Communication in the browser
- And by other applications
• In the clear or encrypted
- Supported by nearly all web servers and clients
POP3 / IMAP
o 110- post office protocol 3 (POP3)
- receives email, but does not save copy on server
(secure port 995)
o 143- Internet mail access protocol (IMAP)
- receives email and does save copy on server
(secure port 993)
• Receive emails from an email server
- Authenticate and transfer
• POP3 - Post office Protocol version 3
- tcp/110
- Basic mail transfer functionality
• IMAP4 - Internet Message Access Protocol v4
- tcp/143
- Includes email inbox management from multiple clients
SMB - Server Message Block
o 445- server message block (SMB)/common internet file system (CIFS)allows PCs to transfer/request data from server file shares
 Protocol used by Microsoft Windows
- File sharing, printer sharing
- Also called CIFS (Common Internet File System)
• Using NetBIOS over TCP/IP
o 137/139 – Network Basic Input/ Output System (NetBIOS)/ NetBIOS over TCP/IP (NetBT)
(Network Basic Input/Output System)
– udp/137 - NetBIOS name services (nbname)
– tcp/139 - NetBIOS session service (nbsession)
• Direct over tcp/445 (NetBIOS-less)
– Direct SMB communication over TCP without the NetBIOS transport
SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol
o 161/162- simple network management protocol (SNMP)load management/diagnostic software over a network
• Gather statistics from network devices
- Queries: udp/161
- Traps: udp/162
• v1 – The original
- Structured tables
- In-the-clear
• v2 – A good step ahead
- Data type enhancements
- Bulk transfers
- Still in-the-clear
• v3 – A secure standard
- Message integrity
- Authentication
- Encryption
LDAP
o 389- lightweight directory access protocol (LDAP)- remote access protocol to search for objects
(like phone book for IP addresses)
• LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) - tcp/389
• Store and retrieve information in a network directory
- Commonly used in Microsoft Active Directory
RDP - Remote Desktop Protocol
o 3389- Remote desktop protocol (RDP)- remote access protocol to control another PC
(windows+ R, MSTC)
• Share a desktop from a remote location over tcp/3389
• Remote Desktop Services on many Windows versions
• Can connect to an entire desktop or just an application
• Clients for Windows, macOS, Linux, Unix, iPhone, Android, and others
• TCP vs. UDP
- Connectionless
- DHCP
- Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
o 69- trivial file transfer protocol (TFTP)- unsecure file transfer
- Connection-oriented
- HTTPS
- SSH
FTP
20/21
SSH
22
TELNET 23
SMTP
25
DNS
53
BOOTP/DHCP 67/68
TFTP
69
HTTP
80
POP3
110
NTP
123
NetBT
137-139
IMAP4
143
SNMP
161/162
BGP
179
LDAP
389
SLP
427
HTTPS
443
SMB
445
AFP
548
RDP
3389
Secure SMTP 465/587
Secure IMAP 993
Secure POP 995
SIP
5060/5061
RTP
5004/5005
2.2 Compare and contrast common networking hardware.
Network devices
• Many different evices and components
– All have different roles
• Some of these functions are combined together
– Wireless router/switch/firewall
• Compare different devices
– Understand when they should be used
• Routers
Routers
• Routes traffic between IP subnets
- Makes forwarding decisions based on IP address
- Routers inside of switches sometimes called “layer 3 switches”
• Often connects diverse network types
– LAN, WAN, copper, fiber
 Responsible for IP addresses via DHCP (port 67, 68)
 Path based on destination IP address
 OSI layer 3 device
 Connected by RJ-45/cat to modem
 Converts FQDNs (fully qualified domain names) (website) to routable IP addresses (port 53)
 Translates private/public to public/private (NAT- network address translation)
 Converts private IP to MAC address (media access address) (ARP- address resolution protocol)
 Mac address- unique, 48 bit, hexadecimal number on each NIC (EUI-48)
 forwards data packets from one network to another.
• Switches
Switches
• Bridging done in hardware
- Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)
- Forwards traffic based on data link address
• Many ports and features
- The core of an enterprise network
- May provide Power over Ethernet (PoE)
• Multilayer switch
- Includes routing functionality
 forwards traffic between ports based on MAC addresses
 Connected to modem via RJ-45/cat
 Relay data based on Mac addresses
- Unmanaged
Unmanaged switches
• Very few configuration options
- Plug and play
• Fixed configuration
- No VLANs
• Very little integration with other devices
- No management protocols
• Low price point
- Simple is less expensive
- Managed
Managed switches
• VLAN support
- Interconnect with other switches via 802.1Q
• Traffic prioritization
- Voice traffic gets a higher priority
• Redundancy support
- Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)
• Port mirroring
- Capture packets
• External management
- Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• Access points
Access points
• Not a wireless router
– A wireless router is a router and an access point in a single device
• An access point is a bridge
– Extends the wired network onto the wireless network
– Makes forwarding decisions based on MAC address
• Patch panel
Patch panel
• Combination of punch-down blocks and RJ-45 connectors
• Runs from desks are made once
– Permanently punched down to patch panel
• Patch panel to switch can be easily changed
– No special tools
– Use existing cables
• Firewall
Firewalls
• Filters traffic by port number
– OSI layer 4 (TCP/UDP)
– Some firewalls can filter based on the application
• Can encrypt traffic into/out of the network
– Protect your traffic between sites
• Can proxy traffic
– A common security technique
• Most firewalls can be layer 3 devices (routers)
– Usually sits on the ingress/egress of the network
o - filters traffic based on rules; ACL (access control list)
 Stateless- basic; allows/denies based on ACL
 Stateful- allows/denies based on ACL but watches traffic patterns while connected to network
 Firewall rule- exception due to the implicit deny rule at the end of every firewall
 Implicit deny rule- denies any packets that weren’t explicitly permitted
Can be software or hardware
• Power over Ethernet (PoE)
Power over Ethernet (PoE)
• Power provided on an Ethernet cable
– One wire for both network and electricity
– Phones, cameras, wireless access points
– Useful in difficult-to-power areas
• Power provided at the switch
– Built-in power - Endspans
– In-line power injector – Midspans
o Power over ethernet (PoE/PoE+)- allows both power and data to be delivered on an RJ45
 Standards:
 802.3- ethernet cable standards
 802.3af- supports devices up to 15W
 802.3at- supports devices up to 25W
o VoIP
 Cisco
 PoE (802.3af and 802.3at)
- Injectors
- Switch
PoE switch
• Power over Ethernet
– Commonly marked on the switch or interfaces
- PoE standards
PoE, PoE+, PoE++
• PoE: IEEE 802.3af-2003
– The original PoE specification
– Now part of the 802.3 standard
– 15.4 watts DC power, 350 mA max current
• PoE+: IEEE 802.3at-2009
– Now also part of the 802.3 standard
– 25.5 watts DC power, 600 mA max current
• PoE++: IEEE 802.3bt-2018
– 51 W (Type 3), 600 mA max current
– 71.3 W (Type 4), 960 mA max current
– PoE with 10GBASE-T
• Hub
Hub
• “Multi-port repeater”
– Traffic going in one port is repeated to every other port
• Everything is half-duplex
• Becomes less efficient as network traffic increases
• 10 megabit / 100 megabit
• Difficult to find today
o dumb device; legacy device; floods data packets to all interfaces except inbound.
 Relays according to mac address
 Managed- contains management software
 Unmanaged- doesn’t contain management software
• Cable modem
Cable modem
• Broadband
– Transmission across multiple frequencies
– Different traffic types
• Data on the “cable” network
– DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification)
• High-speed networking
– Speeds up to 1 Gigabit/s are available
• Multiple services
– Data, voice, video
o Cable internet- connection over existing cable TV cabling.
 Speed- 160Mbps
• Digital subscriber line (DSL)
DSL modem
• ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)
– Uses telephone lines
• Download speed is faster than the upload speed (asymmetric)
– ~10,000 foot limitation from the central office (CO)
– 52 Mbit/s downstream / 16 Mbit/s upstream are common
– Faster speeds may be possible if closer to the CO
o Digital subscriber line (DSL)- digital signal over and existing analog phone line.
 Speed- 22Mbps to 24Mbps
• Optical network terminal (ONT)
ONT
• Optical network terminal
– Fiber to the premises
• Connect the ISP fiber network to the copper network
– Demarcation point (demarc) in the data center
– Terminal box on the side of the building
• Line of responsibility
– One side of the box is the ISP
– Other side of the box is your network
• Network interface card (NIC)
Network interface card (NIC)
• The fundamental network d vice
– Every device on the network has a NIC
– Computers, servers, printers, routers, switches, phones, tablets, cameras, etc.
• Specific to the network type
– Ethernet, WAN, wireless, etc.
• Often built-in to the motherboard
– Or added as an expansion card
• Many options - Single port, multi-port, copper, fiber
o Network interface card (NIC)
- onboard port or expansion card that provides an interface to connect to the network.
 MAC addresses are 48 bits long and hard coded to card
 First 24 bits= identifies org that made NIC
 Second 24 bits= Device ID
 Hexadecimal format
o Screened subnet- higher security subnet; lower security zone, DMZ
 Demilitarized zone (DMZ)- increases security of internal network by moving the public facing
systems to separate network; allows stronger firewall rules
 May act as router and firewall
o Repeater- used to deal with attenuation by regenerating a clean signal,
extending the distance a particular medium that carries the signal; considered legacy
• Software-defined networking (SDN)
SDN (Software Defined Networking
• Networking devices have different functional planes of operation
– Data, control, and management planes
• Split the functions into separate logical units
– Extend the functionality and management of a single device
– Perfectly built for the cloud
• Infrastructure layer / Data plane
– Process the network frames and packets
– Forwarding, trunking, encrypting, NAT
• Control layer / Control plane
– Manages the actions of the data plane
– Routing tables, session tables, NAT tables
– Dynamic routing protocol updates
• Application layer / Management plane
– Configure and manage the device
– SSH, browser, API
2.3 Compare and contrast protocols for wireless networking.
Wireless standards
• Wireless networking (802.11)
– Managed by the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802)
• Many updates over time
– Check with IEEE for the latest
• The Wi-Fi trademark
– Wi-Fi Alliance handles interoperability testing
• Frequencies
- 2.4GHz
- 5GHz
• Channels
- Regulations
- 2.4GHz vs. 5GHz
• Bluetooth
Bluetooth
• Remove the wires
– Headsets, speakers, keyboards / mice
• Uses the 2.4 GHz range
– Unlicensed ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) band
– Same as 802.11
• Short-range
– Most consumer devices operate to about 10 meters
– Industrial Bluetooth devices can communicate over 100 meters
• 802.11
802.11 technologies
• Frequency
– 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz
– And sometimes both
• Channels
– Groups of frequencies, numbered by the IEEE
– Non-overlapping channels would be ideal
• Regulations
– Most countries have regulations to manage frequency use
– Spectrum use, power output, interference requirements, etc.
-a
802.11a
• One of the original 802.11 wireless standards
– October 1999
• Operates in the 5 GHz range
– Or other frequencies with special licensing
• 54 megabits per second (Mbit/s)
• Smaller range than 802.11b
– Higher frequency is absorbed by objects in the way
• Not commonly seen today
-b
802.11b
• Also an original 802.11 standard - October 1999
• Operates in the 2.4 GHz range
• 11 megabits per second (Mbit/s)
• Better range than 802.11a, less absorption problems
• More frequency conflict
– Baby monitors, cordless phones, microwave ovens, Bluetooth
• Not commonly seen today
-g
802.11g
• An “upgrade” to 802.11b - June 2003
• Operates in the 2.4 GHz range
• 54 megabits per second (Mbit/s) - Similar to 802.11a
• Backwards-compatible with 802.11b
• Same 2.4 GHz frequency conflict problems as 802.11b
-n
802.11n (Wi-Fi 4)
• The update to 802.11g, 802.11b, and 802.11a
– October 2009
• Operates at 5 GHz and/or 2.4 GHz
– 40 MHz channel widths
• 600 megabits per second (Mbit/s)
– 40 MHz mode and 4 antennas
• 802.11n uses MIMO
– Multiple-input multiple-output
– Multiple transmit and receive antennas
- ac (WiFi 5)
802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5)
• Approved in January 2014
– Significant improvements over 802.11n
• Operates in the 5 GHz band
– Less crowded, more frequencies (up to 160 MHz channel bandwidth)
• Increased channel bonding - Larger bandwidth usage
• Denser signaling modulation
– Faster data transfers
• Eight MU-MIMO downlink streams
– Twice as many streams as 802.11n
– Nearly 7 gigabits per second
- ax (WiFi 6)
802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6)
• Approved in February 2021
– The successor to 802.11ac/Wi-Fi 5
• Operates at 5 GHz and/or 2.4 GHz
– 20, 40, 80, and 160 MHz channel widths
• 1,201 megabits per second per channel
– A relatively small increase in throughput
– Eight bi-directional MU-MIMO streams
• Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA)
– Works similar to cellular communication
– Improves high-density installations














Frequency
A. 5Ghz
B. 2.4Ghz
G. 2.4Ghz
N. both
AC. 5Ghz
AX. Both
Wireless
Standard
802.11a
802.11b
802.11g
802.11n
802.11ac
Frequencies
5 GHz
2.4 GHz
2.4 GHz
5 GHz and/or 2.4 GHz
5 GHz
Maximum MIMO
Streams
N/A
N/A
N/A
4 MIMO
8 MU-MIMO
Transfer rate
54Mbps
11mbps
54mbps
600Mbps
1Gbps
9.6Gbps
Maximum theoretical throughput
(per stream)
54 Mb/s
11 Mb/s
54 Mb/s
600 Mb/s
866.7 Mb/s
• Long-range fixed wireless
- Licensed
- Unlicensed
- Power
- Regulatory requirements for wireless power
Maximum theoretical
throughput (total)
54 Mb/s
11 Mb/s
54 Mb/s
600 Mb/s
6.8 Gb/s
Channel size
(bonding)
20 MHz
22 MHz
22 MHz
40 MHz
160 MHz
Long-range fixed wireless
• Wireless access point in a house with the stock antennas
– You might get a range of 40 to 50 meters
• Try connecting two buildings located miles from each other
– Fixed directional antennas and increased signal strength
• Outdoors
– Minimal signal absorption or bounce
• Directional antennas
– Focused, point-to-point connection
• Wireless regulations are complex
– Refer to your country’s regulatory agency
• Frequency use
– Unlicensed 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz frequencies
– Additional frequencies may be available
– Additional licensing may be required
• Signal strength
– Indoor and outdoor power is usually regulated
• Outdoor antenna installation is not trivial
– Get an expert, be safe
• NFC
NFC (Near field communication)
• Two-way wireless communication
– Builds on RFID, which is mostly one-way
• Payment systems
– Major credit cards, online wallets
• Bootstrap for other wireless
– NFC helps with Bluetooth pairing
• Access token, identity “card”
– Short range with encryption support
• Radio-frequency identification (RFID)
RFID (Radio-frequency identification)
• It’s everywhere
– Access badges
– Inventory/Assembly line tracking
– Pet/Animal identification
– Anything that needs to be tracked
• Radar technology
– Radio energy transmitted to the tag
– RF powers the tag, ID is transmitted back
– Bidirectional communication
– Some tag formats can be active/powered
2.4 Summarize services provided by networked hosts.
• Server roles
- DNS
DNS server
• Domain Name System
– Convert names to IP addresses
– And vice versa
• Distributed naming system
– The load is balanced across many different servers
• Usually managed by the ISP or IT department
– A critical resource
 resolves domain names and URLs to IP addresses, allowing packets to be delivered to destinations
where address is unknown to you
- DHCP
DHCP server
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
– Automatic IP address configuration
• Very common service
– Available on most home routers
• Enterprise DHCP will be redundant
– Usually running on central servers
 provides an IP address, a subnet mask, and the addresses for default gateway and DNS server,
enabling dynamic configuration for network connectivity
- Fileshare
File server
• Centralized storage of documents,spreadsheets,
videos, pictures, and any other files
– A fileshare
• Standard system of file management
– SMB (Server Message Block),
Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), etc.
• The front-end hides the protocol
– Copy, delete, rename, etc.
o - hosts and provides access based on permissions
 Easier to defend
- Print servers
Print server
• Connect a printer to the network
– Provide printing services for all network devices
• May be software in a computer
– Computer is connected to the printer
• May be built-in to the printer
– Network adapter and software
• Uses standard printing protocols
– SMB (Server Message Block), IPP (Internet Printing Protocol), LPD (Line Printer Daemon)
* control and manage printers; stages documents to printers
- Mail servers
Mail server
• Store your incoming mail
– Send your outgoing mail
• Usually managed by the ISP or the IT department
– A complex set of requirements
• Usually one of the most important services
– 24 x 7 support
- Syslog
Syslog
• Standard for message logging
– Diverse systems, consolidated log
• Usually a central logging receiver
– Integrated into the SIEM
• You’re going to need a lot of disk space
– No, more. More than that.
- Web servers
Web server
• Respond to browser requests
– Using standard web browsing protocols - HTTP/HTTPS
– Pages are built with HTML, HTML5
• Web pages are stored on the server
– Downloaded to the browser
– Static pages or built dynamically in real-time
o - hosts websites and provides access to pages by responding to requests
 Made of special text-based files downloaded to user’s comp and rendered by browser
- Authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA)
Authentication server
• Login authentication to resources
– Centralized management
• Almost always an enterprise service
– Not required on a home network
• Usually a set of redundant servers
– Always available
– Extremely important service
• Internet appliances
 IPS- intrusion prevention system; detects and prevents (w=wireless, H=host, N=network)
 IDS- intrusion detection system; detects only (w, h, n)
Spam
• Unsolicited messages
– Email, forums, etc.
• Various content
– Commercial advertising
– Non-commercial proselytizing
– Phishing attempts
• Significant technology issue
– Security concerns, resource utilization, storage costs, managing the spam
- Spam gateways
Spam gateways
• Unsolicited email
– Stop it at the gateway before it reaches the user
– On-site or cloud-based
- on premise network app that acts on email with destinations internal to LAN
- Unified threat management (UTM)
All-in-one security appliance
• Next-generation firewall, Unified Threat
Management (UTM) / Web security gateway
• URL filter / Content inspection
• Malware inspection
• Spam filter
• CSU/DSU
• Router, Switch
• Firewall
• IDS/IPS
• Bandwidth shaper
• VPN endpoint
 single device that provides security services that had previously been handled separately;
provides anti-malware, anti-spam, content filtering, etc
- Load balancers
Load balancers
• Distribute the load
– Multiple servers
– Invisible to the end-user
• Large-scale implementations
– Web server farms, database farms
• Fault tolerance
– Server outages have no effect - Very fast convergence
 - configured in front of redundant systems and distributes resource requests/consumption across those
systems; data goes most efficient route; hardware or software
Load balancer features
• Configurable load - Manage across servers
• TCP offload - Protocol overhead
• SSL offload - Encryption/Decryption
• Caching - Fast response
• Prioritization - QoS
• Content switching - Application-centric balancing
- Proxy servers
Proxy server
• An intermediate server
– Client makes the request to the proxy
– The proxy performs the actual request
– The proxy provides results back to the client
• Useful features
– Access control, caching, URL filtering, content scanning
- acts as bodyguard; forwards user’s request on to add extra layer of security
• Legacy/embedded systems
Legacy and embedded systems
• Legacy systems
– Another expression for “really old”
– May also be “really important”
– Learning old things can be just as important as learning the new things
• Embedded systems
– Purpose-built device
– Not usual to have direct access to the operating system
– Alarm system, door security, time card system
 Legacy- systems/devices that no longer receive upgrades or patches; vulnerable
 Embedded- systems wholly contained within a sealed enclosure.
- Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
SCADA / ICS
• Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System
– Large-scale, multi-site Industrial Control Systems (ICS)
• PC manages equipment
– Power generation, refining, manufacturing equipment
– Facilities, industrial, energy, logistics
• Distributed control systems
– Real-time information
– System control
– Requires extensive segmentation
– No access from the outside
- SCADA: manufacturing, utility, plants
• Internet of Things (IoT) devices
IoT (Internet of Things) devices
• Appliances
– Refrigerators
• Smart devices
– Smart speakers respond to voice commands
• Air control
– Thermostats, temperature control
• Access
– Smart doorbells
• May require a segmented network
– Limit any security breaches
 Internet of Things (IoT)- collection of sensors and smart devices, often of smaller size, with
smaller processors and shorter battery life, requiring special low-energy use protocols
2.5 Given a scenario, install and configure basic wired/wireless small office/home office (SOHO) networks.
• Internet Protocol (IP) addressing
IP addressing
• IPv4 is the primary protocol for everything we do
– You probably won’t configure anything else
• IPv6 is now part of all major operating systems
– And the backbone of our Internet infrastructure
- IPv4
IPv4 addresses
• Internet Protocol version 4
– OSI Layer 3 address
 Private addresses
 Public addresses
Networking with IPv4
• IP Address, e.g., 192.168.1.165
– Every device needs a unique IP address
• Subnet mask, e.g., 255.255.255.0
– Used by the local device to determine its subnet
– The subnet mask isn’t (usually) transmitted across the network
• Default gateway, e.g., 192.168.1.1
– The router that allows you to communicate outside of your local subnet
– The default gateway must be an IP address on the local subnet
- IPv6
IPv6 addresses
• Internet Protocol v6 - 128-bit address
– 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 addresses (340 undecillion)
– 6.8 billion people could each have 5,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 addresses
- Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA)
Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA)
• A link-local address - No forwarding by routers
• IETF has reserved 169.254.0.0 through 169.254.255.255
– First and last 256 addresses are reserved
– Functional block of169.254.1.0 through 169.254.254.255
• Automatically assigned
– Uses ARP to confirm the address isn’t currently in use
- Static
Turning dynamic into static
• DHCP assigns an IP address from the first available from a large pool of addresses
– Your IP address will occasionally change
• You may not want your IP address to change
– Server, printer, or personal preference
• Disable DHCP on the device
– Configure the IP address information manually
– Requires additional administration
• Better: Configure an IP reservation on the DHCP server
– Associate a specific MAC address with an IP address
Avoid manual configurations
• No DHCP server reservation
– You configure the IP address manually
• Difficult to change later - You must visit the device again
• A DHCP reservation is preferable
– Change the IP address from the DHCP server
- Dynamic
DHCP
• IPv4 address configuration used to be manual
– IP address, subnet mask, gateway, DNS servers, NTP servers, etc.
• October 1993 - The bootstrap protocol (BOOTP)
• BOOTP didn’t automatically define everything
– Some manual configurations were still required
– BOOTP also didn’t know when an IP address might be available again
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
– Initially released in 1997, updated through the years
– Provides automatic address / IP configuration for almost all devices
The DHCP Process (DORA)
• Step 1: Discover - Client to DHCP Server
– Find all of the available DHCP Servers
• Step 2: Offer - DHCP Server to client
– Send some IP address options to the client
• Step 3: Request - Client to DHCP Server
– Client chooses an offer and makes a formal request
• Step 4: Acknowledgment - DHCP Server to client
– DHCP server sends an acknowledgment to the client
- Gateway
DNS servers
• We remember names
– professormesser.com, google.com, youtube.com
• Internet routers don’t know names
– Routers only know IP addresses
• Something has to translate between names and IP addresses
– Domain Name Services
• You configure two DNS servers in your IP configuration
– That’s how important it is
2.6 Compare and contrast common network configuration concepts.
• DNS
Domain Name System
• Translates human-readable names into computer-readable IP addresses
– You only need to remember www.ProfessorMesser.com
• Hierarchical
– Follow the path
• Distributed database
– Many DNS servers
– 13 root server clusters (over 1,000 actual servers)
– Hundreds of generic top-level domains (gTLDs) - .com, .org, .net, etc.
– Over 275 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) - .us, .ca, .uk, etc.
DNS records
• Resource Records (RR)
– The database records of domain name services
• Over 30 record types
– IP addresses, certificates, host alias names, etc.
• These are important and critical configurations
– Make sure to check your settings, backup, and test!
- Address
 A
 AAAA
Address records (A) (AAAA)
• Defines the IP address of a host
– This is the most popular query
• A records are for IPv4 addresses
– Modify the A record to change the host name to IP address resolution
• AAAA records are for IPv6 addresses
– The same DNS server, different records
- Mail exchanger (MX)
Mail exchanger record (MX)
• Determines the host name for the mail server - this isn’t an IP address; it’s a name
- Text (TXT)
Text records (TXT)
• Human-readable text information
– Useful public information
– Was originally designed for informal information
• Can be used for verification purposes
– If you have access to the DNS, then you must be the administrator of the domain name
• Commonly used for email security
– External email servers validate information from your DNS

Spam management
(i)
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM)
Domain Keys Identified Mail (DKIM)
• Digitally sign a domain’s outgoing mail
– Validated by mail servers, not usually seen by the end user
– The public key is in the DKIM TXT record
(ii) Sender Policy Framework (SPF)
Sender Policy Framework (SPF)
• SPF protocol
– A list of all servers authorized to send emails for this domain
– Prevent mail spoofing
– Mail servers perform a check to see if incoming mail really did come from an authorized host
(iii) Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting, and Conformance (DMARC)
DMARC
• Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting, and Conformance (DMARC)
– Prevent unauthorized email use (spoofing)
– An extension of SPF and DKIM
• You decide what external email servers should do with emails that don’t validate through SPF or DKIM
– That policy is written into a DMARC TXT record
– Accept all, send to spam, or reject the email
– Compliance reports can be sent to the email administrator
• Mail authentication and security
o Spam management:
 Domainkeys identified mail (DKIM)
 Sender policy framework (SPF)- is it authorized to send on behalf of domain
 Domain-based message authentication reporting, and conformance (DMARC)- proves
if real or spoofed
 Uses SPF and DKIM
 DNS records
 A: IPv4
 AAAA: IPv6
 CNAME: alias
 Txt: text record for validation
• DHCP
DHCP pools
• Grouping of IP addresses
– Each subnet has its own scope
– 192.168.1.0/24
– 192.168.2.0/24
– 192.168.3.0/24
• A scope is generally a single contiguous pool of IP addresses
– DHCP exceptions can be made inside of the scope
DHCP address assignment
• Dynamic assignment
– DHCP server has a big pool of addresses to give out
– Addresses are reclaimed after a lease period
• Automatic assignment
– Similar to dynamic allocation
– DHCP server keeps a list of past assignments
– You’ll always get the same IP address
DHCP address allocation
• Address reservation
– Administratively configured
• Table of MAC addresses
– Each MAC address has a matching IP address
• Other names
– Static DHCP Assignment, Static DHCP, Static Assignment, IP Reservation
- Leases
DHCP leases
• Leasing your address
– It’s only temporary
– But it can seem permanent
• Allocation
– Assigned a lease time by the DHCP server
– Administratively configured
• Reallocation
– Reboot your computer
– Confirms the lease
• Workstation can also manually release the IP address
– Moving to another subnet
- Reservations
- Scope
Scope properties
• IP address range
– And excluded addresses
• Subnet mask
• Lease durations
• Other scope options
– DNS server
– Default gateway
– VOIP servers
DHCP renewal
• T1 timer
– Check in with the lending DHCP server to renew the IP address
– 50% of the lease time (by default)
• T2 timer
– If the original DHCP server is down, try rebinding with any DHCP server
– 87.5% of the lease time (7/8ths)
LANs
• Local Area Networks
• A group of devices in the same broadcast domain
• Virtual LAN (VLAN)
Virtual LANs
• Virtual Local Area Networks
• A group of devices in the same broadcast domain
• Separated logically instead of physically
Configuring VLANs
• Virtual Local Area Networks
– A group of devices in the same broadcast domain
• Virtual private network (VPN)
VPNs
• Virtual Private Networks
– Encrypted (private) data traversing a public network
• Concentrator
– Encryption/decryption access device
– Often integrated into a firewall
• Many deployment options
– Specialized cryptographic hardware
– Software-based options available
• Used with client software
– Sometimes built into the OS
Client-to-Site VPNs
• On-demand access from a remote device
– Software connects to a VPN concentrator
• Some software can be configured as always-on
2.7 Compare and contrast Internet connection types, network types, and their features.
• Internet connection types
- Satellite
Satellite networking
• Communication to a satellite
– Non-terrestrial communication
• High cost relative to terrestrial networking
– 50 Mbit/s down, 3 Mbit/s up are common
– Remote sites, difficult-to-network sites
• High latency
– 250 ms up, 250 ms down
– Starlink advertises 40 ms and is working on 20 ms
• High frequencies - 2 GHz
– Line of sight, rain fade
- Fiber
Fiber
• High speed data communication
– Frequencies of light
• Higher installation cost than copper
– Equipment is more costly
– More difficult to repair
– Communicate over long distances
• Large installation in the WAN core
– Supports very high data rates
– SONET, wavelength division multiplexing
• Fiber is slowly approaching the premises
– Business and home use
- Cable
Cable broadband
• Broadband
– Transmission across multiple frequencies
– Different traffic types
• Data on the “cable” network
– DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification)
• High-speed networking
– 50 Mbits/s through 1,000+ Mbit/s are common
• Multiple services
– Data, voice, video
- DSL
DSL
• ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)
– Uses telephone lines
• Download speed is faster than the upload speed (asymmetric)
– 200 Mbit/s downstream / 20 Mbit/s upstream are common
– ~10,000 foot limitation from the central office (CO)
– Faster speeds may be possible if closer to the CO
- Cellular
Cellular networks
• Mobile devices
– “Cell” phones
• Separate land into “cells”
– Antenna covers a cell with certain frequencies
• Tethering
– Turn your phone into a wireless router
• Mobile hotspot
– Standalone devices
– Use your phone for other things
- Wireless Internet service provider (WISP)
WISP
• Wireless Internet Service Provider
– Terrestrial internet access using wireless
• Connect rural or remote locations
– Internet access for everyone
• Many different deployment technologies
– Meshed 802.11
– 5G home internet
– Proprietary wireless
• Need an outdoor antenna
– Speeds can range from ~ 10 to 1,000 megabits per second
• Network types
Models:
Campus area network (CAN)Software defined network (SDN)- separate the network control plane from forwarding plane, allowing use of
software controllers to manage and automate physical and virtual devices
 Allows network config
- Local area network (LAN)
LAN
• Local Area Network
– Local is relative
• A building or group of buildings
– High-speed connectivity
• Ethernet and 802.11 wireless
– Any slower and it isn’t “local”
o Local area network (LAN)- spans a single geographical location under the administration of a single
entity
 802.11-standard for WiFi
 802.3-standard for ethernet/wired)
 Has it’s own network addressing scheme
 Private IP
- Wide area network (WAN)
WAN
• Wide Area Network
– Spanning the globe
• Generally connects LANs across a distance
– And generally much slower than the LAN
• Many different WAN technologies
– Point-to-point serial, MPLS, etc.
– Terrestrial and non-terrestrial
o wide area network (WAN)- spans across LANs, usually connecting buildings at a single location
 GWAN- global WAN
 WWAN- wireless wide area network
- Personal area network (PAN)
PAN
• Personal Area Network
– Your own private network
– Bluetooth, IR, NFC, RFID (infrared)
* NFC (near field comms)- apple pay, etc
• Automobile
– Audio output
– Integrate with phone
• Mobile phone - Wireless headset
• Health
– Workout telemetry, daily reports
- close proximity network; ad-hoc and short-range networks
- Metropolitan area network (MAN)
MAN
• Metropolitan Area Network
– A network in your city
– Larger than a LAN, often smaller than a WAN
• Historically MAN-specific topologies
– Metro Ethernet
• Common to see government ownership
– They “own” the right-of-way
o Metropolitan area network (MAN)
- spans a single geographical area, connecting multiple LANs
o Storage area network (SAN)
- network of storage devices with block level data access.
 Connected through gateway and have their own comm protocols.
 Often found in enterprise networks with large data needs/high demand environments
- Storage area network (SAN)
SAN
• Storage Area Network (SAN)
– Looks and feels like a local storage device
– Block-level access
– Very efficient reading and writing
• Requires a lot of bandwidth
– May use an isolated network and high-speed network technologies
- Wireless local area network (WLAN)
WLAN
• Wireless LAN
– 802.11 technologies
• Mobility
– Within a building
– In a limited geographical area
• Expand coverage with additional access points
– Downtown area
– Large campus
- LAN that connects endpoints to the network devices by wireless media transmissions.
 Shared access media that uses CSMA/CA
 Cannot detect collision on the media (air)
2.8 Given a scenario, use networking tools.
• Crimper
Cable crimper
• “Pinch” the connector onto a wire
– Coaxial, twisted pair, fiber
• Connect the modular connector to the Ethernet cable
– The final step of the process
• Metal prongs are pushed through the insulation
– The plug is also permanently pressed onto the cable sheath
Crimping best practices
• Get a good crimper
– And a good pair of electrician’s scissors / cable snips
– And a good wire stripper
• Make sure you use the correct modular connectors
– Differences between wire types
• Practice, practice, practice
– It won’t take long to become proficient
• Cable stripper
• WiFi analyzer
WiFi analyzer
• Wireless networks are incredibly easy to monitor
– Everyone “hears” everything
• Purpose-built hardware or mobile device add-on
– Specializes in 802.11 analysis
• Identify errors and interference
– Validate antenna location and installation
• Toner probe
Tone generator
• Where does that wire go?
– Follow the tone
• Tone generator
– Puts an analog sound on the wire
• Inductive probe
– Doesn’t need to touch the copper
– Hear through a small speaker
Using the tone generator and probe
• Easy wire tracing
– Even in complex environments
• Connect the tone generator to the wire
– Modular jack, coax, punch down connectors
• Use the probe to locate the sound
– The two-tone sound is easy to find
• Punchdown tool
Punch-down tools
• “Punch” a wire into a wiring block
– 66 block, 110 block, and others
• Can be tedious
– Every wire must be individually punched
• Trims the wires during the punch
– Very efficient process
Punch-down best-practices
• Organization is key
– Lots of wires,
– Cable management
• Maintain your twists
– Your Category 6A cable will thank you later
• Document everything
– Written documentation, tags, graffiti
• Cable tester
Cable testers
• Relatively simple
– Continuity test
• Can identify missing pins
– Or crossed wires
• Not usually used for frequency testing
– Crosstalk, signal loss, etc.
• Loopback plug
Loopback plugs
• Useful for testing physical ports
– Or fooling your applications
• Serial / RS-232 (9 pin or 25 pin)
• Network connections
– Ethernet, T1, Fiber
• These are not cross-over cables
• Network tap
Taps and Port Mirrors
• Intercept network traffic
– Send a copy to a packet capture device
• Physical taps
– Disconnect the link, put a tap in the middle
– Can be an active or passive tap
• Port mirror
– Port redirection, SPAN (Switched Port ANalyzer)
– Software-based tap
– Limited functionality, but can work well in a pinch
3.0 Hardware
3.1 Explain basic cable types and their connectors, features, and purposes.
• Network cables
The importance of cable
• Fundamental to network communication
– Incredibly important foundation
• Usually only get one good opportunity at building your cabling infrastructure - Make it good!
• The vast majority of wireless communication uses cables
– It has to plug in somewhere
Twisted pair copper cabling
• Balanced pair operation
– Two wires with equal and opposite signals
– Transmit+, Transmit- / Receive+, Receive• The twist is the secret!
– Keeps a single wire constantly moving away from the interference
– The opposite signals are compared on the other end
• Pairs in the same cable have different twist rates
- Copper
 Cat 5
 Cat 5e
 Cat 6
 Cat 6a
 Coaxial
Coaxial cables
 Two or more forms share a common axis
 RG-6 used in television/digital cable
– And high-speed Internet over cable
- physical media named for shared axis of the core and copper sheath; single coper-cored cable contained in
an inner insulation layer, mesh conductor, then outer insulated layer.
o Legacy cable for networks
o Named by radio guide (RG) system
 RG6- solid copper core for satellite/cable modems
 RG59- solid copper core for cable TV
o Coaxial connectors
 Bayonet-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector- crimped onto ends of coaxial cables
 Two bayonet posts on male end
 Two receiving slots on female
 F connector- external threading on male side; internal threading on female
- Shielded twisted pair
o ethernet cables with shielded wires
 2-4 twisted pairs In foil or mesh before twisting
 Used in high levels of electromagnetic interface
- Direct burial
Direct burial STP
• Overhead cable isn’t always a good option
– Put the cable in the ground
• Provides protection from the elements
– Designed to be waterproof
– Often filled with gel to repel water
– Conduit may not be needed
• Shielded twisted pair
– Provides grounding, adds strength
– Protects against signal interference
- Unshielded twisted pair
Unshielded and shielded cable
• UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
– No additional shielding
– The most common twisted pair cabling
• STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
– Additional shielding protects against interference
– Shield each pair and/or the overall cable
– Requires the cable to be grounded
• Abbreviations
– U = Unshielded
– S = Braided shielding
– F = Foil shielding
• (Overall cable) / (individual pairs)TP
– Braided shielding around the entire cable and foil around the pairs is S/FTP
– Foil around the cable and no shielding around the pairs is F/UTP
o ethernet cables, unshielded
 2-4 twisted pairs in insulated layer
 Patch cables
- Plenum
Plenum-rated cable
• Traditional cable jacket - Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Fire-rated cable jacket
– Fluorinated ethylene polymer (FEP) or low-smoke polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Plenum-rated cable may not be as flexible
– May not have the same bend radius
• Worst-case planning
– Important concerns for any structure
- Optical
 Fiber
Optical fiber communication
• Transmission by light
– The visible spectrum
• No RF signal
– Very difficult to monitor or tap
• Signal slow to degrade
– Transmission over long distances
• Immune to radio interference - There’s no RF
Multimode fiber
• Short-range communication
– Up to 2 km
• Relatively inexpensive light source
– i.e., LED
Single-mode fiber
• Long-range communication
– Up to 100 km without processing
• Expensive light source
– Commonly uses lasers
- T568A/T568B
Structured cabling standards
• International ISO/IEC 11801 cabling standards
– Defines classes of networking standards
• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
– Standards, market analysis, trade shows, government affairs, etc.
– ANSI/TIA-568: Commercial Building Telecommunications Cabling Standard
– http://www.tiaonline.org
• Commonly referenced for pin and pair assignments of eight-conductor 100-ohm balanced twisted pair
cabling
– T568A and T568B
* set of several technical standards for twisted pair cabling
- TIA/EIA- A- standard is green/white, green, orange/white, blue, blue/white, orange, brown/white, and
brown. Connector used in gov buildings
- GGOBBOBB- COLORS; ODD PINS STRIPED
- TIA/EIA-B- most frequently used; orange/white, orange, green/white, blue, blue/white, green,
brown/white, and brown; connector not in gov buildingS
* SWAP GREEN AND ORANGE; ODD PINS STRIPED
T568A and T568B termination
• Pin assignments from T568-B standard
– Eight conductor 100-ohm balanced twisted-pair cabling
• T568A and T568B are different pin assignments for 8P8C connectors
– Assigns the T568A pin-out to horizontal cabling
• Many organizations traditionally use 568B
– Difficult to change in mid-stream
• You can’t terminate one side of the cable with 568A and the other with 568B
– This has never been the definition of a Gigabit Ethernet crossover cable
• Peripheral cables
USB (Universal Serial Bus)
• Simplify connections - Printers, storage devices, keyboard, mouse
• USB 1.1
– Low speed: 1.5 megabits per second, 3 meters
– Full speed: 12 megabits per second, 5 meters
USB versions and naming
• There’s a lot to keep track of
– The names keep changing
• The standard doesn’t change
– Just the names
- USB 2.0
• USB 2.0 - 480 megabits per second, 5 meters
- USB 3.0
• USB 3.0 - SuperSpeed
– 5 gigabits per second, ~3 meters
– Standard does not specify a cable length
USB 3.1
• Released July 2013
– Doubled the throughput over USB 3.0
• USB 3.0 is USB 3.1 Gen 1
– SuperSpeed USB - 5 Gbit/sec
• USB 3.1 is USB 3.1 Gen 2 - SuperSpeed+
– Twice the rate of USB 3.0/USB 3.1 Gen 1
USB 3.2
• USB 3.2
– Released September 2017
– Bandwidth can double with USB-C cables
– Uses an extra “lane” of communication associated with the flip-flop wires in USB-C
• USB 3.0 -> 3.1 Gen 1 -> USB 3.2 Gen 1
– SuperSpeed USB 5 Gbps (single lane)
• USB 3.1 -> 3.1 Gen 2 -> USB 3.2 Gen 2
– SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbps (single lane)
USB-C
• USB has a lot of different connectors
– And they have changed over time
• Can be annoying to connect USB-A
– Third time’s the charm
• USB-C replaces all of these
– One connector to rule them all
• USB-C describes the physical connector
– It doesn’t describe the signal
- Serial
Serial console cables
• D-subminiature or D-sub
– The letter refers to the connector size
• Commonly used for RS-232
– Recommended Standard 232
– An industry standard since 1969
• Serial communications standard
– Built for modem communication
– Used for modems, printers, mice, networking
• Now used as a configuration port
- Thunderbolt - Thunderbolt
• High-speed serial connector
– Data and power on the same cable
– Based on Mini DisplayPort (MDP) standard
• Thunderbolt v1
– Two channels
– 10 Gbit/s per channel, 20 Gbit/s total throughput
– Mini DisplayPort connector
• Thunderbolt v2
– 20 Gbit/s aggregated channels
– Mini DisplayPort connector
• Thunderbolt v3
– 40 Gbit/s aggregated throughput - USB-C connector
• Maximum 3 meters (copper)
– 60 meters (optical)
– Daisy-chain up to 6 devices
• Video cables
- High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)
• Video and audio stream
– All digital, no analog
– ~ 20 meter distance before losing too much signal
• 19-pin (Type A) connector
– Proprietary connector
- DisplayPort
DisplayPort
• Digital information sent in packetized form
– Like Ethernet and PCI Express
– Carries both audio and video
• Compatible with HDMI and DVI
– Passive adapter
– DisplayPort -> HDMI
– DisplayPort -> DVI
- Digital Visual Interface (DVI)
DVI (Digital Visual Interface)
• Single and dual link
– Single link; 3.7 Gbps (HDTV at 60 fps)
– Dual link; 7.4 Gbps (HDTV at 85 fps)
– No audio support
• DVI-A
– Analog signals
• DVI-D
– Digital signals
• DVI-I
– Integrated
– Digital and analog in the same connector
- Video Graphics Array (VGA)
VGA (Video Graphics Array)
• DB-15 connector
– More accurately called DE-15
• Blue color
– PC System Design Guide
• Analog signal
– No digital
– Image degrades after 5 to 10 meters
• Hard drive cables
- Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)
SATA (Serial AT Attachment)
• SATA Revision 1.0 - SATA 1.5 Gbit/s, 1 meter
• SATA Revision 2.0 - SATA 3.0 Gbit/s, 1 meter
• SATA Revision 3.0 - SATA 6.0 Gbit/s, 1 meter
• SATA Revision 3.2 - SATA 16 Gbit/s, 1 meter
• eSATA (external SATA)
– Matches the SATA version - 2 meters
SATA
• One power cable and data cable per device
– One-to-one
- Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
The SCSI standard
• Small Computer Systems Interface
– Not really “small” any longer
• Originally designed to string many peripherals together onto a single cable/controller
– Up to 16 devices in a SCSI “chain”
• Many different formats
– Fast SCSI, Ultra SCSI, Ultra Wide SCSI, Ultra2 SCSI,
– Ultra3 SCSI, Ultra-320 SCSI, Ultra-640 SCSI,
– iSCSI (SCSI over IP)
• Parallel and serial options
SCSI advantages
• Not just for hard drives
– Scanners, tape drives, CD-ROM drives
• Many devices on a single bus
– 8 on narrow bus, 16 on wide bus
• Very intelligent interface functionality
– Much of the difficult configuration work is done between the SCSI devices
• Industry longevity
– Well supported in the enterprise
– A standard drive for virtual systems
SCSI ID and logical unit (LUN)
• Every SCSI device on a single bus is assigned a separate ID number
– SCSI ID 0 (SCSI controller), ID 2 (hard drive), ID 3 (CD-ROM)
• Logical units (LUNs) are defined within each SCSI ID
– Separate drives in a storage array or virtual machine
• The signal at the “end” of a physical SCSI bus is terminated
– Can be internal to the device or a separate termination device
• Serial attached SCSI (SAS) devices have no jumpers, terminators, or settings.
Serial attached SCSI
• Move from parallel to serial
– Increased throughput
– Similar to the move from PATA to SATA
• Point-to-point connection
– No more daisy chains
• No termination required
– The bus has two devices on it
• The control and management of SCSI
– The speed of a serial connection
- External SATA (eSATA)
eSATA cable
• External device connections
– Uses the SATA standard
• Similar in size to SATA
– Connectors are physically different
- Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
The PATA Standard
• Parallel AT Attachment
– Remember the PC/AT?
• An evolutionary process
– Circa 1999
• Originally called Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
– A Western Digital invention
– 2nd generation called EIDE (Enhanced IDE)
• The evolution
– Promised faster speeds
– From 16 MB/s through 133 MB/s
– Additional devices
• Now called Parallel ATA (PATA)
• Adapters
Adapters and converters
• The best laid plans…
– Need an adapter
• Convert between different connectors
– Electrically compatible
• Convert from one format to another
– You need Ethernet but you only have USB
• A good temporary fix
– Or a good permanent one
DVI to HDMI
• DVI-D and HDMI are electrically compatible
– HDMI is backward-compatible with DVI-D
– No signal conversion required
– No loss of video quality
DVI to VGA
• DVI-A includes analog signals
– Backward compatible with VGA
– Only 640 x 480 is officially supported
• May only need an adapter - Analog to analog
• VGA to DVI digital will need a converter
– Check your interface specifications
USB to Ethernet
• Some laptops don’t have an Ethernet connection
USB-C to USB-A
• Merge the new with the old- Use your older peripherals
USB hub
– Connect many devices - High speed USB connectivity
• Connector types
- RJ11
RJ11 connector
• 6 position, 2 conductor (6P2C)
– Some cables will wire additional conductors
– Telephone or DSL connection
- RJ45
RJ45 connector
• Registered Jack type 45
• 8 position, 8 conductor (8P8C)
– Modular connector – Ethernet
- F type
F-connector
• Cable television
– Cable modem
– DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification)
• RG-6 cable - Threaded connector
- Straight tip (ST)
- Subscriber connector (SC)
- Lucent connector (LC)
- Punchdown block
Punchdown block
• Wire-to-wire patch panel
– No intermediate interface required
• Wires are “punched” into the block
– Connecting block is on top
• Additional wires punched into connecting block
– Patch the top to the bottom
- microUSB
- miniUSB
- USB-C
USB-C
• 24-pin double-sided USB connector
– Used for both hosts and devices
• Used for USB, Thunderbolt
– Interface is the same, signal can vary
- Molex
Molex connector
• 4-pin peripheral power connector
– Molex Connector Company
– AMP MATE-N-LOK
– Provides +12 V and +5 V
• Power for many devices in the computer case
– Storage devices
– Optical drives
– Fans
– Other peripherals
- Lightning port
Lightning
• Apple proprietary
– 8-pin digital signals
– iPhone, iPad, iPod devices
• Some advantages over Micro-USB
– Higher power output for phones and tablets
– Can be inserted either way
- DB9
DB-9
• D-subminiature or D-sub
– The letter refers to the connector size
• Commonly used for RS-232
– Recommended Standard 232
– An industry standard since 1969
• Serial communications standard
– Built for modem communication
– Used for modems, printers, mice, networking
• Now used as a configuration port
– Management or Console port
3.2 Given a scenario, install the appropriate RAM.
• RAM types
- Virtual RAM
- Small outline dual inline memory module (SODIMM)
- Double Data Rate 3 (DDR3)
- Double Data Rate 4 (DDR4)
- Double Data Rate 5 (DDR5)
- Error correction code (ECC) RAM
• Single-channel
• Dual-channel
• Triple-channel
• Quad-channel
What is memory?
• Random Access Memory (RAM)is the most common
– But it’s not the only kind of memory
• RAM is not referring to hard drive or SSD storage
– Don’t mix the two terms
– Data is stored permanently on the drive
• Data and programs can only be used when moved to RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) slots
• Memory types have changed through the years
– Driven by standardization and technology
• One of the most important components of your computer
– Speed, speed, speed
• Every motherboard is different
– Check your documentation
DIMM
• DIMM - Dual inline memory module
– Electrical contacts are different on each side
• 64 bit data width
SO-DIMM
• Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module
– About half the width as a DIMM
• Used in laptops and mobile devices
Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
• The memory on the DIMM
• Dynamic
– Needs constant refreshing
– Without refreshing, the data in memory disappears
• Random access
– Any storage location can be accessed directly
– Unlike magnetic tape
SDRAM
• Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)
• SDRAM is synchronous with the common system clock
– Queue up one process while waiting for another
– Classic DRAM didn’t wait for a clock signal
Double Data Rate 3 (DDR3) SDRAM
• Twice the data rate of DDR2
– Larger chip capacities - Maximum 16 GB per DIMM
• No backwards compatibility
– Speed brings sacrifice
Double Data Rate 4 (DDR4) SDRAM
• Speed increases over DDR3
– Faster frequencies
– Maximum 64 GB per DIMM
• Again, no backwards compatibility
Double Data Rate 5 (DDR5) SDRAM
• Faster data transfers between the memory module and motherboard
– Maximum of 64 GB per DIMM
• The key has moved - No backwards compatibility
Virtual memory
• Different names - Virtual RAM, swap file, etc.
• Swap currently unused application data to storage
– Free up space for other applications
• Managed automatically by the operating system
– Some configuration settings are available
Multi-channel memory
• Dual-channel, triple-channel, or quad-channel
• Memory combinations should match
– Exact matches are best
• Memory module slots are often colored differently
Memory that checks itself
• Used on critical computer systems
– VM servers, database servers, any server
• Parity memory
– Adds an additional parity bit
– Won’t always detect an error
– Can’t correct an error
• Error Correcting Code (ECC)
– Detects errors and corrects on the fly
– Not all systems use ECC
– It looks the same as non-ECC memory
3.3 Given a scenario, select and install storage devices.
• Hard drives
- Speeds
* 5,400rpm
* 7,200rpm
* 10,000rpm
* 15,000rpm
- Form factor
* 2.5
* 3.5
Hard disk drives (HDD)
• Non-volatile magnetic storage - rapidly rotating platters
• Random-access
– Retrieve data from any part of the drive at any time
• Moving parts
– Spinning platters, moving actuator arm
– Mechanical components limit the access speed
– Mechanical components can also break
• SSDs
- Communications interfaces
* Non-volatile Memory Express (NVMe)
* SATA
* Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe)
- Form factors
* M.2
* mSATA
Solid-state drives (SSD)
• Non-volatile memory - No moving parts
• Very fast performance - No spinning drive delays
mSATA (Mini-SATA)
• Shrink the SATA drive into smaller devices
– Same data, different form factor
– Great for laptops and mobile devices
• Smaller than 2.5” SATA drives
– No spinning drive
– Allows for different form factors
• Was used briefly - Quickly replaced by the m.2
AHCI vs. NVMe
• SATA was designed for hard drives
– Uses AHCI (Advanced Host Controller Interface) to move drive data to RAM
– SATA revision 3 throughput up to 600 MB/s
– SSDs need a faster communication method
• NVMe (Non-volatile Memory Express)
– Designed for SSD speeds
– Lower latency, supports higher throughputs
– Take advantage of NVMe with an M.2 interface
M.2 interface
• Smaller form factor - No SATA data or power cables
• Can use a PCI Express bus connection
– 4 GB/second throughput or faster
when using NVMe PCIe x4
• Different connector types
– Needs to be compatible with the slot key/spacer
– B key, M key, or B and M key
– Some M.2 drives will support both
B-key and M-key
• M.2 doesn’t guarantee NVMe
– Your M.2 interface may be using AHCI
– Check your documentation
• Your motherboard may only support one type of M.2 key
– Check the documentation again
• Removable storage
- Flash drives
- Memory cards
- Optical drives
Flash drives
• Flash memory
– EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory)
– Non-volatile memory - No power required to retain data
• Limited number of writes
– Can still read the data
• Not designed for archival storage
– Easy to lose or damage - Always have a backup
– Flash memory
Optical drives
• Small bumps read with a laser beam
– Microscopic binary storage
• Relatively slow
– Archival media
• Many different formats - CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, Blu-ray
• Internal and external drives
– For those uncommon application installations
• Drive configurations
- Redundant Array of Independent (or Inexpensive) Disks (RAID) 0, 1, 5, 10
Data redundancy
• Hard drives store huge amounts of important data
• Hard drives are moving components
– They will eventually break
• What happens to the data when the drive fails?
– You can prepare for that; Use an array of drives
• RAID is not backup
RAID
• Redundant Array of Independent Disks
– They’re also inexpensive disks.
• Different RAID levels - Some redundant, some not
• RAID 0 – Striping
• RAID 1 - Mirroring
• RAID 5 – Striping with Parity
• Nested RAID - RAID 1+0 (a.k.a. RAID 10) - A stripe of mirrors
RAID 0 - Striping
• File blocks are split between two or more physical drives
– High performance
– Data written quickly
• No redundancy
– A drive failure breaks the array
– Raid 0 is zero redundancy
RAID 1 - Mirroring
• File blocks are duplicated between two or more physical drives
• High disk utilization
– Every file is duplicated
– Required disk space is doubled
• High redundancy
– Drive failure does not affect data availability
RAID 5 - Striping with parity
• File blocks are striped
– Along with a parity block
– Requires at least three disks
• Efficient use of disk space
– Files aren’t duplicated, but space is still used for parity
• High redundancy
– Drive is available after a failure
– Parity calculation may affect performance
RAID 1+0 - A stripe of mirrors
• The speed of striping, the redundancy of mirrors
• Need at least 4 drives
3.4 Given a scenario, install and configure motherboards, central processing units (CPUs), and add-on cards.
• Motherboard form factor
- Advanced Technology eXtended (ATX)
- Information Technology eXtended (ITX)
Motherboard form factors
• Physical size - Case sizing
• Basic layout - Room for small changes
• Power - Standard connectors
• Airflow - Increasingly important
• Wikipedia: There are 40 different motherboard types categorized!
What you need to know
• CompTIA exam objectives:
– “3.4 - Given a scenario, install and configure motherboards, central processing units (CPUs), and add-on
cards.”
• Focus on which motherboard would be the best choice for a scenario
– Memorizing the dimensions of the motherboard probably isn’t the most important thing
– ATX or ITX
• Which motherboard would you choose?
– Media center, video editing, thin client, etc.
ATX form factor
• Advanced Technology Extended
• Standardized by Intel in 1995
– Seen many updates over the years
• Power
– 20 pin connector
– 24 pin connector, additional 4/8 pin connector
ITX form factor
• A series of low-power motherboards
– Developed by VIA Technologies in 2001
– Small form factor
• Mini-ITX is screw-compatible with ATX
– Fits almost any enclosure
• Small form factor uses
– Single-purpose computing, i.e., streaming media
• Motherboard connector types
- Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
- PCI Express (PCIe)
- Power connectors
- SATA
- eSATA
- Headers
- M.2
Motherboard Expansion Slots
A computer bus
• Communication path - A city of technology
• Internal PC growth - Independent pathways
• System expansion - Additional capabilities
Conventional PCI
• Peripheral Component Interconnect
– Created in 1994
• Many expansion options
– 32-bit and 64-bit bus width
– Parallel communication
• A common expansion interface on previous computer generations
– PCI Express is the newer technology
PCI Express
• Also known as PCIe - Replaces the older PCI standard
• Communicates serially - Unidirectional serial “lanes”
– Slower devices don’t slow down everyone
• One, two, four, eight, sixteen, or thirty-two full-duplex lanes
– x1, x2, x4, x8, x16, x32
– “x” is pronounced “by” (“by 4,” “by 16”)
24-pin motherboard power
• Main motherboard power
– Provides +3.3 V, +/-5 V, and +/- 12 V
• 20 pin connector was the original ATX standard
– 24 pin was added for PCI Express power
• You can connect a 24-pin connector to a 20-pin motherboard
– Some cables are 20-pin + 4-pin
4-pin ATX
• 4-pin ATX +12 V power
– ATX12V Advanced Technology Extended motherboards
• Additional 12 volt power for older motherboards
– Used primarily for CPU
• May be labeled ATX12V, P4, or CPU
– And keyed for the appropriate connector
Headers
• A pin header
– A simple electrical interface
– The connector is attached to the header
• Many different uses
– Power, peripheral connections, lights, and buttons
• Motherboard compatibility
- CPU sockets
* Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD)
* Intel
Intel and AMD
• Two solid CPU manufacturers
– The differences are subtle
• Cost
– AMD tends to be a bit less expensive
• Different sockets
– The motherboard is designed for a particular CPU
• Choosing a side
– Historically, AMD is value and Intel is performance
– This is a dynamic technology segment
- Server
- Multisocket
Server motherboards
• Multisocket
– Supports multiple physical CPU packages
– Split the load
• Memory slots - Supports 4+ modules
• Expansion slots
– Many slots and different sizes
• Overall size
– Designed for a rack-mounted system
– Larger ATX-sized system
- Desktop
Desktop motherboards
• Can range from full-size motherboards to compact or monitor-only systems
– We can do a lot with increasingly smaller systems
• Single CPU - Reduces cost and complexity
• Memory slots - Usually two or four
• Expansion slots - May have limited options
- Mobile
Mobile motherboards
• Laptops - Small and light
• CPUs - Limited in speed - Thermal throttling
• Limited system modification
– Memory, CPU, functionality
• Portability - Smaller devices
– Low power consumption
System board
• Proprietary - Built to fit
• Replacement isn’t easy
– Swap the entire board
– Most components are on the system board
• Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)/Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) settings
- Boot options
- USB permissions
- Trusted Platform Module (TPM) security features
BIOS - Basic Input/Output System
• The software used to start your computer
– The firmware - System BIOS, ROM BIOS
– ROM or flash memory
• Initializes CPU and memory - Build the workspace
• POST - Power-On Self-Test
• Look for a boot loader - Start the operating system
Legacy BIOS
• The original / traditional BIOS
– It’s been around for more than 25 years
• Older operating systems talked to hardware through the BIOS
– Instead of accessing hardware directly
• Limited hardware support
– No drivers for modern network, video, and storage devices
UEFI BIOS
• Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
– Based on Intel’s EFI (Extensible Firmware Interface)
• A defined standard - Implemented by the manufacturers
• Designed to replace the legacy BIOS
– Need a modern BIOS for modern computers
– Graphical and text-based
The secret button(s)
• Launching the system setup
– Del, F1, F2, Ctrl-S, Ctrl-Alt-S
• Hyper-V (Windows 8/10/11)
– Turn Windows features on and off
• VMware Workstation Player
– http://www.vmware.com/products/player/
• But not VirtualBox
– http://www.virtualbox.org
• Many simulators online
– Search for “UEFI BIOS simulator”
Fast startup
• Windows 8, 10, and 11
– Doesn’t actually shut down all the way
– Starts up so quickly, you can’t open the BIOS configuration
• From the Windows desktop
– Hold down shift when clicking Restart
– Settings / Update & Security / Recovery / Advanced startup / Restart now
– System Configuration (msconfig)
• Interrupt normal boot three times
– Presents the boot option screen
Important tips
• Make a backup of yourBIOS configuration
– Write detailed notes
– Take a picture
• Don’t make a change unless you’re certain of the setting
– It’s difficult to leave it alone
• Did I mention the backup?
– It can save a lot of time!
Boot options
• What happens when you power on?
– The BIOS knows
• Disable hardware
– Unavailable to the operating system
• Modify the boot order
– Which boots first?
– Move to the next in order
– USB drive, SSD, hard drive
USB permissions
• A security challenge
– Very small storage devices
– Very large capacities
• USB connections
– Convenient
– High speed
• US Department of Defense banned USB flash media for 15 months in 2008
– SillyFDC worm
- Fan considerations
Fans
• Computing power creates heat
– A lot of heat
• Many different cooling fans
– CPU fan
– Chassis fans
• Motherboards often include an integrated fan controller
– And temperature sensors
– The motherboard increases and decreases the fan speeds
- Secure Boot
Secure Boot
• Malicious software can “own” your system
– Malicious drivers or OS software
• Secure boot
– Part of the UEFI specification
• Digitally sign known-good software
– Cryptographically secure
– Software won’t run without the proper signature
• Support in many different operating systems
– Windows and Linux support
UEFI BIOS Secure Boot
• UEFI BIOS protections
– BIOS includes the manufacturer’s public key
– Digital signature is checked during a BIOS update
– BIOS prevents unauthorized writes to the flash
• Secure Boot verifies the bootloader
– Checks the OS bootloader’s digital signature
– Bootloader must be signed with a trusted certificate
– Or a manually approved digital signature
- Boot password
Boot password management
• BIOS Password / User Password
– System won’t start
– Need the password to start the operating system
• Supervisor Password
– Restrict BIOS changes
– Must use supervisor password to change any BIOS configurations
• Remember your password!
– Must reset the BIOS to recover
– Usually a jumper
Clearing a boot password
• Store the BIOS configuration - Your settings
• Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
– A type of memory
– May be backed up with a battery
• Usually flash memory these days
– Easily stored and accessed
• Reset with a jumper
– Short (connect) two pins on the motherboard
The “CMOS” battery
• Not needed for today’s flash-based storage
– Maintains older BIOS configurations
– May only be used to maintain date/time
• A bad battery will require a BIOS configuration or date/time configuration on every boot
• On older systems, can reset the BIOS configuration by removing the battery
– Newer computers use a jumper
• Encryption
- TPM
Trusted Platform Module (TPM)
• A specification for cryptographic functions
– Hardware to help with encryption functions
• Cryptographic processor
– Random number generator, key generators
• Persistent memory
– Comes with unique keys burned in during production
• Versatile memory
– Storage keys, hardware configuration information
– Password protected / No dictionary attacks
- Hardware security module (HSM)
Hardware Security Module (HSM)
• Often used in large environments (Clusters, redundant power)
• High-end cryptographic hardware
– Plug-in card or separate hardware device
• Key backup - Secured storage for servers
– Lightweight HSMs for personal use (Smart card, USB, flash memory)
• Cryptographic accelerators
– Offload that CPU overhead from other devices
• CPU architecture
- x64/x86
Operating system technologies
• 32-bit vs. 64-bit - Processor specific
• 32-bit processors = 232 = 4,294,967,296 values
• 64-bit processors = 264 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 values
– 4 GB vs. 17 billion GB
– The OS has a maximum supported value
Operating system technologies
• Hardware drivers are specific to the OS version (32-bit / 64-bit)
– 32-bit (x86), 64-bit (x64)
• 32-bit OS cannot run 64-bit apps
– But 64-bit OS can run 32-bit apps
• Apps in a 64-bit Windows OS
– 32-bit apps: \Program Files (x86)
– 64-bit apps: \Program Files
- Advanced RISC Machine (ARM)
Advanced RISC Machine (ARM)
• CPU architecture developed by Arm Ltd.
– They design the chip, others license and build
• Simplified instruction set
– Efficient and fast processing
– Less power
– Less heat
• Traditionally used for mobile and IoT devices
– The lines are constantly blurring
- Single-core
- Multicore
Processor cores
• Dual-core / Quad-core / Octa-core / Multi-core
• Multiple cores
– Each core has its own cache
– The entire chip may have a shared cache
- Multithreading
Multithreading
• Hyper-Threading Technology (HTT)
• One CPU, acts like two
• Doesn’t actually work as fast as two
– 15% to 30% performance improvement
• Operating system must be written for HTT
– Windows XP and later (any modern OS)
- Virtualization support
Virtualization support
• Run other operating systems within a single hardware platform
– Multiple operating systems share physical hardware components
• Virtualization in software was limited
– Performance and hardware management challenges
• Virtualization added to the processor
– Hardware is faster and easier to manage
– Intel Virtualization Technology (VT)
– AMD Virtualization (AMD-V)
• Expansion cards
Expansion cards
• Extend the functionality of your computer
– You may need more than the motherboard provides
• Relatively simple process
– Designed for end-user installation
• Install hardware - Add a card
• Install a driver - Software for the operating system
- Sound card
Sound card
• Output
– High-end audio
– Advanced headphone amp
– Home theater, Dolby decoding
• Multiple inputs
– Music capture
– Podcasting
– Microphone
- Video card
Video card
• Many CPUs include an integrated GPU
– Video functionality is built into the CPU package
• Discrete graphics
– The GPU is not part of the CPU
• Separate interface card - High performance
- Capture card
Capture card
• Video as an input
– Video capture, live streaming, external cameras
• High performance
– Video bandwidths can be quite high
– PCI Express connection
- NIC
Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Ethernet connection
– Motherboard may not include a NIC
– Onboard NIC may not be working
• Additional connections
– Servers, routers, security devices
Documentation
• Check the motherboard documentation
– Number and type of slots
• Check the adapter card documentation
– Minimum requirements - Hardware, software
– Knowledge base - Any “gotchas?”
– Support forums - What are other people saying?
• You may need to perform a driver installation before installing hardware
Driver installation
• You checked the documentation first, right?
• Check the web for the latest version
• Uninstall previous drivers through Windows Device Manager
• Manufacturer provided setup program
• Manual installation through Windows Device Manager
• Check the Device Manager for the status - Does it work?
• Cooling
- Fans
Case fan s
• Cool air is pulled through a personal computer
– Always check for good airflow
• Motherboard layout becomes important
• Component location is key
– Devices, wiring, power
• Many different sizes and styles
– And volume levels
On-board fans
• Designed to cool an entire adapter card
• Can be bulky
– May take additional adapter card space
• Usually seen on high-end graphics cards
Fan specifications
• Standard sizes
– 80 mm, 120 mm, 200 mm, etc.
• Different speeds
– Variable speed
• Different noise levels
– Not all fans sound the same
- Heat sink
Heat sink
• Dissipate heat through thermal conduction
– Copper or aluminum alloy
• Fins/grid increase surface area
– Heat is then transferred to the cooler air
• They get HOT – don’t touch them!
• Thermal paste creates a good contact between the chip and the heat sink
Fanless / passive cooling
• No fans, no noise - Silent operation
• Specialized functions
– Video servers, TV set top box, satellite receiver, media server
• Functions are very controlled
– Carefully measured thermal tests
• Low-power components - Heat sinks
- Thermal paste/pads
Thermal paste
• Thermal grease, conductive grease
– Thermally conductive adhesive
• Place between the heat sink and the component
– Improves thermal conductivity
– Moves the heat away from the component
• A little bit goes a long way
– Pea-sized application
Thermal pad
• Conduct heat without the mess - Cut to size and install
• Easy to use - Won’t leak and damage components
• Almost as effective as thermal paste
– But still very good
• Not reusable - Remove and replace
- Liquid
Liquid cooling
• Coolant is circulated through a computer
– Not a new concept
– Automobiles, mainframe computers
• High-end systems
• Gaming, graphics
• Overclocking
3.5 Given a scenario, install or replace the appropriate power supply.
3.5 - Computer Power
• Input 110-120 VAC vs. 220-240 VAC
• Output 3.3V vs. 5V vs. 12V
• 20-pin to 24-pin motherboard adapter
24-pin motherboard power
• Main motherboard power
– Provides +3.3 V, +/-5 V, and +/- 12 V
• 20 pin connector was the original ATX standard
– 24 pin was added for PCI Express power
• You can connect a 24-pin connector to a 20-pin motherboard
– Some cables are 20-pin + 4-pin
WARNING
• Always disconnect from the power source when working on a device
– Always. Seriously.
– Some devices store a charge in capacitors
– Know how to discharge before touching
• Never connect your body to any part of an electrical system
– Do not connect yourself to the ground wire of an electrical system
• Respect electricity
– It does not respect you
Computer power supply
• Computer uses DC voltage
– Most power sources provide AC voltage
• Convert 120 V AC or 240 V AC
– To 3.3 V DC, 5 V DC, and 12 V DC
• You’ll know when this isn’t working
– An important component
Amp and volt
• Ampere (amp, A) – The rate of electron flow past a point in one second
– The diameter of the hose
• Voltage (volt, V)Electrical “pressure” pushing the electrons
– How open the faucet is
Power
• Watt (W) – Measurement of real power use
– volts * amps = watts
– 120V * 0.5A = 60W
Current
• Alternating current (AC)
– Direction of current constantly reverses
– Distributes electricity efficiently over long distances
– Frequency of this cycle is important
– US/Canada – 110 to 120 volts of AC (VAC), 60 hertz (Hz)
– Europe – 220-240 VAC, 50 Hz
• Direct current (DC)
– Current moves in one direction with a constant voltage
Dual-voltage input options
• Voltage varies by country
– US/Canada – 120 volts of AC (VAC), 60 hertz (Hz)
– Europe – 230 VAC, 50 Hz
• Manually switch between 120 V and 230 V
– Get your meter!
– Or use an auto-switching power supply
• Don’t plug a 120 V power supply into a 230 V power source!
Power supply output
• Different voltages
– For different components
• Positive and negative voltage
– Voltage is a difference in potential
– The electrical ground is a common reference point
– Depends on where you measure from
• At the front door of your house
– The second floor is +10 feet
– The basement is -10 feet
• +12 V
– PCIe adapters, hard drive motors, cooling fans, most modern components
• +5 V
– Some motherboard components
– Many components are now using +3.3 V
• +3.3 V
– M.2 slots, RAM slots, motherboard logic circuits
• +5 VSB
– Standby voltage
• -12 V
– Integrated LAN
– Older serial ports
– Some PCI cards
• -5 V
– Available for ISA adapter cards
– Most cards didn’t use it
– Today’s motherboards don’t have ISA slots
• Redundant power supply
Redundant power supplies
• Two (or more) power supplies
– Internal to the server
• Each power supply can handle 100% of the load
– Would normally run at 50% of the load
• Hot-swappable
– Replace a faulty power supply without powering down
• Modular power supply
Power supply connectors
• Fixed connectors
– Connected to the power supply
– May have too many connectors
– May not have enough
• Modular
– Add cables as needed
– Fewer leftover wires,better airflow
– A bit more expensive
• Wattage rating
Sizing a power supply
• Power supplies are rated by watts
– Overall and by individual voltages
• Bigger isn’t necessarily better
– More expensive
– Doesn’t speed up your computer
• Physical size is relatively standard
– Older cases and systems may have proprietary sizes
• Calculate the watts required for all components
– CPU, storage devices, video adapter
– Many online calculators
• Video adapters are usually the largest power draw
– Many video card specifications list a recommended power supply wattage
• 50% capacity is a good rule of thumb
– Power supply runs efficiently and there’s room to grow
3.6 Given a scenario, deploy and configure multifunction devices/ printers and settings.
Multifunction Devices
• Multifunction devices (MFD)
– Printer
– Scanner
– Fax (yes, really)
– Network connection
– Phone line connection
– Print from web
• There are a lot of things that can go wrong
– You’re going to fix them
• Properly unboxing a device – setup location considerations
Unboxing a device
• These can be large devices
– Make sure you have enough room
– Stay out of walkways
• Check the area
– Power
– Network
– Accessibility
• Use appropriate drivers for a given OS
- Printer Control Language (PCL) vs. PostScript
Printer drivers
• Specific to a printer model
• Get this exactly right
• Get the right operating system drivers
– Windows 10, Windows 11
– Get the right version of the operating system
– 32-bit drivers are very different than 64-bit drivers
• You can’t mix and match drivers
– It’s a very specific task
PCL or PostScript
• PCL (Printer Command Language)
– Created by Hewlett-Packard
– Commonly used across the industry
• PostScript
– Created by Adobe Systems
– Popular with high end printers
• Make sure the drivers match the printer
– PCL printer, PCL driver
– PostScript printer, PostScript driver
– Wired device sharing
• USB type B
– The most common connector
– USB Type B on the printer, USB Type A on the computer
• Ethernet - RJ45 connector
• May include more than one option
• Device connectivity
- USB
- Ethernet
- Wireless
• Public/shared devices
- Printer share
- Print server
Sharing the printer
• Printer share
– Printer is connected to a computer
– The computer shares the printer
– Computer needs to be running
• Print server
– Print directly to the printer
– Jobs are queued on the printer
– Jobs are managed on the printer
– Web-based front-end
– Client utility
Wireless device sharing
• Bluetooth
– Limited range
• 802.11 Infrastructure mode
– Many devices using an access point
• 802.11 Ad hoc mode
– No access point
– Direct link between wireless devices
• Configuration settings
- Duplex
- Orientation
- Tray settings
- Quality
Configuration settings
• Duplex
– Save paper
– Print on both sides of the page without manually flipping over the paper
– Not all printers can do this
• Orientation
– Portrait vs. Landscape
– The paper doesn’t rotate
– The printer compensates
• Tray settings
– Printers can have multiple trays
– Plain paper, letterhead, etc.
– Choose the correct tray in the print dialog
• Quality
– Resolution / Color, greyscale / Color saving
• Security
- User authentication
- Badging
- Audit logs
• Audit logs
– Cost management
– Security monitoring
– Event Viewer / System Events
– May be built into the printer or print server
• Secured prints
– Printer must support secure printing
– Define a passcode
– Use the passcode at the printer
- Secured prints
Printer security
• User authentication
– Everyone can print
– Set rights and permissions
– Printing vs. managing the printer
• Badging
– Authenticate when using the printer
– Your job doesn’t print until you use your employee badge
– Quick and easy
• Network scan services
Network scan services
• Scan to email
– Scans are sent to your inbox
– Large scans can fill up your mailbox
• Scan to folder
– Using SMB (Server Message Block)
– Send to a Microsoft share
• Scan to cloud
– Cloud storage account
– Google Drive, Dropbox, etc.
- Email
- SMB
- Cloud services
• Automatic document feeder (ADF)/flatbed scanner
Flatbed scanner
• Different form factors
– All-in-one multifunction device
– Standalone flatbed
• May include an ADF
– Automatic Document Feeder
– Multiple pages
3.7 Given a scenario, install and replace printer consumables.
• Laser
- Imaging drum, fuser assembly, transfer belt, transfer roller, pickup rollers, separation pads, duplexing
assembly
- Imaging process: processing, charging, exposing, developing, transferring, fusing, and cleaning
- Maintenance: Replace toner, apply maintenance kit, calibrate, clean
Laser printer
• Combine a laser, high voltage, charged ions, powdered ink, heat, and paper
• Very high quality
• Fast printing speeds
• Very complex, many moving parts, requires on-printer memory and messy on the inside
Imaging drum
• Image is drawn onto a photosensitive drum
– “Painted” with a laser
• Picks up toner - Transfers toner to the paper
• Can be separate from the toner cartridge or combined
Fuser assembly
• Heat and pressure - Melt plastic toner powder
– Permanently bond toner to paper
Transfer belt and roller
• Color laser printers
– Cyan, yellow, magenta, black
• Four separate toner cartridges
• Image is transferred from all cartridges to the single belt
– And then to a single transfer roller
Pickup rollers
• Pickup paper - Should be a single page at a time
– Problems if no paper is picked up or multiple sheets are picked
• Should be periodically cleaned or replaced
Separation pad
• Pull just the top sheet from the paper tray
– Not multiple sheets
• Small and inexpensive - Easy to clean or replace
Duplexing assembly
• Printers usually print on a single side
– Not both sides simultaneously
• Printing on both sides is a two step process
– Print side one, print side two
• You need mechanisms to “flip” the page
– Automatically
• Can be built-in to the printer
• Or available as an add-on
Step 1: Processing
• Build the entire page in memory
Step 2: Charging
• Prepare the drum with a negative electrostatic charge
Step 3: Exposing
• Write the image with the laser
Step 4: Developing
• Add toner to the charged areas of the imaging drum
Step 5: Transferring
• Move the toner from the drum to the paper
Step 6: Fusing
• Heat and pressure
Step 7: Cleaning
• Remove excess toner
Replacing the toner cartridge
• Look for the messages
– Low doesn’t mean empty
• The toner can also contain the OPC drum
– Organic Photoconductor drum
– Sensitive to light; keep it in the bag
• Power down the printer
– Safety first
• Remove packing strips from the new drum
– Replace it with the old
Laser printer maintenance kit
• Laser printers wear out
– All those moving parts
– Heat and pressure
• Standard maintenance kits
– Replacement feed rollers, new fuser unit, etc.
• When to perform maintenance?
– Check the printer’s page counter
• Power down and replace the components
– Fuser units are HOT
• Reset the page counter when you’re done!
Replacing the toner cartridge
• Look for the messages
– Low doesn’t mean empty
• The toner can also contain the OPC drum
– Organic Photoconductor drum
– Sensitive to light; keep it in the bag
• Power down the printer - Safety first
• Remove packing strips from the new drum
– Replace it with the old
Laser printer calibration
• Different toner cartridges print with different densities
– Some dark, some light
• Laser printer calibration can adjust the density
– Makes it looks perfect
• Can be automated or a manual process
– Every printer is different
– Check the printer manual
Laser printer cleaning
• Laser printers are dirty
– All that toner and paper dust
• Check the manufacturer’s recommendations
– Water, isopropyl alcohol (IPA)
– Don’t use harsh chemicals!
• Outside - Damp cloth
• Inside - Wipe dust away
– Don’t use a normal vacuum cleaner or compressed air
– Wash off skin with cold water
– Clean rollers with IPA
• Inkjet
- Ink cartridge, print head, roller, feeder, duplexing assembly, carriage belt
- Calibration
- Maintenance: Clean heads, replace cartridges, calibrate, clear jams
Inkjet (ink-dispersion) printer
• Relatively inexpensive technology
• Quiet
• High-resolution
• Expensive ink
– Proprietary
• Eventually fades
• Clogs easily
Ink cartridge
• Place drops of ink onto a page
– Pulled from a set of cartridges
• CMYK - Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Key (black)
Print head
• Some consumer printers integrate the print head into the ink cartridge
– Change the cartridge, get a new print head
• Others separate the ink cartridge from the print head
Feed rollers
• Pick up and feed paper through the printer
– Must be clean and not worn
• Duplexing
– Print on both sides of the paper
– Included with some printers
Carriage and belt
• Ink cartridges are moved over the paper
– Carriage may include its own print head
• Belt moves the carriage back and forth
– Another moving part
Inkjet printer calibration
• Align nozzles to the paper
– Lines should be crisp
– Colors should align
• Printer includes a calibration option
– May need to make minor adjustments
Cleaning print heads
• Small droplets of ink - And small holes in a print head
• Clogged heads is a big issue
– Many printers automatically clean every day
– Output has streaks or sections of missing color
• Cleaning process can be started manually
– Only takes a few minutes
• Some print heads/cartridges can be removed
– Manually cleaning may help
Replacing inkjet cartridges
• Usually separate colors
– Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Key (CMYK)
– Some cartridges will combine these
• Takes seconds to replace
– Takes a few minutes to calibrate and prepare the cartridge
• Recycle the empty cartridge - All plastic
Inkjet printer calibration
• Align nozzles to the paper
– Lines should be crisp
– Colors should not overlap
• Printer includes a calibration option
– May need to make minor adjustments
Clearing jams
• Lots of turns and twists
– A jam is inevitable
• Remove tray paper
– Any loose paper
• Remove paper from the path
– Firm pressure, don’t rip
• Check for any scraps of paper
• Remove all loose paper
• Thermal
- Feed assembly, heating element
- Special thermal paper
- Maintenance: Replace paper, clean heating element, remove debris
- Heat sensitivity of paper
Thermal printer
• White paper
– Turns black when heated
– No ink!
• VERY quiet
– Almost silent
• Paper is sensitive to light and heat
– And clear tape
Feed assembly
• Pull paper through the printer
– Relatively small paper path
Heating element
• Full-length heating element
– No moving print head
Thermal paper
• Paper covered with a chemical
– Changes color when heated
• Cash registers, credit card terminals
– And quiet areas
• Looks like normal paper
– Feels a bit different
Thermal paper replacement
• Relatively inexpensive
– But impossible to substitute
• Different sizes
– Not like laser printer paper - Keep a list
• Actual replacement process is easy
– Simple paper feed
– Small device
Cleaning the heating element
• Liquid cleaner
– Isopropyl alcohol (IPA)
– Get a cleaning pen
– Check manufacturer’s recommendations
• Swab gently - Usually small areas
• Use a cleaning card
– Cleans the head and paper pathways
Removing debris
• Relatively small amount
– Paper bits and dust
– No toner!
• Blow out the printer
– Take it outside
• Wipe it out
– Damp cloth
• Avoid using a vacuum
– Unless it’s designed for computers
– Resists static buildup/discharge
• Impact
- Print head, ribbon, tractor feed
- Impact paper
- Maintenance: Replace ribbon, replace print head, replace paper
Dot-matrix (impact) printers
• Print head with a small matrix of pins
– Presses against a ribbon to make a mark on paper
• Good for carbon/multiple copies
• Low cost per page
• NOISY
• Poor graphics
• Relatively niche use cases
Dot-matrix printer head
• Moves back and forth
– Pins hit ribbon and paper
• One matrix - Must move across the page to print
Printer ribbon
• Fabric
– One long ribbon - Never ending circle
• Easy to replace - Once single unit
• Proprietary size - Specific to printer model
Tractor feed
• Paper pulled through with holes on the side of the paper
– Instead of using friction
• Continuous paper feed
– Perforations between pages
• Holes have to line up perfectly
– Tractor paper can be perforated to remove holes
Printer ribbon replacement
• Single ribbon - Self-contained - One long circle
• Replace when ink becomes too light
– Ink is eventually consumed
• Designed to be modular - Replace in less than a minute
Print head replacement
• Takes a lot of abuse - Directly hits the ribbon and paper
• Gets hot - Watch your fingers
– Another modular part - Look for a release lever or bar
• Replace with the ribbon for the best effect
– The output should look perfect
Printer ribbon replacement
• Single ribbon
– Self-contained - One long circle
• Replace when ink becomes too light
– Ink is eventually consumed
• Designed to be modular - Replace in less than a minute
Print head replacement
• Takes a lot of abuse
– Directly hits the ribbon and paper
• Gets hot - Watch your fingers
– Another modular part
– Look for a release lever or bar
• Replace with the ribbon for the best effect
– The output should look perfect
Replacing paper
• Not as easy as a laser printer
– Paper must feed perfectly into holes
– Tractor feed
• Forms must be positioned correctly
– Text needs to fit a predefined space
• Paper must feed without constraint
• Make sure nothing is in the way
• 3-D printer
- Filament
- Resin
- Print bed
3D printers
• “Print” in three dimensions
– Create a 3D item based on an electronic model
• Additive manufacturing
– Build in layers to create the object
– No machining process required
• Rapid prototyping
– Design and create relatively quickly and inexpensively
• Deploy designs anywhere in the world
– Or into space
Filament printing
• Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
– Melt filament to print 3D objects
– This is probably the printing type you’ve seen
• Print a layer, move up,print another layer
– Watch the printer create the object
• Good all-around printer
– Larger print bed than resin printers
– Easy to manage filament
– Minimum of mess
– Fewer disposal issues
Resin printing
• Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing
– Smooth and finely detailed 3D prints
• Resin is hardened using a light source
– Ultraviolet light or a laser
– Layers are added to the bottom
– Entire print hangs from the build platform
• Resin must be handled properly
– Wear protective gear
– Take unused resin to your local
hazardous materials disposal
The print bed
• A flat adhesive surface
– The foundation of a 3D print
– Everything builds on that first layer
• Needs to be level and clean
– Prints “stick” to the bed
• Filament printing
– The print bed is the printing surface
– Many different print bed options
• Resin printing
– The “bed” is the location where the resin is hardened by the UV light
4.0 Virtualization and Cloud Computing x
4.1 Summarize cloud-computing concepts.
• Common cloud models
- Private cloud
- Public cloud
- Hybrid cloud
- Community cloud
- Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)
- Software as a service (SaaS)
- Platform as a service (PaaS)
• Cloud characteristics
- Shared resources
- Metered utilization
- Rapid elasticity
- High availability
- File synchronization
• Desktop virtualization
- Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI) on premises
- VDI in the cloud
4.1 - Cloud Models
Cloud computing
• More than just a server hosted elsewhere
– Extend the management of applications and services
• Deploy an infrastructure in minutes
– Create and tear down as you need
• International scope
– Deploy in specific parts of the world
• Use only the required resources
– Cost is based on the amount of use
Cloud deployment models
• Private
– Your own virtualized local data center
• Public
– Available to everyone over the Internet
• Hybrid
– A mix of public and private
• Community
– Several organizations share the same resources
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)
• Sometimes called Hardware as a Service (HaaS)
– Outsource your equipment
• You’re still responsible for the management
– And for the security
• Your data is out there, but more within your control
– Web server providers
Software as a service (SaaS)
• On-demand software
– No local installation
– Why manage your own email distribution?
Or payroll?
• Central management of data and applications
– Your data is out there
• A complete application offering
– No development work required
– Google Mail, Microsoft 365
Platform as a service (PaaS)
• No servers, no software, no maintenance team, no HVAC
– Someone else handles the platform, you handle the development
• You don’t have direct control of the data, people, or infrastructure
– Trained security professionals are watching
– Choose carefully
• Put the building blocks together
– Develop your app from what’s available on the platform
– SalesForce.com
Shared resources
• Internal cloud
– No resources are shared
– Build your own cloud
– Pay for everything up front
– No ongoing costs
• External cloud
– Share resources with a public cloud
– Underlying infrastructure owned by a third-party
– Cost may be metered or up-front
Metered and non-metered
• Metered cloud services
– You pay for what you use
– Cost to upload
– Cost to store
– Cost to download
• Non-metered
– You pay for a block of storage
– No cost to upload
– No cost to download
Cloud computing characteristics
• Rapid elasticity
– Scale up and scale down as needed
– Seamless to everyone
– The cloud enables instant resource provisioning
• High availability
– Systems are always available
– Redundancy provides availability
• File synchronization
– Information can be duplicated across cloud locations
Desktop as a Service
• Basic application usage
– Applications actually run on a remote server
– Virtual Desktop Infrastructure (VDI),
Desktop as a Service (DaaS)
– Local device is a keyboard, mouse, and screen.
• Minimal operating system on the client
– No huge memory or CPU needs
• Network connectivity
– Big network requirement
– Everything happens across the wire
4.2 Summarize aspects of client-side virtualization.
• Purpose of virtual machines
- Sandbox
- Test development
- Application virtualization
- Legacy software/OS
- Cross-platform virtualization
• Resource requirements
• Security requirements
4.2 - Client-side Virtualization
Virtualization
• One computer, many operating systems
– macOS, Windows 11, Linux Ubuntu, all at the same time!
• Separate OS, independent CPU, memory, network, etc.
– But really one computer
• Host-based virtualization
– Your normal desktop plus others
• Standalone server that hosts virtual machines
– Enterprise-level
• Been around since 1967
– IBM mainframe virtualization
Legacy software and operating systems
• Need to run different application versions on the same system
– Run each application instance in a separate VM
• Application only runs on a previous OS version
– Create a VM with the older operating system
Cross-platform virtualization
• Windows / macOS / Linux doesn’t do everything
– Each OS has strengths and weaknesses
• Run different operating systems at the same time
– Move between each OS seamlessly
– No rebooting
• Save time and resources
– One physical computer
The hypervisor
• Virtual Machine Manager
– Manages the virtual platform and guest operating systems
• May require a CPU that supports virtualization
– Can improve performance
• Hardware management
– CPU, networking, security
Resource requirements
• CPU Processor Support
– Intel: Virtualization Technology (VT)
– AMD: AMD-V
• Memory - Above and beyond host OS requirements
• Disk space - Each guest OS has it’s own image
• Network
– Configurable on each guest OS (standalone, NAT, bridged, etc.)
– Virtual switch
Sandboxing
• Isolated testing environment
– No connection to the real world or production system
– A technological safe space
• Virtualize development process
– Try some code, break some code, nobody gets hurt
• Additional development features
– Roll back to a previous snapshot
– Run additional systems
Building the application
• Develop
– Secure environment
– Writing code
– Developers test in their sandboxes
• Test
– A separate virtual environment for testing
– Still in the development stage
– All of the pieces are put together
– Does it all work?
Hypervisor security
• Hypervisor is a sweet spot for the bad guys
– No significant vulnerabilities yet
• VM escaping
– Malware recognizes it’s on a virtual machine
– Malware compromises the hypervisor
– Malware jumps from one guest OS to another
• Many hosted services are virtual environments
– Malware on one customer’s server can gather information from another
Guest operating system security
• Every guest is self-contained - Like a real computer
• Use traditional security controls
– Host-based firewall, Anti-virus, anti-spyware
• Watch out for rogue virtual machines (VMs)
– The bad guys try to install their own system
– You’re in big trouble
• Self-contained VMs provided by 3rd parties can be dangerous
– You have no idea what’s running on there
Network requirements
• Most client-side virtual machine managers have their own virtual (internal) networks
• Shared network address
– The virtual machine shares the same IP address as the physical host
– Uses a private IP address internally
– Uses NAT to convert to the physical host IP
• Bridged network address
– The VM is a device on the physical network
• Private address
– The VM does not communicate outside of the virtual network
5.0 Hardware and Network Troubleshooting
5.1 Given a scenario, apply the best practice methodology to resolve problems.
• Always consider corporate policies, procedures, and impacts before implementing changes
1. Identify the problem
- Gather information from the user, identify user changes, and, if applicable,
perform backups before making changes
- Inquire regarding environmental or infrastructure changes
2. Establish a theory of probable cause (question the obvious)
- If necessary, conduct external or internal research based on symptoms
3. Test the theory to determine the cause
- Once the theory is confirmed, determine the next steps to resolve the problem
- If the theory is not confirmed, re-establish a new theory or escalate
4. Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution
- Refer to the vendor’s instructions for guidance
5. Verify full system functionality and, if applicable, implement preventive measures
6. Document the findings, actions, and outcomes
5.1 - How to Troubleshoot
Change management
• Change control
– A formal process for managing change
– Avoid downtime, confusion, and mistakes
– Corporate policy and procedures
• Nothing changes without the process
– Plan for a change
– Estimate the risk associated with the change
– Have a recovery plan if the change doesn’t work
– Test before making the change
– Document all of this and get approval
– Make the change
Identify the problem
• Information gathering
– Get as many details as possible
– Duplicate the issue, if possible
• Identify symptoms
– May be more than a single symptom
• Question users
– Your best source of details
• Determine if anything has changed
– Who’s in the wiring closet?
• Approach multiple problems individually
– Break problems into smaller pieces
• Backup everything
– You’re going to make some changes
– You should always have a rollback plan
• What else has changed?
– The user may not be aware
– Environmental changes
– Infrastructure changes
• There may be some clues
– Check OS log files
– Applications may have log information
Establish a theory
• Start with the obvious - Occam’s razor applies
• Consider everything - Even the not-so-obvious
• Make a list of all possible causes
– Start with the easy theories
– And the least difficult to test
• Research the symptoms
– Internal knowledge base
– Google searches
Test the theory
• Confirm the theory
– Determine next steps to resolve problem
• Theory didn’t work?
– Re-establish new theory or escalate
– Call an expert
• The theory worked!
– Make a plan…
Create a plan of action
• Build the plan
– Correct the issue with a minimum of impact
• Refer to vendor instructions
– Knowledge base, support articles
– Documentation and manuals
• Identify potential effects
– Every plan can go bad
– Have a plan B
– And a plan C
Implement the solution
• Fix the issue
– Implement during the change control window
• Escalate as necessary
– You may need help from a 3rd party
Verify full system functionality
• It’s not fixed until it’s really fixed
– The test should be part of your plan
– Have your customer confirm the fix
• Implement preventative measures
– Let’s avoid this issue in the future
Document findings
• It’s not over until you build the knowledge base
– Don’t lose valuable knowledge!
• What action did you take?
– What outcome did it have?
• Consider a formal database
– Help desk case notes
– Searchable database
5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot problems related to motherboards, RAM, CPU, and power.
• Common symptoms
- Power-on self-test (POST) beeps
- Proprietary crash screens (blue screen of death [BSOD]/ pinwheel)
- Black screen
- No power
- Sluggish performance
- Overheating
- Burning smell
- Intermittent shutdown
- Application crashes
- Grinding noise
- Capacitor swelling
- Inaccurate system date/time
5.2 - Troubleshooting Common Hardware Problems
POST (Power On Self Test)
• Test major system components before booting the operating system
– Main systems (CPU, CMOS, etc.)
– Video
– Memory
• Failures are usually noted with beeps and/or codes
– BIOS versions can differ, check your documentation
• Don’t bother memorizing the beep codes
– They’re all different between manufacturers
– Know what to do when you hear them
POST and boot
• Blank screen on boot
– Listen for beeps
– Bad video, bad RAM, bad CPU
– BIOS configuration issue
• BIOS time and setting
– Maintained with the motherboard battery
– Replace the battery
• Attempts to boot to incorrect device
– Set boot order in BIOS configuration
– Confirm that the startup device has a valid operating system
– Check for media in a startup device
Crash screens
• Windows Stop Error or Blue Screen of Death
• Contains important information
– Also written to event log
• Useful when tracking down problems
– Sometimes more useful for manufacturer support
Bluescreens and spontaneous shutdowns
• Startup and shutdown BSOD
– Bad hardware, bad drivers, bad application
• Use Last Known Good, System Restore, or Rollback Driver
– Try Safe Mode
• Reseat or remove the hardware - If possible
• Run hardware diagnostics
– Provided by the manufacturer
– BIOS may have hardware diagnostics
The spinning ball of death
• The macOS X Spinning Wait Cursor
– Feedback that something is happening
• The spin starts, but it never stops
– You never get back control of your computer
• Many possible reasons
– Application bug
– Bad hardware
– Slow paging to disk
• Restart the computer
– There may be details in the console logs
Black screen
• Is the monitor connected?
– We wouldn’t ask if it wasn’t a common solution
– Check both power and signal cable
• Input selection on monitor - HDMI, DVI, VGA, etc.
• Image is dim - Check brightness controls
• Swap the monitor
– Try the monitor on another computer
• No video after Windows loads
– Use VGA mode (F8)
No power
• No power
– No power at the source
– No power from the power supply
– Get out your multimeter
• Fans spin - no power to other devices
– Where is your fan power connected?
– No POST - bad motherboard?
– Case fans have lower voltage requirements
– Check the power supply output
Sluggish performance
• Task Manager
– Check for high CPU utilization and I/O
• Windows Update
– Latest patches and drivers
• Disk space
– Check for available space and defrag
• Laptops may be using power-saving mode
– Throttles the CPU
• Anti-virus and anti-malware
– Scan for bad guys
Overheating
• Heat generation
– CPUs, video adapters, memory
• Cooling systems
– Fans and airflow
– Heat sinks
– Clean and clear
• Verify with monitoring software
– Built into the BIOS
– Try HWMonitor
– http://www.cpuid.com/
Smoke and burning smell
• Electrical problems
– The smoke makes everything work
• Always disconnect power
– There should never be a burned odor
• Locate bad components
– Even after the system has cooled down
– Replace all damaged components
Intermittent shutdown
• No warning, black screen
– May have some details in your Event Viewer
• Heat-related issue
– High CPU or graphics, gaming
– Check all fans and heat sinks
– BIOS may show fan status and temperatures
• Failing hardware
– Has anything changed?
– Check Device Manager, run diagnostics
• Could be anything
– Eliminate what’s working
Application crashes
• Application stops working
– May provide an error message
– May just disappear
• Check the Event Log
– Often includes useful reconnaissance
• Check the Reliability Monitor
– A history of application problems
– Checks for resolutions
• Reinstall the application
– Contact application support
Grinding noises
• Computers should hum, not grind
• Rattling - Loose components
• Scraping - Hard drive issues
• Clicking - Fan problems
• Pop - Blown capacitor
Intermittent shutdown
• No warning, black screen
– May have some details in your Event Viewer
• Heat-related issue
– High CPU or graphics, gaming
– Check all fans and heat sinks
– BIOS may show fan status and temperatures
• Failing hardware
– Has anything changed?
– Check Device Manager, run diagnostics
• Could be anything
– Eliminate what’s working
Application crashes
• Application stops working
– May provide an error message
– May just disappear
• Check the Event Log
– Often includes useful reconnaissance
• Check the Reliability Monitor
– A history of application problems
– Checks for resolutions
• Reinstall the application
– Contact application support
Grinding noises
• Computers should hum, not grind
• Rattling - Loose components
• Scraping - Hard drive issues
• Clicking - Fan problems
• Pop - Blown capacitor
5.3 Given a scenario, troubleshoot and diagnose problems with storage drives and RAID arrays.
• Common symptoms
- Light-emitting diode (LED) status indicators
- Grinding noises
- Clicking sounds
- Bootable device not found
- Data loss/corruption
- RAID failure
- Self-monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology (S.M.A.R.T.) failure
- Extended read/write times
- Input/output operations per second (IOPS)
- Missing drives in OS
5.3 - Troubleshooting Storage Devices
Storage failure symptoms
• Read/write failure
– “Cannot read from the source disk”
• Slow performance
– Constant LED activity - Retry...retry...retry
• Loud clicking noise
– The click of death
– May also include grinding and scraping
Troubleshooting disk failures
• Get a backup - First thing - a bad drive is bad
• Check for loose or damaged cables
• Check for overheating
– Especially if problems occur after startup
• Check power supply
– Especially if new devices were added
• Run hard drive diagnostics
– From the drive or computer manufacturer
– Preferably on a known-good computer
Boot failure symptoms
• Drive not recognized, Boot Device Not Found
– Lights (or no lights)
– Beeps
– Error messages
• Operating system not found
– The drive is there
– Windows is not
Troubleshooting boot failures
• Check your cables
– Physical problem
• Check boot sequence in BIOS
– Check for removable disks (especially USB)
– Check for disabled storage interfaces
• For new installation, check hardware configuration
– Data and power cables
– Try different SATA interfaces
• Try the drive in a different computer
Data loss/corruption
• Hard drives are mechanical devices
– They will eventually fail
• Repairs are difficult and expensive
– Dust-free environment
– Not always successful
• An SSD may simply stop working
– Sometimes can read but not write
• Data becomes unavailable or corrupted
– Can be impossible to recover
• ALWAYS HAVE A BACKUP
RAID not found
• Missing or faulty RAID controller
RAID stops working
• Each RAID is different
– Don’t start pulling drives until you check the console!
S.M.A.R.T.
• Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology
– Use third-party utilities
• Avoid hardware failure - Look for warning signs
• Schedule disk checks - Built-in to most drive arrays
• Warning signs - Replace a drive
Extended read/write times
• A lot happens when reading or writing data
– Memory access, communication across the bus, spinning drive access, writing or reading the data to
the storage device, etc.
• Delays can occur anywhere along the way
– Need a way to measure storage device access
• Input/output operations per second (IOPS)
– A broad metric of maximum performance
• Useful for comparing storage devices
– Hard drive: 200 IOPS
– SSD: 1,000,000 IOPS
Missing drives in OS
• OS boots normally
– Other drives not shown - Check the BIOS
• Internal drives
– Bad drive or disconnected cable
• External drives
– No power to the drive or bad cable connection
• Network shares
– Shared drives can be connected during startup
– Option to reconnect at sign-in
– Connected with login script
5.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot video, projector, and display issues.
• Common symptoms
- Incorrect data source
- Physical cabling issues
- Burned-out bulb
- Fuzzy image
- Display burn-in
- Dead pixels
- Flashing screen
- Incorrect color display
- Audio issues
- Dim image
- Intermittent projector shutdown
5.4 - Troubleshooting Video and Display Issues
No video image
• Is it connected?
– We wouldn’t ask if it wasn’t a real solution
– Check both power and signal cable
• Input selection on monitor
– HDMI, DVI, VGA, etc.
• Image is dim
– Check brightness controls
• Swap the monitor
– Try the monitor on another computer
• No video after Windows loads
– Use VGA mode (F8)
Image quality problems
• Flickering, color patterns incorrect
– You can almost work with this
• Check the cable pins
– Especially if missing a color
• Distorted image and geometry
– Check the OS refresh rate and resolution settings
– Need to match the display specifications
– Check or replace cable
• Disable hardware acceleration
– Troubleshoot with the software drivers
Native resolution
• An LCD display is fixed
– The number of pixels doesn’t change
• A display looks best when the video settings match a display’s native resolution
– A mismatch can cause distortion
• If changing the display resolution,try using a multiple of the native resolution
– 2560 x 1600 is the same ratio as 1920 x 1200
Burn-in
• A problem across all monitor types
– Some displays will pixel-shift
– You probably won’t notice it
• LCDs have “image sticking”
– Try to remove by displaying a white screen for an extended period
Dead pixels
• Always black
– A manufacturing defect
• This probably isn’t a problem on your side
– Not a cable or power issue
• Clean the monitor screen
– Damp cloth
• You’ll have to replace the monitor
– No other option
Flashing screen
• Check the video cable connections
– A loose cable will cause loss of signal
• Replace the video cable
– Usually a quick fix
• The problem could be with the monitor
– Try switching the display
• Confirm the display settings in the operating system
– May not match the monitor
Incorrect color display
• Colors may not be properly represented
– Too much red, green, blue, yellow, etc.
• Monitor settings
– Tint
– Custom color presets
– Factory Reset
• Driver configuration
– Color tint
• OS configuration - Very blue
– Night light settings
Audio issues
• Many monitors include speakers
– No sound, low volume
• Monitor may have audio controls
– Check volume levels and mute status
• Confirm audio input over HDMI, DisplayPort, or Thunderbolt
– Check the HDMI audio output in the OS
• The monitor may support other audio input interfaces
– Check for audio jacks
Dim image
• Monitor video settings
– Brightness
– Contrast
• Check the OS
– Auto-dimming
– Dim on battery power
– Driver settings
• Backlight failure
– Some or all of the light
– May only be a section of the screen
LCD projector troubleshooting
• Large screen projection
– Conference rooms, large gatherings
• Not always LCD
– But common to see LCD
• Metal-halide lamp
– Very bright (very hot) light
– Relatively expensive
– (~ $35 to $350+ US)
• Always let bulbs cool
– Fan will run after shutting off
– Keep it plugged in
• Intermittent projector shutdown
– No light output
– Fans may continue to run
• Cooling issue
– Fans constantly cool the bulb
– Shuts down if temperatures are high
• Check the airflow
– Remove any blockages
– Clean dust from the air filters and external air input/output
5.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common issues with mobile devices.
• Common symptoms
- Poor battery health
- Swollen battery
- Broken screen
- Improper charging
- Poor/no connectivity
- Liquid damage
- Overheating
- Digitizer issues
- Physically damaged ports
- Malware
-Cursor drift/touch calibration
5.5 - Troubleshooting Mobile Devices
Poor battery health
• Replace aging battery
– There’s only so many recharges
• Bad reception
– Always searching for signal
– Airplane mode on the ground
• Disable unnecessary features
– 802.11 wireless, Bluetooth, GPS
• Check application battery usage
– iOS and iPadOS: Settings/Battery
– Android: Settings/Battery
Swollen battery
• Buildup of gas
– Designed to self-contain
– Do NOT open the battery packet/container
– Significant fire risk
– You’ll be sorry
• Faulty battery
– Stop using immediately
– Dispose of properly
• Device can be damaged
– Better than having a fire
Broken screen
• Time for a backup - Do this first!
• Replace the screen - No easy fixes
• The glass is sharp
– Screen protectors can help
– Use clear tape until repaired
Improper charging
• Check everything in the charging process
– Cables, interfaces
• Check the cable interface
– Remove any obstructions
• Check the cable
– Don’t use frayed or damaged cables
– Try a known-good cable
• Verify the power adapter
– Check with a multimeter
Poor or no connectivity
• Cellular or Wi-Fi
– Location, location, location
• Cellular
– Signal strength
– Location matters
– Outdoor connectivity may be better
• Wi-Fi
– Limited range
– Interference can limit throughput
– May need a channel/frequency configuration change
Liquid damage
• Many phones have a Liquid Contact Indicator (LCI)
– Turns color when liquid has been present
• Power down the phone
– Don’t power it back on. Don’t do it.
• Remove the case, cards, back, and battery
– If possible
• Putting the phone in a bag of rice doesn’t actually work very well
– Silica gel is better
• Leave it alone
– Don’t turn it on
– Do not charge the phone
– Don’t connect it to power
– Don’t press any keys
– Don’t heat the phone
– Don’t move it around
• Wait at least a day
– Or until the phone appears to be dry
– And then perhaps a few hours after that
• Once you’re sure, power it on
– Hope for the best
Overheating
• Phone will automatically shut down
– Avoid overheating damage
• Charging/discharging the battery, CPU usage, display light
– All of these create heat
• Check app usage
– Some apps can use a lot of CPU
• Avoid direct sunlight
– Quickly overheats
Digitizer issues
• Touchscreen completely black or not responding to input
– Screen presses do not register
• Apple iOS reset
– Press power button, slide to power off, press power button
– Hold down power button and Home|Volume for 10 seconds
• Android device restart
– Remove battery, put back in, power on
– Hold down power and volume down until restart
– Some phones have different key combinations
– Some phones do not have a key-based reset
Physically damaged ports
• External interface - Charging and data transfer
• Rough handling and accidents
– Damages the interface
• Not charging - Look closely
• Not modular - Requires a system board replacement
Malware
• Always a concern
– Even on mobile devices
– The device type doesn’t matter
• Look for symptoms
– Unusual apps, large data transfers, pop up messages, high CPU usage, device overheating, excessive
battery use
• Try a security app or scanner
– Identify malware infections
Cursor drift
• Random input or cursor moves without touching the device
– Common on older screens
• Use a touch calibration app
– Requires user input
– Touch certain areas of the screen
• The system will adjust to the new calibration parameters
– No more drift
5.6 Given a scenario, troubleshoot and resolve printer issues.
• Common symptoms
- Lines down the printed pages
- Garbled print
- Toner not fusing to paper
- Paper jams
- Faded print
- Incorrect paper size
- Paper not feeding
- Multipage misfeed
- Multiple prints pending in queue
- Speckling on printed pages
- Double/echo images on the print
- Incorrect color settings
- Grinding noise
- Finishing issues
- Staple jams
- Hole punch
- Incorrect page orientation
5.6 - Troubleshooting Printers
Testing the printer
• Print or scan a test page
– Built into Windows, not the application
• Use diagnostic tools
– Web-based utilities built into the printer
– Vendor specific
– Generic utilities
Bad output
• Lines down the printed page
– Inkjet: Clean print heads
– Laser: Check for scratched photosensitive drum
• Faded prints, blank pages - Low toner or ink
• Double/echo images or speckling
– Laser printer optical drum not cleaned properly
– Ghost or “shadow” from previous drum rotation
Garbled print
• Bad printer driver / wrong model
– Incorrect page description language (PCL or PostScript?)
• Verify the printer functionality
– Check with a test page
• Bad application
– Check the output
– Upgrade the application
Toner not sticking to the paper
• Laser printer output smudges everywhere
– Toner sticks to everything
• Toner not fused to the paper
– Toner should be permanently melted and pressed
– May not be hot
• Fuser problem - Replace the fuser assembly
Incorrect paper size
• Print a letter size page
– Accidentally send it to a legal size paper tray
• Printer stops and shows a message
– Gives you a chance to fix the issue
• Tray selection is provided during the printing process
– Try printing again
– Change the defaults in the printer configuration
Paper jam
• Careful when removing
– Don’t rip the paper
– Don’t damage internal components
• Paper not feeding or misfeeds multiple pages
– Check the tray
– Pickup rollers are part of a laser printer maintenance kit
• Creased paper
– Problems in the paper path
– Check the paper weight
Multiple prints pending in queue
• Corrupted print jobs
– Print spooler will crash
– Most spooler configuration will automatically restart
• Problems are logged
– Windows Event Viewer,Windows-PrintService
• One job may be causing the issue
– Monitor the queue for details
Incorrect color settings
• The output colors aren’t the same as the display
– Important for publishing and color printing
• Calibrate the monitor
– A third-party calibration tool will help
• Check the paper
– Bright white paper provides good color representation
• Calibrate the printer
– The proper amount of ink and toner
Grinding noises
• Never a good sound from your printer
– The ink is already manufactured
• Something is not operating properly
– Paper jam - Carriage is stalled or jammed
• Each printer has a different process
– Check the manuals for removing paper jams
– Some inkjet printers have a particular process
• May require additional maintenance
– Or replace the printer
Finishing issues
• Finishing happens after the ink or toner has been applied
– Collate, binding, etc.
• Staple jams
– Larger printers will collate and staple groups of papers
– Each printer manufacturer has a different removal process
• Incorrect hole punch location
– Verify with the printer driver
– May require a driver update
Incorrect page orientation
• Print a portrait page - Get a landscape print
• Check the settings when printing
– Controlled by the print driver
– May require a driver update
• The printer also has a default setting
– Check the settings on the printer console
5.7 Given a scenario, troubleshoot problems with wired and wireless networks.
• Common symptoms
- Intermittent wireless connectivity
- Slow network speeds
- Limited connectivity
- Jitter
- Poor Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) quality
- Port flapping
- High latency
- External interference
5.7 - Troubleshooting Networks
No network connectivity
• Do you have a link light?
– Is it plugged in?
• Ping loopback (127.0.0.1)
– Is the protocol stack working?
– Availability and intermittent connectivity
• Ping local IP address
– Checks local configuration, adapter, and link signal
• Ping default gateway
– Connectivity on the local network
• Ping devices on router’s other side
– 8.8.8.8 or 9.9.9.9
Intermittent wireless connectivity
• Interference
– Something else is using our frequency
• Signal strength
– Transmitting signal, transmitting antenna, receiving antenna, etc.
• Incorrect channel
– Usually automatic; look for manual tuning
• Bounce and latency
– Multipath interference; flat surfaces
• Incorrect access point placement
– Locate close to the users
Wireless interference
• Predictable
– Fluorescent lights
– Microwave ovens
– Cordless telephones
– High-power sources
• Unpredictable
– Multi-tenant building
• Measurements
– Signal to noise ratio (SNR)
– Performance Monitor
Signal to noise ratio (SNR)
• Signal
– What you want
• Noise
– What you don’t want
– Interference from other networks and devices
• You want a very large ratio
– The same amount of signal to noise (1:1) would be bad
Limited or no connectivity
• Windows alert in the system tray
– “Limited or No connectivity”
– “No Internet Access”
• Check the local IP address
– An APIPA address will only have local connectivity
• If DHCP address is obtained,perform the ping tests
– Local gateway, remote IP address
Jitter
• Most real-time media is sensitive to delay
– Data should arrive at regular intervals
– Voice communication, live video
• If you miss a packet, there’s no retransmission
– There’s no time to “rewind” your phone call
• Jitter is the time between frames
– Excessive jitter can cause you to miss information, “choppy” voice calls
Poor VoIP quality
• High speed and low latency
– Real-time applications are demanding
• Check the Internet connection
– A speed test can identify slow links
• Verify the local networking equipment
– An old router can cause significant problems
• View the network performance
– A packet capture would be useful
Latency
• A delay between the request and the response
– Waiting time
• Some latency is expected and normal
– Laws of physics apply
• Examine the response times at every step along the way
– This may require multiple measurement tools
• Packet captures can provide detailed analysis
– Microsecond granularity
– Get captures from both sides
Port flapping
• Network interface goes up and down
– Over and over again
• Verify the cable
– Check the wiring
• Move between switch interfaces
– Is the flapping associated with the switch interface or the device?
• Replace bad hardware or cables
– May require additional purchases
CompTIA A+ Core 1 (220-1101) Acronym List
The following is a list of acronyms that appear on the CompTIA A+
Core 1 (220-1101) exam. Candidates are encouraged to review the complete list and attain a working
knowledge of all listed acronyms as part of a comprehensive exam preparation program.
Acronym Definition
AAA
Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting
AC
Alternating Current
ACL
Access Control List
ADF
Automatic Document Feeder
AES
Advanced Encryption Standard
AP
Access Point
APFS
Apple File System
APIPA
Automatic Private Internet Protocol Addressing
APK
Android Package
ARM
Advanced RISC [Reduced Instruction Set Computer] Machine
ARP
Address Resolution Protocol
ATA
Advanced Technology Attachment
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATX
Advanced Technology Extended
AUP
Acceptable Use Policy
BIOS
Basic Input/Output System
BSOD
Blue Screen of Death
BYOD
Bring Your Own Device
CAD
Computer-aided Design
CAPTCHA Completely Automated Public Turing Test to Tell Computers and Humans Apart
CD
Compact Disc
CDFS
Compact Disc File System
CDMA
Code-Division Multiple Access
CERT
Computer Emergency Response Team
CIFS
Common Internet File System
CMD
Command Prompt
CMOS
Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
CPU
Central Processing Unit
CRL
Certificate Revocation List
DC
Direct Current
DDoS
Distributed Denial of Service
DDR
Double Data Rate
DHCP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DIMM
Dual Inline Memory Module
DKIM
DomainKeys Identified Mail
DMA Direct Memory Access
DMARC Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting, and Conformance
DNS
Domain Name System
DoS
Denial of Service
DRAM
Dynamic Random-Access Memory
Acronym Definition
DRM
Digital Rights Management
DSL
Digital Subscriber Line
DVI
Digital Visual Interface
DVI-D
Digital Visual Interface-Digital
ECC
Error Correcting Code
EFS
Encrypting File System
EMI
Electromagnetic Interference
EOL
End-of-Life
eSATA
External Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
ESD
Electrostatic Discharge
EULA End-User License Agreement
exFAT
Extensible File Allocation Table
ext
Extended File System
FAT
File Allocation Table
FAT12
12-bit File Allocation Table
FAT16
16-bit File Allocation Table
FAT32
32-bit File Allocation Table
FSB
Front-Side Bus
FTP
File Transfer Protocol
GFS
Grandfather-Father-Son
GPS
Global Positioning System
GPT
GUID [Globally Unique Identifier] Partition Table
GPU
Graphics Processing Unit
GSM
Global System for Mobile Communications
GUI
Graphical User Interface
GUID
Globally Unique Identifier
HAL
Hardware Abstraction Layer
HAV
Hardware-assisted Virtualization
HCL
Hardware Compatibility List
HDCP
High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection
HDD
Hard Disk Drive
HDMI
High-Definition Multimedia Interface
HSM
Hardware Security Module
HTML
Hypertext Markup Language
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTPS
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
I/O
Input/Output
IaaS
Infrastructure as a Service
ICR
Intelligent Character Recognition
IDE
Integrated Drive Electronics
IDS
Intrusion Detection System
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IMAP
Internet Mail Access Protocol
IOPS
Input/Output Operations Per Second
IoT
Internet of Things
IP
Internet Protocol
IPS
Intrusion Prevention System
Acronym Definition
IPS
In-plane Switching
IPSec
Internet Protocol Security
IR
Infrared
IrDA
Infrared Data Association
IRP
Incident Response Plan
ISO
International Organization for Standardization
ISP
Internet Service Provider
ITX
Information Technology eXtended
KB
Knowledge Base
KVM
Keyboard-Video-Mouse
LAN
Local Area Network
LC Lucent Connector
LCD
Liquid Crystal Display
LDAP Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
LED
Light-emitting Diode
MAC
Media Access Control/Mandatory Access Control
MAM
Mobile Application Management
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
MBR
Master Boot Record
MDM
Mobile Device Management
MFA
Multifactor Authentication
MFD
Multifunction Device
MFP
Multifunction Printer
MMC
Microsoft Management Console
MOU
Memorandum of Understanding
MSDS
Material Safety Data Sheet
MSRA
Microsoft Remote Assistance
MX
Mail Exchange
NAC
Network Access Control
NAT
Network Address Translation
NDA
Non-disclosure Agreement
NetBIOS Networked Basic Input/Output System
NetBT
NetBIOS over TCP/IP [Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol]
NFC
Near-field Communication
NFS
Network File System
NIC
Network Interface Card
NTFS
New Technology File System
NVMe
Non-volatile Memory Express
OCR
Optical Character Recognition
OLED
Organic Light-emitting Diode
ONT
Optical Network Terminal
OS
Operating System
PaaS
Platform as a Service
PAN
Personal Area Network
PC
Personal Computer
PCIe
Peripheral Component Interconnect Express
PCL
Printer Command Language
Acronym Definition
PE
Preinstallation Environment
PII
Personally Identifiable Information
PIN
Personal Identification Number
PKI
Public Key Infrastructure
PoE
Power over Ethernet
POP3
Post Office Protocol 3
POST Power-on Self-Test
PPP
Point-to-Point Protocol
PRL
Preferred Roaming List
PSU
Power Supply Unit
PXE
Preboot Execution Environment
RADIUS Remote Authentication Dial-in User Service
RAID
Redundant Array of Independent (or Inexpensive) Disks
RAM
Random-access Memory
RDP
Remote Desktop Protocol
RF
Radio Frequency
RFI
Radio-Frequency Interference
RFID
Radio-Frequency Identification
RJ11
Registered Jack Function 11
RJ45
Registered Jack Function 45
RMM
Remote Monitoring and Management
RTO
Recovery Time Objective
SaaS
Software as a Service
SAN
Storage Area Network
SAS
Serial Attached SCSI [Small Computer System Interface]
SATA
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
SC
Subscriber Connector
SCADA
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SCP
Secure Copy Protection
SCSI
Small Computer System Interface
SDN
Software-defined Networking
SFTP
Secure File Transfer Protocol
SIM
Subscriber Identity Module
SIMM
Single Inline Memory Module
S.M.A.R.T. Self-monitoring Analysis and Reporting Technology
SMB
Server Message Block
SMS
Short Message Service
SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol
SNTP Simple Network Time Protocol
SODIMM Small Outline Dual Inline Memory Module
SOHO
Small Office/Home Office
SPF
Sender Policy Framework
SQL
Structured Query Language
SRAM
Static Random-access Memory
SSD
Solid-State Drive
SSH
Secure Shell
Acronym Definition
SSID
Service Set Identifier
SSL
Secure Sockets Layer
SSO
Single Sign-on
ST Straight Tip
STP
Shielded Twisted Pair
TACACS Terminal Access Controller Access-Control System
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol
TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TFTP
Trivial File Transfer Protocol
TKIP
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
TLS
Transport Layer Security
TN
Twisted Nematic
TPM
Trusted Platform Module
UAC
User Account Control
UDP
User Datagram Protocol
UEFI
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
UNC
Universal Naming Convention
UPnP
Universal Plug and Play
UPS
Uninterruptible Power Supply
USB
Universal Serial Bus
UTM
Unified Threat Management
UTP
Unshielded Twisted Pair
VA
Vertical Alignment
VDI
Virtual Desktop Infrastructure
VGA
Video Graphics Array
VLAN
Virtual LAN [Local Area Network]
VM
Virtual Machine
VNC
Virtual Network Computer
VoIP
Voice over Internet Protocol
VPN
Virtual Private Network
VRAM
Video Random-access Memory
WAN Wide Area Network
WEP
Wired Equivalent Privacy
WISP
Wireless Internet Service Provider
WLAN
Wireless LAN [Local Area Network]
WMN
Wireless Mesh Network
WPA
WiFi Protected Access
WWAN Wireless Wide Area Network
XSS
Cross-site Scripting
CompTIA A+ Core 1 (220-1101) Proposed Hardware and Software List
**CompTIA has included this sample list of hardware and software to assist candidates as they prepare for
the A+ Core 1 (220-1101) exam. This list may also be helpful for training companies that wish to create a lab
component to their training offering. The bulleted lists below each topic are sample lists and are not
exhaustive.
Equipment
• Apple tablet/smartphone
• Android tablet/smartphone
• Windows tablet
• Chromebook
• Windows laptop/Mac laptop/Linux laptop
• Windows desktop/Mac desktop/ Linux desktop
• Windows server with Active Directory and Print Management
• Monitors
• Projectors
• SOHO router/switch
• Access point
• VoIP phone
• Printer
- Laser/inkjet
- Wireless
- 3-D printer
- Thermal
• Surge suppressor
• Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
• Smart devices (IoT devices)
• Server with a hypervisor
• Punchdown block
• Patch panel
• Webcams
• Speakers
• Microphones
Spare parts/hardware
• Motherboards
• RAM
• Hard drives
• Power supplies
• Video cards
• Sound cards
• Network cards
• Wireless NICs
• Fans/cooling devices/heat sink
• CPUs
• Assorted connectors/cables
- USB
- HDMI
- DisplayPort
- DVI
- VGA
• Adapters
- Bluetooth adapter
• Network cables
• Unterminated network cable/ connectors
• Alternating current (AC) adapters
• Optical drives
• Screws/standoffs
• Cases
• Maintenance kit
• Mice/keyboards
• Keyboard-video-mouse (KVM)
• Console cable
• SSD
Tools
• Screwdriver
• Multimeter
• Wire cutters
• Punchdown tool
• Crimper
• Power supply tester
• Cable stripper
• Standard technician toolkit
• Electrostatic discharge (ESD) strap
• Thermal paste
• Cable tester
• Cable toner
• WiFi analyzer
• SATA to USB connectors
Software
• Operating systems
- Linux
- Chrome OS
- Microsoft Windows
- macOS
- Android
- iOS
• Preinstallation environment (PE) disk/live compact disc (CD)
• Antivirus software
• Virtualization software
• Anti-malware
• Driver software
CompTIA A+ Certification Exam Core 2 Objectives (220-1102)
• Install, configure, and maintain computer equipment, mobile devices, and software for end users
• Service components based on customer requirements
• Understand networking basics and apply basic cybersecurity methods to mitigate threats
• Properly and safely diagnose, resolve, and document common hardware and software issues
• Apply troubleshooting skills and provide customer support using appropriate communication skills
• Understand the basics of scripting, cloud technologies, virtualization, and multi-OS deployments in
corporate environments
1.0 Operating Systems
1.1 Identify basic features of Microsoft Windows editions.
1.1 - An Overview of Windows
Windows on the Core 2 exam
• 220-1102 exam released in January 2022
– Two Windows versions available
– Windows 10 and Windows 11
• CompTIA considers all in-support Windows versions to be in scope for the exam
– Mainstream support is 5 years after release
• Windows versions are listed in the objectives
– Everything else includes both Windows 10 and 11
• Fortunately, these are remarkably similar
– Once you know one, you effectively know the other!
Windows 10
• Released on July 29, 2015 - We skipped Windows 9
• A single platform
– Desktops, laptops, tablets, phones, all-in-one devices
• Ongoing updates
– More than twelve different released versions
– November 2021 (Version 21H2)
• Windows 10 editions
- Home
Windows 10 Home
• Home user - Retail sales
• Integration with Microsoft account
– Microsoft OneDrive backup
• Windows Defender
– Anti-virus and anti-malware
• Cortana - Talk to your operating system
- Pro
Windows 10 Pro
• The business version of Windows
– Additional management features
• Remote Desktop host
– Remote control each computer
• BitLocker - Full disk encryption (FDE)
• Join a Windows domain
– Group Policy management
- Pro for Workstations
Windows 10 Pro for Workstations
• An edition for high-end desktops
– Enhanced performance and storage options
• More physical CPUs - Up to four
• High maximum RAM - Supports up to 6 TB
• Support for ReFS - Resilient File System
– Same as Windows Server
- Enterprise
Windows 10 Enterprise
• Built for large implementations
– Volume licensing
• AppLocker - Control what applications can run
• BranchCache - Remote site file caching
• Granular User Experience (UX) control
– Define the user environment
– Useful for kiosk and workstation customization
*** All editions of Windows 11 only support x64 (64-bit) processors due to the higher minimum memory
requirements. All Windows 11 editions require a minimum of 4 GB of memory to operate.
Windows 11 Hardware requirements
To install or upgrade to Windows 11, devices must meet the following minimum hardware requirements:
Processor: 1 gigahertz (GHz) or faster with two or more cores
Memory: 4 gigabytes (GB) or greater.
Storage: 64 GB or greater available disk space.
• Feature differences
1.1 - Windows Features
Windows at work
• Large-scale support
– Thousands of devices
• Security concerns
– Mobile devices with important data
– Local file shares
• Working on a spreadsheet
– Watching a movie
• Geographical sprawl - Cache data between sites
- Domain access vs. workgroup
Domain Services
• Active Directory Domain Services
– Large database of your network
• Distributed architecture
– Many servers - Not suitable for home use
• Everything documented in one place
– User accounts, servers, volumes, printers
• Many different uses
– Authentication, centralized management
Organizing network devices
• Windows Workgroups
– Logical groups of network devices
– Each device is a standalone system, everyone is a peer
• Windows Domain
– Business network
– Centralized authentication and device access
– Supports thousands of devices across many networks
- Desktop styles/user interface
Desktop styles
• Your computer has many different uses
– Those change depending on where you are
• Work
– Standard desktop
– Common user interface
– Customization very limited
– You can work at any computer
• Home
– Complete flexibility
– Background photos, colors, UI sizing
– Centralized authentication and device access
– Supports thousands of devices across many networks
- Availability of Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
Availability of RDP
• Remote Desktop Protocol
– View and control the desktop of a remote device
• RDP client
– Connects to a Remote Desktop Service
– Clients available for almost any operating system
• Remote Desktop Service
– Provides access for the RDP client
– Available in Windows 10 Pro and Enteprise
– Not available in Windows 10 Home
- Random-access memory (RAM) support limitations
RAM support limitations
• RAM support varies between editions
– More advanced editions allow additional RAM
- BitLocker
BitLocker and EFS
• Data confidentiality
– Encrypt important information
• Encrypting File System
– Protect individual files and folders
– Built-in to the NTFS file system
• BitLocker
– Full Disk Encryption (FDE)
– Everything on the drive is encrypted
– Even the operating system
• Home and business use
– Especially on mobile devices
- gpedit.msc
Group Policy editor
• Centrally manage users and systems
– Policies can be part of Active Directory or a local system
• Local Group Policy
– Manages the local device
– gpedit.msc
• Group Policy Management Console
– Integrated with Active Directory
– Powerful system management
– gpmc.msc
• Upgrade paths
- In-place upgrade
1.1 - Windows Upgrades - Why upgrade?
• Upgrade vs. Install
– Upgrade - Keep files in place
– Install - Start over completely fresh
• Maintain consistency
– Customized configurations
– Multiple local user accounts
• Upgrades save hours of time
– Avoid application reinstall
– Keep user data intact
– Get up and running quickly
Upgrade methods
• In-place
– Upgrade the existing OS
– Keeps all applications, documentations, and settings
– Start the setup from inside the existing OS
• Clean install
– Wipe everything and reload
– Backup your files
– Start the setup by booting from the installation media
Upgrading Windows
• Upgrade from the Windows installation media
– Downloadable versions are available from Microsoft
– Includes a media creation tool
• You cannot upgrade x86 to x64
– Or x64 to x86
– Applies to all Windows versions
– You’ll have to migrate instead
Upgrade paths
• Many upgrades are between similar editions
– Or higher-level Windows editions
• In-place upgrade paths to Windows 10
– Windows 7, Windows 8.1 (not Windows 8.0)
• In-place upgrade paths to Windows 11
– Windows 10
Post-installation
• Does it work?
– If it doesn’t boot, there are bigger problems
• Some testing is useful for unknown hardware configurations
– Start > Settings > System > Recovery > Go back
• Additional installations
– Service packs, security patches, security applications, driver updates, application updates
1.2 - Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft command-line tool.
1.2 - Windows Command Line Tools
Privileges
• Not all users can run all commands
– Some tasks are for the administrator only
• Standard privileges
– Run applications as normal user
– This works fine for many commands
• Administrative/elevated privileges
– You must be a member of the Administrators group
– Right-click Command Prompt, choose Run as Administrator
– cmd, Ctrl+Shift+Enter
Command line troubleshooting
• Use “help” if you’re not sure
> help dir
> help chkdsk
• Also use:
[command] /?
– Close the prompt with exit
File management
• Navigation
- cd
• cd / chdir
– Change working directory
– Use backslash \ to specify volume or folder name
• ..
– Two dots/periods
– The folder above the current folder
- dir
– List files and directories
- md
• md / mkdir
– Make a directory
- rmdir
• rd / rmdir
– Remove directory
- Drive navigation inputs:
* C: or D: or x:
Drive letters
• Each partitions is assigned a letter
– Primary storage drive is usually C
• Reference the drive with the letter and a colon
– C:
• Combine with the folder
– Folder names are separated with backslashes
– C:\Users\professor
• Command-line tools
- ipconfig
• Most of your troubleshooting starts with your IP address
– Ping your local router/gateway
• Determine TCP/IP and network adapter information
– And some additional IP details
• View additional configuration details
– DNS servers, DHCP server, etc.
- ping
• Test reachability
– Determine round-trip time
– Uses Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
• One of your primary troubleshooting tools
– Can you ping the host?
- hostname
hostname
• View the name of the device
– This is very useful when there are 10 different terminal screen tabs in use
• This is the Windows Device name
– Name can be changed in the System settings
- netstat
• Network statistics
– Many different operating systems
• netstat -a
– Show all active connections
• netstat -b
– Show binaries (Windows)
• netstat -n
– Do not resolve names
- nslookup
• Lookup information from DNS servers
– Canonical names, IP addresses, cache timers, etc.
• Lookup names and IP addresses
– Many different options
- chkdsk
• chkdsk /f
– Fixes logical file system errors on the disk
• chkdsk /r
– Locates bad sectors and recovers readable information
– Implies /f
• If volume is locked, run during startup
net
• Windows network commands
• View network resources
– net view \\<servername>
– net view /workgroup:<workgroupname>
• Map a network share to a drive letter
- net user
• View user account information and reset passwords
– net user <username>
– net user <username> * /domain
- net use
• Map a network share to a drive letter
– net use h: \\<servername>\<sharename>
- tracert
• Determine the route a packet takes to a destination
– Map the entire path
• Takes advantage of ICMP Time to Live Exceeded message
– The time in TTL refers to hops, not seconds or minutes
– TTL=1 is the first router, TTL=2 is the second router, etc.
• Not all devices will reply with ICMP Time Exceeded
– Some firewalls filter ICMP
– ICMP is low-priority for many devices Flavors of traceroute
Flavors of traceroute
• Not all traceroutes are the same
– Minor differences in the transmitted payload
• Windows commonly sends ICMP echo requests
– Receives ICMP time exceeded messages
– And an ICMP echo reply from the final/destination device
– Unfortunately, outgoing ICMP is commonly filtered
- format
format
• Formats a disk for use with Windows
• format c:
- xcopy
xcopy
• Copies files and directory trees
- xcopy /s Documents m:\backups
- copy
copy (/v, /y)
• Copy files from one location to another
/v - Verifies that new files are written correctly
/y - Suppresses prompting to confirm you want to overwrite an existing destination file
- robocopy
Robust Copy
robocopy
– A better Xcopy
– Included with Windows 10 and 11
Managing Group Policy
• Group Policy
– Manage computers in an Active Directory Domain
– Group Policy is usually updated at login
- gpupdate
– Force a Group Policy update
– gpupdate /target:{computer|user} /Force
– gpupdate /target:professor /force
- gpresult
– Verify policy settings for a computer or user
– gpresult /r
– gpresult /user sgc/professor /v
- shutdown
• Shutdown a computer
– And optionally restart
• shutdown /s /t nn
– Wait nn seconds, then shutdown
• shutdown /r /t nn
– Shutdown and restart after nn seconds
• shutdown /a
– Abort the countdown!
- sfc
• System File Checker
– Scan integrity of all protected system files
• sfc /scannow
- [command name] /?
- diskpart
Diskpart
• Manage disk configurations
– diskpart - start the DiskPart command interpreter
- pathping
• Combine ping and traceroute
– Included with Windows NT and later
• First phase runs a traceroute
– Build a map
• Second phase
– Measure round trip time and packet loss at each hop
- winver
• View the About Windows dialog
– A quick check
• Useful when troubleshooting
– Are you running the latest version?
Windows in the Enterprise
• Some operating systems allow you to specify the protocol Linux, Unix, macOS, etc.
• IOS devices send UDP datagrams over port 33434
– The port number can be changed with extended options
– The mechanics of traceroute
Commands
Important Windows Command-Line Commands
Command
Purpose
Sub-commands (switches)
telnet
Connect to another computer in terminal emulation mode
open, host port, status, close, quit
ipconfig
Displays network adapter information, including IP Address, Default Gateway, subnet mask,
MAC address, etc.
/all, /release, /renew, /displaydns, /flushdns
ping
Diagnostic tool to test whether a host can communicate with another host on the same or a
remote network. Uses ICMP (Internet Contol Message Protocol)
ping [ip address] or ping [FQDN], ping 127.0.0.1
(loopback)
tracert
Traces the route a packet takes (using ICMP, like ping) to get from the host to a destination.
Shows address of each "hop" on the route.
tracert [ip address] or tracert [FQDN]
netstat
Investigates open ports and connections on the host.
nslookup
Troubleshoot issues with the DNS server
put
Upload files via FTP
get
Download files via FTP
dsim
Utility that is used to repair the underlying system image.
sfc
Utility used to check the consistency of operating system files (such as .dll files).
/scannow, /scanonce, /scanboot
taskkill
Ends a running task using the process ID for the task. Like ending a task with Task Manager in
Windows.
`/im, /t, /pid
tasklist
Shows a list of processes (images or process IDs)
`/svc, ,/fi
bootrec
Tool that can repair the Master Boot Record (MBR), boot record, or Boot Configuration
Database (BCD)
/fixmbr, /fixboot, /rebuildbcd
chkdsk
Verifies the integrity of a formatted disk.
/f (fixes), /r (id's bad sectors), /x (dismounts), /i
or /c (skips)
1.3 - Given a scenario, use features and tools of the Microsoft Windows 10 operating system (OS).
• Task Manager
Task Manager
• Real-time system statistics
– CPU, memory, disk access, etc.
• Starting the Task Manager
– Ctrl-Alt-Del, select Task Manager
– Right mouse click the taskbar and select Task Manager
– Ctrl-Shift-Esc
- Services
Services
• Non-interactive applications
– Hundreds of background processes
• Manage from one screen
– Start, stop, restart
- Startup
startup
Manage which programs start with a Windows login
– Easily toggle on and off
• Multiple reboots
– Enable and disable
– You’ll find it
- Performance
Performance
• What’s happening? - CPU, memory, etc.
• Statistical views - Historical, real-time
• Newer versions include CPU, memory, disk, Bluetooth, and network in the Performance tab
- Processes
Processes
• View all running processes
– Interactive and system tray apps
– View processes from other accounts
• Manage the view
– Move columns, add metrics
• Combine all apps, processes, and services into a single tab
– Easy to view and sort
Networking
• Network performance
– Integrated into the Performance tab
• View utilization, link speeds, and interface connection state
- Users
• Who is connected? What are they doing?
• Other options
– Disconnect a user, manage user accounts
• Microsoft Management Console (MMC) snap-in
Task Manager
• Build your own console
– mmc.exe
• A handy starting point
– Event Viewer
– Local Users and Groups
– Disk management
– Task Scheduler
– And more!
- Event Viewer (eventvwr.msc)
Event Viewer
• Central event consolidation
– What happened?
• Application log
- Application log contains information regarding application errors
• Security log
- Security log contains information regarding audit data and security on a system.
***For example, the security log contains a list of every successful and failed login attempt
• Setup log
- Setup log contains record of events generated during Windows installation or upgrade process
• System log
- System log contains information about service load failures, hardware conflicts, driver load failures,
and more
* Information
* Warning
* Error
* Critical
* Successful Audit
* Failure Audit
• eventvwr.msc
- Disk Management (diskmgmt.msc)
Disk Management
• Manage disk operations
– Individual computers and file servers
• diskmgmt.msc
• WARNING
– YOU CAN ERASE DATA
– ALWAYS HAVE A BACKUP
- Task Scheduler (taskschd.msc)
Task Scheduler
• Schedule an application or script
– Plan your future
• Includes predefined schedules
– Click and go
• Organize
– Manage with folders
• taskschd.msc
- Device Manager (devmgmt.msc)
Device Manager
• The OS doesn’t know how to talk directly to most hardware
• Device drivers are hardware specific and operating system specific
– Older device drivers may not necessarily work in Windows 10 or 11
• devmgmt.msc
- Certificate Manager (certmgr.msc)
Certificate Manager
• View user and trusted certs
– Add and remove
• certmgr.msc
- Local Users and Groups (lusrmgr.msc)
Local Users and Groups
• Users
– Administrator - the Windows super-user
– Guest -Limited access
– “Regular” Users
• Groups
– Administrators, Users, Backup Operators, Power Users, etc.
• lusrmgr.msc
- Performance Monitor (perfmon.msc)
Performance Monitor
• Gather long-term statistics
– perfmon.msc
• OS metrics
– Disk, memory, CPU, etc.
• Set alerts and automated actions
– Monitor and act
• Store statistics
– Analyze long-term trends
• Built-in reports
– View the data
- Group Policy Editor (gpedit.msc)
Group Policy Editor
• Centrally manage users and systems
– Policies can be part of Active Directory or a local system
• Local Group Policy Editor
– Manages the local device
– gpedit.msc
• Group Policy Management Console
– Integrated with Active Directory
– Powerful system management
– gpmc.msc
• Additional tools
- System Information (msinfo32.exe)
System Information
• System overview
– msinfo32.exe
• Hardware Resources
– Memory, DMA, IRQs, conflicts
• Components
– Multimedia, display, input, network
• Software Environment
– Drivers, print jobs, running tasks
- Resource Monitor (resmon.exe)
Resource Monitor
• Detailed real-time view of performance
– Separated by category
• Categories
– Overview, CPU, Memory,
– Disk, and Network
• resmon.exe
- System Configuration (msconfig.exe)
System Configuration
• Manage boot processes, startup, services, etc.
– One-stop shop
• msconfig.exe
- Disk Cleanup (cleanmgr.exe)
Disk Cleanup
• Find unused or unneeded files
– A quick way to free up space
• Select the categories
– Click the button
• cleanmgr.exe
- Disk Defragment (dfrgui.exe)
• Disk defragmentation
– Moves file fragments so they are contiguous
– Improves read and write time
• Not necessary for solid state drives
– Windows won’t defrag an SSD
• Graphical version in the drive properties
• Requires elevated permissions
– Command line:
– defrag <volume>
– defrag C:
- Registry Editor (regedit.exe)
• The Windows Registry Editor
– The big huge master database
– Hierarchical structure
• Used by almost everything
– Kernel, Device drivers
– Services
– Security Account Manager (SAM)
– User Interface, Applications
• Backup your registry!
– Built into regedit
1.4 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft Windows 10 Control Panel utility.
• Internet Options
Internet Options
• General - Basic display
• Security - Different access based on site location
• Privacy - Cookies, pop-up blocker, InPrivate browsing
• Content - Certificates and auto-complete
• Connections - VPN and proxy settings
• Programs - Default browser, plugins, etc.
• Advanced - Detailed configuration options (and reset!)
• Devices and Printers
Devices and printers
• Everything on the network
– Desktops, laptops, printers, multimedia devices, storage
• Quick and easy access
– Much less complex than Device Manager
– Properties, device configurations
• Programs and Features
Program and Features
• Installed applications - Uninstall, size, version
• Windows features - Enable and disable
• Network and Sharing Center
Network and Sharing Center
• All network adapters - Wired, wireless, etc.
• All network configs
– Adapter settings, network addressing
• System
System
• Computer information - Including version and edition
• Performance - Virtual memory
• Remote settings
• System protection
• Windows Defender Firewall
Windows Defender Firewall
• Protect from attacks - Scans, malicious software
• Integrated into the operating system
• Control Panel > Windows Firewall
• Mail
Mail
• Icon does not appear unless a mail client, e.g., Outlook, is installed
– Otherwise not an option
• Access to local mail configuration
– Account information, data file
• Sound
Sound
• Output options - Multiple sound devices may be available
• Set levels for output and input
– Speakers and microphone
• User Accounts
User accounts
• Local user accounts
– Domains accounts are stored elsewhere
• Account name and type
• Change password
• Change picture
• Certificate information
• Device Manager
Device Manager
• The OS doesn’t know how to talk directly to most hardware - You need drivers
• Manage devices - Add, remove, disable
• First place to go when hardware isn’t working
– Instant feedback
• Indexing Options
Indexing Options
• Speed up the search process
– Constantly updates an index
• Searches browser history and user folders
– Good default options
• Add other locations
– Modify to include other folders
• Administrative Tools
Administrative Tools
• Not commonly used utilities
– Used for system administration
• Useful system tools
– Often used options for system administrators and technicians
• File Explorer Options
- Show hidden files
- Hide extensions
- General options
- View options
File Explorer Options
• Manage Windows Explorer - Many options
• General - Windows, expand folders
• View - View hidden files, hide extensions
• Search
– Disable index searches, search non-indexed areas
• Power Options
Power Options
- Hibernate
– Open docs and apps are saved to disk
– Common on laptops - Used by Fast Startup
- Power plans
– Customize power usage
- Sleep/suspend (Standby)
– Open apps are stored in memory
– Save power, startup quickly
– Switches to hibernate if power is low
- Choose what closing the lid does
• Choose what closing the lid does
– Useful for docking stations
- Turn on fast startup
– Enable or disable - Useful for troubleshooting
- Universal Serial Bus (USB) selective suspend
– Disable individual USB devices
– Save power
– Fingerprint readers, biometrics
• Ease of Access
Ease of Access
• Usability enhancements - Useful for everyone
• Change display, keyboard, mouse, and other input/output options
– Use Windows without a display
– Change the mouse pointers
1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Windows settings.
Settings
• An updated interface
– A migration from the Control Panel
• One place for most configuration settings
– A common UI
• Search for “Settings”, Or scroll down to “S”
• Time and Language
Time and Language
• Windows can automatically set the time
– Active Domain is very sensitive to synchronized clocks
– Five minutes of tolerance by default
• Windows can speak many different languages
– Change or add a language
• Update and Security
Update and Security
• Keep your OS up to date - Security patches, bug fixes
• Automatic installation - Updates are always installed
• Active hours - You control the update time
• Personalization
Personalization
• Change the way Windows looks and feels
– Colors, wallpaper, lock screen
• Extensive customization - Make Windows your own
• Apps
Apps
• Manage installed applications
– Uninstall or modify an existing app
• Add Windows features
– Fonts for other languages
– OpenSSH Server
– SNMP support
• Privacy
Privacy
• Share app activity - Customized advertising
• Share your language - Website content
• Speech recognition - Sends audio to an online service
• System
System
• Change display settings
– Night light, scaling, resolution
• Audio settings
– Input and output
• Notifications
– Enable/disable
– Show on lock screen
• Devices
Devices
• Manage devices
– Bluetooth, printers, etc.
• Mouse settings
– Button and wheel options
• Typing and writing
– Keyboard and pen
• Network and Internet
Network and Internet
• Network settings
– Internet connectivity
• View Internet status
– Up or down?
• Change IP settings
– Modify address information
• Gaming
Gaming
• Xbox Game Bar - Xbox gaming network
• Chat, join games - Look for friends
• Accounts
Accounts
• Manage login account information
– Microsoft account or local account
• Email configuration - Specify an email app
• Sign-in options - PIN, password, security key, etc.
1.6 Given a scenario, configure Microsoft Windows networking features on a client/desktop.
1.6 - Windows Network Technologies
• Workgroup vs. domain setup
- Shared resources
Shared Resources
• Make a folder or printer available on the network
– “Share” with others, view in Windows Explorer
• Assign (map) a drive letter to a share
– Access a file server
– Reconnect automatically
• Shares ending with a dollar sign ($) are “hidden”
– Not a security feature
• Administrative Tools > Computer Management
- Printers
Sharing printers
• Similar to sharing a folder
– But it’s a printer instead
• Printer Properties
– Access through Windows Explorer, the Settings app, or any other Printer Properties
– Share an existing printer
Using a shared printer
• Similar to sharing a folder
– But it’s a printer instead
• Add a printer
– Windows Explorer
– Settings app
- File servers
- Mapped drives
Mapping Drives
• Access a share
– This PC / Map network drive
• Local drive letter and share name
– May require additional authentication
• Or use the command line:
net use h: “\\Daedalus\Gate Room”
• Local OS firewall settings
- Application restrictions and exceptions
- Configuration
Windows Defender Firewall
• Your firewall should always be enabled
– Sometimes you need to troubleshoot
• Temporarily disable from the main screen
– Turn Windows Firewall on or off
– Requires elevated permissions
• Different settings for each network type
– Public / Private
Windows Firewall configuration
• Block all incoming connections
– Ignores your exception list
– Useful when you need the most security
• Modify notification
– App blocking
Creating a firewall exception
• Allow an app or feature through Windows Firewall
– The more secure exception
• Port number
– Block or allow
• Predefined exceptions
– List of common exceptions
• Custom rule
– Every firewall option
• Client network configuration
- Internet Protocol (IP) addressing scheme
- Domain Name System (DNS) settings
- Subnet mask
- Gateway
- Static vs. dynamic
How Windows gets an IP address
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
– Automatic IP addressing
– This is the default
• APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing)
– There’s no static address or DHCP server
– Communicate locally (link-local address)
– Assigns 169.254.1.0 to 169.254.254.255
– No Internet connectivity
• Static address
– Assign all IP address parameters manually
– You need to know very specific details
TCP/IP host addresses
• IP Address – Unique identifier
* Subnet mask – Identifies the subnet
* Gateway – The route off the subnet to the rest of the world
• DNS – Domain Name Services
– Converts domain names to IP addresses
• DHCP – Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
– Automates the IP address configuration process
– Addresses can be dynamic or static
• Loopback address - 127.0.0.1 - It’s always there!
A backup for the DHCP server
• Multiple DHCP servers should be configured for redundancy
– There will always be one available
• If a DHCP server isn’t available, Windows uses the Alternate Configuration
– The default is APIPA addressing
• You can also configure a static IP address
– Keep working normally
• Establish network connections
Network setup
• Control Panel
– Network and Sharing Center
– Set up a new connection or network
• Step-by-step wizard
– Confirmation during the process
• Many different connections
– Direct, VPN, dial-up, etc.
- Virtual private network (VPN) - VPN connections
• Built-in VPN client
– Included with Windows
– Connect to a workplace
• Integrate a smart card
– Multi-factor authentication
– Something you know
– Something you have
– Something you are
• Connect from the network status icon
– Click and provide credentials
- Wireless - Wireless Connections
• Network name - SSID (Service Set Identification)
• Security type - Encryption method
• Encryption type - TKIP, AES
• Security key
– WPA2-Personal - Pre-shared key
– WPA2-Enterprise - 802.1X authentication
- Wired
• Ethernet cable - Direct connection
• Fastest connection is the default - Ethernet, Wireless, WWAN
• Alternate configurations - When DHCP isn’t available
- Wireless wide area network (WWAN)
• Wireless Wide Area Network
– Built-in mobile technology
• Hardware adapter - Antenna connections
• USB connected or 802.11 wireless - Tether or hotspot
• Requires third-party software - Each provider is different
• Proxy settings
• Change the traffic flow
– An Internet go-between
• Settings > Network and Internet
– Or use Control Panel > Internet Options > Connections > LAN settings
• Define address and exceptions
– Proxies don’t work for everything
• Public network vs. private network
Network locations
• Private
– Share and connect to devices
– Home or work network
• Public
– No sharing or connectivity
– Public Wi-Fi
• Customize security settings
– Profile is determined automatically
– Change the settings at any time
• File Explorer navigation – network paths
Network paths
• View network paths in File Explorer
– Server and share name
• Map network drive
– Add a drive letter
• Disconnect
– Toolbar - Right-click the drive
• Metered connections and limitations
• Reduce data usage
– Slow network links
– Limited bandwidth
– Usage-based billing
• Can modify application communication
– Windows Updates
– OneDrive sync
1.7 Given a scenario, apply application installation and configuration concepts.
1.7 - Installing Applications
Installing applications
• Extend the functionality of your operating system
– Specialized applications
• Available everywhere
– Find the application you need
– Install on your operating system
• Not every computer can run every application
– Some simple checks can help manage your desktop
• System requirements for applications
- 32-bit vs. 64-bit dependent application requirements
Operating system platform
• 32-bit vs. 64-bit
– Processor specific
• 32-bit processors can store 232 = 4,294,967,296 values
• 64-bit processors can store 264 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 values
– 4 GB vs. 17 billion GB
– The OS has a maximum supported value
• Hardware drivers are specific to the OS version
– 32-bit (x86), 64-bit (x64)
• 32-bit OS cannot run 64-bit apps
– But 64-bit OS can run 32-bit apps
• Apps in a 64-bit Windows OS
– 32-bit apps: \Program Files (x86)
– 64-bit apps: \Program Files
Graphics requirements
- Dedicated graphics card vs. integrated
• Integrated graphics
– CPU and GPU are the same chip
– Uses system memory for graphics
– Common in laptops
• Dedicated graphics card
– Also called a discrete graphics card
– Uses its own VRAM (Video RAM)
– High-end graphics requirements
• Check the application
– Integrated or dedicated
– VRAM requirements
- Video random-access memory (VRAM) requirements
- RAM requirements
• Random Access Memory
– Memory modules
• A critical specification
– Application may perform poorly
– Or not at all
• This would be above and beyond the OS requirements
– Dependent on the application
– Consider all of the other running applications
- Central processing unit (CPU) requirements
CPU requirements
• Central Processing Unit
– Processing speed
– Usually measured in gigahertz (GHz)
• A broad measurement
– Higher numbers are faster CPUs
• Application requirements vary
– Word processing vs. video editing
- External hardware tokens
External hardware tokens
• Manage application usage
– Limit access to authorized users
• Application will only operate with the hardware token connected
– Commonly a USB device
– Can be a challenge to manage
• Often used with high-end software
– High per-seat licensing costs
- Storage requirements
• Drive space concerns
– Initial installation space requirement
– Application use requirement
• Some applications use a LOT of storage space after installation
– The initial install requirements may not be the most important specification
• Distribution methods
Distribution methods
- Physical media vs. downloadable
• Physical media
– Optical media, USB drive, etc.
– Increasingly rare
• Downloadable
– Direct from the manufacturer
– Centralized app store
– Avoid 3rd-party downloads
- ISO mountable
ISO files
• Optical disk image
– A single ISO file / ISO image
– Files and folders
• Sector by sector copy of the data on an optical disc
– ISO 9660 file system
• Mount in the OS
– Appears as a separate drive
• Other considerations for new applications
Installation considerations
• There’s a reason we are careful when installing applications
– Applications have the same rights and permissions as the user
– An unknown application can cause significant issues
- Impact to device
– Application upgrade stops working
– Slowdowns
– Deleted files
- Impact to network
• Impact to network
– Access to internal services
– Rights and permissions to file shares
- Impact to operation
– Many jobs are time-sensitive
– An updated application may require a change to the workflow
– Or may not work at all
- Impact to business
– Critical processes are sensitive to downtime and outages
– A change to an application can create significant issues
– Other parts of the business rely on your results
1.8 Explain common OS types and their purposes.
Why do you need an OS?
• Control interaction between components
– Memory, hard drives, keyboard, CPU
• A common platform for applications
– You’re going to do some work, right?
• Humans need a way to interact with the machine
– The “user interface” - Hardware can’t do everything!
Standard OS features
• File management
– Add, delete, rename
• Application support
– Memory management, swap file management
• Input and Output support
– Printers, keyboards, hard drives, USB drives
• Operating system configuration and management tools
• Workstation OSs
- Windows
Microsoft Windows
• Major market presence
– Many different versions
– Windows 10, Windows 11, Windows Server
• Advantages
– Large industry support
– Broad selection of OS options
– Wide variety of software support
• Disadvantages
– Large install base provides a big target for security exploitation
– Large hardware support can create challenging integration exercises
- Linux
Linux
• Free Unix-compatible software system
– Unix-like, but not Unix
• Many (many) different distributions
– Ubuntu, Debian, Red Hat / Fedora
• Advantages
– Cost. Free!
– Works on wide variety of hardware
– Passionate and active user community
• Disadvantages
– Limited driver support, especially with laptops
– Limited support options
- macOS
Apple macOS
• macOS - Desktop OS running on Apple hardware
• Advantages
– Easy to use
– Extremely compatible
– Relatively fewer security concerns
• Disadvantages
– Requires Apple hardware
– Less industry support than the PC platform
– Higher initial hardware cost
- Chrome OS
Chrome OS
• Google’s operating system
– Based on the Linux kernel
• Centers around Chrome web browser
– Most apps are web-based
• Many different manufacturers
– Relatively less expensive
• Relies on the cloud - Connect to the Internet
• Cell phone/tablet OSs
- iPadOS
Apple iPadOS
• Operating system for Apple’s iPad tablets
– A variant of Apple’s phone iOS
• Tablet features
– Desktop browser (Safari)
– Second monitor (Sidecar)
– Keyboard support
– Multitasking
- iOS
Apple iOS
– Apple iPhones
– Based on Unix
– Closed-source - No access to source code
– Exclusive to Apple products
• iOS Apps
– Apps are developed with iOS SDK on macOS
– Apps must be approved by Apple before release
– Apps are available to users in the Apple App Store
- Android
Google Android
• Google Android
– Open Handset Alliance
– Open-source OS, based on Linux
– Supported on many different manufacturer’s devices
• Android Apps
– Apps are developed on Windows, macOS, and
– Linux with the Android SDK
– Apps available from Google Play
– Apps also available from third-party sites (i.e., Amazon Appstore)
• Various filesystem types
File systems
• Before data can be written to the partition, it must be formatted
– Build the foundation
• Operating systems expect data to be written in a particular format
– FAT32 and NTFS are popular
• Many operating systems can read (and perhaps write) multiple file system types
– FAT, FAT32, NTFS, exFAT, etc.
- New Technology File System (NTFS)
NTFS
• NTFS – NT File System
– Extensive improvements over FAT32
– Quotas, file compression, encryption, symbolic links, large file support, security, recoverability
• Not very compatible across operating systems
– Many OSes will read NTFS (but not write)
– Some have limited write functionality to an NTFS file system
FAT
• FAT - File Allocation Table
– One of the first PC-based file systems (circa 1980)
- File Allocation Table 32 (FAT32)
• FAT32 - File Allocation Table
– Larger (2 terabyte) volume sizes
– Maximum file size of 4 gigabytes
Other file systems
- Third extended filesystem (ext3)
• ext3 - Third extended file system
– Commonly used by the Linux OS
- Fourth extended filesystem (ext4)
• ext4 - Fourth extended file system
– An update to ext3
– Commonly seen in Linux and Android OS
- Apple File System (APFS)
– Added to macOS High Sierra (10.12.4)
– Also included with iOS and iPadOS
• Optimized for solid-state storage
– Encryption, snapshots, increased data integrity
- Extensible File Allocation Table (exFAT)
• exFAT - Extended File Allocation Table
– Microsoft flash drive file system
– Files can be larger than 4 gigabytes
– Compatible across many operating systems
– Windows, Linux, macOS
• Vendor life-cycle limitations
Vendor-specific limitations
- End-of-life (EOL)
– Different companies set their own EOL policies
- Update limitations
• Updating
– iOS, Android, and Windows check and prompt for updates
– Chrome OS will update automatically
• Compatibility concerns between OSs
– Some movies and music can be shared
• Almost no direct application compatibility
– Fortunately, many apps have been built to run on different OSes
– Some data files can be moved across systems
– Web-based apps have potential
1.9 Given a scenario, perform OS installations and upgrades in a diverse OS environment.
1.9 - Installing Operating Systems
Before the installation
• Check minimum OS requirements
– Memory, disk space, etc.
– And the recommended requirements
• Run a hardware compatibility check
– Runs when you perform an upgrade
– Run manually from the Windows setup screen
– Windows 10 Upgrade Checker, PC Health Check for Windows 11
• Plan for installation questions
– Drive/partition configuration, license keys, etc.
• Application and driver compatibility
– Check with the app developer and hardware manufacturer
• Boot methods
Boot methods
- USB
• USB storage
– USB must be bootable
– Computer must support booting from USB
- Optical media
• Optical media
– CD-ROM and DVD-ROM
- Network
• PXE (“Pixie”) - Preboot eXecution Environment
– Perform a remote network installation
– Computer must support booting with PXE
- Solid-state/flash drives
• Solid state drives / hard drives
– Store many OS installation files
- Internet-based
• Internet-based
– Linux distributions, macOS Recovery installation, Windows updates
- External/hot-swappable drive
• External / hot swappable drive
– Some external drives can mount an ISO image (optical drive image)
– Boot from USB
- Internal hard drive (partition)
• Internal hard drive
– Install and boot from separate drive
– Create and boot from new partition
• Types of installations
Types of installations
- Upgrade
Why upgrade?
• Upgrade vs. Install
– Upgrade - Keep files in place
– Install - Start over completely fresh
• Maintain consistency
– Customized configurations
– Multiple local user accounts
• Upgrades save hours of time
– Avoid application reinstall
– Keep user data intact
– Keep user settings
– Get up and running quickly
Prepare the boot drive
• Know your drive
– Is data on the drive?
– Has the drive been formatted?
– What partitions are on the drive?
• Backup any old data
– You may need that data again someday
– Save user preferences
• Most partitioning and formatting can be completed during the installation
– Clear the drive and start fresh
Upgrade methods
• In-place upgrade
– Maintain existing applications and data
– Upgrade the existing OS
– Keeps all applications, documents, and settings
– Start the setup from inside the existing OS
- Recovery partition
• Recovery partition
– Hidden partition with installation files
- Clean install
• Clean install
– Wipe the slate clean and reinstall
– Migration tool can help
– Wipe everything and reload
– Backup your files
– Start the setup by booting from the installation media
- Image deployment
• Image deployment
– Deploy a clone on every computer
– Relatively quick
– Can be completely automated
- Repair installation
• Repair installation
– Fix problems with the Windows OS
– Does not modify user files
- Remote network installation
• Remote network installation
– Local server or shared drive
– Install across the Internet
- Other considerations
* Third-party drivers
• Load alternate third party drivers when necessary
– Disk controller drivers, etc.
• Partitioning
The disk partition
• Separates the physical drive into logical pieces
– Useful to keep data separated
– Multiple partitions are not always necessary
• Useful for maintaining separate operating systems
– Windows, Linux, etc.
• Formatted partitions are called volumes
– Microsoft’s nomenclature
- GUID [globally unique identifier] Partition Table (GPT)
• GPT (GUID Partition Table)
– Globally Unique Identifier
– The latest partition format standard
• Requires a UEFI BIOS
– Can have up to 128 partitions
– Maximum partition size is over 9 billion TB
– Windows max partition is currently 256 TB
• No need for extended partitions or logical drives
- Master boot record (MBR)
MBR partition style
• MBR (Master Boot Record)
– The old standby, with all of the old limitations
– Maximum partition size of 2 TB
• Primary
– Bootable partitions
– Maximum of four primary partitions per hard disk
– One of the primary partitions can be marked as Active
• Extended
– Used for extending the maximum number of partitions
– One extended partition per hard disk (optional)
– Contains additional logical partitions
– Logical partitions inside an extended partition are not bootable
Disk partitioning
• The first step when preparing disks
– May already be partitioned
– Existing partitions may not always be compatible with your new operating system
• An MBR-style hard disk can have up to four partitions
• GUID partition tables support up to 128 partitions
– Requires UEFI BIOS or BIOS-compatibility mode
– BIOS-compatibility mode disables UEFI SecureBoot
• BE CAREFUL!
– Serious potential for data loss
– This is not an everyday occurrence
• Drive format
Quick format vs. full format
• Quick format
– Creates a new file table
– Looks like data is erased, but it’s not
– No additional checks
• Quick format the default during installation in Windows 10 and 11
– Use diskpart for a full format
• Full format
– Writes zeros to the whole disk
– Your data is unrecoverable
– Checks the disk for bad sectors (time consuming)
• Upgrade considerations
- Backup files and user preferences
- Application and driver support/ backward compatibility
- Hardware compatibility
Before the installation
• Check minimum OS requirements
– Memory, disk space, etc.
– And the recommended requirements
• Run a hardware compatibility check
– Runs when you perform an upgrade
– Run manually from the Windows setup screen
– Windows 10 Upgrade Checker, PC Health Check for Windows 11
• Plan for installation questions
– Drive/partition configuration, license keys, etc.
• Application and driver compatibility
– Check with the app developer and hardware manufacturer
• Feature updates
- Product life cycle
Windows product life cycle
• Quality updates
– Monthly security updates and bug fixes
• Feature updates
– Annual update with new features
– Used to occur every three to five years
• Support is provided after the release
– 18 to 36 months
– Dependent on the Windows version and edition
• Also called the Modern Lifecycle Policy
– For continuously supported products
1.10 Identify common features and tools of the macOS/desktop OS.
1.10 macOS Overview
• Installation and uninstallation of applications
- File types – File Types
.dmg
• .dmg
– Apple Disk Image
– Mountable as a drive in Finder
.pkg
• .pkg
– Installer Package
– Used to distribute software
– Runs through an installer script
.app
• .app
– Application bundle
– Contains the necessary files to use the application
– “View Package Contents” from the Finder
- App Store
App store
• Centralized updates and patches
– For both OS and apps
• App Store application
– The “Updates” option
• Automatic updates
– Or manual install
• Patch management
– Install and view previous updates
- Uninstallation process
Uninstallation process
– Move the .app file to the Trash
– The .app package contains all of the application files
– Quick and easy
• Some applications include a separate uninstall program
– Usually included in the Application folder
• Apple ID and corporate restrictions
Apple ID and corporate restrictions
• Personal Apple products use a personal Apple ID
– Associated with personal data and digital purchases
• Companies use Managed Apple IDs using Apple Business Manager
– Integrate with Active Directory
– Connect with an existing
– MDM (Mobile Device Manager)
– Assign and move apps and digital content to selected users
• Best practices
- Backups
Backups
• Time Machine - Included with macOS
• Hourly backups - The past 24 hours
• Daily backups - The past month
• Weekly backups - All previous months
• Starts deleting oldest information when disk is full
- Antivirus
Anti-virus
• macOS does not include anti-virus
– Or anti-malware
• Many 3rd-party options
– From the usual companies
• An emerging threat
– Still doesn’t approach Windows
– It’s all about the number of desktops
• Automate your signature updates
– New updates every hour / day
- Updates/patches
• System Preferences
System Preferences
• The macOS version of the Windows Control Panel
– A close comparison
• Access to most customization and personalization options
– Includes important configuration utilities
• A good place to start
– It’s probably in here
- Displays
Displays
• Configure the location of multiple displays
– Side by side, top to bottom
• Menu bar can be moved to any display
– Doesn’t have to be the primary
• Modify individual display settings
– Resolution, brightness, colors
- Networks
Networks
• Configure network interfaces - Wired, wireless
• IPv4 and IPv6 - Manual and automatic (DHCP)
• Detailed network settings - IP, DNS, 802.1X, etc.
- Printers
- Scanners
Printers & Scanners
• Add and remove printers and scanners
– Configure individual settings
• Share printers and scanners
– Configure rights and permissions
• View status - Ink and toner levels, scanning status
- Privacy
Privacy
• Limit application access to private data
– Location services, photos, calendars
• Control access to cameras and microphones
– Enable on a per-app basis
• Unauthorized apps can’t view your private data
– Malware, other apps
- Accessibility
Accessibility
• Allow apps to use system input
– Keyboard, mouse, audio, video
• Scripting and automation
– Requires access for input
• Limits third-party applications
– Can’t take over the keyboard
- Time Machine
Time Machine
• Automated backups
– Included with macOS
• Hourly backups
– The past 24 hours
• Daily backups
– The past month
• Weekly backups
– All previous months
• Starts deleting oldest information when disk is full
• Features
- Multiple desktops
- Mission Control
Mission Control and Spaces
• Quickly view everything that’s running
– Spread out the desktop into a viewable area
– Swipe upwards with three fingers or
– Control-Up arrow
• Spaces
– Multiple desktops
– Add Spaces inside of
– Mission Control
- Keychain
Keychain
• Password management
– Passwords, notes, certificates, etc.
• Integrated into the OS - Keychain Access
• Passwords and Secure Notes are encrypted
– Login password is the key
- Spotlight
Spotlight
• Find files, apps, images, etc.
– Similar to Windows search
• Magnifying glass in upper right
• Or press Command-Space
• Type anything in - See what you find
• Define search categories in System Preferences / Spotlight
– Enable/disable categories
- iCloud
iCloud
• Integrates Apple technologies
– macOS, iOS
• Share across systems
– Calendars, photos, documents, contacts, etc.
• Backup iOS devices
– Never lose data again
• Store files in an iCloud drive
– Similar to Google Drive, Dropbox
– Integrated into the operating systems
- Gestures
Gestures
• You can do more than just point and click
– Extend the capabilities of your trackpad
• Use one, two, three fingers
– Swipe, pinch, click
• Customization
– Enable/disable
– System Preferences / Trackpad
- Finder
Finder
• The central OS file manager
– Compare with Windows Explorer
• File management
– Launch, delete, rename, etc.
• Integrated access to other devices
– File servers
– Remote storage
– Screen sharing
- Remote Disc
Remote Disc
• Use an optical drive from another computer
– Has become more important over time
– Designed for copying files
– Will not work with audio CDs or video DVDs
• Set up sharing in System Preferences
– Sharing options
– Appears in the Finder
- Dock
Dock
• Fast access to apps
– Quickly launch programs
• View running applications
– Dot underneath the icon
• Keep folders in the dock
– Easy access to files
• Move to different sides of the screen
– Auto-hide or always display
• Disk Utility
Disk Utility
• Manage disks and images - Resolve issues
• File system utilities
– Verify and repair file systems
– Modify partition details
– Erase disks
• Create, convert, and restore images - Manage disk images
• FileVault
FileVault
• Full Disk Encryption (FDE) for macOS
– Decryption uses a local key or iCloud authentication
• Proper authentication is required before macOS can start
– Data is unavailable to others
• Available in System Preferences
– Security & Privacy > FileVault
• Terminal
Terminal
• Command line access to the operating system
– Manage the OS without a graphical interface
• OS access
– Run scripts, manage files
– Configure OS and application settings
• Force Quit
Force Quit
• Stop an application from executing
– Some applications are badly written
• Command-Option-Escape - List application to quit
• Hold the option key when right-clicking the app icon in the dock
– Choose Force Quit
1.11 Identify common features and tools of the Linux client/desktop OS.
1.11 - Linux Commands
• Common commands
Linux commands
• The command line - Terminal, XTerm, or similar
• Commands are similar in both Linux and macOS
– Mac OS derived from BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution) Unix
– This section is specific to Linux
• Download a Live CD or install a virtual machine
– Many pre-made Linux distributions are available
– I’m using Ubuntu in a virtual machine
• Use the man command for help
– An online manual
> man grep
*** The dd command is used to convert and copy files. On Unix and Unix-like operating systems like Linux,
almost everything is treated as a file, even block devices like a hard disk drive
- ls
ls
• List directory contents
– Similar to the dir command in Windows
• Lists files, directories
– May support color coding;
– Blue is a directory, red is an archive file, etc.
• For long output, pipe through more:
> ls -l | more
(use q or Ctrl-c to exit)
- pwd
pwd
• Print Working Directory
– Displays the current working directory path
– Useful when changing directories often
- mv
mv
• Move a file
– Rename a file
• mv SOURCE DEST
> mv first.txt second.txt
- cp - cp
• Copy a file
– Duplicate files or directories
• cp SOURCE DEST
> cp first.txt second.txt
-dd


The dd command is used to convert and copy files
useful to clone disks or wipe data from a drive
- rm
rm
• Remove files or directories
– Deletes the files
• Does not remove directories by default
– Directories must be empty to be removed or must be removed with -r
- chmod
chmod
• Change mode of a file system object
– r=read, w=write, x=execute
– Can also use octal notation
– Set for the file owner (u), the group(g), others(o), or all(a)
• chmod mode FILE
> chmod 744 script.sh
• chmod 744 first.txt
– User; read, write execute
– Group; read only
– Other; read only
• chmod a-w first.txt
– All users, no writing to first.txt
• chmod u+x script.sh
– The owner of script.sh can execute the file
- chown
• Change file owner and group
– Modify file settings
• sudo chown [OWNER:GROUP] file
> sudo chown professor script.sh
- su/sudo
su / sudo
• Some command require elevated rights
– There are some things normal users can’t do
• su
– Become super user or change to a different user
– You continue to be that user until you exit
• sudo
– Execute a command as the super user or user ID
– Only that command executes as the super user
- apt-get
apt-get
• Advanced Packaging Tool
– Handles the management of application packages
– Applications and utilities
• Install, update, remove
> sudo apt-get install wireshark
- yum
yum
• Yellowdog Updater, Modified (yum) - Install, delete, update
• Manages RPM packages
– Red Hat Package Manager - RPM Package Manager
– A Linux distribution will commonly use either
yum or apt-get
- ip
ip
• Manage the network interfaces
– Enable, disable, configure addresses, manage routes, ARP cache, etc.
• ip address
– View interface addresses
• ip route
– View the IP routing table
• sudo ip address add 192.168.121.241/24 dev eth0
– Configure the IP address of an interface
- df
df
• Disk Free - View file systems and free space
• df
– View number of blocks
• df -h
– View human-readable sizes
- grep
grep
• Find text in a file
– Search through many files at a time
grep PATTERN [FILE]
> grep failed auth.log
- ps
- man
- top
- find
• Find a file by name or extension
– Search through any or all directories
• Find files with a specific extension
> find . -name “*.txt”
- dig
• Lookup information from DNS servers
– Canonical names, IP addresses, cache timers, etc.
• dig (Domain Information Groper)
– Detailed domain information
– Add dig to Windows: - http://www.isc.org/downloads/bind/
- cat
cat
• Concatenate - Link together in a series
• Copy a file/files to the screen
cat file1.txt file2.txt
• Copy a file/files to another file
cat file1.txt file2.txt > both.txt
- nano
nano
• Full-screen text editor - Easy to edit
• Included with many Linux distributions - Easy to install
• Select, mark, copy/cut, and paste text
– Similar features to graphical-based editors
• Best practices
- Backups
Backups
• Many options
– Command line and graphical
– May be included with the distribution
• tar
– Tape Archive
– Easy to script into
– a backup schedule
• rsync
– Sync files between storage devices
– Instant synchronization or scheduled
• Command line tools
apt-get, yum
• Graphical update managers
– Software updater
• Patch management
– Updates can be scheduled
• Software center
– The Linux “App Store”
- Antivirus - Anti-Virus / Anti-malware
• Relatively few viruses and malware for Linux
– Still important to keep updated
• Clam Antivirus
– Open source antivirus engine
• Same best practice as any other OS
– Always update signature database
– Always use real-time scanning
- Updates/patches
• Tools
- Shell/terminal - Shell/Terminal
• Command line access to the operating system
– Common to manage in Linux
• OS maintenance
– Run scripts, manage files
– Configure OS and application settings
- Samba - Samba
• Add SMB (Server Message Block) to Linux
– File and print sharing
– Active Directory integration
• Integrate Linux into a Windows environment
– Linux becomes a Windows file server
Important Linux Command-Line Commands
Command
Purpose
Sub-commands (switches)
Many Linux commands can be found on page 99 in the Core 2 book. Look for examples of how to use the
commands there.
Similar to ipconfig in Windows. Does not
ifconfig
show default gateway, does show activity.
Like ifconfig, but for wireless network
iwconfig
adapters.
Check free space and disk usage by files
df and du
and directories
fsck
Check a disk partition for errors.
List directories and files like "dir" in
ls
Windows.
Filter and search for contents of files that
grep
contain a particular string of text.
Change from one directory to another
cd
(similar to Windows "cd".)
mv
Move files from one directory to another.
cp
Copy files.
rm
Remove files from the drive.
-r (remove directories)
Allows a user to change the privileges in
chmod
files and folders.
-r (read), -w (write), -x (execute)
chown
Change the owner of a file.
Change the group a user belongs to, or the
chgrp
permissions of a group.
Allows a normal Linux user to act as a
su/sudo
Superuser (like admin in Windows)
Allows a user to change a password. With
su, allows a user to change another user's
passwd
password.
apt-get
dd (deletes a line), o (inserts a line), i(insert
vi or vim
A powerful text editor in Linux.
mode), a (appends)
if = source“filename.docx” of = destination
dd
Copy files
“filename.docx”
kill
Same as taskkill in Windows.
Configure a file system on a partition on a
mount
storage device.
/dev, /mnt
pwd
Print the working directory.
fdisk
Format a disk
Commands in Linux are case sensitive. Use "--help" to get more information on a command (like /? in
Windows.
2.0 Security
2.1 Summarize various security measures and their purposes.
2.1 - Physical Security
• Physical security
- Access control vestibule
Access control vestibule
• All doors normally unlocked
– Opening one door causes others to lock
• All doors normally locked
– Unlocking one door prevents others from being unlocked
• One door open / other locked
– When one is open, the other cannot be unlocked
• One at a time, controlled groups
– Managed control through an area
- Badge reader
Badge reader
• Magnetic swipe, RFID, or NFC
– Many different identification methods
• Different applications
– Time clocks
– Security guard patrols
– Door access
- Video surveillance
Video surveillance
• CCTV (Closed circuit television)
– Can replace physical guards
• Camera features are important
– Object detection can identify a license plate or person’s face
• Often many different cameras
– Networked together and recorded over time
• Motion detection
– Radio reflection or passive infrared
– Useful in areas not often in use
- Alarm systems
Alarm systems
• Circuit-based
– Circuit is opened or closed
– Door, window, fence
– Useful on the perimeter
• Motion detection
– Identify motion without a camera
• Duress
– Triggered by a person
– The big red button
- Motion sensors
- Door locks
Door locks
• Conventional - Lock and key
• Deadbolt - Physical bolt
• Electronic - Keyless, PIN
• Token-based - RFID badge, magnetic swipe card, or key fob
• Biometric - Hand, fingers or retina
• Multi-factor - Smart card and PIN
- Equipment locks
Equipment locks
• Data center hardware is usually managed by different groups
– Responsibility lies with the owner
• Racks can be installed together
– Side-to-side
• Enclosed cabinets with locks
– Ventilation on front, back, top, and bottom
- Guards
Guards and access lists
• Security guard
– Physical protection at the reception area of a facility
– Validates identification of existing employees
– Provides guest access
• ID badge
– Picture, name, other details
– Must be worn at all times
• Access list
– Physical list of names
– Enforced by security guard
• Maintains a visitor log
- Bollards
Barricades / bollards
• Prevent access
– There are limits to the prevention
• Channel people through a specific access point
– And keep out other things
– Allow people, prevent cars and trucks
• Identify safety concerns
– And prevent injuries
• Can be used to an extreme
– Concrete barriers / bollards
– Moats
- Fences
Fences
• Build a perimeter
– Usually very obvious
– May not be what you’re looking for
• Transparent or opaque
– See through the fence (or not)
• Robust
– Difficult to cut the fence
• Prevent climbing
– Razor wire
– Build it high
• Physical security for staff
- Key fobs
Key fobs
*** A key fob is a hardware token that generates a random number code synchronized to a code on the
server. The code changes every 60 seconds or so. This is an example of a one-time password
• Small RFID key
– Add to physical keychain
• Replaces a physical key
– Commonly used for door locks
– Proximity operation and contactless
 Contactless cards are also known as proximity cards
- Smart cards
Smart cards
• Certificate-based authentication
– Something you have
– Usually requires additional factors
• Integrated card reader
– Built into the laptop
• External reader
– USB connected
- Keys
Keys
• Some doors may not have an electronic lock
– Rarely used
– Standalone locks
– Safe, storage bin, cabinet
• Use a key cabinet
– Formal check in/check out
– Well-defined storage location
– Allows for auditing and timestamps
- Biometrics - Biometrics
• Biometric authentication
– Usually stores a mathematical representation of your biometric
– Your actual fingerprint isn’t usually saved
• Difficult to change
– You can change your password
– You can’t change your fingerprint
• Used in very specific situations
– Not foolproof
Biometric factors
• Retina scanner
– Unique capillary structure in the back of the eye
• Fingerprint scanner - Phones, laptops, door access
• Palmprint scanner - Shape of the hand and fingers
* Retina scanner
* Fingerprint scanner
* Palmprint scanner
- Lighting - Lighting
• More light means more security
– Attackers avoid the light
– Easier to see when lit
– Non IR cameras can see better
• Specialized design
– Consider overall light levels
– Lighting angles may be important
– Facial recognition
– Avoid shadows and glare
- Magnetometers - Magnetometers
• Passive scanning - Detect metal objects
• Not useful for non-metal objectives
– Won’t identify ceramic or plastic
• Mobile device management (MDM)
Mobile Device Management (MDM)
• Manage company-owned and user-owned mobile devices
– BYOD - Bring Your Own Device
• Centralized management of the mobile devices
– Specialized functionality
• Set policies on apps, data, camera, etc.
– Control the remote device
– The entire device or a “partition”
• Manage access control
– Force screen locks and PINs on these single user devices
• Logical security
- Principle of least privilege
Least privilege
• Rights and permissions should be set to the bare minimum
– You only get exactly what’s needed to complete your objective
• All user accounts must be limited
– Applications should run with minimal privileges
• Don’t allow users to run with administrative privileges
– Limits the scope of malicious behavior
Data protection
- Data loss prevention (DLP)
* Data loss prevention (DLP) is the concept of using security and content control features to prevent
confidential, private data from leaving your organization’s networks
- Access control lists (ACLs)
Access Control Lists (ACLs)
• Used to allow or deny traffic
– Also used for NAT, QoS, etc.
– Commonly used on the ingress or egress of a router interface
• ACLs evaluate on certain criteria
– Source IP, Destination IP,
– TCP port numbers, UDP port numbers, ICMP
• Deny or permit
– What happens when an ACL matches the traffic?
• Also used in operating systems
– Allow or deny access to the filesystem
- Email
Email filtering
• Unsolicited email
– Stop it at the gateway before it reaches the user
– On-site or cloud-based
• Scan and block malicious software
– Executables, known vulnerabilities
– Phishing attempts
– Other unwanted content\
- Hard token
- Soft token
Software tokens
• Authenticator application
– Pseudo-random number generator
– Can’t guess it
– Changes constantly
• Saves money
– Free smartphone applications
– No separate device to lose
- Short message service (SMS)
Short message service (SMS)
• Text messaging
– Includes more than text these days
• Login factor can be sent via SMS to a predefined phone number
– Provide username and password
– Phone receives an SMS
– Input the SMS code into the login form
• Security issues exist
– Phone number can be reassigned to a different phone
– SMS messages can be intercepted
– SMS spoofing
- Voice call
Voice call
• A phone call provides the token
– The computer is talking to you
– “Your code is 1-6-2-5-1-7.”
• Similar disadvantages to SMS
– Phone call can be intercepted or forwarded
– Phone number can be added to another phone
- Authenticator application - Multifactor authentication (MFA)
Multi-factor authentication
• More than one factor
- Something you are
- something you have
- something you know
- somewhere you are
- something you do
For something to be considered multi-factor, you need items from at least two different authentication
factor categories: knowledge, possession, inheritance, location, or action.
*** Example… smartcard and PIN
• Can be expensive
– Separate hardware tokens
• Active Directory
Active Directory
• A database of everything on the network
– Computers, user accounts, file shares, printers, groups, and more
• Manage authentication
– Users login using their AD credentials
• Centralized access control
– Determine which users can access resources
• Commonly used by the help desk
– Reset passwords
– Add and remove accounts
- Login script
Login script
• Automate a series of tasks during login
– Assign a script to a specific user, group, or OU
• Associate the script with a Group Policy
– User Configuration > Policies >
– Windows Settings > Scripts
• Create different login scripts for different OUs
– Customize based on your needs
- Domain
Domain
• The name associated with this related group of users, computers, and resources
– Each domain has a name
• Domain controllers store this central domain database
– Active Directory is the service that manages this directory
• Often referenced when troubleshooting
– Is this computer on the domain?
– Can you reset the domain password?
- Group Policy/updates
• Manage the computers or users with Group Policies
– Local and Domain policies
– Group Policy Management Editor
• A central console
– Login scripts
– Network configurations (QoS)
– Security parameters
Update a client with the gpupdate utility:
> gpupdate /force
- Organizational units
Organizational units (OU)
• Keep the (very large) database organized
– Users, Computers
• Create your own hierarchy
– Countries, states, buildings, departments, etc.
• Apply policies to an OU
– Can be very large:
– Domain Users
– Can be for a specific group:
– Marketing, North America,
– Pegasus galaxy
- Home folder
Home folder
• Assign a user Home folder to a network folder
– Manage and backup files from the network
– Avoid storing files on the local computer
• When added to the user profile, the directories are automatically created
– And proper permissions are assigned
• Requires some training
– Encourage users to store files on the network Home folder
- Folder redirection
Folder redirection
• Some users and applications use the Windows Library folders
– Desktop, Downloads,
– Music, Documents, etc.
• Redirect the folders to a network share
– Group Policy > User Configuration >
– Windows settings > Folder Redirection
• This is often paired with the Offline Files feature
– You’re not always connected
- Security groups
Security groups
• Create a group
– Assign permissions to the group
• Set the rights and permissions to the group
– Add users to the group
• Some built-in groups
– Users, guests
– Remote management users
– Event Log Readers
• Save time
– Avoid confusion and mistakes
2.2 Compare and contrast wireless security protocols and authentication methods.
2.2 - Wireless Encryption
• Protocols and encryption
Securing a wireless network
• An organization’s wireless network can contain confidential information
– Not everyone is allowed access
• Authenticate the users before granting access
– Who gets access to the wireless network?
– Username, password, multi-factor authentication
• Ensure that all communication is confidential
– Encrypt the wireless data
• Verify the integrity of all communication
– The received data should be identical to the original sent data
– A message integrity check (MIC)
WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)
• 2002: WPA was the replacement for serious cryptographic weaknesses in WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)
– Don’t use WEP
• Needed a short-term bridge between WEP and whatever would be the successor
– Run on existing hardware
• WPA: RC4 with TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol)
– Initialization Vector (IV) is larger and an encrypted hash
– Every packet gets a unique 128-bit encryption key
Wireless encryption
• All wireless computers are radio transmitters and receivers
– Anyone can listen in
• Solution: Encrypt the data
– Everyone has an encryption key
• Only people with the right key can transmit and listen
– WPA2 and WPA3
- WiFi Protected Access 2 (WPA2)
WPA2 and CCMP
• Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2)
– WPA2 certification began in 2004
• CCMP block cipher mode
– Counter Mode with Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol, or Counter/CBCMAC Protocol
• CCMP security services
– Data confidentiality with AES encryption
– Message Integrity Check (MIC) with CBC-MAC
- WPA3
WPA3 and GCMP
• Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 (WPA3)
– Introduced in 2018
• GCMP block cipher mode
– Galois/Counter Mode Protocol
– A stronger encryption than WPA2
• GCMP security services
– Data confidentiality with AES
– Message Integrity Check (MIC) with
– Galois Message Authentication Code (GMAC)
The WPA2 PSK problem
• WPA2 has a PSK brute-force problem
– Listen to the four-way handshake
– Some methods can derive the PSK hash without the handshake
– Capture the hash
• With the hash, attackers can brute force the pre-shared key (PSK)
• This has become easier as technology improves
– A weak PSK is easier to brute force
– GPU processing speeds
– Cloud-based password cracking
• Once you have the PSK, you have everyone’s wireless key
– There’s no forward secrecy
SAE
• WPA3 changes the PSK authentication process
– Includes mutual authentication
– Creates a shared session key without sending that key across the network
– No more four-way handshakes, no hashes, no brute force attacks
– Adds perfect forward secrecy
• Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE)
– A Diffie-Hellman derived key exchange with an authentication component
– Everyone uses a different session key, even with the same PSK
– An IEEE standard - the dragonfly handshake
Wireless security modes
• Configure the authentication on your wireless access point / wireless router
• Open System
– No authentication password is required
• WPA/2/3-Personal / WPA/2/3-PSK
– WPA2 or WPA3 with a pre-shared key
– Everyone uses the same 256-bit key
• WPA/2/3-Enterprise / WPA/2/3-802.1X
– Authenticates users individually with an authentication server (i.e., RADIUS)
- Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP)
- Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
• Authentication
- Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)
RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial-in User Service)
• One of the more common AAA protocols
– Supported on a wide variety of platforms and devices
– Not just for dial-in
• Centralize authentication for users
– Routers, switches, firewalls
– Server authentication
– Remote VPN access
– 802.1X network access
• RADIUS services available on almost any server operating system
- Terminal Access Controller Access-Control System (TACACS+)
TACACS
• Terminal Access Controller
– Access-Control System
– Remote authentication protocol
– Created to control access to dial-up lines to ARPANET
• TACACS+
– The latest version of TACACS
– More authentication requests and response codes
– Released as an open standard in 1993
*** developed by Cisco to provide authentication, authorization, and accounting services?
- Kerberos
Kerberos
• Network authentication protocol
– Authenticate once, trusted by the system
– No need to re-authenticate to everything
– Mutual authentication - the client and the server
– Protect against on-path or replay attacks
• Standard since the 1980s
– Developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
• Microsoft starting using Kerberos in Windows 2000
– Based on Kerberos 5.0 open standard
– Compatible with other operating systems and devices
SSO with Kerberos
• Authenticate one time
– Lots of backend ticketing
– Cryptographic tickets
• No constant username and password input!
– Save time
• Only works with Kerberos
– Not everything is Kerberos-friendly
• There are many other SSO methods
– Smart-cards, SAML, etc.
Which method to use?
• Many different ways to communicate to an authentication server
– More than a simple login process
• Often determined by what is at hand
– VPN concentrator can talk to a RADIUS server
– We have a RADIUS server
• TACACS+
– Probably a Cisco device
• Kerberos - Probably a Microsoft network
- Multifactor
Multi-factor authentication
• More than one factor
– Something you are
– Something you have
– Something you know
– Somewhere you are
– Something you do
• Can be expensive
– Separate hardware tokens
– Specialized scanning equipment
• Can be inexpensive - Free smartphone applications
2.3 Given a scenario, detect, remove, and prevent malware using the appropriate tools and methods.
• Malware
Malware
• Malicious software - These can be very bad
• Gather information - Keystrokes
• Participate in a group - Controlled over the ‘net
• Show you advertising - Big money
• Viruses and worms
– Encrypt your data and ruin your day
Malware types and methods
• Trojan Horse
• Rootkit
• Viruses
• Spyware
• Ransomware
• Keylogger
• Boot sector virus
• Cryptominers
How you get malware
• These all work together
– Malicious software takes advantage of a vulnerability
– Installs malware that includes a remote access backdoor
– Bot may be installed later
• Your computer must run a program
– Email link - Don’t click links
– Web page pop-up
– Drive-by download
– Worm
• Your computer is vulnerable
– Operating system - Keep your OS updated!
– Applications - Check with the publisher
- Trojan
Trojan horse
• Used by the Greeks to capture Troy from the Trojans
– A digital wooden horse
• Software that pretends to be something else
– So it can conquer your computer
– Doesn’t really care much about replicating
• Circumvents your existing security
– Anti-virus may catch it when it runs
– The better Trojans are built to avoid and disable AV
• Once it’s inside it has free reign
– And it may open the gates for other programs
*** Malware that disguises itself as legitimate software
- Rootkit
Rootkits
• Originally a Unix technique
– The “root” in rootkit
• Modifies core system files
– Part of the kernel
• Can be invisible to the operating system
– Won’t see it in Task Manager
• Also invisible to traditional anti-virus utilities
– If you can’t see it, you can’t stop it
– Finding and removing rootkits
• Look for the unusual
– Anti-malware scans
• Use a remover specific to the rootkit
– Usually built after the rootkit is discovered
• Secure boot with UEFI
– Security in the BIOS
*** Malware that modifies core system files.
- Virus
Virus
• Malware that can reproduce itself
– It needs you to execute a program
• Reproduces through file systems or the network
– Just running a program can spread a virus
• May or may not cause problems
– Some viruses are invisible, some are annoying
• Anti-virus is very common
– Thousands of new viruses every week
– Is your signature file updated?
– Boot sector virus
• Most viruses run after the OS is loaded
– Like most applications
• Some boot loaders can be modified to run malware
– Runs every time you start your computer
• Modern UEFI BIOS includes Secure Boot
– Prevent unsigned software from running during the boot process
*** Malware that can reproduce itself
- Spyware
Spyware
• Malware that spies on you
– Advertising, identity theft, affiliate fraud
• Can trick you into installing
– Peer to peer, fake security software
• Browser monitoring - Capture surfing habits
• Keyloggers
– Capture every keystroke
– Send it back to the mother ship
* monitors user activity and sends that information to someone else
*** Malware that collects and monitors sensitive information without users awareness.
- Ransomware
Ransomware
• A particularly nasty malware
– Your data is unavailable until you provide cash
• Malware encrypts your data files
– Pictures, documents, music, movies, etc.
– Your OS remains available
– They want you running, but not working
• You must pay the bad guys to obtain the decryption key
– Untraceable payment system
– An unfortunate use of public-key cryptography
*** Malware that encrypts data files and demands payment from the victim to get access to their data
- Keylogger
Keyloggers
• Your keystrokes contain valuable information
– Web site login URLs, passwords, email messages
• Save all of your input
– Send it to the bad guys
• Circumvents encryption protections
– Your keystrokes are in the clear
• Other data logging
– Clipboard logging, screen logging, instant messaging, search engine queries
*** Malware that captures information that was input by the user
- Boot sector virus
*** Malware that runs when the OS startups.
- Cryptominers
Cryptominers
• Some cryptocurrency mining requires “proof of work”
– Usually consists of a difficult math problem
– Answer the problem and earn some currency
• This requires extensive CPU processing
– One CPU isn’t enough
– Attackers want to use your CPU
• May appear in different ways
– Visit a website and CPU utilization spikes
– Malware is installed and mining is always occurring
*** Malware that exploits a computers processing power to benefit malicious actors without the users
consent or knowledge.
• Tools and methods
Windows Recovery Environment
• Very powerful
• Very dangerous
– Last resort
• Complete control
– Fix your problems before the system starts
– Remove malicious software
• Requires additional information
– Use, copy, rename, or replace operating system files and folders
– Enable or disable service or device startup
– Repair the file system boot sector or the master boot record (MBR)
Starting the console
• All Windows versions
– Hold Shift key while clicking Restart
– Or boot from installation media
• Windows 10
– Settings > Update and Security > Recovery > Advanced startup
• Windows 11
– System > Recovery > Advanced startup > Restart now
• After rebooting
– Troubleshoot > Advanced Options > Command Prompt
- Recovery mode
- Antivirus
- Anti-malware
Anti-virus and anti-malware
• You need both
– Often included together
• Real-time options
– Not just an on-demand scan
• Modern anti-malware recognizes malicious activity
– Doesn’t require a specific set of signatures
*** heuristic analysis
“Heuristic analysis is a method employed by many computer anti-virus programs designed to detect
previously unknown computer viruses and new variants of viruses already in the wild. This is behaviorbased detection and prevention, so it should detect the issue and stop it from spreading throughout the
network.”
- Software firewalls
Software firewalls
• Monitor the local computer
– Alert on unknown or unauthorized network communication
• Prevent malware communication
– Downloads after infection
– Botnet communication
• Use Windows Firewall - At a minimum
• Runs by default
– Constantly monitoring
– Any network connection
- Anti-phishing training - Anti-phishing training
• No single technology can stop social engineering
– Don’t give away private information
– The user is the best anti-phishing
• Extensive training - Avoid becoming a victim
• Test the users
– Send a phishing email
– Find out who clicks and gives up information
• Train again
- User education regarding common threats
End user education
• One on one - Personal training
• Posters and signs - High visibility
• Message board posting - The real kind
• Login message - These become invisible
• Intranet page - Always available
- OS reinstallation
OS reinstallation
• Only one way to guarantee malware removal
– Delete everything
– Install from scratch
• Restore from backup (fast)
– As long as the backup is not also infected
• Manual installation (slowest)
– Backup data files
– Install Windows from installation media
• Image the system (fastest)
– User’s data files are on a network share
– Recover from a prebuilt image
2.4 Explain common social-engineering attacks, threats, and vulnerabilities.
2.4 - Social Engineering
• Social engineering
Effective social engineering
• Constantly changing - You never know what they’ll use next
• May involve multiple people
– And multiple organizations
– There are ties connecting many organizations
• May be in person or electronic
– Phone calls from aggressive “customers”
– Emailed funeral notifications of a friend or associate
- Phishing
• Social engineering with a touch of spoofing
– Often delivered by email, text, etc.
• Don’t be fooled - Check the URL
• Usually there’s something not quite right
– Spelling, fonts, graphics
- Vishing
• Vishing (Voice phishing) is done over the phone or voicemail
– Caller ID spoofing is common
– Fake security checks or bank updates
- Shoulder surfing
Shoulder surfing
• You have access to important information
– Many people want to see
– Curiosity, industrial espionage, competitive advantage
• This is surprisingly easy
– Airports / Flights, hallway-facing monitors, or coffee shops
• Surf from afar
– Binoculars / Telescopes (easy in the big city)
– Webcam monitoring
Preventing shoulder surfing
• Control your input
– Be aware of your surroundings
• Use privacy filters
– It’s amazing how well they work
• Keep your monitor out of sight
– Away from windows and hallways
• Don’t sit in front of me on your flight
– I can’t help myself
Spear phishing – targeting groups or types
• Targeted phishing with inside information
– Makes the attack more believable
– Targeted phishing with the possibility of a large catch
– The CFO (Chief Financial Officer) is commonly speared
• These executives have direct access to the corporate bank account
– The attackers would love to have those credentials
- Whaling
• Spear phishing the CEO is “whaling”
“whaling – high profile/priority target.
- Tailgating
Tailgating and piggybacking
• Tailgating uses an authorized person to gain unauthorized access to a building
– The attacker does not have consent
– Sneaks through when nobody is looking
• Piggybacking follows the same process, but the authorized person is giving consent
– Hold the door, my hands are full of donut boxes
– Sometimes you shouldn’t be polite
• Once inside, there’s little to stop you
– Most security stops at the border
Watching for tailgating
• Policy for visitors - You should be able to identify anyone
• One scan, one person
– A matter of policy or mechanically required
• Access Control Vestibule / Airlock
– You don’t have a choice
• Don’t be afraid to ask
– Who are you and why are you here?
- Impersonation
Impersonation
• Pretend to be someone you aren’t
– Halloween for the fraudsters
• Use some of those details you got from the dumpster
– You can trust me, I’m with your help desk
• Attack the victim as someone higher in rank
– Office of the Vice President for Scamming
• Throw tons of technical details around
– Catastrophic feedback due to the depolarization of the differential magnetometer
• Be a buddy
– How about those Cubs?
- Dumpster diving
Dumpster diving
• Mobile garbage bin
– United States brand name “Dumpster”
– Similar to a rubbish skip
• Important information thrown out with the trash
– Thanks for bagging your garbage for me!
• Gather details that can be used for a different attack
– Impersonate names, use phone numbers
• Timing is important
– Just after end of month, end of quarter
– Based on pickup schedule
- Evil twin
Wireless evil twins
• Looks legitimate, but actually malicious
– The wireless version of phishing
• Configure an access point to look like an existing network
– Same (or similar) SSID and security settings/captive portal
• Overpower the existing access points
– May not require the same physical location
• WiFi hotspots (and users) are easy to fool
– And they’re wide open
• You encrypt your communication, right?
– Use HTTPS and a VPN
• Threats
- Distributed denial of service (DDoS)
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)
• Launch an army of computers to bring down a service
– Use all the bandwidth or resources - traffic spike
• This is why the bad guys have botnets
– Thousands or millions of computers at your command
– At its peak, Zeus botnet infected over 3.6 million PCs
– Coordinated attack
• The attackers are zombies
– Many people have no idea they are participating in a botnet
Mitigating DDoS attacks
• May be able to filter out traffic patterns
– Stop the traffic at your firewall
• Internet service provider may have anti-DDoS systems
– These can help “turn down” the DDoS volume
• Third-party technologies
– CloudFlare, etc.
- Denial of service (DoS)
Denial of service
• Force a service to fail
– Overload the service
• Take advantage of a design failure or vulnerability
– Keep your systems patched!
• Cause a system to be unavailable
– Competitive advantage
• Create a smokescreen for some other exploit
– Precursor to a DNS spoofing attack
• Doesn’t have to be complicated
– Turn off the power
*** DoS attack or denial-of-service attack works by overloading a server with multiple requests (more than
it can handle), thus eventually knocking the server offline.
A “friendly” DoS
• Unintentional DoSing
– It’s not always a ne’er-do-well
• Network DoS
– Layer 2 loop without STP
• Bandwidth DoS
– Downloading multi-gigabyte Linux distributions over a DSL line
• The water line breaks
– Get a good shop vacuum
- Zero-day attack
Zero-day attacks
• Many applications have vulnerabilities
– We’ve just not found them yet
• Someone is working hard to find the next big vulnerability
– The good guys share these with developers
• Attackers keep these yet-to-be-discovered holes to themselves
– They want to use these vulnerabilities for personal gain
• Zero-day
– The vulnerability has not been detected or published
– Zero-day exploits are increasingly common
• Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE)
– https://cve.mitre.org/
Zero-day vulnerabilities
• December 9, 2021 - Log4j remote code execution – Java-based logging utility provided as Apache service
– Installed on millions of servers
– Vulnerability introduced on September 14th, 2013
• December 14th - Fix is released
– Extensive patching
• December 17th – Two new issues fixed
– Everyone is looking for bugs
- Spoofing
ARP poisoning (spoofing)
1. A legitimate response to an ARP request is received from the default gateway.
The ARP response is cached on the local device.
2. An attacker sends an ARP response that spoofs the IP address of the router and includes the attacker’s
MAC address.
The malicious ARP information replaces the cached record, completing the ARP poisoning.
*** Spoofing is the act of disguising a communication from an unknown source as being from a known,
trusted source. Spoofing is an attack where the attacker disguises their identity. Examples of spoofing
include changing their MAC address (MAC spoofing), their IP address (IP spoofing), or their email address
(commonly used during a phishing campaign)
- On-path attack
On-path network attack
• How can an attacker watch without you knowing?
– Formerly known as man-in-the-middle
• Redirects your traffic
– Then passes it on to the destination
– You never know your traffic was redirected
• ARP poisoning
– On-path attack on the local IP subnet
– ARP has no security
– ARP poisoning (spoofing)
On-path browser attack
• What if the middleman was on the same computer as the victim?
– Malware/Trojan does all of the proxy work
– Formerly known as man-in-the-browser
• Huge advantages for the attackers
– Relatively easy to proxy encrypted traffic
– Everything looks normal to the victim
• The malware in your browser waits for you to login to your bank
– And cleans you out
Plaintext / unencrypted passwords
• Some applications store passwords “in the clear”
– No encryption. You can read the stored password.
– This is rare, thankfully
• Do not store passwords as plaintext
– Anyone with access to the password file or database has every credential
• What to do if your application saves passwords
as plaintext:
– Get a better application
Hashing a password
• Hashes represent data as a fixed-length string of text
– A message digest, or “fingerprint”
• Will not have a collision (hopefully)
– Different inputs will not have the same hash
• One-way trip
– Impossible to recover the original messagefrom the digest
– A common way to store passwords
The password file
• Different across operating systems and applications
– Different hash algorithms
- Brute-force attack
Brute force
• Try every possible password combination until the hash is matched
• This might take some time
– A strong hashing algorithm slows things down
• Brute force attacks - Online
– Keep trying the login process
– Very slow
– Most accounts will lockout after a number of failed attempts
• Brute force the hash - Offline
– Obtain the list of users and hashes
– Calculate a password hash, compare it to a stored hash
– Large computational resource requirement
- Dictionary attack
Dictionary attacks
• Use a dictionary to find common words
– Passwords are created by humans
• Many common wordlists available on the ‘net
– Some are customized by language or line of work
• The password crackers can substitute letters
– p&ssw0rd
• This takes time
– Distributed cracking and GPU cracking is common
• Discover passwords for common words
– This won’t discover random character passwords
- Insider threat
Insider threats
• More than just passwords on sticky notes
– Some insiders are out for no good
• Sophistication may not be advanced, but the insider has institutional knowledge
– Attacks can be directed at vulnerable systems
– The insider knows what to hit
• Extensive resources
– Eating away from the inside
Recruiting insiders
• We’re getting better with protecting the network perimeter
– It’s an ongoing race
• Ransomware actors are targeting insiders
– Offering Bitcoin in exchange for access
– One ransomware infection can earn millions for an attacker
• Keep aware
– Maintain good security fundamentals
– Always have backups
Code injection
• Code injection
– Adding your own information into a data stream
• Enabled because of bad programming
– The application should properly handle input and output
• So many different data types
– HTML, SQL, XML, LDAP, etc.
- Structured Query Language (SQL) injection
SQL injection
• SQL - Structured Query Language
– The most common relational database management system language
• SQL Injection
– Modify SQL requests (Your application shouldn’t allow this)
• If you can manipulate the database, then you control the application
– A significant vulnerability
- Cross-site scripting (XSS)
Cross-site scripting
• XSS
– Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) are something else entirely
• Originally called cross-site because of browser security flaws
– Information from one site could be shared with another
• One of the most common web application development errors
– Takes advantage of the trust a user has for a site
– Complex and varied
• Malware that uses JavaScript
– Do you allow scripts? Me too.
Non-persistent (reflected) XSS attack
• Web site allows scripts to run in user input
– Search box is a common source
• Attacker emails a link that takes advantage of this vulnerability
– Runs a script that sends credentials / session IDs / cookies to the attacker
• Script embedded in URL executes in the victim’s browser
– As if it came from the server
• Attacker uses credentials/session IDs/ cookies to steal victim’s information without their knowledge
– Very sneaky
Persistent (stored) XSS attack
• Attacker posts a message to a social network
– Includes the malicious payload
• It’s now “persistent”- Everyone gets the payload
• No specific target - All viewers to the page
• For social networking, this can spread quickly
– Everyone who views the message can have it posted to their page
– Where someone else can view it and propagate it further...
Hacking a Subaru
• June 2017, Aaron Guzman - Security researcher
• When authenticating with Subaru, users get a token
– This token never expires (bad!)
• A valid token allowed any service request
– Even adding your email address to someone else’s account
– Now you have full access to someone else’s car
• Web front-end included an XSS vulnerability
– A user clicks a malicious link, and you have their token
Protecting against XSS
• Be careful when clicking untrusted links
– Never blindly click in your email inbox. Never.
• Consider disabling JavaScript
– Or control with an extension
– This offers limited protection
• Keep your browser and applications updated
– Avoid the nasty browser vulnerabilities
• Validate input
– Don’t allow users to add their own scripts to an input field
• Vulnerabilities
- Non-compliant systems - Non-compliant systems
• A constant challenge
– There are always changes and updates
• Standard operating environments (SOE)
– A set of tested and approved hardware/software systems
– Often a standard operating system image
• Operating system and application updates
– Must have patches to be in compliance
– OS updates, anti-virus signatures
– Can be checked and verified before access is given
Protecting against non-compliant systems
• Operating system control
– Apply policies that will prevent non-compliant software
• Monitor the network for application traffic
– Next-generation firewalls with application visibility
• Perform periodic scans
– Login systems can scan for non-compliance
– Require correction before the system is given access
- Unpatched systems
Unpatched systems
• Microsoft Patch Tuesday
– Second Tuesday of each month (10:00 AM PST)
• Suddenly, systems are vulnerable to security flaws
– Patch the operating system and applications
• An organization might have thousands of systems
– Some of those are major services
• One forgotten system may be the weakest link
– This happens quite a bit
• Patch management is a critical practice
– Test, prioritize, and deploy
- Unprotected systems (missing antivirus/missing firewall)
Unprotected systems
• Security issues are often roadblocks
– Applications may not work properly without additional configurations
• Some troubleshooting tasks can be insecure
– Disable antivirus and try again
– Disable the firewall and try again
• Permanently disabling security isn’t the answer
– You don’t fix a bad door lock by removing the door
– Become an expert in application troubleshooting
- EOL Oss
Product support lifetime
End of life (EOL) operating systems
– Manufacturer stops selling an OS
– May continue supporting the OS
– Important for security patches and updates
• End of service life (EOSL)
– Manufacturer stops selling an OS
– Support is no longer available
– No ongoing security patches or updates
– May have a premium-cost support option
• Technology EOSL is a significant concern
– Security patches are part of normal operation
- Bring your own device (BYOD)
BYOD
• Bring Your Own Device / Bring Your Own Technology
• Employee owns the device
– Need to meet the company’s requirements
• Difficult to secure
– It’s both a home device and a work device
– How is data protected?
– What happens to the data when a device is sold or traded in?
– An infected device could disclose proprietary company information
2.5 Given a scenario, manage and configure basic security settings in the Microsoft Windows OS.
• Defender Antivirus
Microsoft Defender Antivirus
• Built-in antivirus for Windows 10 and 11
– No additional third-party products required
• Included in the Windows Security app
– Virus & threat protection
• May not specifically display “Defender Antivirus”
– The name has changed over time
– Windows Defender
– Microsoft Defender Antivirus
- Activate/deactivate
Activate/deactivate
• Don’t disable your security protection
– This is for temporary troubleshooting
– This will increase risk
– Make sure you know what you’re doing
• Defender Antivirus operates in real-time
– Enable or disable this feature
• Windows Security app
– Virus & threat protection settings >
– Manage settings > Real-time protection
- Updated definitions
Updated definitions
• Antivirus is only as good as the latest signatures
– It’s important to stay up to date
• Virus & threat protection updates
– Check for updates
• Click the “Check for updates” button
– Automatic updates are normally configured
• Firewall
- Activate/deactivate
Enabling and disabling Windows Firewall
• Your firewall should always be enabled
– Sometimes you need to troubleshoot
• Temporarily disable from the Control Panel or from Windows Security
– Turn Windows Firewall on or off
– Requires elevated permissions
• Different settings for each network type
– Public / Private
Windows Firewall configuration
• Block all incoming connections
– Ignores your exception list
– Useful when you need security
• Modify notification - App blocking
- Port security
- Application security
Creating a firewall exception
• Allow an app or feature through Windows Firewall
– The more secure exception
• Port number
– Block or allow
• Predefined exceptions
– List of common exceptions
– Custom rule
– Every firewall option
Windows authentication
• Login to the Windows desktop
– And access network resources
• Local accounts
– Only associated with a specific Windows device
• Microsoft accounts
– Sync settings between devices, integrate applications
* (Skype, Office) with OneDrive, and more
• Windows Domain accounts
– Centrally managed from Active Directory
• Users and groups
Users and groups
• Users
– Administrator
– The Windows super-user
– Guest (Limited access)
– Standard Users
• Groups
– Power Users
– Not much more control than a regular user
– Permissions removed in Windows Vista and later
- Local vs. Microsoft account
- Standard account
- Administrator
- Guest user
- Power user
• Login OS options
- Username and password
Login options
• Username / password
– Common authentication credentials
- Personal identification number (PIN)
• Personal Identification Number (PIN)
– A local access code
- Fingerprint
- Facial recognition
• Biometrics
– Fingerprint, facial recognition
- Single sign-on (SSO)
• Single sign-on (SSO)
– Windows Domain credentials
– Sign in one time
• NTFS vs. share permissions
NTFS vs. Share permissions
• NTFS permissions apply from local and network connections
• Share permissions only apply to connections over the network
– A “network share”
• The most restrictive setting wins
– Deny beats allow
• NTFS permissions are inherited from the parent object
– Unless you move to a different folder on the same volume
- File and folder attributes
- Inheritance
Explicit and inherited permissions
• Explicit permissions
– Set default permissions for a share
• Inherited permissions
– Propagated from the parent object to the child object
– Set a permission once, it applies to everything underneath
• Explicit permissions take precedence over inherited permissions
– Even inherited deny permissions
• Run as administrator vs. standard user
Run as administrator
• Administrators have special rights and permissions
– Editing system files, installing services
• Use rights and permissions of the administrator
– You don’t get these by default, even if you’re in the Administrators group
• Right-click the application
– Run as administrator
– Or search and click “Run as administrator”
- User Account Control (UAC)
UAC (User Account Control)
• Limit software access - Protect your computer
• Standard users
– Use the network or change your password
• Administrators
– Install applications or configure Remote Desktop
• Secure Desktop - Limits automated access
• BitLocker
BitLocker
• Encrypt an entire volume
– Protects all of your data, including the OS
– Support for all Windows editions except Home
• Lose your laptop? - Doesn’t matter without the password
• Data is always protected
– Even if the physical drive is moved to another computer
• BitLocker To Go
• BitLocker To Go - Encrypt removable USB flash drives
• Encrypting File System (EFS)
EFS
• Encrypting File System
– Encrypt at the file system level
– Requires the NTFS file system
• OS support
– Support for all Windows editions except Home
• Uses password and username to encrypt the key
– Administrative resets will cause EFS files to be Inaccessible
2.6 Given a scenario, configure a workstation to meet best practices for security.
• Data-at-rest encryption
Data encryption
• Full-disk encryption
– Encrypt data-at-rest
• File system encryption
– Individual files and folders
• Removable media
– Protect those USB flash drives
• Key backups are critical
– You always need to have a copy
– This may be integrated into Active Directory
– You’ll want to keep the key handy
• Password best practices
Password best practices
• Changing default usernames/passwords
– All devices have defaults
– There are many web sites that document these
- Basic input/output system (BIOS)/ Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) passwords
• BIOS/UEFI passwords
– Supervisor/Administrator password:
* Prevent BIOS changes
– User password: Prevent booting
• Requiring passwords
– Always require passwords
– No blank passwords
– No automated logins
- Complexity requirements
* Length
* Character types
Password complexity and length
• Make your password strong
– Resist guessing or brute-force attack
• Increase password entropy
– No single words, no obvious passwords
– Mix upper and lower case and use special characters
• Stronger passwords are at least 8 characters
– Consider a phrase or set of words
- Expiration requirements
Password expiration and recovery
• All passwords should expire
– Change every 30 days, 60 days, 90 days
– System remembers password history, requires unique passwords
• Critical systems might change more frequently
– Every 15 days or every week
• The recovery process should not be trivial!
– Some organizations have a very formal process
• End-user best practices - End-user best practices
• Require a screensaver password
– Integrate with login credentials
– Can be administratively enforced
• Does not require user intervention
– Automatically locks after non-use or timeout
• Secure critical hardware
– Laptops can easily walk away – Lock them down
- Use screensaver locks
- Log off when not in use
- Secure/protect critical hardware (e.g., laptops)
- Secure personally identifiable information (PII) and passwords
Securing PII and passwords
• Personally identifiable information
– Name, address, social security number, etc.
• Control your input
– Be aware of your surroundings
• Use privacy filters
– It’s amazing how well they work
• Keep your monitor out of sight
– Away from windows and hallways
• Don’t sit in front of me on your flight
– I can’t help myself
• Account management - Account management
• User permissions
– Everyone isn’t an Administrator
– Assign proper rights and permissions
– This may be an involved audit
• Assign rights based on groups
– More difficult to manage per-user rights
– Becomes more useful as you grow
• Login time restrictions
– Only login during working hours
– Restrict after-hours activities
Disabling unnecessary accounts
Disabling unnecessary accounts
• All operating systems include other accounts
– Guest, root, mail, etc.
• Not all accounts are necessary
– Disable/remove the unnecessary
– Disable the guest account
• Disable interactive logins
– Not all accounts need to login
• Change the default usernames
– User:admin Password:admin
– Helps with brute-force attacks
- Restrict user permissions
- Restrict login times
- Disable guest account
- Use failed attempts lockout
- Use timeout/screen lock
Locking the desktop
• Failed password attempts
– Should lock the account and/or reboot after a certain threshold
– Prevents online brute force attacks
• Automatically lock the system
– After a certain amount of inactivity
– Or when you walk away
• Change default administrator’s user account/password
• Disable AutoRun
• Disable AutoPlay
AutoRun and AutoPlay
• Disable AutoRun on older OSes
– autorun.inf in Vista
– No Autorun in Windows 7, 8/8.1, 10, or 11
– Disabled through the registry
• Disable AutoPlay
– Configure in Settings >
Bluetooth & devices >
AutoPlay
• Get the latest security patches
– Updates to autorun.inf and AutoPlay
2.7 Explain common methods for securing mobile and embedded devices.
• Screen locks
- Facial recognition
- PIN codes
- Fingerprint
- Pattern
- Swipe
Screen locks
• Restrict access to the device
– You’re going to leave it somewhere
• Facial recognition
– Unlock with your face
• PIN
– Choose a personal identification number
• Fingerprint
– Built-in fingerprint reader
• Swipe
– Choose a pattern
• Failed attempts
– iOS: Erase everything after 10 failed attempts
– Android: Lock the device and require a Google login or wipe the device
• Remote wipes
• Locator applications
Locator applications and remote wipe
• Built-in GPS
– And location “helpers”
• Find your phone
– On a map.
• Control from afar
– Make a sound
– Display a message
• Wipe everything
– At least your data is safe
• OS updates
Patching/OS updates
• All devices need updates - Even mobile devices
• Device patches - Security updates
• Operating system updates
– New features, bug fixes
• Don’t get behind!
– Avoid security problems
• Device encryption
Full device encryption
• Encrypt all device data
– Phone keeps the key
• iOS 8 and later
– Personal data is encrypted with your passcode
• Android
– Version 5.0 and later is probably already encrypted
• Remote backup applications
Remote backup
• Difficult to backup something that’s always moving
– Backup to the cloud
• Constant backup
– No manual process
• Backup without wires
– Use the existing network
• Restore with one click
– Restores everything
– Authenticate and wait
• Failed login attempts restrictions
• Antivirus/anti-malware
Anti-virus and anti-malware
• Apple iOS
– Closed environment, tightly regulated
– Malware has to find a vulnerability
• Android
– More open, apps can be installed from anywhere
– Easier for malware to find its way in
• Apps run in a “sandbox”
– You control what data an app can view
• Third-party virus and malware protection
– Available from the usual providers
• Firewalls
Firewalls
• Mobile phones don’t include a firewall
– Most activity initiates outbound, not inbound
• Some mobile firewall apps are available
– Most for Android
– None seem to be widely used
• Enterprise environments can control mobile apps
– Firewalls can allow or disallow access
• Policies and procedures
Policies and procedures
• Manage company-owned and user-owned mobile devices
– BYOD - Bring Your Own Device
• Centralized management of the mobile devices
– Specialized functionality / Mobile Device Manager (MDM)
• Set policies on apps, data, camera, etc.
– Control the remote device
– The entire device or a “partition”
• Manage access control
– Force screen locks and PINs on these single user devices
- BYOD vs. corporate owned
- Profile security requirements
• Internet of Things (IoT)
Internet of Things (IoT)
• Sensors - Heating and cooling, lighting
• Smart devices - Home automation, video doorbells
• Wearable technology - Watches, health monitors
• Facility automation - Temperature, air quality, lighting
• Weak defaults
– IoT manufacturers are not security professionals
– Consider isolating IoT devices on their own network
2.8 Given a scenario, use common data destruction and disposal methods.
• Physical destruction
- Drilling
- Shredding
- Degaussing
*** Degaussing a hard drive involves demagnetizing a hard drive to erase its stored data.
You cannot reuse a hard drive once it has been degaussed
- Incinerating
Physical destruction
• Shredder
– Heavy machinery - complete destruction
• Drill / Hammer
– Quick and easy - Platters, all the way through
• Electromagnetic (degaussing)
– Remove the magnetic field
– Destroys the drive data and the electronics
• Incineration - Fire hot.
• Recycling or repurposing best practices
- Erasing/wiping
- Low-level formatting
- Standard formatting
Erasing data
• File level overwriting
– Sdelete – Windows Sysinternals
– Remaining files are still available
• Whole drive wipe secure data removal
– DBAN - Darik’s Boot and Nuke
– Removes all data on the drive
– Use the drive again
• Physical drive destruction
– One-off or industrial removal and destroy
– Drive is no longer usable
Disk formatting
• Low-level formatting
– Provided at the factory
– Not recommended for the user
• Standard formatting / Quick format
– Sets up the file system, installs a boot sector
– Clears the master file table but not the data
– Can be recovered with the right software
• Standard formatting / Regular format
– Overwrites every sector with zeros
– Default for Windows Vista and later
– Can’t recover the data
Hard drive security
• 2019 study from Blancco and Ontrack
– 159 storage drives from eBay
– 42% of the used drives contain sensitive data
• Different data types
– 66 drives had data, 25 drives with PII
• Varied data sources
– Travel company email archive
– Freight company shipping details
– University student papers
– Audio, video, and other personal files
• Outsourcing concepts
- Third-party vendor
- Certification of destruction/ recycling
Certificate of destruction
• Destruction is often done by a 3rd party
– How many drills and degaussers do you have?
• Need confirmation that your data is destroyed
– Service should include a certificate
• A paper trail of broken data
– You know exactly what happened
2.9 Given a scenario, configure appropriate security settings on small office/home office (SOHO) wireless
and wired networks.
• Home router settings
- Change default passwords
Change default passwords
• All access points have default usernames and passwords
– Change yours!
• The right credentials provide full control
– Administrator access
• Very easy to find the defaults for your access point or router
– https://www.routerpasswords.com
- IP filtering
IP address filtering
• Content filtering, IP address ranges
– Or a combination
• Allow list
– Nothing pass through the firewall unless it’s approved
– Very restrictive
• Deny list
– Nothing on the “bad list” is allowed
– Specific URLs
– Domains
– IP addresses
- Firmware updates - Firmware updates
• Small office / home office appliances
– Appliance are usually a closed architecture
– Updates are provided by the manufacturer
• Updates may address different requirements
– Bug fixes
– New features
– Security patches
• Install the latest software
– Update and upgrade the firmware
– Firewalls, routers, switches, etc.
- Content filtering - Content filtering
• Control traffic based on data within the content
– URL filtering, website category filtering
• Corporate control of outbound and inbound data
– Sensitive materials
• Control of inappropriate content
– Not safe for work
– Parental controls
• Protection against evil
– Anti-virus, anti-malware
- Physical placement/secure locations
Physical placement
• Often a single device
– Router, switch, access point, firewall, etc.
• Location may be restricted to a secure room
– Prevent access to servers and network devices
– For wireless, location becomes more important
– Above ceiling tiles or another high point
– This may cause problems for power cycling
• Plan before the installation
– May require additional setup time
IP addressing
• DHCP (automatic) IP addressing vs. manual IP addressing
• IP addresses are easy to see in an unencrypted network
• If the encryption is broken, the IP addresses will be obvious
• Configuring a static IP address is not a security technique
– Security through obscurity
- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) reservations
DHCP reservations
• Address reservation
– Administratively configured
• Table of MAC addresses
– Each MAC address has a matching IP address
• Other names
– Static DHCP Assignment
– Static DHCP
– Static Assignment
– IP Reservation
- Static wide-area network (WAN) IP
Static WAN IP
• Wide area network / Internet link
– External IP address
• Many ISPs dynamically allocate WAN addresses
– The default for most ISPs
• It’s easier to manage if the IP address is static
– The IT team always knows the IP address
– A SOHO might provide a service
• This may be an additional cost
– Contact the ISP for options
- Universal Plug and Play (UPnP)
UPnP (Universal Plug and Play)
• Allows network devices to automatically configure and find other network devices
– Zero-configuration
• Applications on the internal network can open inbound ports using UPnP
– No approval needed
– Used for many peer-to-peer (P2P) applications
• Best practice would be to disable UPnP
– Only enable if the application requires it
– And maybe not even then
- Screened subnet
Screened subnet
• Previously known as the demilitarized zone (DMZ)
– An additional layer of security between the Internet and you
– Public access to public resources
• Wireless specific
- Changing the service set identifier (SSID)
SSID management
• Service Set Identifier
– Name of the wireless network
– LINKSYS, DEFAULT, NETGEAR
• Change the SSID to something not-so obvious
– Security through obscure
- Disabling SSID broadcast
• Disable SSID broadcasting?
– SSID is easily determined through wireless network analysis
- Encryption settings
Wireless channels and encryption
• Open System
– No authentication password is required
• WPA/2/3-Personal / WPA/2/3-PSK
– WPA2 or WPA3 with a pre-shared key
– Everyone uses the same 256-bit key
• WPA/2/3-Enterprise / WPA/2/3-802.1X
– Authenticates users individually with an authentication server (i.e., RADIUS, LDAP, etc.)
• Use an open frequency
– Some access points will automatically find good frequencies
- Disabling guest access
Disable guest networks
• Limit access to outsiders
– Guest networks are often enabled by default
• Some guest networks can be used for other connections
– Internet of Things
– Lab networks
• Don’t enable without security
– WPA2 or WPA3
- Changing channels
• Firewall settings
- Disabling unused ports
Disabling ports
• Enabled physical ports
– Conference rooms
– Break rooms
• Administratively disable unused ports
– More to maintain, but more secure
• Network Access Control (NAC)
– 802.1X controls
– You can’t communicate unless you are authenticated
- Port forwarding/mapping
Port forwarding
• 24x7 access to a service hosted internally
– Web server, gaming server, security system, etc.
• External IP/port number maps to an internal IP/port
– Does not have to be the same port number
• Also called Destination NAT or Static NAT
– Destination address is translated from a public IP to a private IP
– Does not expire or timeout
2.10 Given a scenario, install and configure browsers and relevant security settings.
• Browser download/installation
- Trusted sources
* Hashing
- Untrusted sources
Browser download and installation
• Always use trusted sources
– Attackers want you to install the malware for them
– No fancy exploit required
• Avoid untrusted third-party sites
– Don’t click links in emails
– Don’t follow links from other websites
– Always visit a browser site directly
• Use hashes to verify the download
– Confirm the downloaded file matches the version on the server
Hash verification
• Install a hash checking application
– Available for command line and GUI
– Options available in the Microsoft Store
• Hash values may be available on the download site
– Usually includes a digital signature for verification
• Verify the downloaded file
– Compare the downloaded file hash with the posted hash value
• Extensions and plug-ins
- Trusted sources
- Untrusted sources
Extensions and plug-ins
• Trusted sources
– Official browser extension library
– Chrome Web Store
– Microsoft Store
– Known-good websites
• Untrusted sources
– Random or unfamiliar websites
– Installed by malware
• This is a significant attack vector
– Almost everything we do is in our browser
Malicious browser extensions
• March 2021
– More than 24 malicious
– Google Chrome extensions identified
– Includes 40 malicious domains
– Not identified by security technologies
• Malicious activity identified
– Credential theft
– Screenshots and keylogging
– Data exfiltration
• Don’t trust any software - Always have backups
• Password managers
Password managers
• Password vaults
– All passwords in one location
– A database of credentials
• Secure storage
– All credentials are encrypted
– Cloud-based synchronization options
• Create unique passwords
– Passwords are not the same across sites
• Personal and enterprise options
– Corporate access
• Secure connections/sites – valid certificates
Secure connections
• Security alerts and invalid certificates
– Something isn’t quite right
– Should raise your interest
• Look at the certificate details
– May be expired or the wrong domain name
– The certificate may not be properly signed (untrusted certificate authority)
– Correct time and date is important
• Settings
- Pop-up blocker
Enable pop-up blockers
• Pop-up blocker
– Prevent unwanted notification windows
• Enable or disable
– Should usually be enabled
– Disable temporarily when troubleshooting
• Block and allow
– Control pop-up blocking on certain websites
- Clearing browsing data
- Clearing cache
Clearing private data
• Clear browsing data
– History
– Saved passwords
– List of downloaded files
• Clear cache
– Parts of a website are stored locally
– Remove all local data
- Private-browsing mode
Private browsing mode
• Don’t store information from a browsing session
– Good for privacy
– Useful when testing or troubleshooting
• Removes the information when the browser is closed
– No history tracking
– No download file list
– Cached information is deleted
- Sign-in/browser data synchronization
Browser data synchronization
• Share browsing data across multiple systems
– Sign in to the browser
• Use with other computers, tablets, and mobile devices
– Browsing history
– Favorites
– Installed extensions
– Other settings
- Ad blockers
Ad blockers
• Some browsers can block advertising
– This isn’t always an option
• Many sites will track visits
– And recognize a return visit
• Difficult to always recognize an advertisement
– You can control the security level
3.0 Software Troubleshooting
3.1 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common Windows OS problems.
- Event Viewer (eventvwr.msc)
Event Viewer
• Central event consolidation
– What happened?
• Application log
- Application log contains information regarding application errors
• Security log
- Security log contains information regarding audit data and security on a system.
***For example, the security log contains a list of every successful and failed login attempt
• Setup log
- Setup log contains record of events generated during Windows installation or upgrade process
• System log
- System log contains info about service load failures, hardware conflicts, driver load failures, and more
• Common symptoms
- Blue screen of death (BSOD)
Bluescreens and frequent shutdowns
• Startup and shutdown BSOD
– Bad hardware, bad drivers, bad application
• Use Last Known Good, System Restore, or Rollback Driver
– Try Safe mode
• Reseat or remove the hardware
– If possible
• Run hardware diagnostics
– Provided by the manufacturer
– BIOS may have hardware diagnostics
- Sluggish performance - Sluggish performance
• Task Manager
– Check for high CPU utilization and I/O
• Windows Update - Latest patches and drivers
• Disk space - Check for available space and defrag
• Laptops may be using power-saving mode
– Throttles the CPU
• Anti-virus and anti-malware - Scan for attackers
- Boot problems
Boot errors
• Can’t find operating system
– “Operating system not found”, “Missing operating system”
*** master boot record (MBR) is the first 512-byte sector on a hard disk.
• Boot loader replaced or changed
– Multiple operating systems installed
• Check boot drives - Remove any media
• Startup Repair
• Modify the Windows Boot Configuration Database (BCD)
– Formerly boot.ini
– Recovery Console: bootrec /rebuildbcd
Startup Repair
• Missing NTLDR
– The main Windows boot loader is missing
– Run Startup Repair or replace manually and reboot
– Disconnect removable media
• Missing operating system
– Boot Configuration Data may be incorrect
– Run Startup Repair or manually configure BCD store
• Boots to Safe Mode
– Windows is not starting normally
– Run Startup Repair
- Frequent shutdowns
- Services not starting
Starting the system
• Device not starting
– Check Device Manager and Event Viewer
– Often a bad driver
– Remove or replace driver
• “One or more services failed to start”
– Bad/incorrect driver, bad hardware
– Try starting manually
– Check account permissions
– Confirm service dependencies
– Windows service; check system files
– Application service; reinstall application
- Applications crashing - Applications crashing
• Application stops working
– May provide an error message
– May just disappear
• Check the Event Log
– Often includes useful reconnaissance
• Check the Reliability Monitor
– A history of application problems
– Checks for resolutions
• Reinstall the application
– Contact application support
- Low memory warnings - Low memory warnings
• Your computer is low on memory
– Applications need RAM to run
– More applications need more RAM
• Close large-memory processes
– Check Task Manager
• Increase virtual memory
– More room for swapping applications
– System > About > Advanced system settings > Performance > Settings > Virtual memory
- USB controller resource warnings
USB controller resource warnings
• USB devices contain buffers called “endpoints”
– Different USB controllers support a different number of endpoints
– (96 endpoints, 254 endpoints, etc.)
• Different devices require a different number of endpoints
– Exceed the number of endpoints and you run out of resources
– It’s difficult to determine the number of endpoints used by a device
• The controller does not have enough resources for this device.
– The endpoints are these resources
• Move the device to a different USB interface
– USB 2.0 interfaces might support a larger number of endpoints
• Match the USB interface to the device capabilities
– USB 2.X devices or USB 3.X devices
– More endpoints for all devices
- System instability - System instability
• General system failures
– Software errors, system hangs, application failures
• Time for a full diagnostic - This could be anything
• Hardware diagnostic
– Most systems include manufacturer diagnostics
– Also run storage and memory checks
• Check the operating system
– Run SFC (System File Checker)
– Perform an anti-malware scan
- No OS found
- Slow profile load - Slow profile load
• Roaming user profile
– Your desktop follows you to any computer
– Changes are synchronized
• Network latency to the domain controller
– Slows login script transfers
– Slow to apply computer and user policies
– May require many hundreds (or thousands) of LDAP queries
• Client workstation picks a remote domain controller instead of local DC
– Problems with local infrastructure
- Time drift
Time drift
• A computer’s internal clock will drift over time
– Computers aren’t great timekeepers
• The solution is to fix the symptom
– Fixing the problem would require changing the design of every computer
• Enable automatic time setting
– Settings > Time & language > Date & time
– Time zone may need to be configured manually if privacy settings are enabled
• Common troubleshooting steps
- Reboot
Reboot
• Have you tried turning it off and on again?
– There’s a reason it works
• Bug in your router software - Reboot the router
• Application is using too many resources
– Stops the app
• Memory leak slowly consumes all available RAM
– Clears the RAM and starts again
- Restart services
Restart services
• Services
– Applications that run in the background
– No user interaction
• Similar issues as a normal process
– Resource utilization
– Memory leaks
– Crashes
• View status in Task Manager
– Services tab
– Right-click to start, stop, or restart
- Uninstall/reinstall/update applications
Uninstall/reinstall/update applications
• Application issues
– Problems with the application files or configurations
• Settings > Apps > Apps & features
– Repair, reset, or uninstall
• Some options in the Control Panel
– Programs and Features
• Run the application setup again
– Other options may be available from the setup program
• Repair
– Install missing files
– Replace corrupted files
– Fix application shortcuts
– Repair registry entries
– Update or reconfigure drivers
• Reset
– Remove all application data
– A factory reset / original install
• Uninstall - Remove the application
- Add resources
Add resources
• Check resource utilization
– Task Manager
• Consider a long-term analysis
– Performance Monitor
• Compare existing resources with manufacturer requirements
– Add or replace hardware (CPU, SSD, RAM)
• Free drive space
– Disk Cleanup
- Verify requirements
Verify requirements
• Every operating system and application publishes a set of requirements
– These are commonly the bare minimums
• Check with the manufacturer
– Get the official requirements
• Hardware and software resources
– CPU speed, total RAM, video options, device drivers, runtime libraries
• Use System Information
– View the current configuration
- System file check
System file checker
• Verify the integrity of the operating system
– Check every important system file with sfc
- Repair Windows
Startup Repair
• Start from Settings
– Settings > System > Recovery
• Also available from the
– Advanced Boot Options
– Repair Windows
- Restore
Windows Restore
• Start the System Restore application
– System > About > System Protection
– This assumes you’ve not disabled restore points
• Pick a restore point and let the system reboot
– The operating system configuration will revert to the previous date and time
– User data will not be modified
- Reimage - Reimage or reload OS
• Windows is big
– And complex
• Spend time trying to find the needle
– Or simply build a new haystack
• Many organizations have prebuilt images
– Don’t waste time researching issues
• Windows includes a reset option
– Windows 10: Settings >
Update & Security > Recovery
– Windows 11: Settings > System > Recovery
- Roll back updates - Roll back updates
• Updates are installed automatically by default
– Important security patches
• View the history
– Windows 10:
– Settings > Update & Security >
– Windows Update
– Windows 11:
– Settings > Windows Update
Update and patch
• Windows Update
– Centralized OS and driver updates
• Lots of flexibility
– Change active hours
– Manage metered connections
• Applications must be patched
– Security issues don’t stop at the OS
– Download from the publisher
- Rebuild Windows profiles - Rebuild Windows profiles
• Profiles can become corrupted
– The User Profile Service failed the logon.
– User Profile cannot be loaded.
– User documents may be “missing”
• If a profile doesn’t exist, it’s recreated
– We’re going to delete the profile and force the rebuilding process
Deleting Windows profiles
• Login to the computer with Domain Administrator rights
• Rename the \Users\name folder - This will save important files
• Backup the user’s registry
– HKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\ CurrentVersion\ProfileList
– Right-click / Export
• Delete the registry entry
– You have a backup - Restart the computer
Reconstructing Windows profiles
• Login to the computer with the user account
– The profile will be rebuilt
– This will recreate the \Users\name folder
• Login as Domain Administrator
– Copy over any important files from the old profile
• Do not copy the entire profile
– Corrupted files might exist in the old profile
• Logout as Domain Administrator, login with the user account
3.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common personal computer (PC) security issues.
• Common symptoms
- Unable to access the network
Unable to access the network
• Slow performance, lock-up
– Malware isn’t the best written code
• Internet connectivity issues
– Malware likes to control everything
– You go where it wants you to go
– You can’t protect yourself if you can’t download
• OS updates failures
– Malware keeps you vulnerable
– Some malware uses multiple communication paths
• Reload or clean
– Malware cleaner or recover from known good backup
- Desktop alerts
Desktop alerts
• Browser push notification messages
– Pretends to be a malware infection
– Actual notifications come from your antivirus utility
• Disable browser notifications
– Create an allow list of legit sites
• Scan for malware
– Consider a cleaning
– Rebuild from scratch or known good backup to guarantee removal
- False alerts regarding antivirus protection
False antivirus alerts
• False antivirus message
• May include recognizable logos and language
– May require money to “unlock” your PC
– Or to “subscribe” to their service
• Often requires a specific anti-malware removal utility or technique
– The attackers are very, very good
- Altered system or personal files
* Missing/renamed files
Altered system or personal files
• Renamed system files - Won’t need that anymore
• Files disappearing - Or encrypted
• File permission changes - Protections are modified
• Access denied
– Malware locks itself away
– It doesn’t leave easily
• Use a malware cleaner or restore from known good backup
– Some malware is exceptionally difficult to remove
- Unwanted notifications within the OS
- OS update failures
• Browser-related symptoms
Browser security alerts
• Security alerts and invalid certificates
– Something isn’t quite right
– Should raise your interest
• Look at the certificate details
– Click the lock icon
– May be expired or the wrong domain name
– The certificate may not be properly signed
(untrusted certificate authority)
– Correct time and date is important
- Random/frequent pop-ups
- Certificate warnings
- Redirection
Browser redirection
• Instead of your Google result, your browser goes somewhere else
– This shouldn’t ever happen
• Malware is the most common cause
– Makes money for the bad guys
• Use an anti-malware/anti-virus cleaner
– This is not the best option
• Restore from a good known backup
– The only way to guarantee removal
3.3 Given a scenario, use best practice procedures for malware removal.
1. Investigate and verify malware symptoms
2. Quarantine infected systems
3. Disable System Restore in Windows
4. Remediate infected systems
a. Update anti-malware software
b. Scanning and removal techniques (e.g., safe mode, preinstallation environment)
5. Schedule scans and run updates
6. Enable System Restore and create a restore point in Windows
7. Educate the end user
IQDRSEE
Malware removal
• This is almost never the best practice
– It’s impossible to know if all of the malware has been removed
• Ideally, you should delete everything and start over
– Restore from a known-good backup
– Install from the original media
• There are reasons to remediate
– Important user documents may need to be recovered
– Get the system running well enough to backup certain files
1. Verify malware symptoms
• Odd error messages
– Application failures, security alerts
• System performance issues
– Slow boot, slow applications
• Research the malware
– Know what you’re dealing with
2. Quarantine infected systems
• Disconnect from the network
– Keep it contained
• Isolate all removable media
– Everything should be contained
• Prevent the spread
– Don’t transfer files, don’t try to backup
– That ship sailed
3. Disable System Restore
• Restore points make it easy to rewind
– Malware infects restore points
• Disable System Protection
– No reason to save an infected config
• Delete all restore points
– Remove all infection locations
4a. Remediate: Update anti-virus
• Signature and engine updates
– The active anti-virus engine
– Signature updates
– A very, very tiny shelf life
• Automatic vs. manual
– Manual updates are almost pointless
• Your malware may prevent the update process
– Copy from another computer
4b. Remediate: Scan and remove
• Microsoft and others - The big anti-virus apps
• Malware-specific – Scan and remove difficult malware
• Stand-alone removal apps
– Check with your anti-virus company
• There’s really no way to know if it’s really gone
– Delete and rebuild
• Safe mode
– Load the bare minimum operating system
– Just enough to get the OS running
– Can also prevent the bad stuff from running
• Pre-installation environment (WinPE)
– Recovery Console, bootable CD/DVDs/USBs
– Build your own from the Windows
– Assessment and Deployment Kit (ADK)
• May require the repair of boot records and sectors
5. Schedule scans and run updates
• Built into the antivirus software
– Automated signature updates and scans
• Task scheduler
– Run any task
• Operating system updates
– Make sure its enabled and working
6. Enable System Protection
• Now you’re clean
– Put things as they were
• Create a restore point
– Start populating again
7. Educate the end user
• One on one
– Personal training
• Posters and signs
– High visibility
• Message board posting
– The real kind
• Login message
– These become invisible
• Intranet page
– Always available
3.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common mobile OS and application issues.
• Common symptoms
- Application fails to launch
App issues
• Problematic apps
– Apps not loading
– Slow app performance
• Restart the phone
– Hold power button, power off
• Stop the app and restart
– iPhone: Double-tap home|slide up, slide app up
– Android: Settings/Apps, select app, Force stop
• Update the app - Get the latest version
- Application fails to close/crashes
App fails to close or crashes
• App hangs
– But other apps are still working
• App crashes
– May provide an error message, or just disappear
• Restart the device
– Clear the slate, try the app again
• Update the app
– A bug fix might resolve the issue
• Delete and reinstall the app
– Be careful not to remove important app data
- Application fails to update
App fails to update
• App does not update to a new version
– But other apps are still working
• Check the Store to manually upgrade
– Force the upgrade process
– Some stores require a valid method of payment on file
• Restart the device
– Try the update process again
- Slow to respond
- OS fails to update
OS fails to update
• Device operating system will not update
– New features, bug fixes, security updates
• Check available storage
– Remove unused documents and apps
• Check download bandwidth
– Connect to Wi-Fi
• Try a different network connection
– Update server may not be accessible
• Reboot - Always a good idea
- Battery life issues
Battery life issues
• Bad reception
– Always searching for signal
– Airplane mode on the ground
• Aging battery
– There’s only so many recharges
• Disable unnecessary features
– 802.11 wireless, Bluetooth, GPS
• Check application battery usage
– iOS: Settings/Battery
– Android: Settings/Battery
- Randomly reboots
Random reboots
• A device reboots during normal operation
– May occur randomly
• Check the OS and app versions
– Keep everything up to date
• Perform a hardware check
– Check the battery health
– Not many diagnostics options
• Contact Tech Support for options
– Crash logs should be on the device
- Connectivity issues
* Bluetooth
* WiFi
* Near-field communication (NFC)
* AirDrop
Connectivity issues
• Intermittent connectivity
– Move closer to access point
– Try a different access point
• No WiFi connectivity
– Check/Enable WiFi
– Check security key configuration
– Hard reset can restart wireless subsystem
• No Bluetooth connectivity
– Check/Enable Bluetooth
– Check/Pair Bluetooth component
– Hard reset to restart Bluetooth subsystem
• NFC not working
– Limited troubleshooting options
– Device may allow disable/enable of NFC
– Reset the device
– If payment related, remove and add the card again
• AirDrop not working
– Distance between devices < 30 feet
– Turn on Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
– Check AirDrop discovery options
– “Allow me to be discovered by”
- Screen does not autorotate
Screen does not autorotate
• Turning the device doesn’t rotate the view
– It should know which way is up
• Disable rotation lock
– Prevents autorotation when enabled
• Restart the app
– The device might be working properly
• Restart the device
– Perhaps the device isn’t working properly
• Contact device support
– If nothing rotates, you could have a sensor issue
3.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common mobile OS and application security issues.
• Security concerns
- Android package (APK) source
Android package source
• Once malware is on a phone, it has a huge amount of access
– Don’t install APK files from an untrusted source
• iOS
– All apps are curated by Apple
• Android
– Apps can be downloaded from Google Play or sideloaded
– This is where problems can occur
- Developer mode
Developer mode
• Enables developer-specific settings
– USB debugging
– Memory statistics
– Demo mode settings
• iOS and iPadOS
– Enable using Xcode
– Must use macOS
• Android
– Enabled from Settings > About Phone
– Tap the build number seven times
- Root access/jailbreak
Root access/jailbreak
• Mobile devices are purpose-built systems
– You don’t need direct access to the operating system
• Gaining access
– Android - Rooting
– Apple iOS - Jailbreaking
• Install custom firmware
– Replaces the existing operating system
• Uncontrolled access
– Circumvent security features, sideload apps without using an app store
– The MDM becomes relatively useless
*** A rooted device not required just to install an APK outside of the Play Store, though, on Android device
- Bootleg/malicious application
* Application spoofing
Application spoofing
• Install what appears to be a legitimate app
– Actually a bootleg or malicious application
• Google removed 150 apps from the store in 2021
– Photo editing, camera filters, games, QR code scanners
– UltimaSMS app tried to subscribe users to $40/month SMS service
• Infect the application used to build the apps
– A malicious version of Xcode: XcodeGhost malware
• Always check the source of a download
– And the legitimacy of the app
– You are giving this app permissions and control
• Common symptoms
- High network traffic
High network traffic
• Higher than normal network use
– May indicate installed malware
– Command & control
– Proxy network use
• Check built-in data use reports
– Some of these are quite detailed
• Use a third-party reporting app
– Use a trusted source
• Run a malware scan
– Always a good precaution
- Sluggish response time
Sluggish response time
• Running slowly
– Screen lags, poor input response time
• Restart
– Clear the slate
• Check for OS and app updates
– Fix the buggy code
• Close apps that are not in use
– Less resources to manage
• Factory reset
– A last chance to resolve the problem
- Data-usage limit notification
Data-usage limit notification
• Built-in Android feature
– Not native in iOS
• Set a warning and limit
– Get notification when traffic is excessive
• Can indicate a malware infection
– Drill-down on individual app usage
• Run a malware scan
– Find the problem app
- Limited Internet connectivity
- No Internet connectivity
Limited or no Internet connectivity
• Malware doesn’t want to be removed
– It will prevent access to network resources
• Disable and enable Wi-Fi
– Or enable/disable airplane mode
• Restart the device
– Clear memory and reload drivers
• Perform a malware scan
– Find and remove
- High number of ads
High number of ads
• Malware wants to show you advertising
– Revenue for each view and click
• May be difficult to find
– 2019: Ads Blocker for Android promised to remove ads
– Actually did the opposite
– Once installed, wasn’t listed in available apps
– FakeAdsBlock malware strain
• Run anti-malware utility
– Remove the adware
- Fake security warnings
Fake security warnings
• The easiest way to get on a phone
– Have the user install their own malware
• The warnings seem legitimate
– They are not actual security issues
– Do not install any software
• Malware can directly access user data
– Steals credit card details, stored passwords, browsing history, text messages
• Don’t click - If you click, run a malware removal tool
- Unexpected application behavior
Unexpected application behavior
• Apps unexpectedly close - Or have excessive delays
• App doesn’t seem to have all of the normal features
– Or included features are not working
• High battery utilization
– Only when this application is running
• Update the app - Get the latest version
- Leaked personal files/data
Leaked personal files
• Unauthorized account access
– Unauthorized root access
– Leaked personal files and data
• Determine cause of data breach
– Perform an app scan, run anti-malware scan
• Factory reset and clean install
– This is obviously a huge issue
• Check online data sources
– Apple iCloud/Apple Configurator, Google Workspace, Microsoft OneDrive
– Change passwords
4.0 Operational Procedures
4.1 Given a scenario, implement best practices associated with documentation and support systems
information management.
• Ticketing systems - Ticketing systems
• The best way to manage support requests
– Document, assign, resolve, report
• Usually a responsibility of the help desk
– Take the calls and triage
• Determine the best next step
– Assign the ticket and monitor
• There are many different ticketing systems
– They’re all very similar in function
Managing a support ticket
• Information gathering
– User and device information
– Problem description
• Applying context
– Categorization of the problem
– Assign severity
– Determine if escalation is required
• Clear and concise communication
– Problem description, progress notes, resolution details
- User information - User information
• You can’t address a person’s problem unless you know who has the issue
– Add the name of the person reporting the problem
• Usually integrated into a name service
– Active Directory or similar
• May be added automatically
– Many issues arrive from a portal or email gateway
• Always confirm the contact information
– The database may not be up to date
- Device information
- Description of problems
Device and description
• Device information
– Laptop, printer, conference room projector, etc.
• Description
– One of the most important fields in the ticket
– Make the description clear and concise
• The description determines the next step
– Call back for more information
– Associate with another event
– Assign to another person
- Categories
- Severity
- Escalation levels
Categorization and escalation
• Categories
– Broad description
– Change request, hardware request, problem investigation, hardware failure,
onboarding/offboarding, etc.
• Severity
– Often an established set of standards
– Low, medium, high, critical
• Escalation levels
– Difficult problems can be handled by a specialist
– Escalate to a new tier or to a specific group
- Clear, concise written communication
* Problem description
* Progress notes
* Problem resolution
Resolving the issue
• Progress notes
– Many people may read and/or work on a single ticket
– Keep the progress information concise
– Document any changes or additional information
• Problem resolution
– Document the solution
– May be referenced later by others with the same problem
– A “live” knowledgebase of issues and resolutions
• Asset management
Asset management
• A record of every asset
– Laptops, desktops, servers, routers, switches, cables, fiber modules, tablets, etc.
• Associate a support ticket with a device make and model
– Can be more detailed than a user’s description
• Financial records, audits, depreciation
– Make/model, configuration, purchase date, location, etc.
• Add an asset tag
– Barcode, RFID, visible tracking number, organization name
- Inventory lists
- Database system
Asset database
• A central asset tracking system
– Used by different parts of the organization
• Assigned users
– Associate a person with an asset
– Useful for tracking a system
• Warranty
– A different process if out of warranty
• Licensing
– Software costs
– Ongoing renewal deadlines
- Asset tags and IDs
• Add an asset tag
– Barcode, RFID, visible tracking number, organization name
- Procurement life cycle
Procurement life cycle
• The purchasing process
– Multi-step process for requesting and obtaining goods and services
• Start with a request from the user
– Usually includes budgeting information and formal approvals
• Negotiate with suppliers
– Terms and conditions
– Purchase, invoice, and payment
– The money part
- Warranty and licensing
- Assigned users
• Types of documents
- Acceptable use policy (AUP)
Acceptable use policies (AUP)
• What is acceptable use of company assets?
– Detailed documentation
– May be documented in the Rules of Behavior
• Covers many topics
– Internet use, telephones, computers, mobile devices, etc.
• Used by an organization to limit legal liability
– If someone is dismissed, these are the well-documented reasons why
- Network topology diagram
Network topology diagram
• Describes the network layout
– May be a logical diagram
– Can include physical rack locations
- Regulatory compliance requirements
Compliance
• Compliance
– Meeting the standards of laws, policies, and regulations
• A healthy catalog of rules
– Across many aspects of business and life
– Many are industry-specific or situational
• Penalties - Fines, loss of employment, incarceration
• Scope - Domestic and international requirements
* Splash screens
• A message, logo, or graphic shown during startup or login
– Can be used for branding or to require compliance
• Can be informational
– Maintenance notifications or system changes
• May be required for legal or administrative purposes
– Warnings about system misuse
– Information about relying on application data
- Incident reports
Incident reports
• Security policy
– An ongoing challenge
– Documentation must be available
– No questions
• Incidents are ongoing
– Organizations have formal incident plans
• Reports and documentation
– Details of any security incident
– Create a reference for future incidents
- Standard operating procedures
Standard operating procedures
• Organizations have different business objectives
– Processes and procedures
• Operational procedures
– Downtime notifications, facilities issues
• Software installation and upgrades
– Custom installation of a software package
– Testing, change control
• Documentation is the key
– Everyone can review and understand the policies
* Procedures for custom installation of software package
- New-user setup checklist
On-boarding
• Bring a new person into the organization
– New user setup checklist
• IT agreements need to be signed
– May be part of the employee handbook or a separate AUP
• Create accounts
– Associate the user with groups and departments
• Provide required IT hardware
– Laptops, tablets, etc.
– Preconfigured and ready to go
- End-user termination checklist
Off-boarding
• All good things…
– End-user termination checklist
• This process should be predefined
– You don’t want to decide how to do things at this point
• What happens to the hardware?
• What happens to the data?
• Account information is usually deactivated
– But not always deleted
• Knowledge base/articles Explain
Knowledge base and articles
• External sources
– Manufacturer knowledge base
– Internet communities
• Internal documentation
– Institutional knowledge
– Usually part of help desk software
• Find the solution quickly
– Searchable archive
– Automatic searches with helpdesk ticket keywords
4.2 Explain basic change-management best practices.
• Documented business processes
• Change management
Change management
• How to make a change
– Upgrade software, patch an application, change firewall configuration, modify switch ports
• One of the most common risks in the enterprise
– Occurs very frequently
• Often overlooked or ignored
– Did you feel that bite?
• Have clear policies
– Frequency, duration, installation process, rollback procedures
• Sometimes extremely difficult to implement
– It’s hard to change corporate culture
Change management process
• A formal process for managing change
– Avoid downtime, confusion, and mistakes
• Nothing changes without the process
– Complete the request forms
– Determine the purpose of the change
– Identify the scope of the change
– Schedule a date and time of the change
– Determine affected systems and the impact
– Analyze the risk associated with the change
– Get approval from the change control board
– Get end-user acceptance after the change is complete
- Rollback plan
Rollback plan
• The change will work perfectly and nothing will ever go bad
– Of course it will
• You should always have a way to revert your changes
– Prepare for the worst, hope for the best
• This isn’t as easy as it sounds
– Some changes are difficult to revert
• Always have backups
- Sandbox testing
Sandbox testing
• Isolated testing environment
– No connection to the real world or production system
– A technological safe space
• Use before making a change to production
– Try the upgrade, apply the patch
– Test and confirm before deployment
• Confirm the rollback plan
– Move everything back to the original
– A sandbox can’t consider every possibility
- Responsible staff member
Responsible staff member
• A team effort - Many different parts of the organization
• IT team - Implements the change
• Business customer - The user of the technology or software
• Organization sponsor
– Someone’s budget is responsible for the process
– Or responsible for the profit
- Request forms
Change request forms
• A formal process always seems to include a bit of paperwork
– This is usually an online system
• Nothing gets missed
– Easy to manage
– Create detailed reports and statistics
• Usually a transparent process
– Many different groups and people are usually Involved
*** RCF – Request for change – A request form is a form that proposes a change.
- Purpose of the change
Purpose of the change
• Why are we doing this?
– There needs to be a compelling reason
• Application upgrades
– New features
– Bug fixes
– Performance enhancements
• Security fixes
– Monthly patches and vulnerability fixes
• There needs to be a good reason
– Changes are costly
*** Why the change need to occur.
- Scope of the change
Scope of the change
• Determine the effect of the change
– May be limited to a single server
– Or an entire site
• A single change can be far reaching
– Multiple applications, Internet connectivity, remote site access, external customer access
• How long will this take?
– Specific date and time for the change
– May have no impact, could have hours of downtime
- Date and time of the change
*** temporal timeline of the change and should be chosen to impact the least amount of business function
possible.
- Affected systems/impact
*** Involves assessing and addressing the effects that a change will have on an organizations people,
processes and technology.
- Risk analysis
Risk analysis
• Determine a risk value - i.e., high, medium, low
• The risks can be minor or far-reaching
– The “fix” doesn’t actually fix anything
– The fix breaks something else
– Operating system failures
– Data corruption
• What’s the risk with NOT making the change?
– Security or application vulnerability
– Unexpected downtime to other services
* Risk level
*** Potential failure of a change and the impact that failure may have on the company.
- Change board approvals
Change board and approvals
• Go or no go
– Lots of discussion
• All important parts of the organization are represented
– Potential changes can affect the entire company
• Some changes have priority
– The change board makes the schedule
– Some changes happen quickly, some take time
• This is the last step
– The actual work comes next
*** who are in charge of determining whether to proceed or table a potential change
- End-user acceptance
End-user acceptance
• Nothing happens without a sign-off
– The end users of the application / network
• One of your jobs is to make them successful
– They ultimately decide if a change is worth it to them
• Ideally, this is a formality
– Of course, they have been involved throughout this entire process
– There’s constant communication before and after
*** All users must be on board for change. Users ensure that the change doesn’t negatively
4.3 Given a scenario, implement workstation backup and recovery methods.
• Backup and recovery
Backups
• Incredibly important
– Recover important and valuable data
– Plan for disaster
• Many different implementations
– Total amount of data
– Type of backup
– Backup media
– Storage location
– Backup and recovery software
– Day of the week
- Full - Full Backup
• Backup everything
– All operating system and user files
• This is usually the longest backup process
– It’s everything in one backup
• Might be impractical every day
– Long backup times
– Lots of storage space
- Incremental - Incremental Backup
• A full backup is taken first
• Subsequent backups contain data changed since the last full backup and last incremental backup
– These are usually smaller than the full backup
• A restoration requires the full backup and all of the incremental backups
*** An incremental backup only creates a copy of new files and files modified since the last full,
incremental, or differential backup. Therefore, it takes the least amount of time to complete a backup
- Differential
Differential backup
• A full backup is taken first
– Subsequent backups contain data changed since the last full backup
– These usually grow larger as data is changed
• A restoration requires the full backup and the last differential backup
* differential backup only creates copy of selected data that has been modified since last full backup
- Synthetic
Synthetic backup
• Create a full backup
– Without actually performing a full backup
• Synthetic backup
– The first full backup copies every file
– Subsequent full backups are created from previous backups
• Can be faster and less bandwidth intensive
– The advantage of a full backup
– The efficiency of an incremental backup
*** Synthetic backup is the process of generating a file from a complete copy of a file created at some past
time and one or more incremental copies created at later times. The expression synthetic in this context
refers to the fact that the assembled file is not a direct copy of any single current or previously created file.
Instead, a synthetic file is merged or synthesized by a specialized application program from the original file
and one or more modifications to it
• Backup testing - Backup testing
• It’s not enough to perform the backup
– You have to be able to restore
• Disaster recovery testing
– Simulate a disaster situation
– Restore from backup
• Confirm the restoration
– Test the restored application and data
• Perform periodic audits
– Always have a good backup
– Weekly, monthly, quarterly checks
- Frequency
• Backup rotation schemes
- On site vs. off site
On site vs. off site backups
• On site backups
– No Internet link required
– Data is immediately available
– Generally less expensive than off site
• Off site backups
– Transfer data over Internet or WAN link
– Data is available after a disaster
– Restoration can be performed from anywhere
• Organizations often use both
– More copies of the data
– More options when restoring
- Grandfather-father-son (GFS) -Grandfather-father-son (GFS)
• Three separate backup rotations
– Monthly, weekly, daily
three-tiered approach to ensure at least one monthly full backup is conducted?
• Twelve monthly full backups (grandfather)
– A good choice for offsite storage
• Four (or five) weekly full backups (father)
– Depends on which day of the month is selected
• Thirty-one daily incremental or differential backups (son)
– Backup any daily changes
GFS backup schedule
• Choose a rotation
– Every organization is different
• Grandfather
– Last day of every month
• Father
– Every Monday
• Son
– Monday through Friday
- 3-2-1 backup rule -3-2-1 backup rule
• A popular and effective backup strategy
– For business or home use
• 3 copies of data should always be available
– One primary copy and two backups
• 2 different types of media should be used
– Local drive, tape backup, NAS
• 1 copy of the backup should be offsite
– Offsite storage, cloud backup
- Tower of Hanoi
*** The Tower of Hanoi is a backup rotation scheme that rotates backup media sets throughout the backup
process to minimize wear and failure of tape backup media
*** uses a complex mathematical puzzle to extend the number of unique days of backups stored with the
least amount of tapes
4.4 Given a scenario, use common safety procedures.
• Electrostatic discharge (ESD) straps
• ESD mats
• Equipment grounding
What is electrostatic discharge?
• Static electricity
– Electricity that doesn’t move
• Static electricity isn’t harmful to computers
– It’s the discharge that gets them
• ESD can be very damaging to computer components
– Silicon is very sensitive to high voltages
• Feel static discharge: ~3,500 volts
– Damage an electronic component: 100 volts or less
Controlling ESD
• Humidity over 60% helps control ESD
– Won’t prevent all possible ESD
– Keeping an air conditioned room at 60% humidity isn’t very practical
• Use your hand to “self-ground”
– Touch the exposed metal chassis before touching a component
– You’ll want to unplug the power connection
– Always. Really.
• Do not connect yourself to the ground of an electrical system!
Preventing static discharge
• Anti-static strap
– Connect your wrist to a metal part of the computer
• Anti-static pad
– A workspace for the computer
• Anti-static mat
– A mat for standing or sitting
• Anti-static bag
– Safely move or ship components
• Proper power handling
WARNING
• Power is dangerous
• Remove all power sources before working
• Don’t touch ANYTHING if you aren’t sure
• Replace entire power supply units
– Don’t repair internal components
• High voltage
– Power supplies, displays, laser printers
• Proper component handling and storage
Component handling and storage
• Try not to touch components directly
– Card edges only
• Store in an HVAC regulated environment
– Between 50 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit or 10 to 27 degrees Celsius
• Avoid high humidity
– Silica gel packets can help control humidity
• Store in the original padded box
– Bubble wrap can be a good alternative
• Antistatic bags
• Compliance with government regulations
Local government regulations
• Health and safety laws
– Vary widely depending on your location
– Keep the workplace hazard-free
• Building codes
– Fire prevention, electrical codes
• Environmental regulation
– High-tech waste disposal
• Personal safety
- Disconnect power before repairing PC
Equipment grounding
• Most computer products connect to ground
– Divert any electrical faults away from people
• Also applies to equipment racks
– Large ground wire
• Don’t remove the ground connection
– It’s there to protect you
• Never connect yourself to the ground of an electrical system
– This is not a way to prevent ESD
Personal safety
- Lifting techniques
• Lifting technique
– Lift with your legs, keep your back straight
– Don’t carry overweight items
– You can get equipment to lift
- Electrical fire safety
• Electrical fire safety
– Don’t use water or foam
– Use carbon dioxide, FM-200, or other dry chemicals
– Remove the power source
- Safety goggles
• Safety goggles
– Useful when working with chemicals
– Printer repair, toner, batteries
- Air filtration mask
• Air filter mask
– Dusty computers
– Printer toner
Local government regulations
• Health and safety laws
– Vary widely depending on your location
– Keep the workplace hazard-free
• Building codes
– Fire prevention, electrical codes
• Environmental regulation
– High-tech waste disposal
4.5 Summarize environmental impacts and local environmental controls.
• Material safety data sheet
(MSDS)/documentation for handling and disposal
Disposal procedures
• Read your Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
– United States Department of Labor,
– Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
– https://www.osha.gov, Index page
• Provides information for all hazardous chemicals
– Batteries, display devices / CRTs, chemical solvents and cans, toner and ink cartridges
• Sometimes abbreviated as Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
– Different names in each country
MSDS info
• Product and company information
• Composition / ingredients
• Hazard information
• First aid measures
• Fire-fighting measures
• Accidental release / leaking
• Handling and Storage
• Much more
Handling toxic waste
- Proper battery disposal
• Batteries
– Uninterruptible Power Supplies
– Dispose at your local hazardous waste facility
- Proper toner disposal
• Toner
– Recycle and reuse
– Many printer manufacturers provide a return box
– Some office supply companies will provide a discount for each cartridge
- Proper disposal of other devices and assets
• Other devices and assets
– Refer to the MSDS
– Don’t throw out without clear directions
• Temperature, humidity-level awareness, and proper ventilation
Room control
• Temperature
– Devices need constant cooling
– So do humans
• Humidity level
– High humidity promotes condensation
– Low humidity promotes static discharges
– 50% is a good number
• Proper ventilation
– Computers generate heat
– Don’t put everything in a closet
- Location/equipment placement
- Dust cleanup
- Compressed air/vacuums
• Power surges, under-voltage events, and power failures
- Battery backup - Battery backup
• Uninterruptible Power Supply
– Backup power
– Power failures, under-voltage events, surges
* An under-voltage event is reduction in or restriction on availability of electrical power in a particular area
* An extended over-voltage event is known as a power surge.
A power surge is basically an increase in your electrical current.
power fluctuations that may occur and cause a small increase in the input power
* A significant over-voltage event that occurs for a very short period of time is known as a power spike
* large increase in the input power
• UPS types
– Standby UPS
– Line-interactive UPS
– On-line UPS
• Features
– Auto shutdown, battery capacity, outlets, phone line suppression
- Surge suppressor -Surge suppressor
• Not all power is “clean”
– Self-inflicted power spikes and noise
– Storms, power grid changes
• Spikes are diverted to ground
• Noise filters remove line noise
– Decibel (Db) levels at a specified frequency
– Higher Db is better
Surge suppressor specs
• Joule ratings
– Surge absorption
– 200=good, 400=better
– Look for over 600 joules of protection
• Surge amp ratings
– Higher is better
• UL 1449 voltage let-through ratings
– Ratings at 500, 400, and 330 volts
– Lower is better
4.6 Explain the importance of prohibited content/activity and privacy, licensing, and policy concepts.
• Incident response
- Chain of custody - Incident response: Chain of custody
* required for evidence to be admissible in a court of law
• Control evidence - Maintain integrity
• Everyone who contacts the evidence
– Avoid tampering, use hashes
• Label and catalog everything
– Seal, store, and protect - Use digital signatures
* Chain of custody forms list every person who has worked with or who has touched the evidence that is a
part of an investigation
* A legal hold is a process that an organization uses to preserve all forms of potentially relevant information
when litigation is pending or reasonably anticipated.
Incident response: First response
• Identify the issue - Logs, in person, monitoring data
• Report to proper channels
– Don’t delay
– May include internal management and law enforcement
• Collect and protect information relating to an event
– Many different data sources and protection mechanisms
- Inform management/law enforcement as necessary
- Copy of drive (data integrity and preservation)
Incident response: Copy of drive
• Copy the contents of a disk
– Bit-for-bit, byte-for-byte
• Remove the physical drive
– Use a hardware write-blocker
– Preserve the data
• Software imaging tools
– Use a bootable device
• Use hashes for data integrity
– Drive image is hashed to ensure that data has not been modified
- Documentation of incident -Incident response: Documentation
• Document the findings
– For Internal use, legal proceedings, etc.
• Summary information
– Overview of the security event
• Detailed explanation of data acquisition
– Step-by-step method of the process
• The findings - An analysis of the data
• Conclusion - Professional results, given the analysis
• Licensing/digital rights management (DRM)/end-user license agreement (EULA)
Software licenses
• Most software includes a license
– Terms and conditions
– Overall use, number of copies, and backup options
- Valid licenses
– Per-seat or concurrent
- Non-expired licenses
• Non-expired licenses
– Ongoing Subscriptions
– Annual, three-year, etc.
– Use the software until the expiration date
- Personal use license vs. corporate use license
Licenses
• Personal license
– Designed for the home user
– Usually associated with a single device
– Or small group of devices owned by the same person
– Perpetual (one time) purchase
• Corporate use license
– Per-seat purchase / Site license
– The software may be installed everywhere
– Annual renewals
- Open-source license - Open source license
• Free and Open Source (FOSS)
– Source code is freely available
– End user can compile their own executable
• Closed source / Commercial
– Source code is private
– End user gets compiled executable
• End User Licensing Agreement (EULA)
– Determines how the software can be used
• Regulated data
Regulating credit card data
- Credit card transactions
• Payment Card Industry
– Data Security Standard (PCI DSS)
– A standard for protecting credit cards
• Six control objectives
– Build and Maintain a Secure Network and Systems
– Protect Cardholder Data
– Maintain a Vulnerability Management Program
– Implement Strong Access Control Measures
– Regularly Monitor and Test Networks
– Maintain an Information Security Policy
- Personal government-issued information - Personal government-issued information
• Used for government services and documentation
– Social security number, driver license
• There may be restrictions on collecting or storing government information - Check your local regulations
• U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM)
– Compromised personal identifiable information
– Personnel file information; name, SSN, date of birth, job assignments, etc.
– July 2015 - Affected ~21.5 million people
- PII - PII - Personally identifiable information
• Any data that can identify an individual
– Part of your privacy policy - How will you handle PII?
• Not everyone realizes the importance of this data
– It becomes a “normal” part of the day
– It can be easy to forget its importance
• Attackers use PII to gain access or impersonate
– Bank account information
– Answer badly-written password-reset questions
GDPR - General Data Protection Regulation
• European Union regulation
– Data protection and privacy for individuals in the EU
– Name, address, photo, email address, bank details, posts on social networking websites,
medical information, a computer’s IP address, etc.
• Controls export of personal data
– Users can decide where their data goes
• Gives individuals control of their personal data
– A right to be forgotten, right of erasure
• Site privacy policy
– Details all of the privacy rights for a user
- Healthcare data - PHI - Protected Health Information
• Health information associated with an individual
– Health status, health care records, payments for health care, and much more
• Data between providers
– Must maintain similar security requirements
• HIPAA regulations
– Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996
- Data retention requirements - Data retention requirements
• Keep files that change frequently for version control
– Files change often - Keep at least a week, perhaps more
• Recover from virus infection
– Infection may not be identified immediately
– May need to retain 30 days of backups
• Often legal requirements for data retention
– Email storage may be required over years
– Some industries must legally store certain data types
– Different data types have different storage requirements
– Corporate tax information, customer PII, tape backups, etc.
4.7 Given a scenario, use proper communication techniques and professionalism.
Communication skills
• One of the most useful skills for the troubleshooter
• One of the most difficult skills to master
• A skilled communicator is incredibly marketable
• Professional appearance and attire
• Match the attire of the current environment
– Everyone should feel comfortable about their dress
• Formal
– Some organizations have specific requirements
• Business casual
– A more relaxed style
• Find the right balance
– Follow the organization’s lead
- Match the required attire of the given environment
* Formal
* Business casual
• Use proper language and avoid jargon, acronyms, and slang, when applicable
Avoid jargon
• Abbreviations and TLAs
– Three Letter Acronyms
• Avoid acronyms and slang
– Be the translator
• Communicate in terms that everyone can understand
– Normal conversation puts everyone at ease
– Decisions are based on what you say
• These are the easiest problems to avoid
• Maintain a positive attitude/ project confidence
Maintain a positive attitude
• Positive tone of voice
– Partner with your customer
– Project confidence
• Problems can’t always be fixed
– Do your best
– Provide helpful options
• Your attitude has a direct impact on the overall customer experience
• Actively listen, take notes, and avoid interrupting the customer
Avoid interrupting
• But I know the answer!
• Why do we interrupt?
– We want to solve problems quickly
– We want to show how smart we are
• Actively listen, take notes
– Build a relationship with the customer
– They’ll need help again someday
– Don’t miss a key piece of information
– Especially useful on the phone
• This skill takes time to perfect
– The better you are, the more time you’ll save later
Clarify customer statements
• Ask pertinent questions
– Drill-down into the details
– Avoid an argument
– Avoid being judgmental
• Repeat your understanding of the problem back to the customer
– Did I understand you correctly?
• Keep an open mind
– Ask clarifying questions, even if the issue seems obvious
– Never make assumptions
Setting expectations
• Offer different options
– Repair or replace
• Document everything
– No room for questions
• Keep everyone informed
– Even if the status is unchanged
• Follow up afterwards
– Verify satisfaction
• Be culturally sensitive
- Use appropriate professional titles, when applicable
Avoid being judgmental
• Cultural sensitivity
– Use appropriate professional titles
• You’re the teacher
– Not the warden
– Leave insults on the playground
• Make people smarter
– They’ll be better technologists
• You’re going to make some BIG mistakes
– Remember them.
• Be on time (if late, contact the customer)
• Avoid distractions
Be on time and avoid distractions
• Don’t allow interruptions
– No personal calls, no texting, no Twitter
– Don’t talk to co-workers
• Apologize for delays and unintended distractions
– Create an environment for conversation
– In person
• Open and inviting
– Candy bowl can be magical
– On the phone
– Quiet background, clear audio
– Stay off the speakerphone
- Personal calls
- Texting/social media sites
- Personal interruptions
• Dealing with difficult customers or situations
Difficult situations
• Technical problems can be stressful
• Don’t argue or be defensive
– Don’t dismiss
– Don’t contradict
• Diffuse a difficult situation with listening and questions
– Relationship-building
• Communicate
– Even if there’s no update
• Never take the situation to social media
- Do not argue with customers or be defensive
- Avoid dismissing customer problems
- Avoid being judgmental
- Clarify customer statements
(ask open-ended questions to narrow scope of problem, restate issue, or question to verify understanding)
- Do not disclose experience via social media outlets
Maintain confidentiality
• Privacy concerns
– Sensitive information
– Both professional and private
– On the computer, desktop, or printer
• Professional responsibilities
– IT professionals have access to a lot of corporate data
• Personal respect
– Treat people as you would want to be treated
• Set and meet expectations/time line and communicate status with the customer
- Offer repair/replacement options, as needed
- Provide proper documentation on the services provided
- Follow up with customer/user at a later date to verify satisfaction
• Deal appropriately with customers’ confidential and private materials
- Located on a computer, desktop, printer, etc.
4.8 Identify the basics of scripting.
Scripting languages
• Automate with the right tools
– The script should match the requirement
• May be specific to a task or operating system
– Your choices may already be limited
• You will probably learn more than one of these
– An important skill for any technician
- Environment Variables
* Shell scripts and batch files use environment variables to communicate data and preferences to child
processes.
* They can also be used to store temporary values for reference later in a shell script
- Loop
* A loop deviates from the initial program path to some sort of logic condition.
* In a loop, the computer repeats the task until a condition is met.
* Often implemented with For or While statements.
*** For example, a short script like (For i=1 to 100, print I, next) would print the numbers from 1 to 100 to
the screen
* for next
- variable
* A variable is a placeholder in a script containing a number, character, or string of characters.
* Variables in scripts do not have to be declared (unlike in programming languages)
but can be assigned a value.
*** Then, the variable name is referenced throughout the script instead of the value itself
* can be changed
- Comment
* A comment is written into the code to help a human understand the initial programmer's logic.
* In Python, for example, you can use the # symbol to comment on a line of code
- Constant
* A constant is a specific identifier that contains a value that cannot be changed within the program.
* For example, the value to convert a number from F to C is always 5/9 because the formula is C = (F -32)
* 5/9
* Variable that cant be changed
- Branch
* A branch is used to control the flow within a computer program or script,
usually based on some logic condition.
*** Often, these are implemented with IF THEN ELSE statements.
- Character
* A character stores a single character, such as J, D, or Z.
* A character data type usually consumes one byte (8 bits) of storage
- Boolean
* A boolean stores a value of TRUE (1) or FALSE (0).
* It usually consumes only 1 bit of storage (a zero or a one)
- Floating-point
* A floating-point number stores a fractional or decimal number, such as 3.14, 45.5, or 333.33.
* A floating-point number data type usually consumes 4 to 8 bytes of storage
- String
* A string stores a group of characters, such as Hello, PYTHON, or JasonDion.
* A string data type usually consumes as much storage as necessary.
*** Each character in the string usually requires 1 byte of storage
- Integers
* An integer stores a whole number, such as 21, 143, or 1024.
* An integer data type usually consumes 8 bytes of storage
• Script file types
- .bat
Batch files
• .bat file extension
– Scripting for Windows at the command line
– Legacy goes back to DOS and OS/2
- .ps1
Windows PowerShell
• Command line for system administrators
– .ps1 file extension
– Included with Windows 8/8.1 and 10
• Extend command-line functions
– Uses cmdlets (command-lets)
– PowerShell scripts and functions
– Standalone executables
• Automate and integrate
– System administration
– Active Domain administration
- .vbs
Microsoft Visual Basic Scripting Edition
• VBScript
– .vbs file extension
• General purpose scripting in Windows
– Back-end web server scripting
– Scripting on the Windows desktop
– Scripting inside of Microsoft Office applications
- .sh
Shell script
• Scripting the Unix/Linux shell
– Automate and extend the command line
• Starts with a shebang or hash-bang #!
– Often has a .sh file extension
- .js
JavaScript
• Scripting inside of your browser
– .js file extension
• Adds interactivity to HTML and CSS
– Used on almost every web site
• JavaScript is not Java
– Different developers and origins
– Very different use and implementation
- .py
Python
• General-purpose scripting language
– .py file extension
• Popular in many technologies
– Broad appeal and support
* Python is a general-purpose programming language that can develop many different kinds of applications.
*** commonly used to create applications that can be run on Linux, macOS, and Windows
• Use cases for scripting
- Basic automation
Basic automation
• Automate tasks
– You don’t have to be there
– Solve problems in your sleep
– Monitor and resolve problems before they happen
• The need for speed
– The script is as fast as the computer
– No typing or delays
– No human error
• Automate mundane tasks
– You can do something more creative
- Restarting machines -Restarting machines
• Turning it off and back on again
– An important task
• Application updates
– Some apps require a system restart
• Security patches
– Deploy overnight and reboot the system
• Troubleshooting
– The once-a-day restart
– You may not have physical access
- Remapping network drives -Remapping network drives
• Shared network drives
– The link between the user and their data
• A common task during startup
– Login scripts provide the connection
• Automate software changes
– Map a drive to the repository
• Add or move user data
– Automate the process
- Installation of applications -Application installations
• Install applications automatically
– Don’t walk a flash drive to every computer
– Many applications have an automated installation process
– Scripting can turn this into a hands-off process
• On-demand or automatic installation scripts
– Map the application installation drive
– Install the application without user prompts
– Disconnect the drive
– Restart the system
- Automated backups -Automated backups
• Usually performed at night or during off-hours
– Get a copy of all important data
• Time consuming
– File systems, network connections
• Script an automated backup process
– Works while you sleep
– Don’t have to think about it
- Gathering of information/data -Information gathering
• Get specific information from a remote device
– Monitoring and reporting
• Performance monitoring
– Confirm proper operation of a device
• Inventory management
– Check the hardware or software configuration
• Security and vulnerability checks
– Check for certain application or library versions
– Plan for the latest patches
- Initiating updates
Initiating updates
• Nothing ever stays the same
– Constant changes and updates
• Operating systems
– New features
– Security patches
• Device drivers
– Bug fixes
– New hardware or OS support
• Applications
– New version rollouts
• Other considerations when using scripts
Other scripting considerations
• Unintentionally introducing malware
– Make sure you know what you’re installing
• Inadvertently changing system settings
– Test all updates
– Track the file and registry changes
• Browser or system crashes
– Mishandling of resources
– A single character in a script can have unintended consequences
– Always have a backup
– Always test before deployment
- Unintentionally introducing malware
- Inadvertently changing system settings
- Browser or system crashes due to mishandling of resources
4.9 Given a scenario, use remote access technologies.
• Methods/tools
Remote desktop connections
• Share a desktop from a remote location
– It’s like you’re right there
• RDP (Microsoft Remote Desktop Protocol)
– Clients for Mac OS, Linux, and others as well
• VNC (Virtual Network Computing)
– Remote Frame Buffer (RFB) protocol
– Clients for many operating systems
– Many are open source
• Commonly used for technical support
– And for scammers
- RDP
Remote desktop security
• Microsoft Remote Desktop
– An open port of tcp/3389 is a big tell
– Brute force attack is common
• Third-party remote desktops
– Often secured with just a username and password
– There’s a LOT of username/password re-use
• Once you’re in, you’re in
– The desktop is all yours
– Easy to jump to other systems
– Obtain personal information, bank details
– Make purchases from the user’s browser
- VPN
VPNs
• Virtual Private Networks
– Encrypted (private) data traversing a public network
• Concentrator
– Encryption/decryption access device
– Often integrated into a firewall
• Many deployment options
– Specialized cryptographic hardware
– Software-based options available
• Used with client software
– Sometimes built into the OS
Client-to-site VPN
• On-demand access from a remote device
– Software connects to a VPN concentrator
• Some software can be configured as always-on
VPN security
• VPN data on the network is very secure
– The best encryption technologies
• Authentication is critical
– An attacker with the right credentials can gain access
• Almost always includes multi-factor authentication (MFA)
– Require more than just a username and password
- Virtual network computer (VNC)
- Secure Shell (SSH)
SSH (Secure Shell)
• Encrypted console communication - tcp/22
• Looks and acts the same as Telnet - tcp/23
SSH security
• The network traffic is encrypted
– Nothing to see in the packets
• Authentication is a concern
– SSH supports public/private key pair authentication
• Certain accounts should be disabled in SSH
– For example, root
– Consider removing all password-based authentication
• Limit access to SSH by IP address
– Configure a local firewall or network filter
- Remote monitoring and management (RMM)
RMM
• Managed Service Providers (MSP)
– Many customers and systems to monitor
– Many different service levels
• Remote Monitoring and Management (RMM)
– Manage a system from a remote location
• Many features
– Patch operating systems
– Remote login
– Anomaly monitoring
– Hardware/software inventory
RMM security
• A popular attack point
• The RMM has a great deal of information and control
• Access should be limited
– Don’t allow everyone to connect to the RMM service
• Auditing is important
– Know who’s connecting to which devices and what they’re doing
- Microsoft Remote Assistance (MSRA)
Microsoft Remote Assistance (MSRA)
• Get access to a remote user’s desktop
– No firewall configurations or port forwarding required
• User makes a request
– Sends an invitation with the details
• Technician connects
– Uses the password in the request
• Replaced by Quick Assist in Windows 10
– The latest version of MSRA
MSRA/Quick Assist security
• No ongoing Remote Desktop service required
– Avoids unintended access
– No port forwarding
• Email with invitation details is always a concern
– Consider using voice communication
• Perhaps a bit too easy to use
– Social engineering can be an issue
- Third-party tools
* Screen-sharing software
* Video-conferencing software
* File transfer software
* Desktop management software
Third-party tools
• Screen-sharing
– See and control a remote device
– GoToMyPC, TeamViewer
• Video-conferencing
– Multi-user meetings with video and audio
– Zoom, WebEx
• File transfer
– Store and share documents in the cloud
– Dropbox, Box.com, Google Drive
• Desktop management
– Manage end-user devices and operating systems
– Citrix Endpoint Management, ManageEngine Desktop Central
• Security considerations of each access method
CompTIA A+ Core 2 (220-1102) Acronym List
The following is a list of acronyms that appear on the CompTIA A+ Core 2 (220-1102) exam. Candidates are
encouraged to review the complete list and attain a working knowledge of all listed acronyms as part of a
comprehensive exam preparation program.
Acronym
AAA
AC
ACL
ADF
AES
AP
APFS
APIPA
APK
ARM
ARP
ATA
ATM
ATX
AUP
BIOS
BSOD
BYOD
CAPTCHA
CD
CDFS
CDMA
CERT
CIFS
CMD
CMOS
CPU
CRL
DC
DDoS
DDR
DHCP
DIMM
DKIM
DMA
DMARC
DNS
DoS
Definition
Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting
Alternating Current
Access Control List
Automatic Document Feeder
Advanced Encryption Standard
Access Point
Apple File System
Automatic Private Internet Protocol Addressing
Android Package
Advanced RISC [Reduced Instruction Set Computer] Machine
Address Resolution Protocol
Advanced Technology Attachment
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Advanced Technology Extended
Acceptable Use Policy
Basic Input/Output System
Blue Screen of Death
Bring Your Own Device
Completely Automated Public Turing Test to Tell Computers and Humans Apart
Compact Disc
Compact Disc File System
Code-Division Multiple Access
Computer Emergency Response Team
Common Internet File System
Command Prompt
Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
Central Processing Unit
Certificate Revocation List
Direct Current
Distributed Denial of Service
Double Data Rate
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Dual Inline Memory Module
DomainKeys Identified Mail
Direct Memory Access
Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting, and Conformance
Domain Name System
Denial of Service
DRAM
DRM
DSL
DVI
DVI-D
ECC
EFS
EMI
EOL
eSATA
ESD
EULA
exFAT
ext
FAT
FAT12
FAT16
FAT32
FSB
FTP
GFS
GPS
GPT
GPU
GSM
GUI
GUID
HAL
HAV
HCL
HDCP
HDD
HDMI
HSM
HTML
HTTP
HTTPS
I/O
IaaS
ICR
IDE
IDS
IEEE
IMAP
IOPS
IoT
IP
IPS
IPS
Dynamic Random-Access Memory
Digital Rights Management
Digital Subscriber Line
Digital Visual Interface
Digital Visual Interface-Digital
Error Correcting Code
Encrypting File System
Electromagnetic Interference
End-of-Life
External Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
Electrostatic Discharge
End-User License Agreement
Extensible File Allocation Table
Extended File System
File Allocation Table
12-bit File Allocation Table
16-bit File Allocation Table
32-bit File Allocation Table
Front-Side Bus
File Transfer Protocol
Grandfather-Father-Son
Global Positioning System
GUID [Globally Unique Identifier] Partition Table
Graphics Processing Unit
Global System for Mobile Communications
Graphical User Interface
Globally Unique Identifier
Hardware Abstraction Layer
Hardware-assisted Virtualization
Hardware Compatibility List
High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection
Hard Disk Drive
High-Definition Multimedia Interface
Hardware Security Module
Hypertext Markup Language
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
Input/Output
Infrastructure as a Service
Intelligent Character Recognition
Integrated Drive Electronics
Intrusion Detection System
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Internet Mail Access Protocol
Input/Output Operations Per Second
Internet of Things
Internet Protocol
Intrusion Prevention System
In-plane Switching
IPSec
IR
IrDA
IRP
ISO
ISP
ITX
KB
KVM
LAN
LC
LCD
LDAP
LED
MAC
MAM
MAN
MBR
MDM
MFA
MFD
MFP
MMC
MOU
MSDS
MSRA
MX
NAC
NAT
NDA
NetBIOS
NetBT
NFC
NFS
NIC
NTFS
NVMe
OCR
OLED
ONT
OS
PaaS
PAN
PC
PCIe
PCL
PE
PII
PIN
Internet Protocol Security
Infrared
Infrared Data Association
Incident Response Plan
International Organization for Standardization
Internet Service Provider
Information Technology eXtended
Knowledge Base
Keyboard-Video-Mouse
Local Area Network
Lucent Connector
Liquid Crystal Display
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
Light-emitting Diode
Media Access Control/Mandatory Access Control
Mobile Application Management
Metropolitan Area Network
Master Boot Record
Mobile Device Management
Multifactor Authentication
Multifunction Device
Multifunction Printer
Microsoft Management Console
Memorandum of Understanding
Material Safety Data Sheet
Microsoft Remote Assistance
Mail Exchange
Network Access Control
Network Address Translation
Non-disclosure Agreement
Networked Basic Input/Output System
NetBIOS over TCP/IP [Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol]
Near-field Communication
Network File System
Network Interface Card
New Technology File System
Non-volatile Memory Express
Optical Character Recognition
Organic Light-emitting Diode
Optical Network Terminal
Operating System
Platform as a Service
Personal Area Network
Personal Computer
Peripheral Component Interconnect Express
Printer Command Language
Preinstallation Environment
Personally Identifiable Information
Personal Identification Number
PKI
Public Key Infrastructure
PoE
Power over Ethernet
POP3
Post Office Protocol 3
POST
Power-on Self-Test
PPP
Point-to-Point Protocol
PRL
Preferred Roaming List
PSU
Power Supply Unit
PXE
Preboot Execution Environment
RADIUS
Remote Authentication Dial-in User Service
RAID
Redundant Array of Independent (or Inexpensive) Disks
RAM
Random-access Memory
RDP
Remote Desktop Protocol
RF
Radio Frequency
RFI
Radio Frequency Interference
RFID
Radio Frequency Identification
RJ11
Registered Jack Function 11
RJ45
Registered Jack Function 45
RMM
Remote Monitoring and Management
RTO
Recovery Time Objective
SaaS
Software as a Service
SAN
Storage Area Network
SAS
Serial Attached SCSI [Small Computer System Interface]
SATA
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
SC
Subscriber Connector
SCADA
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SCP
Secure Copy Protection
SCSI
Small Computer System Interface
SDN
Software-defined Networking
SFTP
Secure File Transfer Protocol
SIM
Subscriber Identity Module
SIMM
Single Inline Memory Module
S.M.A.R.T.
Self-monitoring Analysis and Reporting Technology
SMB
Server Message Block
SMS
Short Message Service
SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol
SNTP
Simple Network Time Protocol
SODIMM
Small Outline Dual Inline Memory Module
SOHO
Small Office/Home Office
SPF
Sender Policy Framework
SQL
Structured Query Language
SRAM
Static Random-access Memory
SSD
Solid-State Drive
SSH
Secure Shell
SSID
Service Set Identifier
SSL
Secure Sockets Layer
SSO
Single Sign-on
ST
Straight Tip
STP
Shielded Twisted Pair
TACACS
TCP
TCP/IP
TFTP
TKIP
TLS
TN
TPM
UAC
UDP
UEFI
UNC
UPnP
UPS
USB
UTM
UTP
VA
VDI
VGA
VLAN
VM
VNC
VoIP
VPN
VRAM
WAN
WEP
WISP
WLAN
WMN
WPA
WWAN
XSS
Terminal Access Controller Access-Control System
Transmission Control Protocol
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
Trivial File Transfer Protocol
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
Transport Layer Security
Twisted Nematic
Trusted Platform Module
User Account Control
User Datagram Protocol
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
Universal Naming Convention
Universal Plug and Play
Uninterruptible Power Supply
Universal Serial Bus
Unified Threat Management
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Vertical Alignment
Virtual Desktop Infrastructure
Video Graphics Array
Virtual LAN [Local Area Network]
Virtual Machine
Virtual Network Computer
Voice over Internet Protocol
Virtual Private Network
Video Random-access Memory
Wide Area Network
Wired Equivalent Privacy
Wireless Internet Service Provider
Wireless LAN [Local Area Network]
Wireless Mesh Network
WiFi Protected Access
Wireless Wide Area Network
Cross-site Scripting
CompTIA A+ Core 2 (220-1102) Proposed Hardware and Software List
**CompTIA has included this sample list of hardware and software to
assist candidates as they prepare for the A+ Core 2 (220-1102) exam. This
list may also be helpful for training companies that wish to create a lab
component to their training offering. The bulleted lists below each topic
are sample lists and are not exhaustive.
Equipment
• Apple tablet/smartphone
• Android tablet/smartphone
• Windows tablet
• Chromebook
• Windows laptop/Mac laptop/Linux laptop
• Windows desktop/Mac desktop/ Linux desktop
• Windows server with Active Directory and Print Management
• Monitors
• Projectors
• SOHO router/switch
• Access point
• Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) phone
• Printer
- Laser/inkjet
- Wireless
- 3-D printer
- Thermal
• Surge suppressor
• Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
• Smart devices (Internet of Things [IoT] devices)
• Server with a hypervisor
• Punchdown block
• Patch panel
• Webcams
• Speakers
• Microphones
Spare parts/hardware
• Motherboards
• RAM
• Hard drives
• Power supplies
• Video cards
• Sound cards
• Network cards
• Wireless network interface cards (NICs)
• Fans/cooling devices/heat sink
• CPUs
• Assorted connectors/cables
- USB
- High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)
- DisplayPort
- Digital visual interface (DVI)
- Video graphics array (VGA)
• Adapters
- Bluetooth adapter
• Network cables
• Unterminated network cable/connectors
• Alternating current (AC) adapters
• Optical drives
• Screws/standoffs
• Cases
• Maintenance kit
• Mice/keyboards
• Keyboard-video-mouse (KVM)
• Console cable
• Solid-state drive (SSD)
Tools
• Screwdriver
• Multimeter
• Wire cutters
• Punchdown tool
• Crimper
• Power supply tester
• Cable stripper
• Standard technician toolkit
• Electrostatic discharge (ESD) strap
• Thermal paste
• Cable tester
• Cable toner
• WiFi analyzer
• Serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) to USB connectors
Software
• OSs
- Linux
- Chrome OS
- Microsoft Windows
- macOS
- Android
- iOS
• Preinstallation environment (PE) disk/live compact disc (CD)
• Antivirus software
• Virtualization software
• Anti-malware
• Driver software