RESEARCH SKILLS SIMPLIFIED
Research -a systematic and organized process of investigating a specific problem encountered in
the work setting that needs a solution
Characteristics of Research
1) is concerned with systematic gathering, recording and analyzing of information.
2) information is collected objectively and accurately
3) Data is interpreted systematically.
4) is a tool for solving problems
5) Research is applied knowledge.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Functions of Business Research
Description-provides data and gives information.
Explanation-gives meaning to what has been observed.
Evaluation-helps in undertaking an after examination
Prediction- helps in forecasting or in foretelling
Aid in Decision-making.
Types of Research
1. Problem Identification research (Basic research) -extending knowledge frontiers
2. Problem Solving research (Applied research) -solve specific business problems
Research Method -techniques used in studying a research problem
Research Methodology -an approach the researchers use in performing research operations
Scientific Method Of Enquiry
1) Ask a question/Problem Identification
2) Do background research
3) Formulation of Hypothesis- an educated guess about how things work:
4) Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment
5) Analyze your data and draw a conclusion.
6) Communicate your results
Element
Primary Data
Secondary Data
Collection purpose
For the problem at hand
For other problems
Collection cost
Very involving
Rapid and easy
Collection process
High
Relatively low
Collection time
Relatively low
Page | 1
PRIMARY DATA
Primary data can also be classified as;
Parameter
Qualitative
Quantitative
Objective
Understanding of underlying
reason or motivation
Quantify data and generalize results
from the sample to the population.
Sample
Small number of nonrepresentative cases
Large number of representative
sample
Data Collection
Unstructured
Structured
Data Analysis
Non Statistical
Statistical
Outcome
Develop an initial understanding
Recommend a final course of action
PROCEDURES OF CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DIRECT PROCEDURES -purpose of the research is disclosed to the respondents or otherwise
obvious to them from the questions asked. Uses;
a. Focus Groups- consists of 6 to 12 participants with a moderator
Advantages of focus group interviews
i) give rise to new ideas,thoughts &feelings which cant be elicited in a one to one interview.
ii) The respondents will provide creative and honest opinion.
iii) The underlying reason to the attitude, feeling, emotions, behaviour etc. can be uncovered
iv) The researcher will have firsthand information
v) can cover a number of topics.
Disadvantages of focus group interviews
i) Identifying the participants and gathering them together in a location is difficult
ii) data structures developed from them cant be as such applied to the target population.
iii) The researcher has only limited ways to substantiate the data reliability.
iv) Data collected from the participants may not be structured and amenable
v) data collected can be subjectively interpreted by the researcher hence interviewer bias.
b. Depth Interview - unstructured, direct, personal interview with a single respondent.
c. Survey Method-a questionnaire is used to collect data from a sample of the population
INDIRECT PROCEDURES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH uses;
Ethnographic research, Ethical inquiry, Grounded theory,Phenomenology&Projective techniques
METHODS OF COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE PRIMARY DATA
Page | 2
a. Survey Method
Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way.
Unstructured Surveys: interviewer probes respondents& guide interview according to answers.
Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.
Uses;
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Telephone-traditional and computer assisted telephone interview
Personal interview-Personal in-home,Mall Intercept&Computer Assisted Personal interv.
Mail -Mail Interview &Mail Panel
Electronic -E-mail surveys & Internet surveys
b. Observation Method
Types of Observation:
i) Disguised/ Undisguised observation
ii) Structured – for descriptive research and Unstructured—for exploratory research
iii) Participant Observation/Non- participant observation
iv) Human versus mechanical(Audiometers ,Turnstiles, On site cameras)
a) : Maybe attached to TV sets to track the channels being watched
b) : Human traffic counters to buildings or shops or no. of vehicles passing
c) to monitor flow of people or traffic.
Advantages of the Observation Methods
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Permit the measurement of actual behavior rather than mere report of the same
Reduce the incidence of bias
Certain information/data such as behaviour can only be collected via observations
It can be more accurate and less costly
Maybe faster than surveys
Disadvantages of Observation Methods
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Method doesn’t unearth any reason for the observed behaviour
May suffer selective perception – resulting in researcher’s bias
Often time consuming and expensive
Motivation, attitudes, intentions and other internal conditions cannot be observed.
The use of observation sometimes boarders on being unethical
Factors to Consider When Choosing a Survey Method to Use
1) Diversity of questions
2) Quantity of data
Page | 3
3) Potential for interviewer bias
4) Speed.
5) Cost
Instruments used in Collection of Data
i) Self-completion questionnaire
ii) Administered questionnaire
iii) Focus Group discussion guide
iv) Observation checklist
v) Camera/video
SECONDARY DATA
Uses
1. Formulating the decision making problem
2. Suggesting the methodology to adopt
3. Interpreting and evaluating primary data
4. Monitoring the external environment of the organization
5. In longitudinal research studies i.e. trend analysis
Secondary data is broadly classified by source as either;
i) Internal data-available within the organization in which the research is being conducted
Sources; Sales invoice, cash register, customer records, financial records &credit memos
ii) External data -data that is originated from outside the organization
Sources; Directories, Government publications, statistical abstracts, economic surveys
iii) Computerized Databases -information that has been made available in computer readable
form for electronic distribution
Include; Online database Offline database Bibliographic database(citations to articles)
Sources; Scholarly Journals, Theses and Dissertations ,Government Documents,books,
interntional indices ,periodicals & references quoted in books
Advantages of Secondary Data
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Helps the investigator to state the problem in a better way
Helps in formulating an appropriate research design
It can easily and quickly be accessed
They are relatively inexpensive
Enables the interpretation of primary data more insightfully.
Page | 4
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
The information is meant for a different study hence might not be very relevant to current study
Secondary data may be lacking in accuracy, may not be current or absolutely dependable.
usefulness to the problem is limited in relevance and accuracy
The collection methodology may have not been appropriate to the problem at hand
Secondary data may also be inaccurate
Criteria used in Evaluating Secondary Data
Use the following guide to evaluate the dependability of secondary data to the problem at hand.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Assess its specification and methodology to ensure reliability with the problem at hand
Examine appropriateness of the research design.
Examine the currency of the data and or frequency of updates
Consider purpose for which data was collected &examine relevance with the problem at hand
Ensure data is from original source rather than acquired source.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Empirical – Can be described as a research that relies on experience or observation alone
2. Conceptual – It is a research that is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory
3. Quantitative – It is based on measures of either amounts or quantity e.g speed of vehicle
4. Qualitative– It is research based on qualitative phenomenon e.g investigation on human
behaviour.
5. Descriptive – Its main purpose is to describe the state of affairs as it is presently.
6. Analytical research – The researcher uses facts or information already available and
analyses it to make a critical evaluation of the material.
RESEARCH METHODS
i.
ii.
iii.
Desk research- Observation Questionnaires Interview Survey
Field research
Laboratory research-Lab observation
Page | 5
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
1. Objectivity
2. Applicability
3. Systematic
4. Purposiveness
5. Sampling
6. Control
TENETS (FEATURES) OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH
(i)
Objectivity –classify facts accurately and carefully without any bias.
(ii)
Accuracy of measurement
(iii) Self criticism – Scientists/researchers should critically examine their own
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH/ITS USES IN DECISION MAKING
1.
It can be used in marketing research
2.
It can be used in solving planning and operational problems in a business.
3.
Government policies and decision making
4.
Research in the world of science is useful in coming up in inventions and innovations
5.
It helps philosophers and other social scientists general information seekers to come up
with new theories and add onto the existing ones.
RESEARCH PROBLEM
For a research problem to exist, some conditions have to be met:
1. There must be an individual/group/organization to whom the problem can be attributed.
2. There must be at least
a. A general statement of the problem.
b. Understanding the nature of the problem.
c. Developing ideas through discussions.
d. Rephrasing the research problem.
RESEARCH DESIGN
a research design must contain:
(i)
A clear statement of the research problem.
(ii)
Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information.
(iii) Population to be studied.
(iv)
Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
Characteristics of a good research design
Page | 6
1.
2.
3.
minimize bias and maximize the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
Should have a small experimental error.
It should yield maximal information and provide an opportunity for considering
other aspects of the problem.
Factors to be considered when choosing a research design:
(i) The means of obtaining the information.
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff.
(iii)The objective of the problem to be studied.
(iv) The nature of the problem to be studied.
(v) The availability of time and money for the research.
Research design concepts
1.
Dependent and independent variables
2.
Extraneous variable-are independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the
study but may affect the dependent variable
3.
Control- refer to restrained experimental conditions.
4.
Confounded relationship -When the independent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variables, the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variable.
5.
Research hypothes-is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable
6.
Experimental(special conditions) and control(normal conditions) groups.
7.
Treatments -diff. conditions under which experimental and control groups are put usually
8.
Experiment process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem.
Types of research designs
1.
Exploratory research studies -formulating a problem for more precise investigation
Methods under it:
(a)
Survey of literature- entails a survey of other studies done in that area
(b)
Experience survey- survey of people who have experience with the problem to
be studied
The analysis of insight – stimulating examples-used in areas where there is little
experience to serve as a guide.
2.
Descriptive and diagnostic research design
Research design
Exploratory
Type of study
Descriptive/Diagnostic
Page | 7
Overall design
Flexible design – must
provide opportunity for
considering different
aspects of the problem.
- Sampling design
- Statistical design
- Non-probability
- No pre-planned design
for analysis.
- Unstructured
instruments for
collection of data.
- No fixed decisions
about the operational
procedures.
- Observational
design
- Operational
design
Rigid design – Must make
enough provision for
protection against bias and
must maximize reliability.
-
-
Probability
Preplanned design for
analysis.
Structured or well
thought out instruments
for data collection.
Advanced decision
about operational
procedures.
Hypothesis – Testing research studies
3.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Sampling Process Design
Terms/Concepts in Sampling
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Population – Population refers to the entire group of people, events or things of
interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.
Element – An element is a single member of a population
Population Frame –is a listing of all the elements in the population from which the
sample is drawn.
Sample – A sample is a subset of the population
Subject – A subject is a single member of the sample
Steps in Sampling Design
(i)
Type of universe – define the set of objects to be studied.
(ii)
Sampling unit – A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
the sample.
(iii) Source list – It contains the names of all items of a universe
(iv)
Size of sample –the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a
sample.
(v)
Budgetary Constraint – Cost considerations from practical point of view
(vi)
Sampling Procedure – The researcher must decide the type of sample he will
Page | 8
STEPS IN DEVELOPING A SAMPLING PLAN
Step 1:
Define the population of interests
Step 2:
Choose the sampling frame
Step 3:
Choose the data collection methods
Step 4:
Select a sampling method
Step 5:
Determine the samples size
Step 6:
Develop and specify an operational plan for selecting sample elements
Step 7:
Execute the operational sampling plan
TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS
There are different types of sample designs based on two factors:
(i)
Representation basis-the sample may be probability/non-probability
(ii)
Element selection technique- the sample may be either unrestricted or restricted
Types of Probability Sampling
1.
Simple Random Sampling- involves giving a number to every subject or member of the
accessible population, placing the numbers in a container and then picking any number at
random.
2.
Systematic random sampling-every kth case in the population frame is selected for
inclusion in the sample
3.
Stratified random sampling -subjects are selected in such a way that the existing
subgroups in the population are more or less produced in the sample
4.
Cluster sampling -used when it is not possible to obtain a sampling frame because the
population is either very large or scattered over a large geographical area
5.
Multi-stage samplingis a further development of the principle of cluster sampling.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1.
Convenience Sampling, the researcher studies all those persons who are most
conveniently available or who accidentally come in his contact during the research
2.
Purposive Sampling -that allows a researcher to use cases that have the required
information with respect to the objectives of his/her study
3.
Quota Sampling -it works on ‘quotas’ fixed by the researcher
4.
Snowball sampling -useful when the population that possesses the characteristics under
study is not well known and there is need to find subjects
5.
Maximum variation- effort is made to get a sample containing very varied cases
6.
Homogeneous sampling allows the researcher to select a smaller sample thus more
intensive data.
Page | 9
Importance of Sampling
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
Time
Labour
Cost
Accuracy
More detailed information
At times the only method that can be used to collect data information.
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
1. We divide population into few subgroups
1. We divide population into many subgroups
2. We try to secure homogeneity within 2. We try to secure heterogeneity within
subgroups
subgroups
3. We try to secure heterogeneity between 3. We try to secure homogeneity between
groups
groups
4. We randomly choose elements from each 4. We randomly choose several subgroups that
subgroup
we typically study in depth
SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
i)
ii)
iii)
Using a Census for Small Populations -use the entire population as the sample
Using Formulas to Calculate a Sample Size -The sample size can be computed for a different
combination of levels of precision, confidence, and variability
Using Published Tables -The sample size can be determined by relying on published tables
which provide the sample size for a given set of criteria
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZE
Page | 10
1. Level of precision -Refers to the sampling error that is allowed and which is normally given as
a percentage
2. Confidence level-It measures the extent to which, when a population is repeatedly sampled,
the average value of the attributes obtained by those sample elements is equal to the true
population value
3. Degree of variability -Refers to the degree of variability in the attributes of the population
4. Minimum number required for data analysis
5. Size of the population
6. Sample size in other similar studies
7. Permissible Sampling error
Importance of literature review
1.
Determines what has been done already related to the research being studied.
2.
Reveals what strategies procedures and instruments have been found useful in
investigating the problem in question
3.
Suggest other procedures and approaches
4.
It enables the researcher to be familiar with previous studies and thus facilitate
interpretation of the results of the study.
5.
Helps determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas.
6.
Pulls together, integrates and summarises what is known as an area
Scope of a literature review
1.
If there is a huge body of literature in well researched areas, one can read only those
studies that are reasonably close to their research topic
2.
In new or little researched areas a researcher would require to review any relevant
material.
3.
The researcher should avoid the temptation to include all available materials.
Steps in carrying out literature review
1.
Be familiar with the library before beginning the literature review.
2.
Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search.
3.
Summarise the references on cards for easy organization of the literature
4.
Oncecollected the literature should be analysed,organized&reported in an orderly manner
5.
Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation
Tips on good reviewing of literature
Do not conduct hurried review for fear of overlooking important studies.
Page | 11
-
Do not rely too heavily on secondary sources.
Many people concentrate only on findings from journals when reviewing literature. .
It is important to check daily newspapers as they contain very educative current
information.
It is extremely important to copy references in the first place so as to avoid the
frustration of trying to retrace a reference later.
Referencing within text
Method I -authors last name and year of the documents are put after a paraphrased statement in a
text e.g;
a. Among the economic factors that affects satisfaction with quality of life income has been
found to be positively related to satisfaction with quality of life (Berry & Williams,
1987).
b. Berry and Williams (1987), found a positive relationship between income and satisfaction
with quality of life.
Method II-In this method numbers representing names of authors are used.e.g;
Communication is an important planning tools that enables a household to realize goals (I, 1987).
Writing a research report
Parts of a report
1.
Title
2.
Dedication
3.
Abstract
4.
Table of contents
5.
List of tables
6.
List of figures
7.
List of abbreviations and acronyms:
8.
Executive Summary
9.
Introduction
10.
Literature Review
11.
Methodology
12.
Results and discussion
13.
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
14.
References
DATA ANALYSIS
Getting data ready for analysis;
a. Editing data
b. Coding
Page | 12
c. Categorisation
d. Entering data
PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS
Communicating The Results
a. Report preparation guidelines
1. Title page
2. Letter of Transmittal
3. Letter of authorization
4. Table of contents, list of graphs, list of appendixes, and list of exhibits:
5. Executive summary (Abstract)
6. Problem definition
7. Approach to the problem
8. Literature review
9. Research design
10. Data analysis
11. Results
12. Limitation and Caveats
13. Conclusions and Recommendations
REPORT WRITING
As a researcher writes a report they need to bear in mind the following;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Readers
Easy to follow
Presentable and professional appearance
Objectives
Reinforce text with tables and graphs
Terse
ORAL PRESENTATION GUIDELINES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Tell the audience what you are going to say, say it, and then tell them what you said.
Aim at communicating to your audience
Create audience interest
Inform the audience of the objectives of the study
Inform the audience of the relevance of each section to them.
Structure the presentation i.e Introduction , Body ,Summary and conclusions
Page | 13
7. Others;
▪ Do not read, make a presentation
▪ Avoiding the use of jargon and technical language if necessary.
▪ Design methods for involving the audience e.g. ask for comments
▪ Put weighty focus on the results, conclusions and recommendations (these topics are
likely to be of major concern to senior executives).
QUESTIONNAIRES
Objectives of Questionnaire
1. To motivate and encourage the respondents to be involved in the interview
2. To obtain accurate relevant information for our survey
3. To minimize response error.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Structured Undisguised Questionnaire -is one with fixed response alternative question and
obvious purpose.
2. Unstructured Undisguised Questionnaire -These are questionnaires with many open ended
questions and revealed purpose.
3. Unstructured Disguised - Use ambiguous stimuli that make subjects to relay on their emotions,
needs, motivation and attitude to frame a response.
4. Structured Disguised Questionnaire - This type has fixed response questions& hidden purpose.
Methods of Administering Questionnaires
a) Personally administered
b) Mailed to respondents
c) Electronically distributed
d)
Advantage of using a questionnaire
i) The responses are gathered in a standardized way.
ii) Generally it is relatively quick to collect information using a questionnaire.
iii) Potentially information can be collected from a large portion of a group.
iv) Can be analyzed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research
v) When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research
Page | 14
The disadvantage of using a questionnaire
i) Misunderstanding of questions may result in inaccurate or irrelevant answers being given
ii) The questions may be very detailed and these reduces the percentage of response
iii) Respondents may lack knowledge of the facts actually wanted
iv) It is not possible to explain any points in the questions that participants might misinterpret.
v) Open-ended questions can generate large amounts of data that can take a long time to
process and analyze.
THE PROCESS OF DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Specify the information needed
Specify the type of interviewing method.
Determine the content of individual questions.
Design the questions to overcome respondent’s inability and unwillingness to answer.
Decide on the questions structure. -Unstructured Questions, Structured Questions, Multiple Choice Questions, Dichotomous Questions and Scaled Question
6. Determine the questions wording.
7. Arrange the questions in proper order.
8. Structure of the questionnaire
9. Reproduce the questionnaire
10. Pretest the questionnaire.
11. Administer questionnaire
Techniques used to overcome unwillingness to answer
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Explain the significance of the research or information needed.
Place sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire
Ask questions using third person technique
Hide a sensitive question in a group of other questions that respondents are willing to
answer.
v) Provide response categories rather than asking specific figures
MEASUREMENT AND MEASUREMENT SCALES
Types of Measurement Scales
1.
Nominal Scales
o It places data in groups without any order or structure.
o It simply labels objects. E.g. male and female.
Page | 15
o There is not interval from one group to another. There is no distance between YES and
NO. Black and white, Christian, Muslim and Hindu
o Used with statistics which are in the non-parametric group.
Statistics used; Mode and Cross tabulation - with chi-square
2. Ordinal Scales- rank-orders categories in some meaningful way
Statistics used; Median and mode, Rank order correlation, Non-parametric analysis of variance
and Modeling techniques
3. Interval Scales -allows for measurement of the distance between any two points on the scale.
Statistics used ;Mean and standard deviation ,Regression and Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
4. Ratio Scale -is the top level of measurement used in social research.
Examples are; profits, production levels, sales level, length, weight, height, area, time, age etc.
METHODS OF SCALING
A. Ranking scales -used to tap the preferences of respondents among two or more objects
and make choices among them
B. Rating Scale -used to judge properties of objects without reference to other similar objects
Includes;
i. The dichotomous scale -offers two mutually exclusive response choices.
ii. The category scale uses multiple items to elicit a single response.
iii. examine how strongly the respondents agree or disagree with statements relating to the
attitude or object on a 5-point scale
C. Semantic Scale -describe the set of beliefs a person holds.
The Characteristics of Good Measurement
a) Validity –measures what it is supposed to measure
b) Reliability – Gives consistent results every time/ everywhere it is used.
FIELD WORK
FIELDWORK PROCESS
1. Selection of field workers
2. Training of field workers
Page | 16
3. Supervision of field workers
4. Validation of field work
5. Evaluation of field workers.
RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Problem formulation
2. Development of an approach to the problem
3. Literature review
4. Research Design
5. Identify information types and sources
6. Selection of Data collection techniques
7. Sampling techniques
8. Fieldwork or Data Collection
9. Analysis and interpretation
10. Report preparation and presentation
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Purpose of a Research Proposal
1. Provides a blue print in term of procedure to be followed in the research process.
2. Provision of basis for providing guidance to research authorities, supervisors or
institutions.
3. Provision of basis of soliciting funds from supporting agencies and organizations willing
to support the research.
4. spelling out the technical materials and financial needs of the study
5. Acts as a means of communication of your intention to stakeholders.
FORMAT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1. PRELIMINARIES -Title page, Name of the author, A submission statement and Month and
year of submission
2. Declaration Page- includes declaration by student and supervisor
3. Dedication
4. Acknowledgement
5. Abstract
6. Table of Content
7. Operational Definition of terms
8. Abbreviations and Acronyms
CHAPTER ONE
Page | 17
1. Background
2. Problem statement
3. Objectives of the research
5. Research questions
6. Scope of the Study
7. Justification for the Study
8. Research Methodology
9. Division of the Study
10. References
12. Time Schedule
13. The Budget
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theoretical Review
2.3 Empirical Review
2.4 Knowledge gap
2.5 Conceptual Framework
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Target Population
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure
3.5 Data Collection Instrument
3.6 Data Collection
3.7 Data Analysis
Page | 18
3.8 Research Ethics
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
1. Institutional Approval
2. Informed Consent to Research for participants
3. Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research
4. Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants
5. Offering Inducements for Research Participation
6. Deception in Research
7. Plagiarism
8. Faulty data-gathering procedures
9. Reporting Research Results
10. Misleading authorship
11. Ethical Issues Regarding Copyright
12. Protecting Human Subjects
a) Right to privacy or non-participation (Don't snoop or ask unnecessary information
b) Right to anonymity (Use hidden names to identify subjects or change names)
c) Right to confidentiality
d) Right to expect experimenter responsibility
REVIEWING LITERATURE
Its functions are:
1) Bring clarity and focus to your research problem
2) Improve your methodology
3) Broaden your knowledge base in your research area
4) Contextualize your findings
5) Determine the need for research
6) Helpful in interpretation of results
7) Limit the research problem
8) Identification of Knowledge gap
9) Weakness of Methodology
Procedure for reviewing literature:
I.
Search for existing literature in your area of study
Page | 19
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Review the literature selected
Theoretical Review
Review Empirical literature
Develop a conceptual framework.
C) HYPOTHESIS -a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed
in the form of a testable statement.
Steps Involved in Hypothesis Testing
1.
2.
Statement of the hypothesis-State the parameters of the hypothesis explicitly
State the level of significance -the level of type 1 error that the researcher is willing to
commit
3.
Compute the test statistic of the sampling distribution (t value or z value)
4.
Compare the computed test statistic with the critical value of the test statistic obtained from
tables.
5.
Make a decision -If the calculated value is larger than that of the critical value, the null
hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that the alternative hypothesis is accepted
Page | 20