O-Level History Notes
Pakistan Studies Paper 1
Dr Iftikhar-Ul-Haq
(0333-4257013)
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O-Level History Notes
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Dr Iftikhar-Ul-Haq (0333-4257013)
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Preface
My “ O Level Notes on Islamiyat and Pakistan Studies “ are the result of my rich teaching
experience, my constant interaction with the CIE and the results of my brilliant students many
of whom managed to be enlisted among the HIGH ACHIEVERS/DISTINCTION HOLDERS in
both the subjects. These notes will be updated every year in view of the changes in the style
and content of the questions in the CIE examinations. Soon some sort of “Practice Books” will
also be published to make these subjects as interesting as possible.
Almost all the topics have been covered in Question-Answer format so that students may not
only learn these answers but also feel their thinking skills stimulated that will induce curiosity
and minimize the element of rote learning.
When students are capable of “making “new questions, I feel my mission accomplished.
Students as well as teachers should feel free in contacting me as and when required.
Wishing all my students best and praying for their excellent grades.
Good Luck
Dr. Iftikhar-ul - Haq
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section 1 (1600 - 1900)
Sr
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Topic
Decline of Mughal Rule
British Govt Replacing EIC
1857 – war of Independence
Reformers
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Languages
Page
No
7
13
23
31
42
49
Section 2 (1900 - 1947)
Sr
No.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Topic
Partition of Bengal
Foundation of Muslim League
Morley Minto Reforms
World war 1
Lucknow Pact
Mont – Ford Reforms
Khilafat Movement
Simon Commission
Nehru Report
Jinnah’s 14 Points
Round Table Conferences
Govt of India 1935 Act.
1937 Elections
Indian National Congress Rule
Allama Iqbal & Ch. Rehmat Ali
Pakistan / Lahore Resolution
WW2
Quit India Movement
Gandhi, Jinnah Talks
Simla Conference
1945 Elections
Cabinet Mission Plan
Page
No
58
65
69
71
73
75
82
89
92
96
99
103
108
110
116
121
124
126
128
131
136
138
Section 3 (1947 - 1999)
Sr
No.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37
Topic
Problems of Partition
Kh Nazam ud Din, M G M, Iskandar Mirza
Ayub Khan
Separation of E-Pakistan
Z.A Bhutto
Zia – ul – Haq
Benazir Bhutto
Nawaz Sharif
Foreign Relations
Page
No
145
153
162
171
178
188
196
203
213
Section 1
(1600-1900 and Languages)
Decline of the Mughal Rule
Summary of the Decline of the Mughals
 Weak, corrupt and luxury loving later Mughals, after Aurangzeb’s death, 1707
 Vastness of the empire
 Wars of succession
 Internal revolts & foreign invasions
 Aurangzeb’s policies: religious intolerance, e.g., demolition of Hindu temples, re



imposition of Jiziya, ban on art, painting, music; his Deccan campaigns; 25 years
against the Marathas & on his return exhaustion of straight treasury.
Foreign invasions: Nadir Shah from Persia, Ahmad Shah Abdali from
Afghanistan
Finally, arrival of the Europeans: the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the
British
The British ousted all other Europeans, and accelerated the process of decline
Failure of the Mughals to advance in science and technology, and develop a
strong military and naval force.
Reasons for Europeans being attracted to India
 Splendour & wealth of Indian rulers, especially, the Mughals; wealth needed for



various industries in Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolutions; metalwork
of India & gold & diamond were in great demand in Europe.
Discovery of sea routes to India helped trade flourish b/w Europe & India; trade
of spices, cotton, cloth, opium, gold etc; highly profitable trade, for both Indians
& Europeans, in the beginning.
Mughal rulers & Indian traders welcomed the Europeans, 16th century onwards.
British first tried spice trade in the East Indies (Indonesia), but the Dutch were
already established there; the British EIC turned towards India, decided to oust
the Dutch, Portuguese & French in order to enjoy monopoly.
Reasons for the British replacing the Mughals / Conquering Indians:
A mix of weaknesses of Indian & strengths of the British:
1)
Indian Weaknesses:
 Highly divided Indians
 Diverse ethnic groups; tribes, states; religious, linguistic & regional divisions.
 No common identity or uniting force; often fought with each other, many seeking
British help against rivals
 Rich, luxury – loving rulers, least interested in protecting their “homeland.”
2)
British strengths:
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
 Militarily & technologically superior to Indians, due to the Industrial Revolution,
16th century onwards; superior weapons & fighting skills; disciplined army & better
means of communication.
 Brought benefits to Indian, e.g., network of roads & railways, irrigation of 20 million
acres of land; built educational &health institutes, King Edward Medical College,
Lahore; universities in Lahore, Calcutta, Bombay.
 Rich sense of superiority of, not only weapons, but also, culture; strong belief of
progress & victory, together with a strong sense of patriotism
 Successful use of their strategy of “divide & rule” ,& by threatening, outsmarting,
bribing Indian rulers & princes.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Who were the Mughals?
or
Describe the Mughal Rule.
(4)
Ans.
The Mughal rule was founded by Babur in 1526. Six great rulers, from Babur to
Aurangzeb, expanded and consolidated their rule 1526 to 1707. During this period they
excelled in literature, music, painting and architecture, building several monuments like the
Taj in Agra. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, there were corrupt and inefficient rulers
who failed to run the affairs of a huge empire. The Mughal rule was replaced by the British in
1858.
Q:
Describe what the Marathas did.
Ans.
[4]
Marathas were a ferocious and militant Hindu community living in the Deccan, south
India. They were especially organised under their dynamic leader Shivaji who laid the
foundation of a Maratha Empire in the 1670s. Aurangzeb fought against them for about 25
years but failed to crush them. They defeated a huge Mughal army outside Delhi in 1737,
and later occupied it in 1760. They were defeated by the Afghan army of Ahmed Shah Abdali
in 1761, in the third battle of Panipat.
Q:
What were Aurangzeb’s religious policies?
Ans.
[4]
Aurangzeb, earned hostility and opposition by his non-Muslim subjects. He reintroduced the Jiziya, a tax levied on non-Muslims that had earlier been abolished by Akbar.
He also destroyed some Hindu temples and tried to ban the old Hindu custom of Suttee,
burning a widow alive on the cremation ceremony of her husband. He also showed strictness
in enforcing Islamic law and tried to fix the length of the beard Muslim men were required to
keep.
Q:
Who was Shivaji?
Ans.
[4]
Shivaji was a ferocious Marathan fighter and founder of the Marathan Empire in
Bijapur, southern India. He was crowned Chhatarpati (monarch) in 1674. He innovated
military tactics, including guerrilla warfare, and revived old Hindu traditions. He fought the
Mughals from 1657 to 1668. He was arrested by Aurangzeb’s army in 1665, and brought to
Agra. Soon, however, he escaped cleverly, and established himself in the Deccan. He greatly
contributed to strengthen the Maratha power in sourthern India, and died in 1680.
Q:
Who was Ahmad Shah Durrani?
[4]
Ans.
He was also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, and was a skilled Afghan commander
who was born in Heart, Afghanistan in 1722. He led ten invasions into northern India from
1747 to 1769 including three attacks on the Punjab between 1747 and 1753. These invasions
greatly weakened the Mughal Empire. He defeated the Marathas in the third and last battle
of Panipat in 1761, and broke their strength decisively. He died in 1772 in Kandhar in
Afghanistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Explain why the Mughal Empire declined following the death of
Aurangzeb.
[7]
Ans.
Aurangzeb’s successors were inefficient. They proved to be lazy, corrupt and luxuryloving and left the state affairs to their courtiers and ministers who were usually selfish. These
weak successors became victim to an extravagant lifestyle as a result of which they failed to
run and defend the huge empire effectively. State resources were spent on personal
comfort and so, the empire suffered from financial inefficiencies. One of the later Mughals
was Muhammad Shah who, because of his colourful lifestyle, was titled as ‘Rangeela’. He
could not defend his empire against the Persian invader Nadir Shah Durrani.
There was no law of succession due to which the princes often fought for the throne
on the death of the emperor. These wars of succession led to a division of the army with
various lobbies supporting various princes. Succession was usually decided by the ability of
the individual princes and the support and strength they could get from the courtiers and the
army. This infighting incurred huge loss to the state exchequer that should have been spent
on the public welfare schemes and consolidating the empire. Aurangzeb had divided the
empire among his three sons, but they too, ended up fighting with each other.
Invasions by the Persians, Afghans and Europeans further accelerated the process
of decline. Nadir Shah Durrani sacked many cities in 1739, and Ahmed Shah Abdali
repeatedly attacked India 1748 onwards. Gradually, fighting wars became expensive and the
military was stretched and suffered from inefficiency and skills. It became hard to defend a
vast empire with an orthodox and outdated weapons and fighting tactics. The British, who
had been developing their army, fully exploited these weaknesses of a very rich Mughal
Empire that they overran with their advanced weapons, warfare and clever strategies.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
‘The spread of Marathan power was the main reason for the decline
of the Mughal Empire.’ Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for
your answer.
[14]
Ans.
Marathas were the militant Hindu community concentrated mainly in the southern
Indian state of Mahrashtra. The Maratha Empire was founded by the ferocious Marathan
commander Shivaji in the 1670s. They gradually organized themselves and began to offer
stiff resistance to the Mughals. They defeated the Mughal army in 1737 outside Delhi and
had captured the strategic town of Malwa in 1738. During the first six decades of the 18th
century, they were the most powerful and established community in India that was ready to
fill in the power vacuum created by the declining Mughal rule. Successive Mughal rulers found
it almost impossible to check the rapidly growing Marathan power. Aurangzeb spent about
25 years in the Deccan desperately trying to eliminate the Marathas. On his return, he found
the state treasury almost empty and this added to his difficulties.
However, the mighty Mughal rule did not decline due to the Maratha factor alone.
Historians also blame the prejudiced and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb, who adopted strict
measures against the non-Muslims. He imposed the discriminatory Islamic tax Jiziya on the
non-Muslims that had earlier been abolished by Akbar, though he tried to defend himself by
waiving some other taxes. He also demolished a number of Hindu temples, and adopted a
harsh attitude towards the Sikhs. Being a staunch Sunni ruler, he banned many activities
such as painting, music, drinking, gambling and dance that had been part of the Indian culture
and society. He also tried to ban the Hindu custom of Suttee, burning widow alive on the
cremation of her husband. In order to meet huge expenses of military campaigns, he imposed
heavy taxes, and the money collected by taxes was spent on luxurious buildings, a tradition
of the Mughal rulers. All this made Aurangzeb very unpopular, and his successors found it
quite difficult to rule the empire.
Weak successors of Aurangzeb fell victim to extravagant and luxurious lifestyles and
paid little attention to the defence and consolidation of the empire. They became morally
corrupt and comfort-loving, and could not overcome the difficulties faced by various parts of
the huge empire. This complacence is the usual result of continued successes of major
empires, and the Mughals were no exception to this. Negligence of the weak later Mughals
to the state affairs also contributed to the fall of the Mughal Empire.
The Mughals did not have a definite law of succession. On the death of an emperor,
the princes got engaged in conspiracies, intrigues and making loyal groups that always led
to regicidal wars of succession. Success of a candidate often depended on the support he
could get from the military and ministers. Thus, state resources were wasted on mutual fights
instead of public welfare and defence of the empire.
Aurangzeb had divided the whole empire between his three sons in order to prevent
a war of succession. However, the three princes began to fight, and eventually, Prince
Muazzam established himself as Emperor. Only after a few years, his four sons fought over
the throne, but the victor, Jahandar Shah was murdered within a year. So, in the ten years
after Aurangzeb’s death, twelve different people claimed to be Emperor at one time. This
greatly destabilized the huge Mughal Empire.
Finally, the last nail in the coffin of the Mughal rule was perhaps driven by the British,
who began to dominate the political horizon of India, 1750 onwards. The tottering Mughal
Empire was no match to the British supremacy in warfare. The British very skillfully
established themselves in India and eventually replaced the Mughals by annexing all
important states between 1757 and 1856. They started their victorious journey from northeastern India, and moving southwards, they turned to the north-western territories of Sindh,
Punjab and Kashmir. They also successfully applied their famous strategy of “divide and
rule” to occupy the Indian subcontinent.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
To conclude, we can say that the power of the Marathas was the decisive factor in
the decline of the Mughals because, if the Mughals had won their support, they might have
jointly averted the process of decline, or at least slowed it down. Instead, Mughals failed to
make friends with them and constantly earned their hostility.
Q.
Was British expansion in India the most important reason for the decline
of the Mughal Empire? Explain your answer. (14)
Ans.
The British East India Company (EIC) reached India in 1600 AD when the Mughal
Empire was nearing its peak. The British had primarily come for trade in India. Initially, their
trade benefited Indians, too, but gradually the British began to enjoy monopoly on trade. With
time, the money thus earned was used to manufacture more sophisticated weapons. Being
the first beneficiary of the Industrial Revolution, they had more advanced weapons and were
gifted with superior military skills. With this they had a strong sense of success. The Mughals,
on the other hand, did not excel in science and technology. Moreover, the inherent disunity
among Indians was also exploited by the British. In the 18th century, many provinces had
broken away from the central Mughal authority.
Gradually, the British were able to keep their own armies and expand their influence
over various Indian territories that were previously part of the Mughal Empire. Their major
victories started decades after the death of Aurangzeb. They defeated the Indians in such
major battles as Plassey in 1757, Buxar in 1764 and Mysore in 1799 greatly reduced the
Mughal control over various strategic parts of India.
However, there were many other reasons for the decline of the mighty Mughal rule.
Rise of Marathan power also contributed to the Mughal decline. The Maratha Empire was
founded by the ferocious Marathan commander Shivaji in the 1670s. They defeated the
Mughal army in 1737 outside Delhi. During the first six decades of the 18th century, they were
the most powerful and established community in India that was ready to fill in the power
vacuum created by the declining Mughal rule. Aurangzeb spent about 25 years in the Deccan
desperately trying to eliminate the Marathas. On his return, he found the state treasury almost
empty and this added to his difficulties.
Historians also blame the prejudiced and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb, who
adopted strict measures against the non-Muslims. He imposed the tax Jiziya on the nonMuslims that had earlier been abolished by Akbar. He also demolished a number of Hindu
temples, and adopted a harsh attitude towards the Sikhs. He banned many activities such as
painting, music, drinking, gambling and dance that had been part of the Indian culture and
society. He also tried to ban the Hindu custom of Suttee, burning widow alive on the cremation
of her husband. In order to meet huge expenses of military campaigns, he imposed heavy
taxes. As a result, his successors found it quite difficult to rule the empire.
Weak successors of Aurangzeb fell victim to extravagant and luxurious lifestyles and
paid little attention to the defence and consolidation of the empire. They became morally
corrupt and comfort-loving, and could not overcome the difficulties faced by various parts of
the huge empire. This complacence is the usual result of continued successes of major
empires, and the Mughals were no exception to this. Negligence of the weak later Mughals
to the state affairs also contributed to the fall of the Mughal Empire.
The Mughals did not have a definite law of succession. On the death of an emperor,
the princes got engaged in conspiracies, intrigues and making loyal groups that always led
to regicidal wars of succession. Success of a candidate often depended on the support he
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
could get from the military and ministers. Thus, state resources were wasted on mutual fights
instead of public welfare and defence of the empire.
Aurangzeb had divided the whole empire between his three sons in order to prevent
a war of succession. However, the three princes began to fight, and eventually, Prince
Muazzam established himself as Emperor. Only after a few years, his four sons fought over
the throne, but the victor, Jahandar Shah was murdered within a year. So, in the ten years
after Aurangzeb’s death, twelve different people claimed to be Emperor at one time. This
greatly destabilized the huge Mughal Empire.
It may be concluded that the British expansion played the decisive role in the decline
of the Mughal rule. British outsmarted the Mughals in military, trade, politics and social
spheres of life. Their exploitative policies remained unnoticed by the Mughals till the British
had established themselves in several parts of India.
Q.
Were the invasions by the Persians and Afghans the main reason for the
decline of the Mughal Empire? Explain your answer.(14)
Ans.
With the death of Aurangzeb, the huge Mughal Empire began to shrimping size under
inefficient and corrupt rulers. This made empire vulnerable to invasions. Modern day
Afghanistan was shared between the Persians and Mughals for long time. Seeing the weak
successors of Aurangzeb, the Persian ruler Nadir Shah Durrani invaded and sacked Delhi in
1738-39. The invasion was primarily a looting raid as Nadir Shah took away wealth, gold,
jewellery and the famous Peacock Throne. Similarly, the Afghan fighter Ahmed Shah Abdali
followed Nadir Shah, and attacked various parts of the empire between 1748 and 1767 that
were under the Maratha rule. His attacks, too, were aimed at plundering the Indian wealth
like Nadir Shah. He, however, inflicted a humiliating defeat on the Marathas though this could
not prevent the decline of the Mughal rule.
However, there were many other reasons for the decline of the mighty Mughal rule.
The British East India Company (EIC) reached India in 1600 AD when the Mughal Empire
was nearing its peak. The British had primarily come for trade in India. Initially, their trade
benefited Indians, too, but gradually the British began to enjoy monopoly on trade. With time,
the money thus earned was used to manufacture more sophisticated weapons. Being the
first beneficiary of the Industrial Revolution, they had more advanced weapons and were
gifted with superior military skills. With this they had a strong sense of success. The Mughals,
on the other hand, did not excel in science and technology. Moreover, the inherent disunity
among Indians was also exploited by the British. In the 18th century, many provinces had
broken away from the central Mughal authority. Gradually, the British were able to keep their
own armies and expand their influence over various Indian territories that were previously
part of the Mughal Empire.
Rise of Marathan power also contributed to the Mughal decline. The Maratha Empire
was founded by the ferocious Marathan commander Shivaji in the 1670s. They defeated the
Mughal army in 1737 outside Delhi. During the first six decades of the 18th century, they were
the most powerful and established community in India that was ready to fill in the power
vacuum created by the declining Mughal rule. Aurangzeb spent about 25 years in the Deccan
desperately trying to eliminate the Marathas. On his return, he found the state treasury almost
empty and this added to his difficulties.
Historians also blame the prejudiced and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb, who
adopted strict measures against the non-Muslims. He imposed the tax Jiziya on the nonMuslims that had earlier been abolished by Akbar. He also demolished a number of Hindu
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
temples, and adopted a harsh attitude towards the Sikhs. He banned many activities such as
painting, music, drinking, gambling and dance that had been part of the Indian culture and
society. He also tried to ban the Hindu custom of Suttee, burning widow alive on the cremation
of her husband. In order to meet huge expenses of military campaigns, he imposed heavy
taxes that made him more unpopular. As a result, his successors found it quite difficult to rule
the empire.
Weak successors of Aurangzeb fell victim to extravagant and luxurious lifestyles and
paid little attention to the defence and consolidation of the empire. They became morally
corrupt and comfort-loving, and could not overcome the difficulties faced by various parts of
the huge empire. This complacence is the usual result of continued successes of major
empires, and the Mughals were no exception to this. Negligence of the weak later Mughals
to the state affairs also contributed to the fall of the Mughal Empire.
The Mughals did not have a definite law of succession. On the death of an emperor,
the princes got engaged in conspiracies, intrigues and making loyal groups that always led
to regicidal wars of succession. Success of a candidate often depended on the support he
could get from the military and ministers. Thus, state resources were wasted on mutual fights
instead of public welfare and defence of the empire. Aurangzeb had divided the whole empire
between his three sons in order to prevent a war of succession. However, the three princes
began to fight, and eventually, Prince Muazzam established himself as Emperor. After a few
years, his four sons too ended up fighting with each other.
It may be concluded that the Persian and Afghan invasions were the main reason of
the Mughal decline. The invaders repeatedly attacked mainly to loot the Mughal wealth and
take it back to their countries. The Mughal treasury was gradually drained and thus little funds
were available for the development and defence of the empire.
Q.
Was the in-fighting between Aurangzeb’s successors the most important
reason for the breakup of the Mughal Empire? Explain your answer.(14)
Ans.
Mughal rulers did not have a definite law of succession. This led to in-fighting among
princes on the death of an emperor. Aurangzeb, with the intention of avoiding such a fight,
divided the empire among his three sons but this strategy failed. Fighting broke out between
his sons and eventually Prince Muazzam established himself as Emperor. However, he ruled
as a weak ruler for a few years, and then his four sons fought for the throne. The victor,
Jahandar Shah was murdered within a year. These wars of succession became a permanent
tradition, and caused division in the army. They also resulted in waste of resources that
should have been spent on defending and developing the Empire.
There were many other factors that contributed to the process of decline. With the
death of Aurangzeb, the huge Mughal Empire began to shrimping size under inefficient and
corrupt rulers. This made empire vulnerable to invasions. Modern day Afghanistan was
shared between the Persians and Mughals for long time. Seeing the weak successors of
Aurangzeb, the Persian ruler Nadir Shah Durrani invaded and sacked Delhi in 1738-39. The
invasion was primarily a looting raid as Nadir Shah took away wealth, gold, jewellery and the
famous Peacock Throne. Similarly, the Afghan fighter Ahmed Shah Abdali followed Nadir
Shah, and attacked various parts of the empire between 1748 and 1767 that were under the
Maratha rule. His attacks, too, were aimed at plundering the Indian wealth like Nadir Shah.
The British East India Company (EIC) reached India in 1600 AD when the Mughal
Empire was nearing its peak. The British had primarily come for trade in India. Initially, their
trade benefited Indians, too, but gradually the British began to enjoy monopoly on trade. With
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
time, the money thus earned was used to manufacture more sophisticated weapons. Being
the first beneficiary of the Industrial Revolution, they had more advanced weapons and were
gifted with superior military skills. With this they had a strong sense of success. The Mughals,
on the other hand, did not excel in science and technology. Moreover, the inherent disunity
among Indians was also exploited by the British. In the 18th century, many provinces had
broken away from the central Mughal authority. Gradually, the British were able to keep their
own armies and expand their influence over various Indian territories that were previously
part of the Mughal Empire.
Rise of Marathan power also contributed to the Mughal decline. The Maratha Empire
was founded by the ferocious Marathan commander Shivaji in the 1670s. They defeated the
Mughal army in 1737 outside Delhi. During the first six decades of the 18th century, they were
the most powerful and established community in India that was ready to fill in the power
vacuum created by the declining Mughal rule. Aurangzeb spent about 25 years in the Deccan
desperately trying to eliminate the Marathas. On his return, he found the state treasury almost
empty and this added to his difficulties.
Historians also blame the prejudiced and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb, who
adopted strict measures against the non-Muslims. He imposed the tax Jiziya on the nonMuslims that had earlier been abolished by Akbar. He also demolished a number of Hindu
temples, and adopted a harsh attitude towards the Sikhs. He banned many activities such as
painting, music, drinking, gambling and dance that had been part of the Indian culture and
society. He also tried to ban the Hindu custom of Suttee, burning widow alive on the cremation
of her husband. In order to meet huge expenses of military campaigns, he imposed heavy
taxes that made him more unpopular. As a result, his successors found it quite difficult to rule
the empire.
Weak successors of Aurangzeb fell victim to extravagant and luxurious lifestyles and
paid little attention to the defence and consolidation of the empire. They became morally
corrupt and comfort-loving, and could not overcome the difficulties faced by various parts of
the huge empire. This complacence is the usual result of continued successes of major
empires, and the Mughals were no exception to this. Negligence of the weak later Mughals
to the state affairs also contributed to the fall of the Mughal Empire.
By objective analysis it seems the infighting among the successors of Aurangzeb was
the main reason of the Mughal decline. Instead of acting as a united front, these weak
successors divided the state army whose various factions fought against each other. Thus,
the defence of the empire was neglected.
Q.
Were the policies of Aurangzeb the main reason for the decline of the
Mughal Empire? Explain your answer.
[14]
Ans.
Aurangzeb gradually became an unpopular ruler. He is described as a prejudiced and
intolerant ruler. He took many strict measures against the non-Muslims. He imposed the
discriminatory Islamic tax Jiziya on the non-Muslims that had earlier been abolished by Akbar,
though he tried to defend himself by waiving some other taxes. He also demolished a number
of Hindu temples, and adopted a harsh attitude towards the Sikhs. Being a staunch Sunni
ruler, he banned many activities such as painting, music, drinking, gambling and dance that
had been part of the Indian culture and society. He also tried to ban the Hindu custom of
Suttee, burning widow alive on the cremation of her husband. In order to meet huge expenses
of military campaigns, he imposed heavy taxes, and the money collected by taxes was spent
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
on luxurious buildings, a tradition of the Mughal rulers. All this made Aurangzeb very
unpopular, and his successors found it quite difficult to rule the empire.
There were many other reasons of this process of decline. Mughal rulers did not have
a definite law of succession. This led to in-fighting among princes on the death of an emperor.
Aurangzeb, with the intention of avoiding such a fight, divided the empire among his three
sons but this strategy failed. Fighting broke out between his sons and eventually Prince
Muazzam established himself as Emperor. However, he ruled as a weak ruler for a few years,
and then his four sons fought for the throne. The victor, Jahandar Shah was murdered within
a year. These wars of succession became a permanent tradition, and caused division in the
army. They also resulted in waste of resources that should have been spent on defending and
developing the Empire.
With the death of Aurangzeb, the huge Mughal Empire began to shrimping size under
inefficient and corrupt rulers. This made empire vulnerable to invasions. Modern day
Afghanistan was shared between the Persians and Mughals for long time. Seeing the weak
successors of Aurangzeb, the Persian ruler Nadir Shah Durrani invaded and sacked Delhi in
1738-39. The invasion was primarily a looting raid as Nadir Shah took away wealth, gold,
jewellery and the famous Peacock Throne. Similarly, the Afghan fighter Ahmed Shah Abdali
followed Nadir Shah, and attacked various parts of the empire between 1748 and 1767 that
were under the Maratha rule. His attacks, too, were aimed at plundering the Indian wealth
like Nadir Shah. He, however, inflicted a humiliating defeat on the Marathas though this could
not prevent the decline of the Mughal rule.
The British East India Company (EIC) reached India in 1600 AD when the Mughal
Empire was nearing its peak. The British had primarily come for trade in India. Initially, their
trade benefited Indians, too, but gradually the British began to enjoy monopoly on trade. With
time, the money thus earned was used to manufacture more sophisticated weapons. Being
the first beneficiary of the Industrial Revolution, they had more advanced weapons and were
gifted with superior military skills. With this they had a strong sense of success. The Mughals,
on the other hand, did not excel in science and technology. Gradually, the British were able
to keep their own armies and expand their influence over various Indian territories that were
previously part of the Mughal Empire.
Rise of Marathan power also contributed to the Mughal decline. The Maratha Empire
was founded by the ferocious Marathan commander Shivaji in the 1670s. They defeated the
Mughal army in 1737 outside Delhi. During the first six decades of the 18th century, they were
the most powerful and established community in India that was ready to fill in the power
vacuum created by the declining Mughal rule. Aurangzeb spent about 25 years in the Deccan
desperately trying to eliminate the Marathas. On his return, he found the state treasury almost
empty and this added to his difficulties.
Weak successors of Aurangzeb fell victim to extravagant and luxurious lifestyles and
paid little attention to the defence and consolidation of the empire. They became morally
corrupt and comfort-loving, and could not overcome the difficulties faced by various parts of
the huge empire. This complacence is the usual result of continued successes of major
empires, and the Mughals were no exception to this. Negligence of the weak later Mughals
to the state affairs also contributed to the fall of the Mughal Empire.
To conclude it may be said that Aurangzeb’s policies damaged the Mughal Empire to
such an extent that his successors could not undo the damage. Since his successors were
inefficient, and therefore, it was almost impossible for them to introduce popular and long
term policies.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Source A: an excerpt from Encyclopaedia Britanica,
“The Mughal dynasty was notable for its more than two centuries of effective rule over
much of India; for the ability of its rulers , who through seven generations maintained a record
of unusual talent; and for its administrative organisation. A further distinction was the attempt
of the Mughals was to integrate Hindus and Muslims into a united Indian state.”
Q. (a) According to Source A what do we learn about the Mughal rule in
India?
[3]
Ans.
The Source describes the Mughals as a successful dynasty that ruled effectively for
more than two centuries. Its rulers capably maintained their talent through seven
generations. The rulers attempted to unify Hindus and Muslims as equal members of a
single state.
Source B: a portrait showing a scene of the Mughal court during its
peak.
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Q. (b) With reference to Source B, describe the Mughal rule in
India.
[5]
Ans.
The Mughal king is shown as the focal point of the painting that shows his strong grip
over the state affairs. There are two courtiers standing at the entrance of the corridor leading
to the royal throne. This shows the authority of the emperor who can be approached only by
way of the two countries. Any guest would be escorted by the same courtiers to the emperor.
There are several other courtiers on either side of the court, all formally dressed and standing
alert. The entire court room is well decorated that reflects the lavish style of living of the
Mughals. This way of living would become one of the reasons for the decline of the Mughal
rule.
Source A: an excerpt from
“In 1615, Thomas Roe finally arrived in Ajmer, bringing presents of hunting dogs,
some Mannerist paintings and many crates of red wine for which Jahangir had a fondness.
Roe, nevertheless, had a series of difficult interviews by Jahangir. Roe wanted immediately
to raise the subject of trade, but the emperor could barely cancel his boredom at such
conversations.”
Q. (a) According to Source A describe what Thomas Roe observed in
Jahangir’s court.
[3]
Ans.
Thomas Roe knew about Jahangir’s love for red wine. He felt Jahangir could not be
convinced to listen to a European visitor. Jahangir made him wait for a long time before Roe
could tell the purpose of his visit.
Source B: a painting showing a British diplomat, Thomas Roe, appearing
before the Mughal emperor Jahangir
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Q. (b) From Source B, what do we learn about the interaction between the
Mughal emperor and the British diplomat?
[5]
Ans.
The emperor Jahangir seems to dominate the scene as he is seated on an elevated
throne. This shows his powerful rule over India. Thomas Roe is well dressed that reflects his
preparations for appearing in a royal court. He looks quite submissive as he is presenting a
document in a humble way. A senior courtier is reading out the text of the document,
perhaps acting as a translator. The document looks to be a formal request for starting trade
with India. Jahangir’s permission to the British to initiate trade with India would lay the
foundation of the British rule over India in the years to come.
Q. Why were Marathas defeated after the Mughal decline?
[7]
Ans.
Marathas emerged as strong rivals to the Mughal rule. They ruled a greater part of
India than Mughals from 1674 to 1818. Their victorious journey began in 1737 when they
defeated the Mughal army outside Delhi, and soon they were ruling several parts of northern
India up to Bengal. By the middle of 18th century they were the most powerful people in India.
However, in the absence of a sustainable administrative system, they too, like Mughals, found
it difficult to govern such a huge area effectively. The central government gradually began to
lose its control over many provinces.
Maratha families, driven by lust for short term power, started allying themselves with
the local rulers instead of remaining loyal to the Peshwa seated in Pune. This weakened their
power over state affairs, and they became victims of disunity and disloyalty. Bajirao-II, the
son of Raghunathrao was an inefficient Peshwa. He failed in uniting the Maratha Sardars,
and internal conflict among the Sardars weakened the power of the Marathas in various parts
of their kingdom. Another Peshwa Madhavrao granted semi-autonomy to the strongest of
Sardars, and created a confederacy of Maratha states. This policy also backfired, and with
time the semi-autonomous Sardars became fully autonomous.
The Afghan invader Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated Marathas in the third and last battle
of Panipat in 1761. Abdali’s army had 41,800 cavalry and 38,000 infantry along with other
troops. The Marathan army comprised 55,000 cavalry with only 15,000 infantry. Abdali, a
military genius, used his numerically superior army with great tactics, and inflicted defeat on
the Marathas. They lost several soldiers and leaders including the Peshwa. This marked an
end of the Marathan ambitions. The British intervened in 1775 in Peshwa family succession
struggle in Pune. This led to three Anglo-Maratha wars, 1775 to 1818. Finally, by 1818, the
British had completely defeated them.
Q.
What was the Industrial Revolution?
Ans.
[4]
It was the process of industrialisation of Europe, and England was its first and greatest
beneficiary. Factory industry began to produce goods in bulk in the 1780’s in selected towns
of England. The development of steam engine provided power to run machines, railways and
steamships. This resulted in the growth of a rich business community in England, and
changed the landscape of its towns and lifestyle of the people.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Q. How did the Industrial Revolution change England?
[7]
Ans.
Industrial Revolution was the process of industrialization of England that was later
experienced by other European nations too. With the invention of steam-engines,
the machinery of the first of the factories began to work in the 1780’s. The steam-power
began to run railway engines and ships. This created a sizeable segment of rich class in
England, and an overall improvement in the standard of living of the ordinary citizens.
Raw cotton from India gave a boost to the textile industry that tremendously increased the
export earnings of England. Soon it also started manufacturing modern and more powerful
weapons that enabled it to colonise various countries in Asia and Africa. Gradually, Britain
developed a huge and strong navy that helped it reach remote markets of the world and
conquer other countries.
The Industrial Revolution also changed the geographical and socioeconomic
landscape of England, and by 1850 when it was rightly called, “ The workshop of the world.”
Several factory towns began to replace the villages while railways connected various parts
of the country. With this the population doubled from about ten millions in 1800 to twenty
millions in 1850.
Q:
What was the East India Company?
Ans.
[4]
It was a trading company that was granted the charter of trading rights in 1600 by
Queen Elizabeth I. Its first ship landed on the southern Indian town of Surat, in 1608. It was
granted permission to trade in India by the Emperor Jahangir in 1612. It began to earn huge
profits, and moved its headquarters to Bombay/Mumbai in 1664. Gradually, it began to
acquire military power during 18th century. It was abolished in 1858 by the British government.
Q
Explain why the EIC became involved in the Indian sub-continent
during the 17th century?
[7]
Ans:
British were attracted to the Indian wealth and resources. With the discovery of sea
route to India by the Portuguese traveler Vasco Da Gama, reports began to reach about
Indian riches and resources to England. India became known as the “golden sparrow”
because of its fabulous wealth and resources such as cotton, silk, jute, indigo, jewellery and
even the addictive drug opium. British needed these to feed their factory industry as they
would soon be the fastest industrializing nation not only in Europe but also in the world.
Therefore, they began to conquer various Indian territories while introducing their own system
of administration in these areas.
British also began to think about expanding their influence and trade to the Far East
and South East Asia. For this they needed a strategic port in South Asia (Indian subcontinent) as the Indian peninsula was located at international crossroads, and surrounded
by a warm water sea where multiple ports could operate throughout the year. Strategic ports,
such as the Bombay (now Mumbai), 1875 and Calcutta (now Kolkata), 1893 were founded
by the British in a planned way. These greatly helped the British expand their trade in multiple
directions from India as well as develop their naval force.
Also, British wanted to oust other European colonial powers such as the Dutch,
Portuguese and French from India in order to enjoy monopoly of trade in India. The Dutch
had driven the Portuguese and the British out of South East Asia in the 17th century.
Therefore, the British had to turn towards South Asia where the Indo-Pak subcontinent proved
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to be a much better option for them. Establishing themselves cleverly, they began to replace
other European nations in India. With the availability of more destructive weapons and using
their clever non-military tactics, they were able to accomplish this mission rather successfully.
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British govt. replacing the EIC
 Various steps taken by the British govt, aimed at restricting the EIC, 1770 onwards,



after reports of misgovernance & corruption in Bengal.
1773, the Regualting Act: the EIC now accountable before the British Parliament, EIC
to provide a detailed report of its activities to the Parliament.
Governor of Bengal (Warren Hastings) was made the Governor-General, with the
authority to ‘superintend & control’ the governor of Bombay & Madras.
Supreme Court was set up in Calcutta.
1784, Pitt’s India Act:
 Direct control of the Indian possessions by Brit govt.
 More powers for the Governor-General; he could now supersede the administration




of Bombay & Madras; 3 presidencies under his control; a post of the Commander-inChief of the armed forces.
EIC lost most of its powers, though it continued its trading activities: in fact, better
governance of India by the combined efforts of the EIC and the British Government
Later, police force & civil services, too.
By 19th century, powers of EIC were further limited.
1858, it was completely abolished.
Reasons:
 Reports of misgovernance, financial embezzlement, corruption (espcially in Bengal)
about the EIC (officials).
 Brit govt. had to act in time to control this
 India was a huge country; political affairs of such a large state couldn’t be

permanently given to a trading company; India had to be a “jewel in the crown”-----matter of prestige.
Threat of Russian attack through Afghanistan: Brit had to secure the north-western
borders of India in order to check any Russian advance by way of Afghanistan; a
regular Brit army was needed to be stationed along the NW border.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.
Why were British able to expand their control over India between
1750 and 1850?
Or
Why were British able to expand their influence in India between
1750 and 1850?
Or
Explain why Britain was able expand into the subcontinent between
1750 and 1850.
[7]
Ans:
British expanded their influence in India quite skillfully between 1750 and 1850. They
gained strength primarily due to the major victories like the battles of Plassey (1757) and
Buxar (1764) in Bengal, and the Anglo-Mysore wars. They utilized every possible way to win
the battles. They bribed Mir Jaffar of Nawab Siraj ud Daula, and Mir Sadiq of Tipu Sultan to
gain victories in northern and southern India. Finally, they captured Sindh, the Punjab and
Kashmir from 1843 to1849. These victories gave them huge and rich areas to rule and to
exploit local resources to strengthen their position. They built railways to facilitate movement
of soldiers more quickly and easily to various parts of India. With this trade also began to
flourish making them richer and stonger.
While getting control of the conquered states the EIC began to enforce British system
of administration. This comprised the system of judiciary and governors and the Governor
General. The early Governor-Generals tried to win the Indian confidence by various steps.
Under the Charter Act 1833, the Indians were gradually included in the Civil Services. Thus,
a team of obedient Indians was gradually prepared. This helped the EIC to run the state
affairs along the British lines. The EIC also introduced trade laws that favoured its imports
and exports as well as local trade. The revenue collected from India was cleverly spent by
the British to buy and ship the local goods to England.
British also had superior military skills and more advanced weapons to which Indian
Army was no match. British were the most important beneficiary of the Industrial Revolution
as they began to develop highly advanced weapons. Their gun powder weapons were much
more destructive than the orthodox arsenal of India. The Indians did not develop a modern
navy agains the British. Their disunity was closely observed and exploited by the British who
kept them divided by such tactics as the subsidiary alliances introduced by Lord Wellesley in
1798. This enabled them to win the support of several smaller states of India. This way they
utilized their famous ‘divide and rule policy’ to strengthen their control over India.
Q:
Why did British government take control from the EIC?
[7]
Ans:
British government wanted to make India its colony. It knew that political affairs of the
Indian Sub-Continent could no longer be run by a trading company. In a way it was becoming
a matter of prestige for the British government. Therefore, by passing a series of acts, the
powers of the EIC were gradually restricted. Under the Regulating Act of 1773, the EIC was
made accountable to the British Parliament. A Governor General, Warren Hastings, was
appointed for the province of Bengal.
There were also reports of mismanagement and corruption by the EIC officials, in
Bengal and other provinces. The Company officials forced the newly appointed Nawab of
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Bengal to give heavy bribe to them in the form of gifts. They were involved in financial
embezzlement of the revenue of the states they had annexed. This was damaging the repute
of the British government. In 1784, the British Government passed the India Act and took
direct control of the Indian possessions. It appointed a Governor General who would have
control of the three presidencies: Bengal, Bombay and Madras. New posts of Commanderin-Chief of the armed forces, and provincial governor were created. So, in 1813, the EIC lost
its monopoly, though it continued to trade in India. Other British companies also wanted to
share in the profits of India.
British also wanted to deploy a regular army on the north-western border to counter
the Russian threat. Russia had been desperately looking for access to the warm water sea.
By way of Afghanistan, it could invade India to reach the ports of the Indian Ocean as
Afghanistan had been used by several earlier invaders as a springboard to attack India.
Therefore, in order to keep Russia from any such adventure the British government had to
take control from the EIC.
Q: Was the India Act of 1784 the main reason why the British were able
to expand beyond Bengal between 1784 and 1850?
[10/14]
Ans.
The British government took many steps to restructure the EIC.In 1784, the India Act,
also known as the Pitt’s India Act, was passed by the Prime Minister William Pitt. The Act
empowered the British government to take direct control of Indian possessions. Under this
the Governor General was made a royal appointment, and the Company’s Board of Directors
was replaced by a Board of Control comprising six members including the Secretary of State
and the Chancellor of Exchequer. Lord Cornwallis was thus appointed as the Governor
General in 1786 to rule the three presidencies of Calcutta/Kolkatta, Bombay/Mumbai and
Madras/Chennai. He was assisted by three governors, and a Commander-in-Chief of the
armed forces. The status of the EIC thus changed from a trading concern to a sovereign body
in which the Crown (British government) directly controlled Bengal. Moreover, a police system
was introduced that would help in the administration of justice and maintaining law and order
in India.This way the powers of the EIC were cleverly restricted while preparing the ground
for the British government ruling India directly. The British took many other measures to
strengthen its grip on India in later years. Lord Cornwallis enforced the Permanent Settlement
Act in 1793. The Act made the Zamindars of Bengal landowners on the condition of paying a
fixed amount of tax to the British. In 1793 the amount of this tax was 10% of the amount
collected from the Zamindars. Hence, the Permanent Settlement secured the financial
interests of the East India Company and helped Bengal to become the richest province of
India enabling the British to expand their influence beyond Bengal.
Lord Wellesley became Governor General in 1798 and he introduced the system of subsidiary
alliances. Under this the local rulers were persuaded to accept the British defence and pay
its costs in the form of salaries for the British soldiers. In return, they were allowed to retain
their rulership while enhancing the British rule surreptitiously as they had to accept a British
resident advisor. They could not employ any European in their service without approval of
the British, nor could they negotiate with any other Indian rulers without consulting the
Governor General. The Nizam of Hyderabad became the first victim of this policy. In 1798,
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the Nizam was detached from the French and was also barred from making any alliance with
the Marathas. In 1799, Tipu Sultan was defeated and killed, and the state of Mysore was
annexed by Lord Wellesley.
The Nawab of Oudh was forced to accept this policy in 1801, and the Maratha Peshwa
Baji Rao-II also subjugated his stats in 1802. Other Maratha states like Bhosle, Sindia and
finally, the Maratha Confederation, Holkars also surrendered in 1803. The Marathas were
decisively defeated in the third Anglo-Maratha War, 1817-1818. The British army occupied
Delhi in 1803, and shifted the Royal Mughal Family from Red Fort to Qutub Saheb. This way,
several states came under the British rule in a slow and clever way.
The British finally turned towards north-western India. In order to undo the damage to their
prestige by their defeat in Afghanistan in 1841, the British provoked the Amirs of Sindh who
attacked the British resident Charles Napier. The British retaliated with full force and annexed
Sindh in 1843. The Punjab was annexed by exploiting the chaos in the Sikh Darbar/Court
following the death of its strong ruler, Maharaja Ranjeet Singh. The ambitious rival chiefs
attacked the British possessions south of the River Sutlej, giving British an excuse to invade
the Punjab. After the Treaty of Lahore of 1846, the British, helped by a Hindu chief Gulab
Singh Dogra, annexed Kashmir that was given to Gulab Singh as a reward. Finally, the
Punjab and the NWF were annexed fully on 30th March 1849.
The Pitt’s India Act seems to be the decisive factor in the British expansion in India
because it laid down a strong foundation on which was erected the building of all future
victories of the British. The Act gave the British a sense of success as they began to exploit
the Indian weaknesses including their inherent disunity.
Q:
Who was Robert Clive?
Ans.
[4]
He was hired as a clerk by the East India Company but soon he joined the Company
army and earned fame as a brilliant commander. In 1751, he gained his first victory by
defeating the Nawab of Carnatic/Karnataka in the battle of Arcot. In June 1757, his army
defeated the Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula in the Battle of Plassey and became the governor of
Bengal. His next victories were in the battle of Pondicherry against the French in 1761, and
Buxar against the Indians, in 1764. He faced trial in England, and though equitted, he
committed suicide in 1774.
Q:
What was the ‘Black Hole Tragedy’?
[4]
Ans.
Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula decided to punish the British after they had started fortifying
themselves at important posts in Calcutta (Kolkata) in violation of their treaty with him. He
marched on Calcutta and seized the Company’s Fort William in June 1756. The 64 captured
British residents were locked up in a small room where 23 of them were found dead the
following morning. This was used by Robert Clive as an excuse to whip up anger against the
Nawab. Clive’s army defeated and killed the Nawab in the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
Q:
Describe the Battle of Plassey.
Ans.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
[4]
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In 1757, the French encouraged Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula of Bengal to attack the EIC
base at Calcutta. The Nawab captured the city but Robert Clive reached with his army of
3,000 soldiers and bribed Mir Jafar, one of Siraj’s key commanders. Clive defeated the
Nawab’s army of 18,000 in the battle. The Nawab’s dead body was found in a river after the
battle. Mir Jafar was made the Nawab as a reward for turning against the Nawab and
supporting Robert Clive. This victory became the foundation of the British rule in India as
Clive became the governor of Bengal.
Q.
Who was Mir Qasim?
[4]
Ans.
He succeeded Mir Jaffar as the new governor of Bengal in 1760. He cooperated with
the EIC in confiscating lands and wealth of the people of Bengal, thus strengthening the
British. After some years he felt uncomfortable with the growing demands of the Company,
and tried to stop the British influence in Bengal. In 1764, he raised a combined army with the
help of the Mughal king Shah Alam and the ruler of Oudh, Shuja ud Daula. Robert Clive
defeated this huge army with his traditional clever tactics.
Q:
Who was Tipu Sultan?
[4]
Ans.
Tipu was the Sultan of Mysore in southern India from 1782 to 1799 and was a
formidable enemy of the British. The EIC maligned his conduct by declaring him “the monster
of Mysore”. He was helped by the French and defeated the British in the 2nd Anglo-Mysore
War, and forced the British to accept the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784. The EIC defeated him
in the 3rd Anglo-Mysore War in 1789. Lord Wellesley’s army defeated and killed him in the 4th
Anglo-Mysore War in 1799 in his fort of Seringapatam.
Q.
Who was Lord Wellesley?
[4]
Ans.
He succeeded Lord Cornwallis as the Governor General of India. He expanded the
British influence in India by his famous subsidiary alliances. The local rulers were allowed to
rule while the British troops protected them. The rulers could not make any other alliances.
Rulers of Hyderabad, Oudh and the Maratha Peshawar were the first among those who
accepted it.
Q.
Describe how Lord Wellesley got rid of Tipu Sultan?
[4]
Ans.
Lord Wellesley kept Tipu from receiving any help from the French or the Nizam of
Hyderabad. He first captured Mysore, and then defeated and killed Tipu in his fourth AngloMysore war in May 1799, and captured Serangapatam. The British were assisted by the
armies of the Nizam and the Marathas .Thus several parts of southern India came under the
British
rule.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Q. What were the Anglo-Mysore wars?
[4]
Ans.
These were four wars fought between the rulers of Mysore and the allied forces of the
EIC, the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad. Hyder Ali, the Sultan of Mysore, and his son
Tipu Sultan fought from 1769 to 1799. The last war in 1799 marked the end of the House of
Hyder Ali and Tipu. These victories gave the British control of a huge territory of southern
India.
Q.
Describe the first Anglo-Mysore war.
[4]
Ans.
This was fought 1767 to 1769. Hyder Ali of Mysore fought and defeated the EIC army.
The EIC encouraged the Nizam of Hyderabad to attack Mysore. Hyder Ali fought boldly
against the British Bombay army from the west, and a Madras army from northeast. Hyder
Ali fought valiantly and forced his enemies to sign the Treaty of Madras (now Chennai).
Q.
Describe the second Anglo-Mysore war. [4]
Ans.
It was fought 1780 to 1784. Tipu and Hyder Ali fought boldly. Tipu defeated Bailie in
the battle of Pollilur in 1780, and Baithwait at Kumbakonan, in 1782. However, Sir Eyer Coote
defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Novo and Arni. Tipu continued to fight after the death of Hyder
Ali, and the battle ended by the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784.
Q.
Describe the third Anglo-Mysore war.
[4]
Ans.
Tipu, an ally of the French, invade the British ally, Travancore in 1789. British forces,
led by the Governor General Cornwallis himself, fought against Tipu for three years. Tipu had
to retreat and the siege of Serangapatam lasted till the end of the war in 1792. Under the
Treaty of Serangapatam, Tipu had to give half his kingdom to the EIC. His young sons were
also taken as hostage by Cornwallis.
Q.
Describe the fourth Anglo-Mysore war.
[4]
Ans.
Tipu’s alliance with the French was a threat for the British. So, Lord Wellesley
launched an attack on Mysore from all the four sides. The Nizam and the Marathas also
helped the British. Tipu had to fight a four times stronger army. Finally,at the end of the siege
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of Serangapatam , he was defeated and killed in 1799. Most of Mysore was captured and
divided among the British, the Nizam and the Marathas.
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Q:
Describe the annexation of Sindh.
Ans.
[4]
In 1841, all British troops were killed in a rebellion in Afghanistan causing a serious
damage to the British prestige. They decided to undo this damage, and asked their general
Charles Napier to provoke the Amirs of Sindh who had been on friendly terms with the British
since 1809. The Amirs attacked the British Residency in 1843. The British, in turn, attacked
and annexed Sindh by defeating the Amirs the same year.
Q:
Describe the annexation of the Punjab and the NWF.
Ans.
[4]
After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, there was a political crisis in the Punjab. The
Sikhs, violating the Treaty of Perpetual Friendship of 1809, attacked the British and were
defeated in the Battle of Aliwal in January 1846. They were penalized and forced to sign the
Treaty of Lahore. In the Second Sikh War, 1848-1849, the Sikhs were defeated again and
the Sikh Empire came to end. The British annexed the Punjab and the NWF on 30th March
1849.
Q:
What was the Doctrine of Lapse?
Ans.
[4]
In 1852, Governor General Lord Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of Lapse. Under
this, if a state ruler died without a natural/male heir, the EIC would annex the state. Soon the
states of Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi were annexed by the EIC. The Indian rulers resented
the policy greatly, especially when it was misused to take the state of Oudh in 1856, on the
death of its Nawab. Though he had many sons, Dalhousie annexed Oudh on the excuse of
bad governance. It became a reason of the War of Independence, and was abolished in 1858.
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Q. How did Robert Clive lay the foundation of for British rule in India? [7]
Ans.
Clive made to fortify various military posts in Calcutta. This was a violation of an
agreement with the Nawab of Bengal, Suraj ud Daula. The angry Nawab imprisoned several
British in a small dungeon in the summer heat of June 1756. In the following morning, 24 of
the 63 prisoners were found dead due to suffocation. This Black Hole tragedy gave Clive an
excuse to attack Bengal.
Clive defeated a huge army of the Nawab in the historic battle of Plassey by bribing
Mir Jafar, the key commander of Siraj ud Daula. This victory gave the EIC control over the
resources of Bengal. Valuable goods like salt, betel nut, tobacco and saltpetre were shipped
to England in bulk. Thus began unchecked exploration of Indian resources. Clive and his
team made plenty of money from this trade. Clive’s victory in the battle of Buxar in 1764 made
British the rulers of northeastern India.
Clive was made first governor of Bengal in recognition of his services for the EIC. He
received heavy amounts of wealth from the newly appointed puppet Nawab Mir Qasim . This
wealth was kept by himself and given to the EIC officials, too. Though accused by the
members of the British parliament of accepting bribes, Clive had laid a strong foundation of
the British rule in one of the richest provinces of India. The upcoming British officers continued
to strengthen the British rule over India.
Q. Why was Robet Clive appointed the first Governor of Bengal?
[7]
Ans.
Robert Clive was a gifted military commander in the EIC. First he defeated the French,
and then strengthened the British control over India during the second half of the eighteenth
century. In 1751, he defeated the Nawab of Carnatak, Chanda Sahib in the battle of Arcot,
part of the second Carnatak war. The Nawab was assisted by a small number of French
troops. This increased the influence of the British in southern India. The EIC slowly began to
expand its control over northern India with the help of Clive.
Clive became more prominent by winning one of the most important battles, the battle
of Plassey against Nawab Siraj ud Daula of Bengal, in 1757. This victory was a result of the
clever war tactics of Clive as well as his ability to bribe the key officer of the Nawab, Mir Jafar.
Thus, the British gained control of one of the richest provinces of India, and also began a
highly profitable trade in Bengal.
Clive’s repute further improved by his role in the decisive battle of Buxar, in 1764. The
combined armies of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, the Nawab of Bengal Mir Qasim, and
the Nawab of Oudh could not defend themselves against a smarter British army led by Robert
Clive and Hector Monro. With this victory the entire province of Bengal and neighbouring
territories came under the British rule. The EIC now took control of the revenue collection in
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, and also extended influence to Oudh. It decided to give some
reward to Robert Clive for these important victories. Therefore he was made the Governor of
Bengal. As the Governor, Clive continued to demonstrate is skills of ruling a huge area and
strengthening the British control.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Q:
Why was Warren Hastings appointed the first governor-general of
Bengal?
[7]
Or
How did Warren Hastings strengthen the British Rule in India?
[7]
Ans:
Warren Hastings was a very studious employee of the East India Company and
gained success and prominence in the Company. Though unsupported, and at times,
opposed by his colleagues, he worked very hard to raise revenue of the Company.
In order to achieve his objectives, he introduced the concept of putting the tax
collectors up for auction. This tempted many to acquire the post by paying heavy
money to the Company.
Once the ambitious candidates got the desired position of tax collector, they would
use all tactics to extort taxes from the Indians. They would force even the poor farmers
to pay the fixed taxes regardless of the land produce affected by drought or other
calamities.
Hastings also extended the British control over central and southern India by fighting
and defeating fierce resistant rulers like the Marathas ,and Haider Ali of Mysore. The
Anglo-Maratha wars continued from 1778 to 1782 in which power of the Marathas
was greatly weakened as Ahmed Shah Abdali had already inflicted a humiliating
defeat on them in the last battle of Panipat in 1761.In order to achieve success in
these military expeditions, Hastings forced many rich princes to give him heavy bribes.
Many important Indian towns like Pune and Gwalior were captured in these wars.
Though he couldn’t gain success against Haider Ali in the second Anglo-Mysore war,
he had laid a strong foundation of the future British victories in southern India. Despite
these achievements, Hastings ended up facing trial in England for seven years.
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Q. (a) According to source A what type of man Tipu Sultan was?
(3)
“The British claim that Tipu was a Muslim fanatic and considered himself as the wisest
man. In fact, Tipu made offerings in Christian churches and Hindu temples of his loyal
subjects. He only destroyed the places of worship of his enemies.”
Ans. The source presents Tipu as a mix of opposites. He is shown as an intolerant Muslim
ruler who did not show respect to his non-Muslim subjects. However, at the same
time, the source portrays him as a skilled ruler who knew how to treat his loyal nonMuslim subjects while punishing those who created problems for him.
Q.4 (b) Source B: A photograph showing Tipu Sultan fighting the EIC
army.
Q:
Describe the scene of the battlefield.
Ans.
[5]
The source shows that a fierce fight is going on between the two armies. Several
soldiers of Tipu’s army have been killed or wounded as they are seen lying on the ground.
The British, on the other hand, look visibly dominant with hardly any major losses. This is due
to their superior weapons and better fighting skills. Tipu’s army is fighting with the outdated
weapons like swords, spears and shields, and this would contribute to his defeat. Tipu’s
crown has fallen on the ground and that means the battle has entered its decisive phase. The
British victory in this battle would strengthen their control over southern India.
Source A
“There are few figures in history as controversial as Robert Clive. Some people
described him as a soldier of initiative, courage and determination. Other people saw him as
reckless and unprincipled, a rebel expelled from several schools for bad behaviour. They said
his victories as Arcot, Calcutta and Plassey were all the result of lucky gambles that put his
men in unnecessary danger. It was also said that Clive used tactics that were sly and against
the accepted codes of battle. Clive was also described as cruel, lacking in morality and greedy
for personal wealth.”
Q. (a) According to Source A what were the personal characteristics of
Robert Clive?
[3]
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Ans. (a)
Robert Clive has been described as a mix of contradictory characteristics. He is
considered by some as a brave soldier possessing courage and determination. At the same
time he is viewed as a man of good luck who won battles of Arcot, Calcutta and Plassey as
a result of his successful gambling. He is also viewed as a greedy and cruel man who used
undesirable means to achieve his objectives.
Source B: a painting of Lieutenant-General Lord Cornwallis receiving the
Mysorean Hostages Princes after the Third War at Seringapatam in
1792, by Rober Home c. 1793.
Q. (b) What can we learn from Source B about the treatment of Indian
hostages during the Mysor Wars?
[5]
Ans. (b)
This looks like a special public ceremony organized by the EIC as various welldressed people are standing in their assigned places. They are receiving the hostages, Tipu’s
sons, in a very formal way to show the interaction between the British and the Indians Sultan
of Mysore. Lord Cornwallis is holding the hand of one of Tipu’s sons to convey message to
Tipu to fulfill the terms of the Treaty agreed between the two. The painting portrays Cornwallis
and his army as gentle and kind though no details are known about how the hostages were
treated. The hostages might have been kept in an undignified environment. Tipu would be
defeated and killed in his last battle in 1799 fighting against Lord Wellesley.
Source A: an excerpt about the Maratha Empire from the Internet link
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maratha_Empire
“The Maratha Empire was a power that dominated a large portion of the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century. The Empire formally existed from 1674 with the coronation of
Shivaji as the Chchatrapati and ended in 1818 with the defeat of Peshwa Bajirao-II at the
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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hands of the British East India Company. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for
ending Mughal rule over most of the Indian sub-continent.”
Q. (a) According to Source A what information we get about the
Marathas?
[3]
Ans.
The Marathas established their Empire over a vast part of India. Their rule began with
the coronation of Shivaji in 1674, and ended by the British in 1818. They contributed to the
end of Mughal rule in several parts of India.
Source B: a painting of the 2nd Anglo-Maratha war, 1803-1805.
Q. (b) From Source
combatants?
Ans.
B
what
do
we
learn
about
the
two
[5]
The British troops seem to be making rapid advances against the Marathas as their cavalry
and foot soldiers are pressing their rivals hard. This is due to a much more disciplined British
army with more destructive weapons. There are thick clouds hovering over the sky that might
have benefited the British as they were familiar with the art of successful fight in rainy season.
Many Marathas are lying dead or wounded on the ground that reflects their defeat is
imminent. However, the Marathan flag is still prominent that shows their strong determination
to resist the British. The Marathan threat would finally be eliminated by the British in 1818.
Q
Why were British able to replace the Mughals as the ruling force of
India?
[7]
Ans:
British were militarily superior to the Indians/Mughal rulers. British were the first and
foremost beneficiary of the Industrial Revolution and 1780 onwards they began to acquire
sophisticated weapons while developing other industries. They used these weapons against
the Mughals who continued to reply on outdated weapons and old warfare. They had a strong
sense of success that kept their determination unshaken. This sense of superiority was the
main motivating force behind their victorious march in India.
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British also used non-military warfare to establish themselves in India. Their “divide
and rule” policy enabled them to annex various states by keeping their rulers hostile against
each other. Indians had been a divided nation and many state rulers sought British help
against their rivals without considering their collective interests. Many of them were bribed or
threatened by the EIC. They also bribed key ministers of various local rulers to win their
support. Mir Ja’far in Bengal, and Mir Sadiq in Mysore played key role by switching their
loyalties to the British. Therefore, the British achieved vital victories in the battle of Plassey
1757 against Nawab Siraj ud Daula of Bengal, and the last Anglo-Mysore war against Tipu
in 1799.
By the start of 18th century the Mughals got involved in a luxurious style of life
neglecting state affairs. Rulers of several peripheral states became autonomous and they
proved an easy target for the British. Weak successors of Aurangzeb gradually lost their
control over a huge empire as several local rulers became autonomous. These successors
became luxury-loving, and distanced themselves from the state affairs that were given in the
hands of greedy and selfish courtiers and ministers. These ministers were mainly concerned
about misusing the state funds and filling their own pockets. They remained ignorant of the
EIC acquiring military power.
Q:
Q:
How successful was the Indian resistance against the British
between 1750 and 1850?
Or
How successful were the British in expanding their control over
Indian territories between 1750 and 1850?
[14]
Ans:
Indians made several attempts against the British. They had a mix of successes and
failures. Since India was a huge territory with several armies under powerful Nawabs, British
could not have any major success till as late as 1757, in northern India. Powerful armies of
various strong rulers kept British from gaining political control of these states.
In southern India, the Marathas and the rulers of Mysore (Deccan) also offered stiff
resistance till 1799. The ruler of Mysore Hyder Ali, and then his son Tipu Sultan fought three
fierce wars against the British, the Anglo-Mysore wars from 1770’s to 1799. Hyder Ali,
assisted by his son and the French naval force, got a significant victory in 1780-1782.
According to McLeod, “Hyder Ali gave a damned rap over the knuckles of the British.” He
captured Carnatic, Arcot and Cuddalore in the war. After his sudden death in 1782, his son
Tipu continued to resist the British. He defeated Brigadier Mathews in 1783 and captured
Bendore and Bangalore. With success from both sides, the 2nd Anglo-Mysore war ended in
1784 under the Treaty of Mangalore. The British had to launch a propaganda campaign
against Tipu to depopularise him.
Lord Hastings was succeeded by Lord Cornwallis who fought the 3rd Anglo-Mysore
war against Tipu. He provoked Tipu by giving help to the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1789. Tipu
attacked the British and the war lasted for about two years. Tipu was initially successful but
later had to accept the Treaty of Serangapatam in 1792.
The Marathas also gave very tough time to the British in the first Anglo-Mysore war,
1775-1782. Lord Hastings policy of handling Marathas was quite defective that emboldened
Marathas. Marathon power continued to resist British till1818.
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In north-western India, the Sikh ruler of Punjab, Raja Ranjit Singh became a need for
the British due to his own power as well as the strategic location of Punjab. British needed
him to counter the Russian threat through Afghanistan. Moreover, the defeat of the British in
Afghanistan in 1841 lowered their prestige in India. Mir Nisar Ali, popularly known as Titu Mir
Shaheed, offered stiff resistence to the British in the west Bengal till his killing in 1831. He
had raised an army of volunteer fighters, and kept it in fort of bamboos.
However, Indians had a greater number of failures during this period of time. They
suffered their first humiliating defeat in 1757 in the battle of Plassey in Bengal. Nawab Siraj
ud Daula of Bengal fought against Robert Clive of the EIC and was defeated and killed; partly
due to the military superiority of the British and partly to the treachery of Mir Jafar who had
been bribed by the EIC. British gained a very important north-eastern Indian territory. Second
major defeat suffered by Indians was in 1764 in the battle of Buxar. A combined army, of the
Mughal ruler Shah Alam II and Nawabs of Bengal and Oudh, was crushed by the EIC solely
due to its superior fighting skills. A larger area of north-eastern India came under the EIC.
In south India, the EIC kept the Marathas, ruler of Mysore and the Nizam of
Hyderabad divided to decisively defeat Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore. Lord Wellsley’s army
defeated and killed Tipu Sultan in the last Anglo-Mysore war in 1799. Tipu’s general Mir Sadiq
had been bribed by the EIC.
The EIC got rid of the Marathan threat in 1818 in the 3rd and last Marathan war by
defeating their Peshwa Baji Rao II and got several states of southern and central India.
In 1803 the EIC army entered Delhi and shifted the royal court from Red Fort to Qutab
Saheb and thus gained a major victory. Amirs of Sindh were provoked in 1843 to attack the
British. This way the British had undone the damage done to their prestige in Afghanistan.
Titu Mir was defeated by the British in 1831, and his fort of bamboos was destroyed. This
gave British complete control over Bengal.
Finally, the Indians lost the strategic north-western territory of Punjab and Kashmir
between 1846 and 1849. The British, after their defeat in Afghanistan in 1841, decided to
undo the damage to their prestige. Accordingly, the Amirs of Sindh were provoked by the
British, and they attacked and annexed Sindh in 1843. Ranjit Singh’s death caused political
turmoil in Punjab that was exploited by the EIC. It defeated the Sikhs in second Anglo-Sikh
war and annexed Punjab from 1846 to 1849.
The British acting wisely, forced the state princes to sign peace treaties with them.
Under the treaties, these states were given internal autonomy and were required to
acknowledge the British sovereignity by paying various taxes to them.
It may be concluded that the Indian resistance was an utter failure because they
continued to lose various territories to the British due to their own disunity and clever strategy
and military supremacy of the British.
Q.1 (a) According to Source A, why did many people die at Fort William in
1756?
[3]
Source A
Fort William, Calcutta, 1756
“On the evening of 20 June, some 64 prisoners including two women and several
wounded soldiers were marched at sword point to the filthy dungeon at Fort William. This
was a little cell, measuring 18 feet by 14 feet 10 inches, designed for no more than three petty
criminals. The heat at this time of year was suffocating. Prisoners trampled on each other to
get nearer one of the two tiny windows or to the small amount of water they had been left.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Their guards mocked them as the prisoners gasped for air and pleaded for mercy. At 6 am
the next morning, when the door was opened, dead bodies were piled up inside.”
Adapted from an essay in History Today, 2006
Ans.
Several troops died as they were already wounded. They were trapped in a very small
cell with poor ventilation and scorching heat of summer. They desperately struggled to reach
out for fresh air and water for survival. In the panic many were trampled and crushed to death.
The guards on duty remained oblivious to the misery of the prisoners.
Source B
Famine in the subcontinent
Q.
What can we learn from Source B about famine in the subcontinent
during British control?
[5]
Ans.
Physical condition of the afflicted people shows that the famine has been there for a
long time. Their bodies have been reduced to skeleton, with poor clothing and bare feet. They
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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look quite weak due to the effects of a prolonged state of malnutrition. The man distributing
the food also carries visible effects of the famine. Victims of this disaster include men, women
and children who are eagerly waiting for food and relief. The man in the bowler hat seems to
be a government official, appointed by the British government to supervise the relief
operation. Despite an organised effort to help the affected population, the British would have
to face fierce opposition by the Indians, especially the people of Bengal.
(c) Explain why Robert Clive was successful in the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
[7]
Ans.
Robert Clive was a skilled and experienced military commander. His victorious
journey started from his victory in the Battle of Arcot in 1751. In this he defeated the combined
army of the Nawab of Carnatic and the French EIC. This gave him more confidence against
the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Daulah whom he defeated in 1757 by using both military
strategy and clever tactic of bribing the Nawab’s key man, Mir Jafar. Jafar’s defection
weakened the Nawab’s army, which Clive was able to use to his advantage. Jafar did not
mobilize his troops when the battle began.
In the course of the battle, heavy rainfall affected the scenario. Clive, acting cleverly,
ordered his men to cover their cannon when it rained. The Nawab’s army kept their weapons
uncovered, and continued to fire aimlessly during the rain. As a result of this, their weapons
became wet. When the rain stopped, Clive ordered his soldiers to start firing against the
enemy. The Nawab’s army tried to respond to this attack but their cannons and guns could
not fire due to wet powder.
Finally, the tables were turned against them. The Nawab’s army had to retreat due to
their ineffective weapons caused by the Nawab’s poor strategy. Clive’s army, with a renewed
spirit, attacked with full force. While retreating, the Nawab’s army lost 500 troops against only
22 soldiers of Clive’s army. This disparity of casualties proved decisive in favour of Robert
Clive.
Q:
Did educational reforms have a more important effect on the
Indians than the social, religious and economic ones introduced by
the British during the years 1773 to 1856? Explain your
answer.
[14]
Ans:
British established themselves in India through their educational reforms. British
had carried a firm belief in the superiority of their culture, especially their educational
system. According to a British official in 1835, "a single shelf of a good European library
was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia". British felt justified in holding
such views as they had emerged a military giant and scientifically advanced due to their
success in science and technology. They considered it their duty to spread their superior
culture.
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They introduced English as the official language in 1834 and gradually popularised
their own education system. This scheme was master-minded by Thomas Babington
Macaulay. Several schools, many run by .Christian missionaries, were set up throughout
India, 1830 onwards. These steps had a westernising effect on India but Indians resisted
it inwardly as they thought the British were trying to impose their culture on India.
British also took steps to introduce other social reforms. They abolished Sattee, a
Hindu custom of burning widow alive on the cremation of her husband. They eradicated
Thuggee, another Hindu ritual of killing their victims in the name of a goddess. In 1830,
Colonel Sleeman's army arrested 2000 thugs. This step was welcomed by Indians as the
custom had terrified Hindus and Muslims alike. In 1795, female infanticide (killing baby
daughters) was abolished by the EIC and it was declared as an act of murder. Most Hindus
resisted this and the ban on Sattee because they considered these British acts as direct
interference with the local religious and cultural traditions. Eventually, however, these
British attempts had a good effect on Indian life.
In 1833, the EIC allowed Christian missionaries to preach in India. Accordingly,
several missionaries began their mission of spreading Christianity in India. They also
spread Western knowledge and way of life, thinking themselves superior to the local
people. As a result, the missionaries got intolerant towards Indians, and this caused
resentment among Indians. Gradually, there were conversions among locals, especially
among the Sudras. Christianity slowly emerged as a major religion in India. Also, a new
community, Anglo-Indians emerged in India.
British EIC made it compulsory for Indian sepoys to serve the EIC army wherever
needed. According to Hindu belief, a caste Hindu would lose caste by traveling overseas
and so, this step of EIC was condemned by Hindu community.
British also affected the economy of India by their involvement with the local
economic matters. They imposed heavy taxes on Indians to fully exploit local resources.
Some of the tax collectors became corrupt and kept the money with themselves. Peasants
and small land owners were worst affected by heavy taxes. Salaries of Indian sepoys were
kept lower than British soldiers. Indian wealth and raw materials were used to feed British
factories in England, while Indian markets were flooded with British manufactured goods.
Local products could not match these goods in quality and price. Consequently, many rich
Indians became poor. A British official remarked on this by equating the phenomenon with
"a sponge, drawing up all the good things from the banks of the Ganges, and squeezing
them down on the banks of the Thames". Indians felt exploited and economically ruined
and gradually hatred grew against the British leading to the 1857 uprising.
To conclude, it seems that educational reforms affected Indians more than other
reforms because, with a new education system, British were able to raise a team of Indians
fully loyal to the British. These Indians opposed any uprising against their new rulers.
Q:
Was the work of the Christian missionaries the most important
reason why the Indians opposed British attempts to westernize
them between 1750 and 1850? Explain your answer.
(10)
Ans.
Christian missionaries came to India to spread Christianity by various means. 1833
onwards, the activity of the Christian missionaries became more visible. They were seen at
all public places, distributing the Christian literature freely. They enjoyed the support of the
EIC. Several missionary schools were set up in all the major Indian towns where teaching of
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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the Bible to the local students was introduced. In these schools the missionaries taught
Christianity and expected local religions to be given up which was resented by Muslims,
Hindus and Sikhs alike. Gradually, the British began to develop the belief that their Christian
values made them superior to the local faith followed by the Indians: Hinduism, Islam and
Sikhism. As a result the ruling British community in India began to show intolerance towards
the local religions. Many Indians started believing that an alien culture was being imposed on
them. So, not many Indians changed their religion.
However, there were other reasons why the Indians opposed the British attempts to
westernize them. The British replaced Persian and Sanskrit with English as the official
language in the 1830’s. This deeply upset both the Muslims and Hindus as these had been
the popular languages of India for centuries. Therefore, they felt the native languages might
be adversely affected by English because language has always been a very effective tool of
the ruling elite.
The British introduced a number of social reforms without consultation or care for local
feeling which caused much unrest. Modern British education was resisted by the Indians.
Moreover, they were required to send their children to co-educational schools which was
hated since it appeared to impose the British traditions on the Indians without due regard to
their religious and cultural feelings. Thomas Macaulay believed in the superiority of the
European advancement in knowledge and therefore, he looked down upon the Indians and
the Arabic education system. Not surprisingly, a British official in 1835 remarked, “A single
shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.”
Such ideas generated resentment among Indians against the British. They were more
infuriated when they were forced to abandon ‘purdha’/Hejab which had been an Indian
custom for centuries. The Muslim community, in particular, opposed such steps as they went
against the fundamental teachings of Islam.
In 1795, female infanticide/killing of baby daughters was declared to be murder, but
the British found difficulty in enforcing this as it was again a tradition practiced by Hindus in
many parts of India. Suttee was the Hindu ritual of burning a widow alive on the cremation of
her husband. When the British abolished it first in Bengal and then in the rest of the country,
they faced fierce opposition by some of the Hindu tribes. In fact many British were not in
favour of going to this extent of involvement in the local religious beliefs and traditions,
surprisingly there was little opposition to the ban on this inhuman custom. Similarly, the
encouragement of the widow remarriage was also criticized by several Hindus.
Analyzing objectively, it may be concluded that the work of the Christian missionaries
was the most important reason for the Indian opposition to the British because religious
beliefs and practices had been tremendously dear to the Indians. They could go to any extent
against whoever tried to intrude into this cultural sphere and that means they could make it a
matter of life and death when it came to imposing other religions on them.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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THE 1857 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
Causes:
(1)
Political: Annexation policy of the EIC → various means e.g. the “Doctrine of Lapse” by
Lord Dalhousie 1852 → capture of Oudh in 1856 → local rulers felt insecure &
considered the British greedy land grabbers
 Disrespect of the Mughal rule → shifting the royal family from the Red Fort to the
Qutub Saheb by Dalhousie
 Negligible share of Indians in the civil service + 1834, English replaced Persian
as the court language → resentment among Indians to such policies
(2)
Cultural (religious & social)
 Dominating Brit Culture +arrogant attitude towards Indians → introduction of
roads, railways & telecommunication unacceptable to many Indians.
 Role of Christian missionaries → preaching & missionary schools → Indians felt
their religious interests threatened
(3)
Economic:
 Indian Resources for Brit industry → huge profits from sale of manufactured goods
in India → local industry declined
 Heavy taxation → unaffordable for poor & small farmers + corrupt tax collectors.
(4)
Military:
 Indians were bulk of British army, but on lower ranks only → Sepoys & Sawars
(cavalry)
 Insulting attitude of Brit officers towards Indians
 Overseas journey, not allowed in Hinduism
 Fear of forcible conversion to Christianity
 Indian troops in Afghanistan → resented esp by Hindus
 Greased cartridges → fat of pig & cow
Causes of failure of the War of Independence
(1)
Lack of Unity:
 Different groups with different interests in different parts of India → Hindus &
Muslims not united → most princes not willing to restore Mughal rule → some
princes wanted restoration of their individual feudal powers e.g. Kashmir → power
of its ruler depended on Brit rule.
(2)
Lack of support by many provinces:
 → the revolt was not supported by Punjab & Sindh → conquered by troops from
Bengal & Central India → they didn’t support these provinces
(3)
Lack of planning & aims:
 → Hastily organized effort → no prior planning & no co-ordinated effort → rebels
not clear about a common goal & so , were easily overpowered by the Brit → no
real sense of national patriotism
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(4)
British strengths:
 Highly disciplined Brit army → a good team of generals with experience in warfare
& fighting techniques → Brit had diplomatic skills & retained control over most of
territories by keeping various groups divided.
Effects of the War
 End of the Mughal rule → strict punishment for the royal family & the last Mughal ruler,





Bahadar Shah Zafar
Establishment of Brit rule → India because a Brit Colony.
Harsh penalties for rebels, especially the Muslims → they were held main culprits →
public hangings, stitching the dead in pigskins → all respectable posts were denied
to them.
Brit changed their policy → no further annexation, no interference with religious
beliefs.
Gradual political awakening among Indians → rise of leadership and political parties
→ 1885, INC was founded
Brit adopted measures to win Indian confidence → 1877 Queen of England became
Emperess India.
Reasons for the British being able to conquer India
(1)
Indian weaknesses → disunity among various groups → no uniting force, as the
Mughal rule in process of decline.
 Many rulers sought Brit help against their rivals, instead of considering Brit as
common enemy.
 Failure of many rulers to reform their states & improve social conditions → they
lived on their past history & neglected State affairs.
(2)
British strengths → fruits of the Industrial revolution → advanced technology, superior
weapons, better means of communication and strong confidence about their success.
 Strong sense of patriotism → main uniting force, together with a sense of superior
culture that they wanted to spread
 Political belief to make progress & to rule a larger part of the world
 Such beliefs acted as driving force in making successful efforts to conquer India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Describe the events of the War of Independence.
Ans.
[4]
In March 1857, the Hindu sepoy Mangal Panday was executed after he had defied
his officers. In May, sepoys in Meerut refused to touch the new greased cartridges. They
were court-martialled and jailed, but their fellows freed them. Several British officers were
killed in Meerut. The Mughal King Bahadur Shah Zafar became the unifying symbol for all the
rebels. They soon captured many important cities in northern and central India. In September,
the British began to recapture the lost towns, and the war ended in June 1858.
Q:
What happened at the Battle of Kanpur?
Ans.
[4]
In November-December 1857, the rebels led by Nana Sahib Peshwa, captured
Kanpur, near Lucknow and held it out for three weeks. They killed the British officers and
slaughtered 300 women and children while taking several as captives. The British sent
reinforcements and recaptured the city. Nana Sahib escaped. The captured rebels were
given horrible punishments in revenge.
Q:
Who was Rani of Jhansi/Lakshmibai?
[4]
Ans:
Her name was Laxmibai, and was queen of the North Indian state of Jhansi.In the
initial phase of the War of Independence, she remained friendly with the British. Relations,
however, got strained soon after the British regained control of Lucknow. She led rebel
sepoys, assisted by another Indian general Tatya Topi, against the British. The British, led by
Major Hugh Rose, attacked Jhansi, in March 1858. She escaped to Gwalior and was finally,
killed in her last battle, in June 1858.
Q. Who was Mangal Panday?
[4]
Ans.
Mangal Panday was the famoud Indian sepoy in the Bengal Native Infantry of the
EIC. He defied the British officers in March 1857, mobilized many rebels for the 1857 war.
He attacked and wounded the British Gen. Baugh and then another office Hewson. The
matter was reported to Gen. Hearsey who immediately controlled the situation. Mangal
Panday was trialed and executed on 8 April 1857. With this, the War of Independence began
and spread to many parts of India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
The war of Independence was caused by the introduction of social
reforms by the British. Do you agree? Explain.
[14]
Ans:
Social reforms were resented by the Indians. British introduced a series of social
reforms most of which were disliked by the Indians. When the Hindu custom of Sattee was
banned and remarriage of the widow was encouraged the Hindus reacted strongly. In Sattee
the widow was burned alive in the cremation ceremony of her dead husband. Most of the
widowed women in Hindu community were supposed not to remarry. Therefore, when British
changed these traditions, Hindus took this step as interference in their religious traditions.
Similarly the introduction of the co-education system and a discouraging attitude of the
observance of Hijab/Purda was resisted by the Muslims for whom these steps were against
their socio-religious traditions.
British started a number of social development schemes such as roads, railways and
telecommunications. Though they benefitted India in general, many in the north-western parts
of India thought that British had introduced the railway system only to ensure quick movement
of troops in case of Russian attack through Afghanistan.
Westernization of Indian educational system was also not welcomed by a majority of
Indians because of Lord Macaulay’s contemptuous remarks about the Indian educational
standard. When English began to replace Urdu and Hindi as the official language, in 1834,
both Hindus and Muslims opposed this as they took such measures as an onslaught on local
cultural traditions. Generally, the British were derogatory towards Indians.
Growth of the activities of the Christian missionaries during the second half of 19th
century also promoted a sense of insecurity among Indians specially when there were reports
of forcible conversion of Indians into Christianity. Christian missionaries were active at all
public places like, schools, parks, markets and they believed it was their duty to impose a
superior culture and religion on all Indians.
In military affairs too, the British officers treated Indian subordinates in an arrogant
way and they were denied any promotion regardless of their services for the British. Indian
sepoys were given lesser salaries as compared to the British soldiers. This inculcated hatred
and frustration among Indians. When an ordinance was issued about the services of Indians
anywhere in the world, both Hindus and the Muslims felt offended. According to Hindu belief,
a caste Hindu would become a Sudra if he travelled overseas. Muslim troops were reluctant
to fight the fellow Afghan Muslim troops in the Company’s army.
British policy of annexation was also very alarming for Indians, specially the way the
Doctrine of lapse was enforced in 1852 by Lord Dalhousie. Under this, any state whose ruler
didn’t have a son was annexed by the EIC. States of Nana Sahib Peshwa (Kanpur) and Rani
of Jhansi were unjustly annexed as both had sons. Many states were annexed by force or on
weak pretexts such as Sindh and Bengal. After entering Delhi in 1803, the EIC shifted the
Mughal royal family from the Red Fort to Qutub Sahib. This too promoted anger among
Indians.
Heavy taxation on Indians and exploitation of local raw materials and wealth for the
British factories in England was another major reason. As factory made better cotton began
to replace the local hand processed cotton, millions of hand weavers of cotton were rendered
jobless and suffered from starvation and died.
Finally, by the start of 1857, new cartridges for the Enfield rifles were introduced. It
was rumored that they were wrapped in the fat of cow and pig and they had to be chewed
out before use. Hindus accorded motherly status to cows whereas for Muslims pig was Haram
(forbidden). So, both Hindu and Muslim troops refused to use these cartridges. Mangal
Panday was the first soldier to have refused them in March 1857 and with this the revolt
spread to other parts of India.
It seems the introduction of social reforms was the most important reason because
the social and cultural values were very dear to Indians who took them as the first and most
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
important mark of their identity. So, when the EIC tried to change them the Indian reaction
was in proportion to the British efforts.
Q:
To what extent were economic reforms the main cause of the War
of Independence in 1857? Explain your answer.
[10]
Ans:
Economic exploitation of India by the British was a major reason of the War of
Independence. In the beginning the British traders conducted trade in a way that
benefited Indians, too. However, as they got control of several Indian states, they
introduced new trading laws and revenue reforms that were aimed at exploiting Indian
resources and wealth. They imposed heavy taxes on Indian peasants and small
landowners to fill their treasury. Lord Warren Hastings introduced the concept of
putting the tax collectors up for auction. This tempted many locals to acquire the post
by paying heavy money to the Company. Once the ambitious candidates got the
desired position of tax collector, they would use all tactics to extort taxes from the
Indians. This resulted in poverty and starvation among Indians that whipped up anger
and resentment against the British with the passage of time. Moreover, exploitation
of local raw materials and wealth for the British factories in England was also noticed
with great concern by the Indians. As factory made better cotton began to replace the
local hand processed cotton, millions of hand weavers of cotton were rendered
jobless and suffered from starvation and died.
Social reforms were resented by the Indians. British introduced a series of social
reforms most of which were disliked by the Indians. When the Hindu custom of Sattee
was banned and remarriage of the widow was encouraged the Hindus reacted
strongly. In Sattee the widow was burned alive in the cremation ceremony of her dead
husband. Most of the widowed women in Hindu community were supposed not to
remarry. Therefore, when British changed these traditions, Hindus took this step as
interference in their religious traditions. Similarly the introduction of the co-education
system and a discouraging attitude of the observance of Hijab/Purda was resisted by
the Muslims for whom these steps were against their socio-religious traditions.
British started a number of social development schemes such as roads, railways and
telecommunications. Though they benefitted India in general, many in the northwestern parts of India thought that British had introduced the railway system only to
ensure quick movement of troops in case of Russian attack through Afghanistan.
Westernization of Indian educational system was also not welcomed by a majority of
Indians because of Lord Macaulay’s contemptuous remarks about the Indian
educational standard, when English began to replace Urdu and Hindi as the official
language, in 1834, both Hindus and Muslims opposed this as they took such
measures as an onslaught on local cultural traditions. Generally, the British were
derogatory towards Indians.
Growth of the activities of the Christian missionaries during the second half of 19th
century also promoted a sense of insecurity among Indians specially when there were
reports of forcible conversion of Indians into Christianity. Christian missionaries were
active at all public places like, schools, parks, markets and they believed it was their
duty to impose a superior culture and religion on all Indians.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
In military affairs too, the British officers treated Indian subordinates in an arrogant
way and they were denied any promotion regardless of their services for the British.
Indian sepoys were given lesser salaries as compared to the British soldiers. This
inculcated hatred and frustration among Indians. When an ordinance was issued
about the services of Indians anywhere in the world, both Hindus and the Muslims felt
offended. According to Hindu belief, a caste Hindu would become Sudra if he travelled
overseas. Muslim troops were reluctant to fight the fellow Afghan Muslim troops in the
Company’s army.
British policy of annexation was also very alarming for Indians, specially the way the
Doctrine of lapse was enforced in 1852 by Lord Dalhousie. Under this, any state
whose ruler didn’t have a son was annexed by the EIC. States of Nana Sahib Peshwa
(Kanpur) and Rani of Jhansi were unjustly annexed as both had sons. Many states
were annexed by force or on weak pretexts such as Sindh and Bengal. After entering
Delhi in 1803, the EIC shifted the Mughal royal family from the Red Fort to Qutub
Sahib. This too promoted anger among Indians.
Finally, by the start of 1857, new cartridges for the Enfield rifles were introduced. It
was rumored that they were wrapped in the fat of cow and pig and they had to be
chewed out before use. Hindus accorded motherly status to cows whereas for
Muslims pig was Haram (forbidden). So, both Hindu and Muslim troops refused to use
these cartridges. Mangal Panday was the first soldier to have refused them in March
1857 and with this the revolt spread to other parts of India.
It seems the economic reforms became the main reason of the 1857 war because
with rising poverty, unemployment, hunger and starvation, the Indians felt themselves
being pushed to the wall. The cumulative anger and frustration finally burst into a
collective though desperate uprising against the British.
Q:
Why did the Indians not achieve independence in 1857?
or
Explain the reasons for the failure of the War of Independence. (7)
Ans. Indians were disunited in the War. The divide between Hindus and Muslims was
visible as Hindus were not sincere in restoring the Mughal rule. In different places
different groups fought for different reasons, thus weakening their own strength. The
Punjab and Sindh had been recently annexed by the EIC with the help of troops from
Bengal and Central India. So, when the same troops rebelled against the British, the
two provinces were uninterested in helping the rebellion and the Punjab actually sent
troops and supplies to help the British. The Maharaja of Kashmir also sent troops for
the same purpose.
There was no general plan before the start of the War that started abruptly by the
defiance of a single soldier Mangal Panday. The rebels perhaps forgot that they were
fighting against a very strong nation and that required a well thought out war plan.
During the course of the War, this lack of planning and coordination became more
prominent as various rebel groups did not know how to proceed in case of any
success. This helped the British to regain their control within a year. Rebels began to
plunder their fellow countrymen after taking control of many cities. Thus the affected
people preferred to leak information to the British about the rebels.
The British had a professionally trained army with several experienced commanders
who had been trained to deal with such emergencies. They had been familiar with the
modern methods of fighting a huge army with a lesser number of troops. Moreover,
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
the British had a strong sense of success as they were one of the most powerful
nations of the world at that time. So, their confident and disciplined army took little
time in overcoming the revolt.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
A lack of unity was the main reason for the failure of the War of
Independence. Do you agree? Explain.
[14]
Ans:
Indians were not united in the War. Right from the beginning the Hindu-Muslim divide
was evident. Hindus had no reason to fight for the restoration of the Mughal rule in
India. So, on many fronts both communities did not support each other. At many
places different groups fought for different reasons. The only real uniting force was
Islam as the Mughal rule had been established by the Muslim community. Being a
minority in India and ruling it for centuries, the Muslims were more prepared than other
communities to oppose the British. Therefore, any degree of unity among Muslims
greatly alarmed the Hindus and Sikhs. That is one major reason why the British
viewed the War of Independence as predominantly a ‘Muslim revolt’.
Moreover, some of the rulers were ready to withdraw from the War if the British
promised to fulfill their demands e.g. Nana Saheb Peshwa. Some of the state princes
were interested only in restoring their own feudal powers. In some cases their powers
actually depended on the support of the British. That is why the ruler of Kashmir sent
2000 troops to help the British. This greatly weakened the spirit of the uprising on the
whole.
The rebel forces were generally not well-organised, and did not have a
concrete common goal ahead of them. Such rebels, in fact, gave vent to their
frustration and anger due to their growing poverty. This is why many of them began
to plunder their fellow countrymen after taking control of many cities. Thus the affected
people preferred to leak information to the British about the rebels instead of
supporting them. This disunity was a blessing for the British who fully exploited it, and
began to regain control over the lost territories.
The uprising was a hasty and unplanned desperate attempt by the troops after
Mangal Pandey’s refusal to use the grease cartridges. This encouraged sepoys in
some other provinces to defy their British officers, too. Consequently most of the
Indian troops from selected provinces stood up against the British without any proper
planning. As the uprising spread to other provinces, there was no coordination among
troops about the future line of action. This became a major reason for the failure of
the War of Independence.
British, on the other hand, had many strengths. They were one of the powerful
nations of the world with sophisticated and destructive weapons. They had a regular,
highly disciplined and professionally trained army. Their skilled military commanders
carried a strong sense of success due to their professional training. British army had
been trained in dealing with such emergencies. The rebels, on the other hand, did not
have any such leaders to counter the British. Therefore, they retained control of about
3/4th of their possessions and restricted the uprising to a smaller belt of northern and
central Indian provinces. They also had a strong sense of success due to their
victories in other parts of the world. They skillfully followed their policy of “divide and
rule” when they saw the Indian inherent disunity. They applied both military and nonmilitary tactics in a diplomatic way in exploiting the weakness of several Indian rulers
who were fighting to regain their own rule. As a result, the British kept control in more
than three quarters of their possessions.
It may be concluded that a lack of unity was the decisive factor for the failure of the
War because in case all Indians had become united, it might have been impossible
for the British to put down the uprising, keeping in mind the size of Indian population.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
The War of Independence achieved nothing/little for the Indians. Do
you agree? Explain.
[14]
Ans:
The 1857 War led to disastrous consequences. As far as its immediate results are
concerned they brought miseries to Indians in general and to Muslims in particular. Muslims
were exclusively targetted because British had taken political control from them and they
wanted to erase any sense of “imperial pride” from their minds. At many places mass
executions were carried out publicly and the dead were stitched in the pigskin. Muslims were
denied all respectable posts. Raids were conducted at the houses of several notable people
on the ground of suspicion and harsh treatment was meted out in general. Sepoys were
blown away by tying their bodies at the mouths of the cannons. The purpose was to create
awe and horror in the minds of the Indians.
Mughal rule was officially abolished and the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar
was exiled to Rangoon (Myanmar/Burma) where his sons were beheaded and he himself
was given death sentence that was commuted to life imprisonment due to his advanced age.
India became a British colony.
British also became cautious and selective in military matters. They began to recruit
troops from the relatively loyal provinces such as Punjab KP and Kashmir, and followed the
policy of encouraging the “martial race” of Pathans and Punjabis.
However, gradually it became apparent that the War gave Indians something positive,
too. Indians had learned the hard lesson that militarily they were no match to the British.
Therefore, now they would resist British rule politically. As a result Indians began to develop
political awareness and founded political parties ___ INC in 1885 and ML in 1906. Indians
got leaders and reformers like Sir Syed, Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak, Gandhi and Jinnah.
British government abolished the EIC under Allahabad Declaration of 1858. Under
this, all annexation policies were abandoned e.g. the doctrine of lapse. British government
promised respect of local religious faiths and practices. They also decided to train Indians in
politics by introducing political reforms periodically. Queen of England adopted the additional
title of “Empress of India” in 1877 in order to win the Indian confidence.
British government introduced a “chain of command” to govern India. British
parliament would make laws for India with the assistance of a Secretary of State for India and
a Viceroy. Secretary of State would visit India when needed while the Viceroy was stationed
in India. He was assisted by a team of governors (always British) and the Viceroy’s Executive
Council.
In the final analysis, it seems that the War of 1857 was on the whole a failed attempt
by Indians as it failed to achieve the primary objective of driving the British out of India.
Instead, the British eliminated the Mughal rule forever. India would now be governed directly
by the British government for another nine decades.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q. (a) What does source A, an extract from the book of a British historian,
tell us about the British feelings after the War?
[3]
“While it is true that large numbers of European women and children were murdered
with great brutality, some of the stories have been exaggerated. The British forces felt
that every male Indian capable of carrying weapons was guilty of such crimes.
Therefore, they adopted a punitive attitude towards all Indians after the War. Mass
hangings were carried out publicly and at many places the dead were stitched in the
pig-skin.”
Ans.
According to the source, the British authorities were looking for any excuse to punish
the Indians. They began to penalize Indians in an indiscriminate way even though all Indians
might not have participated in the tragic events of targeting the unarmed British families. They
developed strong feelings of revenge and resentment against the Indians and decided to
teach them horrible lessons.
Q. (b) According to the source B, a photograph of the events of the War
of Independence, describes the scene of the battlefield?
[5]
Ans.
This seems to be the initial phase of the War. Indian rebels, carrying traditional
weapons, are shown in a very hostile mood that is a result of cumulative anger against the
British. They are attacking a British soldier/officer who is desperately trying to defend himself
while his wife and child seem to have been killed. This means the rebels are not going to
spare even the British women and children. Some other British soldiers can also be seen
lying on the ground that means the rebels have put them on the defensive. Indians are shown
to be fully spirited, and are ready to kill as many British as they can. Despite this, the British
would emerge victorious, and punish several Indians after the war.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Work of Three Reformers to Revive Islam in India
During 18th and 19th Centuries
Shah Wali Ullah (1703-1762)
Introduction:
 Born as Qutub-ud-Din, to the famous scholar, religious advisor to A.zeb & founder



of the “Madrassa-i-Rahimiya” , Shah Abdul Rahim, 1703, Delhi.
Began teaching in the Madrassa, 1718, on father’s death
1724-1732, in Arabia; studied under sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim
Decided to work for revival of Islam, after being blessed by the vision of the Prophet
in Arabia.
Beliefs / reasons for his work:
 Moved by the declining Mughal rule & deploreable conditions of Indian Muslims,





after A. Zeb’s death; analyzed that the Muslim community could bring about some
change.
Thought, the main reason for the deteriorating status of Muslims was the neglect of
the Quran & Sunnah; Muslims should understand the Quran.
Result of forgetting the Quranic teachings
Growing influence of un-Islamic elements in social, economic, political & personal
mattes of Muslims.
Sectarian divide among Muslims should become a united community in order to
restore their glory.
Threat to Mughal rule from within & outside, e.g., Sikhs, Marathas & Europeans.
Work / Services:
 Presented himself a role model before Muslims---- an authority on the Quran,




Hadith, Fiqh/Fiqah or Islamic legal thinking & Tasawuf/Sufisim.
Translated the Quran into Persian (language easily comprehensible; the Ulema
(Muslim scholars) sharply criticized, but the work got popular; later, his 2 sons
translated it into Urdu.
Wrote several books in Persian & Arabic to guide the Muslims; e.g., “Hujjatullah al
Baligha & Izalat ul Akhfa; accounts of the four caliphs of Islam in a way acceptable
to Sunnis & Shias.
Stressed on the value of social justice for ordinary people in order to create
equilibrium in society; urged Muslims to be honest & emphasized on Ijtehad
(rational thinking in Islam to resolve modern issues).
Practical steps to counter threats to the Mughal rule, especially the Marathas;
invited the Afghan general Ahmed Shah Abdali; Abdali, with the help of local rulers,
defended the Marathas in the 3rd battle of Panipat, 1761; unfortunately, the defeat
was not exploited by Muslim rulers to make a united force.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Importance of his work:
 First Muslim thinker to attempt revival of Islam & regenerate Muslims in the wake
of Mughal decline; analysed the real reason of decline by linking it to the neglect
of the Quran.
 His work survived---- in the form of his writings & thousands of followers from
Madrassa-i-Rahimiya, e.g, his sons & SAS (Syed Ahmed Shaheed) took concrete
steps to bridge the sectarian differences among Muslims; unified Muslims to
counter various threats, the Marathas.
 Highlighted the importance & need of Jihad to save Indian Muslims at a critical
time.
Shah Wali Ullah (1703-1762)
Q.
Who was Shah Wali Ullah?
Ans.
[4]
He was a Muslim reformer, born in 1703, in Delhi. He was educated at the Madrassa
Rahimiyia in Delhi, founded by his father Shah Abdul Rahim. He went to Arabia in 1724 and
returned in 1732. He was strongly influenced by the famous scholar Sheikh Abu Tahir bin
Ibrahim and made his mind to reform the Muslim society in India. He wrote 51 books, the
most famous being, ‘Hujjat Ullah al-Baligha’ and translated the Holy Quran into Persian. He
worked for promoting unity among Muslims and died in 1762.
Q.
Describe the services/achievements of Shah Wali Ullah.
Ans.
[4]
Shah Wali Ullah wrote several books in which he analyzed the reasons of the decline
of the Muslim community in India. His most famous book was ‘Hujjat Ullah al-Baligha’. He
also translated the Holy Quran into Persian under the title, ‘Fat’h ur Rahman’. He urged
Muslims to follow the teachings of Quran and Sunnah in order to hope for restoration of their
lost glory. He invited Ahmed Shah Abdali to save the Mughal rule. Abdali defeated the
Marathas in the 3rd battle of Panipat in 1761.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.
Why did Shah Wali Ullah wish to revive Islam in the sub-continent?
(7)
Ans:
Shah Wali Ullah was a great reformer. He was born in 1703, only four years before
the death of Aurangzeb. Therefore, he was a witness to, and worried over the process of the
decline of the Mughal Empire and the deteriorating condition of the Indian Muslims. He
believed that the main reason of the miserable condition of the Muslims was their ignorance
of Quran and Sunnah. Persian, the court language, was understood by the educated Muslim
elite. So, he translated the Quran into Persian language. This way a greater number of
Muslims could understand and follow the Quranic teachings.
In order to create awareness among Muslims regarding the problems faced by them
and the possible solutions to the problems, he wrote several books. The most famous book
was, “Hujjat Ullah al-Baligha” in which he analysed the problems of the Muslim community.
In “Izalat ul Khafa”(usually misspelt as Izalat ul Ikhfa), he tried to remove the differences
between the two major sects of Islam, Sunni and Shi’a Muslims. In this he wrote the
biographies of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs in a way acceptable to both the major sects.
He also advised Muslims to work honestly and with dedication if they really wanted to
come out of a state of helplessness and ignorance that they had inherited from their corrupt,
weak and luxury loving rulers. As a result of this, there were several threats to the Mughal
rule in India both from within and outside. He emphasized the importance of Jihad against a
common enemy. Therefore, he invited Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan to save it.
Accordingly, Abdali broke the backbone of the South Indian militant Hindu community, the
Marathas. He defeated them in the third and last Battle of Panipat in 1761, though he himself
did not stay back in India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi (SASB) (1786-1831)
Introduction:
 Born 1786, Rae Bareli, near Lucknow in a Syed family
 1806, father’s death, studied in Madrassa-i-Rahimiya, under sons of SWU.
 1810, joined army of Amir Khan, a Pathan leader; learned military skills; returned to


Delhi; 1817; to Arabia, 1821-1823; strongly influenced by Sheikh Abdul Wahab
(founder of the Wahabi movement)
Started his J.M. (Jehad Movement) 1823, against Sikhs of Punjab.
1831, last battle against the Sikhs forces at Balakot (Abbotabad), was defeated &
killed together with most of his soldiers (Mujahideen).
His beliefs / reasons for his work:
 Freedom of Indian Muslims by Jehad or armed struggle; several parts of India under




the rule of non-Muslims, mainly, wanted to restore Muslim rule.
Wanted to eradicate un-Islamic elements in order to ensure moral, intellectual &
spiritual revival of Muslims; need to end evils & corruptions in Muslim society.
Strong Sikh rule in Punjab & weak Mughal rule due to British policy
Tyrant Sikh rule under Ranjit Singh, made lives of Muslims quite difficult
Ban on Azan, congregational prayers; use of Badshahi mosque, Lhr as stable by
Sikh army.
Work / Services:
 Influenced thousands of Muslims on his way to Arabia, 1821; urged them for Jehad.
 1823, returned form Arabia, ready for Jehad; raised a team of volunteer fighters,
Mujahideen.
 Extensive tours of Punjab, NWFP/KPK (then part of Punjab), Sindh, Rajasthan,
even Afghanistan
 1826, headquarters near Peshawar; ultimatum to Ranjit Singh to grant liberty to







Muslims; Ranjit dismissed it, 1st fight at Okara; 2nd near Hazro – defeat of Sikhs
More joined & soon, 80,000 Mujahideen though the troops disagreed on may issues
due to varying cultural backgrounds.
Unanimously declared as the Imam (leader), 1827; got religious & political authority
to unify the Mujahideen.
Local Pathan tribal chief, Yar Muahammad Khan, was bribed by Sikhs; began to
leak information to Sikhs about SAS; Yar Muhammad tried to assassinate SAS,
then deserted him when SAS was about to attack the Attock Fort.
Shifted headquarter to Panjtrar, Kashmir.
Sultan Khan, brother of Yar, also turned against SAS; shifted to Balakot in order to
liberate Kashmir, Hazara etc.
Surprise attack by a huge Sikh force in Balakot, 1831
Defeat & killing of SAS & 1863 by the British.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Importance of work of SAS:
 First example of an armed struggle aimed at liberating Muslims from the tyranny of



non-Muslim rule.
J.M. attempted to achieve religious & spiritual freedom of Muslims; his mission was
not about replacing a non-Muslim ruler with some particular Muslim ruler.
Source of inspiration and unification for Muslims belonging to various sects and
creeds & parts of Indian, ready to fight for a common cause.
J. M. was a fore-runner of Pakistan Movement; both were aimed at liberating the
Muslim majority areas of India from the Non-Muslim rule.
Reasons for the failure of Jihad Movement:
 Loss of local support; Syed’s army was maintained & accommodated by Pathan


tribes but soon the tribal chiefs were bribed by Sikhs; they withdraw support for
Mujahideen.
Lack of a professional army; Mujahideen were mainly volunteers from various walks
of life, e.g., teachers, students & scholars against a skilled army of Sikhs; difficult to
continue fight for a longer period.
Differences among Mujahideen due to sectarian differences; SAS exerted energies
to keep them united for a common cause; Sikhs exploited the situation of these
differences in order to weaken the spirit of J.M.
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi (SASB) (1786-1831)
Q.
Who was Syed Ahmed Shaheed?
Ans.
[4]
He was born in 1786 in Rae Bareli near Lucknow. He studied in Madrassa-i-Rahimiya
and was influenced by the teachings of Shah Wali Ullah’s sons. He served in the army of
Amir Khan and thus acquired military training. He decided to wage Jihad against the Sikh rule
in Punjab. After his return from Arabia, he raised an army of Mujahidin, and founded the Jihad
Movement. After his initial successes in the 1820s, he was defeated and killed by the Sikh
army in the battle of Balakot in 1831.
Q.
Describe the Jehad Movement.
Ans.
[4]
It was founded by Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi (SASB) to liberate the Muslims of
Punjab from the tyranny of the Sikh ruler Raja Ranjit Singh. The Raja had denied Muslims
any kind of religious liberty and humiliated them. SASB raised an army of volunteers
Mujahideen and defeated the Sikh forces in a number of battles from 1826 to 1830. Later, his
Pathan tribal supporters like Yar Muhammad Khan betrayed him and he was killed in Battle
of Balakot near Abbotabad in 1831. The movement was continued till the 1860’s.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.
Why did SASB start his Jehad Movement?
Ans.
(7)
He wanted to revive Islam in India by armed struggle, Jehad. He could see the British
establishing their rule over various parts of India as a result of which Muslims were fast losing
their dominant position and importance in India. The EIC had annexed the important Muslim
majority province of Bengal and the neighbouring north-eastern Indian territories and was
advancing towards the north-western Muslim majority province. He thought that Muslims
could achieve freedom by waging Jehad/armed struggle against the non-Muslims.
Being a man of action he could act as a strong leader to work against British power
in India and to struggle to restore the Muslim rule over various Indian territories. He believed
that there was a need to eliminate the evils that were corrupting the beliefs and practices of
the Indian Muslims as a result of growing non-Muslim influence during the 19th century.
SASB could see the British policy of restricting the powers of the Mughal Emperors
and strengthening the non-Muslims in various parts of India. For example, the Punjab was a
Muslim majority province but was ruled by the non-Muslim minority of Sikhs. The ruler, Raja
Ranjit Singh was very hostile towards Muslims. They could not deliver Azan and, therefore,
found it difficult to offer prayer in congregation. The Badshahi Mosque of Lahore was denied
to Muslims and used as a stable by the Sikh forces. Muslims had to undergo may other similar
humiliations. He, therefore, founded the Jehad Movement against the Sikh ruler of Punjab
and began to defeat the Sikh forces 1826 onwards with the help of Pathan tribal chiefs.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Haji Shariat Ullah (1781-1840)
Introduction:
 Born 1781, Faridpur, E.Bengal, in a poor family.
 Witnessed plight of poor Bengali Muslim farmers under Brit rule, being exploited by





rich Hindu zamindars (land owners).
1799, left for Arabia for pilgrimage.
Was influenced by the teachings of Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wahab (founder of the
Wahabi Movement, aimed at achieving puritanical Islam).
20 years in Arabia; decided a mission for Bengali Muslims
Started the F.M. (Faraizi Movement); asked Muslims to perform religious duties
(Faraiz) in order to improve their socio-economic & religious conditions.
Died 1840; F.M. was continued by his son, Mohsinud Din till 1857.
Beliefs / Reasons for starting F.M.:
 F.M. was launched to counter both the Brit & the Hindu zamindars (land owner class)



as both were seen by HSU as anti-Muslim; 1750 onwards, Brit got political power &
Hindus gained economic prosperity, leaving Muslims as poor farmers.
HSU believed to declare Bengal as Dar-ul-Harb (land under enemy rule where Friday
& ‘Eid prayers couldn’t be offered till the Muslims got victory); he tried to mobilize
Muslims against Brit & Hindus.
He believed Jehad was needed to achieve the desired goal of improving the poor
condition of Muslims of Bengal.
He linked poor conditions of Muslims with their neglect of the Faraizi (religious
obligations); he believed, by observing Faraizi, Muslims could bring about a good
change in their daily living & get rid of the un-Islamic beliefs & practices they had
adopted under the Hindu influence.
Haji Shariat Ullah (1781-1840)
Work / details of the F.M.:
 Urged Muslims to observe religious duties (Faraiz), repent on the post sins & start a




new life of piety & obedience to God.
Began to mobilize Muslims to rise for their welfare.
Local authorities were soon alarmed on seeing Bengali Muslims being influenced by
F.M; HSU was forced to leave for Nawabganj, Dhakka; died 1840.
His son, Mohsinud Din continued F.M. more efficiently: (1) divided E. Bengal into
various circles, each under his deputy / Khalifa (2) asked Muslim peasants to oppose
undue taxes imposed by the Brit &Hindus. (3) caused unrest in Bengal; threatened
to wage Jehad.
Was arrested; died 1860; F.M. gradually declined.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Importance of his work / F.M.:
 Gave hope & courage to the demoralized & oppressed Muslims of Bengal so that they


could think about improving their position.
Caused spiritual revival among Bengali Muslims; they began to abandon the unIslamic beliefs, practices & superstitions.
Political awakening among Bengali Muslims; they began to unite against the tyranny
of Hindu zamindars & oppressive policies of the Brit; they began to think of ways of
improving their economic position in the challenging circumstances; in later years,
such feelings would mature into organized political activity ----- evolution of F.M. of
the 19th century into the Pak Movement of the 20th century.
Haji Shariat Ullah (1781-1840)
Q.
Who was Haji Shariat Ullah?
Ans.
(4)
He was born in 1781 in Faridpur district in East Bengal (Bangladesh). He spent many
years in Arabia, and was influenced by teachings of Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wahab. On
his return, he started the Faraizi Movement. He urged them to fulfill the religious
obligations/Faraiz so that they could hope to improve their religious and socio-economic
conditions. He died in 1840 and his mission was continued by his son Mohsin-ud-Din alias
Dadu Mian.
Q. What was the Faraizi Movement?
Ans.
[4]
It was started by Haji Shariat Ullah in East Bengal. The Bengali Muslims lived a hard
life under the oppressive Hindu Zamindars and the British. He advised Muslims to fulfill their
religious obligations/Fraiz so that they could restore their past pride. He emphasized on
praying for past sins and leading a righteous life in the future. After his death in 1840, the
movement was continued by his son Mohsin-ud-Din/Dadu Mian.
Q. Who were Zamindars?
Ans.
[4]
It is the Urdu word for rich land owners who often acted as tax collectors too. After
Aurangzeb’s death they gradually became autonomous refusing to send taxes to the central
government, and kept their own armies. Muslims were usually oppressed by the Zamindars
from 1800 onwards, especially in East Bengal. They imposed a special tax on Muslim men
who kept a beard. Haji Shariat Ullah and Titu Mir tried to organize poor Muslims against them.
Note: He is part of the question on “Indian Resistance”.
Q.
Who was Titu Mir?
Ans.
[4]
He was a Muslim reformer and disciple of Syed Ahmed Shaheed. His real name was
Mir Nisar Ali and he worked for the revival of Islam in West Bengal during the 1800’s. He was
worried over the miserable condition of Bengali Muslims living under the oppressive rule of
the British and the Hindu Zamindars. A tax was imposed on Muslims on keeping beard. Titu
Mir established his own rule in Narkelbaria, near Calcutta and raised his own army. British
defeated and killed him in a battle in 1831.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.
Why did Haji Shariat Ullah (HSU) start his Faraizi Movement?
(7)
Ans. He wanted Muslims to observe religious obligations/Faraiz. He believed that due to
the growing non-Muslim influence in various parts of India, Muslims had moved away
from the genuine teachings of Islam. Therefore, he wanted them to return to the
Islamic teachings. For this, he instructed the poor Bengali Muslims to fulfill their
religious duties or Faraiz as a result of which they could hope an improvement in their
miserable condition.
Bengali Muslims suffered a lot under the dual oppression of the British and the rich
and powerful Hindu land owners/Zamindars who were a beneficiary of the British
rulers. HSU believed that such a scenario demanded India to be declared Dar-ul-Harb
(literally the battle field meaning thereby a land under non-Muslim rule till it is liberated
and becomes Dar-ul-Islam). In such a land the Friday and Eid congregational prayers
could not be offered till its liberation.
In a way HSU supported the idea of Jehad against the non-Muslims (Hindus and
British) who were undermining the true principles of Islam through their oppressive
and coercive policies. Bengali Muslims were restricted to ordinary jobs like workers
on a farm, and they were given few opportunities in education and employment.
Amidst these circumstances, HSU thought it important to launch his Faraizi
Movement.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why were there attempts for the revival of Islam in India during 18th
and 19th centuries?
(7)
Ans: Three reformers were worried about the Indian Muslims. Shah Wali Ullah believed
that the main reason for the decline of Muslims was their negligence of the teachings
of Quran and Sunnah. He translated the Quran into Persian, the court language at
that time. This way, more Muslims could understand and follow the Quranic teachings.
He also believed Muslims needed to be united and avoid sectarian divide in order to
ensure their survival. He worked for the Sunni-Shi’a unity, and for this wrote
biographies of the four caliphs acceptable to both Sunni and Shi’a Muslims, “Izala tul
Khifa”.
Syed Ahmed Shaheed believed that Jihad was needed to liberate Muslims of Punjab
from the tyrant Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh who treated Muslims with humiliation. In Punjab,
Azan was banned and the Badshahi Mosque, Lahore was used as a stable by the
Sikh army as a token of disregard for the religious beliefs and practices of Muslims.
Therefore, Syed Ahmad Shaheed raised an army of around 80,000 Mujahideen and
founded the Jihad Movement against the oppressive Sikh rule in Punjab.
Haji Shari’at Ullah believed that Muslims of Bengal were suffering because of their
neglect of the Faraiz (religious obligations). Bengali Muslims were generally poor and
backward due to the dominance of the British in the region since 1757. Haji Shari’at
Ullah wanted to improve their socio-economic conditions and create political
awareness among them. In order to do so, he believed that they needed to fulfill their
Faraiz, the daily prayers, the fast of Ramadan etc. Only then they could improve their
miserable condition while living under the British rule and the rich Hindu
zamindars/rich landowners. So, he started his Faraizi Movement in East Bengal to
create awareness among the poor Bengali Muslims and unite them for the common
cause of improving their religious and socioeconomic conditions.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.3
Which of the following was the most important in the spread of
Islam during the seventeenth and 18th century:1)Shah Wali Ullah
2)Syed Shaheed Brailvi
3)Haji Shariat Ullah
OR
Q)
Q)
Q)
How important was Shah Wali Ullah in the spread of Islam in the
sub-continent before 1850? Explain your answer.
OR
Was the work of Shah Wali Ullah the most important factor in the
revival of Islam in the sub-continent during the 17th and 18th
century? Give reasons for your answer.
OR
Was the work of Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brailvi the most important
factor in the revival of Islam in the sub-continent during the 17th and
18th centuries? Give reasons for your answer.
(14)
Ans: Shah Wali Ullah was a great scholar and reformer. He belonged to a scholarly family.
He was educated at Madrasa-i-Rahimiya that was founded by his father. He was
worried about the declining Mughal rule and the deteriorating socio-economic and
political conditions of Indian Muslims. He analyzed the reasons for the poor condition
of the Muslims. Muslims had started forgetting the teachings of the Quran and Sunnah
and were divided into various sects. He spent many years in Arabia and returned with
a clear vision to revive Islam in India. He translated the Holy Quran into the court
language Persian so that many Muslims could understand and follow its teachings.
He wrote several books in Persian and Arabic. His most remarkable book is Hujjat
Ullah al Baligha. In another book Izalatul Khafa’an Khilafatul Khulafa (Removal of
Ambiguity about the Caliphate of the early Caliphs) he wrote the biographies of the
four successors of the Prophet in a way acceptable to Sunni and Shi’a Muslims. In
order to eliminate the Marathan threat to the Mughal rule he invited Ahmad Shah
Abadali from Afghanistan who defeated the Marathas in the third battle of Panipat,
1761. His mission was continued by his four scholarly sons and several followers.
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brailvi was dismayed at the fast decline of the Mughal Empire
and the growing influence of non-Muslim forces. He believed that, under a policy,
Muslims were being kept weaker than the Hindus and Sikhs. Being inspired by the
teaching and sons of SWU, he decided to wage Jihad (armed struggle), to liberate
Indian Muslims from the non-Muslim rule. He was especially worried about the Punjabi
Muslims who led a miserable life under the Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh. They were
subjected to several humiliations and were denied religious liberty. Azan was banned
and the Badshahi Mosque, Lahore was used as a stable by the Sikh forces. After
returning from Arabia, SASB raised a huge army of volunteer Mujahideen and shifted
to the NWF where he was supported by the Pathan tribes against Sikhs. Under his
Jihad movement he defeated the Sikh forces in various battles till 1830. Finally, due
to the betrayal of the Pathan chiefs, and sectarian divide in his army he was defeated
and killed by the Sikhs in the battle of Balakot in 1831. He gave courage to the Indian
Muslims by inculcating the idea of physical struggle for their survival. Jihad movement
was continued till the 1860s. It is considered to be the forerunner of the Pakistan
Movement as both were aimed at liberating the Muslim majority areas from the non
Muslim rule.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Haji Shari’at Ullah was a reformer from East Bengal. He was very much worried about
the pitiable condition of Bengali Muslims. They suffered a lot under the British rule
and the powerful Hindu Zamindars. He believed that the main reason of the poor
condition of Bengali Muslims was their negligence of religious obligations or Faraiz.
He launched his Faraizi movement that was aimed at urging the Muslims to perform
their Faraiz. He declared Bengal as Dar-ul-Harb (land under enemy rule) and also
believed in the need of Jihad. Noticed by the local authorities he had to go back to his
native town where he died in 1840. His movement was continued by his son Mohsinud
Din popularly known as Dadu Mian.
It may be concluded that the work of SWU was most important because his mission
was not restricted to selected parts of India. Also he left behind him a living legacy in
the form of his books and followers. Above all, he is the trend setter of the noble
tradition of translation of the Holy Quran.
Source Based Questions:
Source A: a statement of Shah Wali Ullah,
“It took many years to cleanse Arabia of its “false idols.” It will take many more to
cleanse Islam of its new false idols— sectarianism, bigotry, fanaticism and ignorance—
worshiped by those who have replaced Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh) original vision of
tolerance and unity with their own ideals of hatred and discord. But the cleansing is inevitable,
and the tide of reform cannot be stopped.”
Q.(a) With the help of source A describe the mission of Shah Wali Ullah.
[3]
Ans.
Shah Wali Ullah is expressing his resolve to eradicate the new false idols of sectarian
divide and ignorance among Indian Muslims. These, according to him, are the modernized
version of idols worshipped in the times of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). He wants
to restore the original vision of tolerance and unity preached by the Holy Prophet.
Q. (a)
Source B: a portrait of Shah Wali Ullah
Q. (b) What does source B tell us about Shah Wali Ullah?
[5]
Ans.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The source shows Shah Wali Ullah dressed in an Arab Islamic outfit, a gown worn
over a traditional Kurta. This reflects his attachment with Islamic traditions and culture. This
also reflects his mission to convince the Muslims to follow the Sunnah of the Prophet. He
seems lost in thoughts perhaps planning his writing in view of the declining condition of the
Muslims in India. There are many voluminous books spread on his study table that shows his
keen interest in reading and writing. The manuscript before him looks to be an incompletely
written work. Shah Wali Ullah would leave a huge team of his followers and books as a legacy
of his mission.
Source A: a description of Haji Shariat Ullah’s mission about the poor Bengali
Muslims,
“While travelling extensively in Bengal, he saw the woes of Muslim peasants and
artisans inhumanly exploited by the Hindu Zamindars and Mahajans/money lenders. This led
to his commitment toliberate the people from these problems through the path of revolution.
He garnered support from farmers, artisans and the people from different classes. He
successfully launched a campaign called the Faraizi Movement.”
Q. (a) [3]
Ans.
Haji Shariat Ullah was moved by the pitiable condition of Muslim peasants and
artisans. He was worried about their inhuman exploitation by the rich Hindu Zamindars and
money lenders. He sought support of farmers and other people, and founded his Faraizi
Movement.
Source B: the poor Bengali family of East Bengal.
Q. (b) What does source B tell us about the ambitions of Haji Shariat Ullah during the
19th century in East Bengal?
[5]
Ans.
The source shows the actor playing the role of Haji Shariat Ullah. The red turban on
the head of Haji Shariat Ullah conveys a meaningful message. It represents his aim of
bringing about a revolutionary change in the lives of Bengali Muslims. The firm determination
on his face reflects his resolve to resist any oppressors exploiting the poor Bengali Muslims
peasants. He is being warned perhaps by a soldier of the British standing behind him. This
means the local authorities have taken notice of Haji Shariat Ullah’s efforts of creating
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
awareness among Bengali Muslims. In the backdrop another British official is riding a horse,
while next to him a Hindu, probably a Zamindar, is standing with a worried look. Haji Shariat
Ullah’s mission laid the foundation of political awareness among Bengali Muslims.
Source A: a statement of Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi
Q. (a) According to Source A, what are the the feelings of SASB about the Sikhs of
Punjab?
[3]
Ans:
Syed Ahmed’s real objective is an armed Jihad against the Sikhs of Punjab. He
describes the Sikhs by referring to their long, unshaven hair who are very experienced, clever
and deceitful. They are Ill natured as well as ill fated pagans who have become rulers of
western parts of India.
Source B: a scene of the battle of Balakovo, May 1831.
Q: Describe the scene of the battlefield.
Ans.
[5]
The battle is being fought in the hilly area of Balakot near Abbotabad. The army of the
Mujahideen seems to have been ambushed and taken by surprise. To make their attack
dicisive, the Sikh forces of Ranjeet Singh have burnt the hastily built huts of the Mujahideen.
The attack of the Sikh army coupled with a much larger number of troops has put the
Mujahideen on the defensive. Most of them have fallen on the ground aking it easier for their
enemies to overpower them. The professionally trained Sikh troops, riding on their horses,
therefore, are able to defeat the Mujahideen and kill their leader Syed Ahmad Shaheed
Barelvi. Despite this the Jihad Movement would become a forerunner of Pakistan Movement
as both were aimed at liberating the Muslim majority areas from a non-Muslim rule.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The Post-1857 War India and the Work of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Introduction:
 Respectable family, Delhi
 Career in the legal system, 1838; by hard work, became a judge, 1846.
 Wrote “Athar-al-Sanadeed, 1846
 1857, chief judge, Bijnaur; saved lives of some European families; refused a reward




for that.
Unpopular among some Muslims for loyalty towards the British.
Chief justice in Muradabad, Ghazipore.
1864, Aligarh; retired in 1876.
Dedicated to the Aligarh movement/ Muslim ‘renaissance’ , till his death, 1898.
His Beliefs
 Worried on poor conditions of Muslims
 Deterioration since the days of Mughal decline; worsened with time
 Penalised by the British after the 1857, as most blame was put on Muslims; were
denied respectable jobs; other tough measures also.
 Muslims, too, distanced themselves from the Birt, considering them no more than
invaders.
 Sir Syed believed the Muslims;
(i)
Should befriend the Brit, as they were the established rulers of India
(ii) Should acquire modern education in order to compete with Hindus, & Improve
their socio-economic & political conditions by getting better jobs.
(iii) Should not join politics; Hindus were organizing political activities 1870’s
onwards.
Services / Work of Sir Syed
1.
Improving relations b/w Muslims & Brit:
Why:
 To improve socio-economic condition of Muslims, it was vital to make friends with
the Brit.
 Brit put all blame of the War on Muslims; considered other Indian communities
loyal to them; Brit had replaced Muslim rulers & so, thought it justified to penalize
Muslims.
 Muslims generally resented Brit; took them as invaders trying to replace Islam with
Christianity; many rejected the Western cultural values considering them as un
Islamic; remained hostile & defiant towards the British.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Details:
(i)
Convinced the British by:

Writing books, articles, pamphlets e.g., “The Loyal Muhammadens of
India” (defended the loyalty of Muslims); “Essays on the causes of the
Indian Revolt” (analysed the mutiny: insufficient Indian share in govt,
forcible conversion of Indians, poor management of army, Brit failure to
understand Indian mindset); senior Brit circles read all this; explained
the meaning of “Nadarath” to clarify its use:
Muslims didn’t use it to insult the Birt; it was derived from the Arabic
word “Nasir” (helper); Muslims used the word in a positive, not an
insulting way.
(ii)
Convinced the Muslims:
 Improved his image as a sincere Muslim by correcting errors in the book


of Sir William Muir about the Holy Prophet.
Highlighted similarities b/w Islam & Christianity to bridge the gap b/w
Muslims & Brit; wrote “Tabayin al Kalam” (commentary on the Bible);
convinced that dining together with Christians was not un-Islamic.
Founded the “British Indian Association” to improve Anglo-Muslim
relations.
Results / Importance:


1.
Efforts of Sir Syed would bear fruits later
Success of Simla delegation; Sep electorates for Muslims, 1909 Act.
Educational Services:
Why / reasons:



Muslims not interested in modern Brit education
Hindus began to excel by acquiring modern education; got better jobs, & improved
their image before the Brit, who started using them to counter Muslims; by 1871,
711 Hindus against only 92 Muslims in the govt service.
Growth of Hindu revivalism (Hindu movement) with increasing number of
educated Hindus; they showed little respect towards Muslims.
Details:
 Told Muslims about the Quranic commands to acquire knowledge.
 Issued “Tahzib-ul-AKhlaq”, that published articles of Sir Syed & other influential
Muslims to bring about a positive intellectual change among Muslims.
 1863, Scientific Society, Ghazipore; translation of modern scientific writings into
Urdu; 1866, a school in Muradabad; 1864, another school, Ghazipore.
 1869, visited England, observed Oxford & Cambridge – dreamed similar institute
for Indian Muslims
 On return, fund raising campaign: May 1875, MAO (Muhammad Anglo Oriental)


School, Aligarh; became MAO College, 1876, & University, 1920; offered modern
& Islamic education.
Acted as nursery for many important future leaders
1886, Muhammaden Educational Conference (MEF), to improve educational
standard of Muslims
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Results / Importance:
 Gradual improvement of educational, social & economic status of Muslims
 MAO college became a breeding ground for Muslim leaders, & MEF served as

1.
platform for political activity of Muslims
AIML was founded in its 20th session, 1906.
Political Services:
(i)
INC politics:
 1885, INC formed, aimed to convey views of Indians to Brit
 INC claimed to represent all Indians, regardless of religion; in reality, a



Hindu-dominated party working for Hindu raj in India
Sir Syed’s advice to Muslims to keep from politics of INC
It could engage Muslims in agitational politics & damage their relations
with Brit.
INC demanded:
a) Joint electorates for the council elections, along democratic pattern of
England
Sir Syed opposed this because of numerical majority & better political
organization of Hindus
b) Competitive examinations for the civil services in India;
Sir Syed opposed this because of visible educational disparity b/w
Hindus & Muslims; Hindus might sweep all seats causing further
problems for Muslims,
c) 1867, Hindus demanded Hindi to be official language replacing Urdu;
Sir Syed opposed this because of Arabic / Persian script of Urdu & its
association with Muslims; Hindi reflected Hindu aim of ruling India in
future
To counter the INC politics, he founded the United Patriotic Alliance –
in 1893, it became the Muhammaden Defence Alliance.
Importance / Results:
 Founder of the Two Nation Theory
 Predicted the separation of Hindus & Muslims in future, after the 1867 language

controversy, & after the other demands of INC.
Two Nation theory would gradually become valid & lay basis of the struggle for
separate Muslim homeland – the Pakistan Movement.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The Post-1857 War India and the Work of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Q:
What was the Aligarh Movement?
Ans:
[4]
The efforts of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his colleagues for the collective social
economic and political uplift of the Indian Muslims is called the Aligarh Movement. Sir Syed
established the MAO School in 1876 which became a college in 1877. This was the nursery
for several future Muslim leaders of the Pakistan Movement. His Ghazipore Scientific Society
translated the modern English writings into Persian and Urdu.
Q.
What was Sir Syed’s Two Nation Theory?
Ans.
[4]
Sir Syed’s opposition to various Hindu demands became known as his two nation
theory. He opposed their demand of replacing Urdu with Hindi, and holding of elections on
the basis of joint electrorate. He also opposed the idea of competitive examinations for civil
services in India. He proposed a quota system in civil services, and separate electorate for
Muslims.
Q. What was the Indian National Congress?
Ans.
[4]
It was set up as a political organization founded by Sir A.O. Hume and Sir Henry
Cotton in 1885. It claimed to represent all Indians, and convey their concerns to the British.
However, since its formation, it was dominated by the Hindu majority. In 1920, under the
leadership of Gandhi, it became a more organized political party. Jinnah joined it in 1906, but
feeling disappointed by its pro-Hindu agenda, and left it in 1920.
Q.
Why did Sir Syed present his Two Nation Theory?
(7)
Ans. Sir Syed opposed a number of Hindu demands. In 1867, Hindus demanded that Hindi
should be declared the official language of India in place of Urdu that enjoyed the
same status since 1825. Urdu, written in Persian-Arabic script was one of the marks
of cultural identity of Muslims. Hindi, with its Devanagri script, reflected the future
plans of Hindu Raj over India. Sir Syed strongly opposed this demand and predicted
that in future there might be separation between Hindus and Muslims.
In the 1880’s, the Hindu-dominated INC (Indian National Congress) made two more
demands that were apparently democratic but in reality against the interest of
Muslims. It demanded that elections of the councils in India should be held on the
basis of modern Western democracy. Sir Syed countered this demand by saying that
Hindus, being a majority, and politically more vibrant, might win election on all seats.
He suggested the idea of separate electorates for Muslims.
Finally, he opposed another demand of the Congress that asked for the competitive
examinations for the Civil Services in India. He knew that Hindus were far more
educated than Muslims and therefore, there was little chance for Muslims to get any
seat in the Civil Services. He argued that only when equal educational opportunities
were provided to both the communities could such an idea work.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.
Why did Sir Syed try to improve relations between the Muslims and
the British?
(7)
Ans. Muslims became the target of the British anger and wrath after the 1857 War. Hindus
had very cleverly put the blame on Muslims and it was easier for the British to punish
a minority. British had replaced Muslims as the new rulers of India but Muslims still
carried a sense of imperial pride due to their glorious past. It was important for them
to accept the drastically changed political scenario of India. He also tried to change
the British mind in favour of Muslims. For this he wrote two pamphlets: “Essays on
the Causes of Indian Revolt” and “Loyal Muhammadens of India”.
Sir Syed knew that Muslims could hope for an improved socio-economic status only
by making friends with the British who had complete political control of India. If
Muslims distanced themselves from the British, they would continue to remain a
backward and poor community. By improving relations with the British, Muslims had
a better opportunity to get better jobs.
Moreover, Hindus had already started improving their relations with the British
because for them it was only a matter of changed rulers. They began to acquire
modern British education which most of the Muslims considered un-Islamic. Sir Syed
knew that this would cause a growing social and economic disparity between Hindus
and Muslims and this would bring more troubles for the Muslims. He wanted Muslims
to change their orthodox views about the British and their modern education system.
Q.
Why did Sir Syed advise Muslims to acquire Modern British
education?
(7)
Ans. British had replaced the old Indian education system by their modern education in
English. Sir Syed knew that all modern scientific research work was in English, and
therefore, English was going to dominate the world. Unless Muslims acquired modern
British education, they could not get better jobs, and therefore, could not hope for
improving their socio-economic condition. After the War, they had been denied any
respectable post in India and this further added to their miseries.
Muslims also lagged behind Hindus in almost all walks of life as the latter had already
started equipping themselves with the modern education. Hindus, therefore, were fast
becoming prosperous, rich and advanced. They were dominating the post-War India
acting in a clever and wise way by accepting the culture and customs of the new
rulers. Muslims, therefore, needed to compete with Hindus in order to ensure their
survival and dignity in India. Educated Muslims had a better chance of being in the
good books of the British who hardly trusted them.
Sir Syed also told Muslims that it was vital to get modern education if they wanted to
develop political awareness and insight. Though in the beginning Sir Syed
discouraged Muslims from participating in politics, with the emergence of the Hindudominated INC and its pro-Hindu policies, he had to change his views. Therefore, he
wanted Muslims to beware of the clever policies of the INC and realized that they too
had to be political alert and vibrant in the British India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Was the Two Nation Theory the most important contribution of Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan towards the welfare of Muslims?
(14)
Ans:
Sir Syed was a great reformer. His views about the possibility of the parting of ways
of Hindus and Muslims became known as the Two Nation Theory'. In 1867, he was shocked
over the Hindu demand of making Hindi as the official language of India. Being a far-sighted
leader, he opposed it as he could sense the Hindu aims about the future political scenario of
India. Urdu, written in Persian/Arabic script reflected the past Muslim rule over India. Hindi,
with the Devanagri script, on the other hand, represented the Hindu plans of ruling India. He
also opposed two more demands of INC in the 1880's: competitive examinations for the civil
services and the joint electorate for the elections of the legislative councils. He knew that
Muslims, being less educated and politically less organized, would not be able to compete
with the Hindus in the examinations and elections. He, therefore, advocated a system of
separate electorates for Muslims and a fixed quota for Muslims in the competitive
examinations. Sir Syed initially wanted cooperation between Hindus and Muslims but his
views soon changed when he realized the INC only claimed to represent all Indian
communities whereas in reality it worked mainly for the Hindu interests. In order to protect
the political rights of the Muslims he founded the United Patriotic Alliance which was renamed
as the Muhammadan Defence Alliance in 1893.
Sir Syed also tried to create awareness among Muslims by convincing them to accept the
British as the new rulers of India and so, it was wise to make friends with them. He highlighted
the similarities between Islam and Christianity by writing "Taba’yeen-al-Kalam". In another
book he proved that it was not un-lslamic to dine with the Christians. He wrote a book in
response to Sir William Muir's book "Life of Muhammad" that contained some objectionable
remarks about the Holy Prophet.
While convincing Muslims Sir Syed worked to convince British about changing their
stance regarding Muslims. He wrote two pamphlets shortly after the War of
Independence. In "Essays on the Causes of Indian Revolt" he proved that Indians
alone were not responsible for the Revolt but British too were to blame for their failure
to understand the Indian mindset. In "Loyal Muhammadans of India" he defended
Muslims and proved that they were as loyal to the British as any other community in
India. He also explained the word "Nadarath" by proving it was an Anglicised form of
the Arabic word "Nasara" (Christians) that was derived from the root word "Nasr"
(Help) and thus proved that Muslims did not use the word in a derogatory way.
Sir Syed's educational work was also very important. He wanted to improve social
condition of Muslims and to create political awareness among them. For this Muslims
needed to acquire modern British education. He set up a series of institutes, issued
magazines and wrote books. In 1859 he opened a school in Mura da bad, another
school in Ghazipore in 1864 where he had founded the Ghazipore Scientific Society
in 1863. In it modern scientific writings of the West were translated into Persian and
Urdu. In 1866, he issued the Aligarh Institute Gazette from Aligarh to encourage
Muslims to acquire modern education. He visited England in 1869 and decided to set
up an institute for Muslims after observing the Cambridge and Oxford Universities. In
1875, he set up the MAO College, Aligarh where both western and local educations
were imparted. This institute produced many prominent leaders like Liaqat Ali Khan
and several workers of the Pakistan Movement. In 1886, Muhammadan Educational
Conference was established in order to launch a campaign for raising educational
standard of Muslims. It held regular meetings in several cities. Articles for the purpose
were published in the journal /Tahzeeb-ul-Akhlaq/.
If viewed objectively, it may be concluded that Sir Syed's Two Nation Theory was his
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
most important service as it laid the basis of Muslim nationalism that eventually
evolved into the Pakistan Movement in the 1940's. ML launched this movement on
the ground of inherent differences between Hindus and Muslims that had been
predicted by Sir Syed.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.(a) According to source A, describe Sir Syed’s views about how
British should treat the Muslims.
(3)
“It is from the voice of the people only that Government can learn whether its projects
are likely to be well received. The voice of the people alone can check errors in the
bud, and warn us of dangers before they burst open and destroy us. I think it’s very
important that the British authorities should reconsider their views about the Muslim
community of India, many of whom had nothing to do with the War.”
Ans. Sir Syed is trying to alert the British about the possible undesirable consequences of
their policy towards the Muslim community. He sincerely advising them to treat
Muslims with justice and earn their support. He is defending Muslims as for him, all of
them did not participate in the War, and therefore, many of them deserved British
sympathy.
Q.(b) What message does source B, a painting about Sir Syed’s Aligarh
Movement, convey to us about the aims of Sir Syed and the impact
of his views and work?
[5]
Ans.
The painting shows an impressed audience, clad in the Western dress, attentively
listening to Sir Syed. In the backdrop a mosque has been shown in the neighbourhood of the
Aligarh College. This means that Sir Syed wants Muslims to acquire both Islamic and modern
sciences because acquisition of knowledge has been declared a fundamental duty of all
Muslims. Sir Syed, this way, is trying to draw the attention of the backward Muslim community
towards the importance of the changed circumstances in India. This reflects his sincerity for
the fellow Muslims whom he wishes to compete with other Indians. Sir Syed’s Ali Garh
College would become a university after his death, and it would produce prominent leaders
of the Pakistan Movement.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Languages Of Pakistan
Why Urdu as the national language?
 Long association with the Muslims of the Sub-continent; period of the Sultans of Dehli
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to the Mughal rule ; Court language
Muslim armies used it to bring closer people of different areas & languages, esp in
the NW India where it fully developed.
Rich literary background from 13th century onward; poetry, prose, translation of the
Quran, other religious writings famous poets, writers e.g. Amir Khusrau, Mir, Ghalib,
Bahadur Shah Zafar; also form the Aligarh University e.g., Hasrat Mohani, Sir Syed
and his fellows e.g. Hali, Shibli.
Basis of the Two Nation theory since 1867; included in the aims of AIML; role of Urdu
press in the Pakistan Movement (1940-47).
To promote national unity in a newly created country where there are many regional
languages & dialects; to act as a bridging language.
Efforts of the govt to promote Urdu
 Declared as the national language after independence
 The 1973 constitution mentions to make it the official language
 Medium of education in most institutes e.g. primary & higher levels.
 Role of newspapers, radio, TV, novels, magazines, poetry etc.
 Special institutes e.g. NUML (National University of Modern Languages), Urdu Law

College, Urdu Science College in Karachi
Awards on best writings e.g. civil awards: Baba-i-Urdu Award, Hijra Award etc.
Regional Languages
1.
Punjabi:
Why develop it :
 Language of the largest & most important province of Pakistan, with its dialects in
other parts of Pak e.g., Hindko, Seraiki, Riasti , Derawali etc.
 Rich history & background with major names & writings; Waris Shah. Sultan Bahu,
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Baba Farid, Bulleh Shah; folk romances; Heer Ranjha, Sohni, Mahinwal, Sassi
Punnu, Mirza , Sahiban etc; reflect culture of Punjab.
Several Sufi poets e.g. Sultan Bahu, Gulram Farid composed Sufi poetry e.g. by
‘Kafis’
Persian script from the old Gurmukhi script.
20th century; further growth with novels, short stories & plays by major writers & poets
e.g. Ustad Daman, Munir Niazi, Muhammad Ali Faiq (translated the Quran into
Punjabi).
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Govt efforts to promote Punjabi:
 Introduction at various levels of education e.g. secondary school to M.A & Ph.D with
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2.
research work on language & literature.
Govt encouraged writers & poets e.g. Munir Niazi, Ahmad Rahi, Sharif Kunjahi;
awards & prizes
Punjabi as optional subject for provincial & central competitive exams.
Magazines, radio, TV (Lahore stations) ,research work, plays
“Mahi-i-Nau” & “Adabiyat” regularly publish translation of Punjabi writings.
Recitation of Sufi poetry on religious festivals & shrines of Sufis in Punjab.
Sindhi :
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Why develop Sindhi?
Language of the 2nd most populated province, with rich vocabulary & literary
background
Linked with arrival of Islam in the 8th century; strongly influenced by Arabic; change
of script from Arz-i-Nagri & Marwari to the Arabic script.
Huge literature of Sufi writings & love tragedies; big names e.g. Shah Abdul Latif
Bhitai, Sachal Sarmast, Makhdum Nuh & Qazi Qazan.
1947, exodus of educated Sindhi Hindus & arrival of Urdu-speaking Muslims; fear
among local Sindhis about their language.
Govt efforts to promote Sindhi:
 Special bodies e.g. the Sindhi Literary Board, 1948; Bazm-i-Talib-ul-Maula, 1954; the
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3.
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Sarmast Academy & the Department of Sindhology in the Sindh University, Jamshoro.
1972 , Sindhi, with Urdu, national language of Sindh.
Greater number of newspapers than any other regional language.
Several magazines, novels, plays on radio & TV (Karachi centre) , short stories and
research work.
Urdu magazines, “Mah-i-Nau” & “Adabiyat” publish Urdu versions of Sindhi writings.
Awards & prizes to best writers e.g. Sheikh Ayaz , Amar Jalil etc.
Pushto :
Why develop Pushto language?
Language of the 3rd major province, located at strategic position ; Pak-Afghan border.
Rich background with writings on Sufism, patriotism & Pushto nationalism, eg.,
Bayazid Ansari’s “ Khayr-ul-Bayan” on Sufism, Hazrat Mian Umar’s work on Pushto
freedom & nationalism, & later, the work of Khushal khan Khattak & Rahman Baba.
Role of Pushto in resistence against the British rule & struggle for freedom; role of
Sahibzada Abdul Qayum as founder of the Islamia College Peshawar; centre of
political awareness and activity.
To raise confidence of the people of a smaller province.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Govt’s efforts ot promote Pushto
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4.
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1950, Peshawar University; 1954, an academy for Pustho
Later, 1st Pushto dictionary.
Post-graduate classes for Pushto in the Peshawar University.
Abaseen Arts Council for Pushto drama
Peshawar radio & TV stations; news, music, plays, documentries.
Awards for best writings & research work.
Urdu translations of Pushto writings in “Mah-i-Nau” & “Adabiyat”.
Balochi :
Why develop Balochi language?
Language of the largest province, area-wise, but smallest in terms of population.
Least developed of all the regional languages; important to reassure people of
Balochistan regarding the promotion of their language.
Few books etc. in Balochi before 1947 with few poets e.g. Jam Darang.
To acknowledge role of Balochi people for their vote of referendum in favour of
Pakistan.
Govt’s efforts to promote Balochi
 Karachi TV & radio to promote Balochi before the establishment of Quetta TV centre
 Balochi programs by Quetta TV, e.g, news, plays, music, talk shows
 Balochi Literary Association; newspapers and magazines
 Encourgement of such poets & writers as Atta Shad, Gul Khan Nazir & others
 Urdu translation of Balochi prose & poetry by:
“Mah-i-Nau” & “Adabiyat”, published by the Federal Minsitry of Information.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why was Urdu chosen as the national language in 1947?
Ans:
[7]
One of the reasons of choosing Urdu as the national language was its long history of
affiliation with the Muslim community of India. It grew tremendously during the period of the
Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526) when poets like Amir Khusrau and Wali Dakani composed
Urdu poetry. Later, during the Mughal period (1526-1857) it was patronized by the Mughal
kings and eventually it became the court language. During this period, poets like Mir Taqi Mir,
Ghalib, Momin and Bahadur Shah Zafar greatly enriched Urdu poetry.
Urdu has a rich literary background with voluminous writings both in prose and poetry.
Three great poets, Mir, Ghalib and Iqbal composed world class poetry while during the 19th
century Urdu prose also began to flourish with the first Urdu novels written by Sharar and
Mirza Hadi Ruswa became popular. At the same time Urdu religious stock also grew when
translations of and commentaries on the Quran were written in addition to translation of the
Hadith literature and the Islamic law. Sir Syed’s Aligarh Movement also contributed to the
development of Urdu.
Pakistan has a culturally diversified landscape with four major regional languages with
several other small languages. In such a country one common language was thought to be a
source of promoting a sense belonging to one nation. This way Urdu could serve as a uniting
force between several cultural communities living in Pakistan. Therefore, Jinnah declared it
the national language of Pakistan in 1947.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.
Urdu was chosen as national language mainly to promote national
unity. Do you agree or disagree? Explain.
(14)
Ans. Urdu remains the most popular language in Pakistan. Being a newly created state,
Pakistan needed to inculcate a strong sense of nationalism among its people.
Language has always been a strong and effective tool in promoting patriotism in any
part of the world. Jinnah was, therefore, advised to follow the policy of “One Nation
One Language”. By speaking the same language people of Pakistan were expected
to develop a feeling of belonging to one nation, though Bengali in East Pakistan was
also a major language. It was thought to bridge the provincial and regional gaps in a
country with diversified linguistic heritage. Thus, people living in various provinces
and areas could be linked to each other by a ‘lingua franca’ (popularly spoken
language).
However, there were other important considerations too. Out of all the regional
languages Urdu was the most developed language with a strong and rich literary
background. In its journey of evolution many Urdu novels, short stories, essays,
religious and non-religious writings had become popular much before the creation of
Pakistan. Urdu is among those few languages that have as many as three great poets:
Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib and Iqbal. Translations of the Quran, Hadith, biography of the
Holy Prophet and Islamic jurisprudence further enriched the Urdu literature. So, it was
easier to adopt such a highly developed language as the national language.
Urdu had a history of long association with the Indian Muslims. Its Persian/Arabic
script reflects that it remained more popular among the Muslims of India. During the
period of the Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526), such major poets as Amir Khusrau
(1253-1325), Quli Qutub Shah and Wali Deccani all composed high quality Urdu
verse. Then, during the Mughal rule it was greatly patronized by the Mughal Court.
With the passage of time, it began to replace Persian. During the 18th and 19th
centuries several Urdu poets became prominent like Mir Dard, Sauda, Momin, Zauq,
and the last Mughal king Bahadur Shah Zafar. The Aligarh Movement produced many
good poets and writers like Hali and Shibli.
Another important reason was Urdu’s close association with the Pakistan Movement.
Sir Syed had defended Urdu as the cultural identity of Muslims when Hindus in 1867,
demanded that Hindi should be made the official language of India. When Muslim
League was formed in 1906, its objectives also included protection and promotion of
Urdu. In the 1930’s the Muslim League began to consider that Urdu as its official
language. In 1937, the Muslim League to make all efforts possible to make Urdu their
official language. Later in the 1940’s Urdu newspapers highlighted the cause of the
Pakistan Movement and the activities of its leaders.
It may be concluded that Urdu was declared as the national language primarily to
foster a sense of national unity because language is one of the strongest marks of
cultural identity of any nation, and since the creation of Pakistan was a new
experience for its people, they needed to realise that they had their own distinct
identity as a nation.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
How has the Pakistan government promoted the development of
Urdu between 1947 and 1999?
[4]
Ans.
Urdu was declared as the national language of Pakistan. It was made the medium of
education in educational institutes of the public and private sector. Special awards were
offered to the best writings in prose and poetry by the government. Most of the programs,
plays and news are broadcast on radio and TV in Urdu. Federal Ministry of Information has
been issuing the monthly “Mah-i-Nau” from Lahore, and a quarterly “Adabiyat” is issued by
the Academy of Letters, Islamabad.
Q:
Why have regional languages been promoted by the Pakistani
government between 1947 and 1999?
(7)
Ans. Regional languages form the basis of cultural identity of Pakistan along with Urdu.
With the declaration of Urdu as the national language, government decided to
promote regional languages, too. Sindhi, among all regional languages, was the first
to have adopted the Arabic script. This reflects its close association with Islam.
Several sufi poets, such as Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai and Sachal Sarmast wrote Sindhi
verse. Therefore, it was important to promote it. After 1947, many institutes were set
up to promote Sindhi. They include Sachal Sarmast Academy and the Department of
Sindhology in the University of Sindh.
Pashto is spoken in Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa (former NWFP) and its literature carries
a strong element of resistance against the foreign rule. Such an element of resistance
is quite visible in the poetry of Khushhal Khan Khattak and Rehman Baba. This way
Pashto became associated with the Pakistan movement. Therefore, after
independence, Islamia College Peshawar and University of Peshawar contributed to
the development of Pashto.
Balochi is spoken in the largest province in terms of its area but the least populated
province. It had traditionally been underdeveloped due to a lack of its preservation in
written form. Also, the people of Balochistan had to be assured of their significance
as a cultural unit of Pakistan and so, it had to be promoted. For many years after
independence, Radio Pakistan Karachi, and later PTV Karachi began to broadcast
Balochi programmes. In the early 1970s, PTV Quetta started to promote Balochi.
Q:
How has the Pakistan government promoted the development of
Punjabi since 1947 (1947-1999)?
[4]
Ans.
Punjabi is offered as an optional subject at the college and university level as well as
in the competitive examinations. University of the Punjab has been encouraging research
work on Punjabi language and literature. Government has supported poets and writers like
Munir Niazi, Dr Anwar Sadeed, Habib Jalib and Ustad Daman for their work. PTV and Radio
Pakistan, Lahore have been broadcasting Punjabi plays and other programs for the
promotion of Punjabi.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
How has Pakistan promoted the development of Sindhi since 1947
(1947-1999)?
[4]
Ans.
Government set up Sindhi Literary Board in 1948, “Bazm-i-Talib-ul-Maula” in 1954,
and later, Sachal Sarmast Academy. A department of Sindhology was set up in the Sindh
University, Jamshoro to encourage research on Sindhi language and literature. Under the
1972 Language Bill, Sindhi and Urdu were declared the national languages of Sindh. Radio
stations of Karachi, Hyderabad and Sukkur, and PTV Karachi have been broadcasting
programs in Sindhi.
Q:
How has Pakistan promoted the development of Pashto since 1947
(1947-1999)?
[4]
Ans.
Pushto was promoted by the Peshawar University, and the Academy of Pashto that
was established in 1954. This institute under the chairmanship of Maulana Abdul Qadir took
great pains to compile the first Pashto dictionary. Pashto is taught at college and university
level, and post graduate classes are held in Peshawar University. Radio Pakistan Peshawar
and PTV Peshawar broadcast a variety of programs in Pashto. Abasin Arts Council has been
promoting Pashto theatre.
Q:
How has the Pakistan government promoted the development of
Balochi since 1947 (1947-1999)?
[4]
Ans.
Radio Pakistan Karachi, and later, PTV Karachi broadcasted programs in Balochi
after independence. After the establishment of PTV Quetta, many more programs began to
be telecasted. Baloch Literary Association was set up for the same purpose. Newspapers like
“Awaam” and some weekly and monthly magazines like “Omaan”, “Sangat” and “Mahatak”
were issued in Balochi. Government has patronized prominent poets and writers in Balochi
that include Atta Shad, Ishaq Shamim, Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Promotion of Urdu was more important/successful than promotion
of the regional languages of Pakistan between 1947 and 1999. Do
you agree or disagree? Explain.
(14)
Ans. The Quaid-i-Azam declared Urdu as the national language soon after independence.
Urdu had been closely associated with the Muslims for centuries and became one of
the foundational pillars of the Pakistan movement in later years. Government took
many steps to promote it. The 1973 Constitution pledges to make it the official
language, too. Government patronized it by encouraging prominent poets like Faiz,
Faraz, Munir Niazi and Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi who were given various awards. Babai-Urdu Award, Adamjee Award, Hijra Award and the Prime Minister’s Award were
introduced for this purpose. Urdu was declared as the medium of education in all
public sector schools and a compulsory subject in private sector institutes.
However, regional languages were also promoted. Punjabi is spoken in the largest
province, Punjab. It has a rich literary stock with such ‘sufi’ (saintly) poets as Waris
Shah, Baba Farid and Bulleh Shah. Punjabi played important role in the Pakistan
movement. It was introduced as an optional subject in colleges. Research activities
were conducted in the University of Punjab. Prominent poets and writers were
encouraged, for example, Habib Jalib, Munir Niazi, Ahmed Rahi and others by giving
them awards on their writings. Some Punjabi newspapers were issued from Lahore,
like the Daily Sajjan, in the 1980’s.
Sindhi is the language of Sindh, the second largest province. Its literature is closely
linked with Islam as it is the first regional language that had adopted the Arabic script
due to the arrival of Arab Muslims in Sindh in 712 AD. Its literary treasure comprised
such poet as Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai and Sachal Sarmast. Government took many
steps to promote it. The Department of Sindhology was set up in the University of
Hyderabad. Other bodies include Bazm-i-Talib ul Maula, Sachal Sarmast Academy
and the Sindhi Literary Board. Under the Language Bill of 1972, Z.A. Bhutto declared
it the national language of Sindh along with Urdu. Prominent writers such as Pir Ali
Muhammad Rashidi and G. Alana were given awards.
Pashto is spoken in the province of Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa and its literature contains
resistance against foreign rule that is seen in the poetry of Khushhal Khan Khattak
and Rahman Baba. After 1947, University of Peshawar and Islamia College Peshawar
promoted it. First Pashto dictionary had been compiled a few years later. An academy
of promotion of Pashto was set up in 1954. Professor Pareeshan Khattak and
Maulana Abdul Qadir played prominent role in its development. Abaseen Arts Council
promoted Pashto Theatre.
Balochi is the least developed language of Pakistan as it had its literature in the form
of oral traditions. Balochistan is the least developed and least populated province.
This also necessitated to promote Balochi language. Initially, University of Karachi
and radio and TV centres of Karachi promoted it. Later with the establishment of
Quetta TV Centre, this language was promoted by electronic media. Poets and writers
like Atta Shad and Gul Khan Nazir also contributed to its promotion. Balochi Literary
Association was also created.
It may be concluded that Urdu was promoted the most because the bulk of Urdu
writings outweighs those of all regional languages. Moreover, due to the efforts of the
government and intellectuals, Urdu is gaining popularity across the globe.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Promotion of Punjabi was more important/successful than
promotion of other regional languages of Pakistan between 1947
and 1999. Do you agree or disagree? Explain.
(14)
Ans. Punjabi is spoken in the largest province, Punjab. It has a rich literary stock with such
‘sufi’ (saintly) poets as Waris Shah, Baba Farid and Bulleh Shah. Punjabi played
important role in the Pakistan movement. It was introduced as an optional subject in
colleges. Research activities were conducted in the University of Punjab. Prominent
poets and writers were encouraged, for example, Habib Jalib, Munir Niazi, Ahmed
Rahi and others by giving them awards on their writings. Some Punjabi newspapers
were issued from Lahore, like the Daily Sajjan, in the 1980’s.
Other regional languages were also promoted 1947 onwards. Sindhi is the language
of Sindh, the second largest province. Its literature is closely linked with Islam as it is
the first regional language that had adopted the Arabic script due to the arrival of Arab
Muslims in Sindh in 712 AD. Its literary treasure comprised such poet as Shah Abdul
Latif Bhitai and Sachal Sarmast. Government took many steps to promote it. The
Department of Sindhology was set up in the University of Hyderabad. Other bodies
include Bazm-i-Talib ul Maula, Sachal Sarmast Academy and the Sindhi Literary
Board. Under the Language Bill of 1972, Z.A. Bhutto declared it the national language
of Sindh along with Urdu. Prominent writers such as Pir Ali Muhammad Rashidi and
G. Alana were given awards.
Pashto is spoken in the province of Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa and its literature contains
resistance against foreign rule that is seen in the poetry of Khushhal Khan Khattak
and Rahman Baba. After 1947, University of Peshawar and Islamia College Peshawar
promoted it. First Pashto dictionary had been compiled a few years later. An academy
of promotion of Pashto was set up in 1954. Professor Pareeshan Khattak and
Maulana Abdul Qadir played prominent role in its development. Abaseen Arts Council
promoted Pashto Theatre.
Balochi is the least developed language of Pakistan as it had its literature in the form
of oral traditions. Balochistan is the least developed and least populated province.
This also necessitated to promote Balochi language. Initially, University of Karachi
and radio and TV centres of Karachi promoted it. Later with the establishment of
Quetta TV Centre, this language was promoted by electronic media. Poets and writers
like Atta Shad and Gul Khan Nazir also contributed to its promotion. Balochi Literary
Association was also created.
It may be concluded that Punjabi was promoted the most because with the passage
of time Punjabi writers and poets who had been working on Urdu, began to pay
serious attention to their mother tongue. As a result several intellectuals got their
Ph.D. degrees for their research work in Punjabi.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Section 2
(1900-1947)
Partition Of Bengal
 Largest province, about 85 million population; 54m in the western 42m in the eastern




part.
Tool huge to govern; difficult to administer by one governor.
Hindu majority in west & Muslim majority in east Bengal
growing economic &
political disparity b/w Hindus & Muslims
British thought the partition would
benefit Muslims.
1870 onwards more & more Hindus demanded freedom from the British; INC leader,
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, delivered impassioned speeches for freedom; British had to
restrict such activities by distracting attention of INC from its mission.
Viceroy Lord Curzon proposed partition of Bengal & implemented it, Oct 1905;
E.Bengal to include: Assam, Dhakka, Chittagong & Mymen Singh.
Muslim Reaction
 Felt delighted, expressed thanks to British
 Socio-economic & political position improved their govt & majority in a province began


to develop Chittagong port to compete with the Calcutta port.
Since 1857, for the first time, improved relations with the British.
ML, 1906, promised loyalty to the British, condemned INC opposition to the partition.
INC / Hindu reaction
 Violence, protests, mourning, strikes, boycott of British goods & institutes.
 Swadeshi movement; British cloth thrown onto bonfire & wearing local cloth, a matter




of honour; dramatic drop in sale of British goods.
Violence more intensified; assassination attempt on British officials e.g. the future
Viceory, Minto.
Threat of boycott of the coronation ceremony of King George, 1911.
British used forces to suppress protest e.g. arrest of leaders, restrictions on
newspapers, public meetings, the 1908 Press Act, but no use.
Difficulties grew for the British, they began to review the partition & finally, King
George, announced reversal, Dec 1911.

Reasons for INC opposition to the partition
 INC considered it as an exercise of the British policy of “divide and rule”
 A step to weaken the Hindu position by creating a Muslim majority province; INC

unhappy over loss of monopoly on economy & politics of Bengal
For INC, it was aimed at damaging Indian nationalism along religious lines; a Hindu
Bengal & a Muslim Bengal.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Reversal of Partition of Bengal
INC reacted sharply and violently to the partition of Bengal. It considered the partition as
another example of the British policy of “Divide and Rule” and a step against Indian
nationalism. Therefore, protest processions and strikes were organized. Mass rallies were
taken out in several parts of India. This created serious administrative difficulties for the British
government as pressure on it grew day by day. Events took a dangerous turn when some
extremist Hindus adopted terrorist behavior by targeting senior British officials. An attempt
was made to assassinate Lord Minto. This threatened the British rule and the government
was forced to reconsider its decision.
British goods and institutes were boycotted under the Swadeshi movement. At many places,
British factory made cotton cloth was set on fire and people were persuaded to wear locally
made clothes. This caused economic problems for the British as the sale of British goods
declined dramatically. The British had to use harsh measures to suppress the campaign
launched by the INC, but eventually decided to win the support of moderate Hindus. Finally
King George V announced the annulment of the partition in December 1911, in his coronation
ceremony.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Partition Of Bengal
Q
Why was Bengal partitioned in 1905?
(7)
Ans. Bengal was the most populated province with a population of more than 80 millions.
This huge population was spread over a small area, making it a very densely
populated province. It was difficult to govern such a big province as it created
problems in maintaining law and order, collection of taxes and providing emergency
help in times of floods and cyclones. So, it was sensible to divide it into two provinces.
The western part of Bengal had a population of 54 million with a Hindu majority,
whereas the eastern part had 31 million inhabitants with a Muslim majority. There was
a growing economic disparity between the Hindus and Muslims. Hindus were the
dominant community enjoying monopoly over industry, trade and politics. Muslims on
the other hand, were generally backward and poor. British perhaps wanted reduce
this disparity.
British also closely observed the political activities of the INC in the 1890’s when
leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak had to be in prison as they delivered provoking
speeches in which they demanded self rule for India. Therefore, the British decided
to distract the attention of the INC towards a new issue. Accordingly, Lord Curzon, in
1903, advised the British government to divide Bengal along communal lines and so,
Bengal was divided in 1905 into a Muslim majority East Bengal and Hindu majority
West Bengal.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q(a) “Bengal was partitioned because of geographical factors”. Do you
agree? Give reasons for your answer.
(14)
Ans: Bengal was one of the largest provinces of British India with a huge population of
more 80 million spread over a small area. It was increasingly becoming difficult to
administer such a big and densely populated province by a single a governor.
Administrative difficulties included, collection of revenue / taxes, providing relief and
rehabilitation to a population repeatedly hit by cyclones and floods, controlling the law
and order situation that was gradually deteriorating. Since there had been earlier
examples of dividing huge territories like Khandesh and Narbada, the British began
to consider partitioning Bengal into two provinces. So in 1903 Viceroy Lord Curzon
proposed partition of Bengal into two provinces.
The British were also closely observing the growing disparity between the Hindus and
the Muslims. Hindus dominated the politics and economy of Bengal while keeping
Muslims underdeveloped and poor. The period 1900-1911 was a period of improved
British – Muslim relations. Perhaps British wanted to give Muslims an opportunity to
prosper in the newly created province of East Bengal with Assam and three districts
Dhaka, Chittagong and Mymensingh where they would be in a majority and hence
would be able to farm their own government (which exactly happened). The other
part, West Bengal, remained a Hindu majority province. Muslims now began to
develop a new seaport at Chittagong.
Finally the British were also mindful of the INC demand of self ruled in the 1890s. For
example, INC leaders like Mr. Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak used to deliver impassioned and
provoking speeches to incite the people for pressurizing the government for self rule.
Such leaders were arrested and British decided to distract the INC attention from its
demand for self rule. Thus when Lord Curzon in October 1905 announced the partition
of Bengal, the INC guns were directed against the partition instead of demand for self
rule.
To conclude, it may be proved that the major reason for the partition of Bengal was
the geographical factor because it is a universal practice to make new and smaller
administrative units for the sake of better administration. After the partition it prove to
be true because the Muslim community felt great relief and was fully grateful to the
British even though the Hindu dominated INC got busy in undoing this wise decision
of the British.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q
Why did Congress (INC) oppose the partition of Bengal?
(7)
Ans. The INC did not like the partition and opposed it fiercely. For the INC, it was yet
another example of the old British policy of “divide and rule”. By doing so the British
were strengthening their grip on the Indian political affairs while dividing the two major
communities, Hindus and Muslims. The British power lay in the communal differences
of India.
The INC also viewed the partitioned as a step against the Indian nationalism. It
believed that all people living in India were primarily Indians regardless of the cultural
and religious differences and identities. So, all communities living in Bengal were
equally Indians whether they were Hindus or Muslims. It viewed the whole country as
“mother India” and therefore, condemned the partition of Bengal as a kind of
vivisection of their motherland. It declared 16th Oct 1905 as a day of mourning.
The Hindu dominated INC was also unhappy over the loss of monopoly over the
economy and politics of Bengal. In East Bengal, Muslims were a decisive majority and
had formed their own government. Therefore, their economic condition began to
improve. They decided to develop the Chittagong port in order to compete with the
Calcutta port of West Bengal. All this scenario was worrying for the INC who launched
an aggressive campaign against the British.
Q
How did British react to the Hindu protest against the partition of
Bengal?
(7)
Ans.
The British took many quick measures to deal with the Hindu protest. They placed
restrictions on newspapers and public meetings. Between 1906 and 1908 several
editors were arrested, trialed and imprisoned for writing articles against the British
policies. The Press Act of 1908 gave more powers to the government to restrict
freedom of expression and media. Between 1905 and 1909 thousands people were
arrested and jailed. The Government grants to schools and colleges participating in
the Swadeshi Movement were discontinued.
Mr Tilak was arrested in June 1908, and after a speedy trial, was given six years’
imprisonment. Many radical leaders left India in these circumstances as jails were
filled with those the British considered as revolutionaries. The British themselves
deported many suspects without framing them in a case or conduting a trial against
them.
The British got worried over the growing protest by the Hindu-led INC. They realized
that use of force against Hindus would not be sufficient. Therefore, they decided to
win the support of the moderate Hindus by drafting new constitutional reforms. The
Viceroy Lord Minto worked with the Secretary of State of India, John Morley. Finally,
the Indian Council’s Act 1909/ the Morley-Minto Reforms were introduced to win the
support of the Hindu community.
Q
Why was partition of Bengal reversed?
(7)
Ans. The INC fully pressurized the British government to reconsider the decision of
partition. A country-wide anti-partition campaign was launched. Mob rallies were
organized and shutter down strikes were observed as a token of resentment against
the partition. With the passage of time, the opposition to the partition became fierce
and eventually adopted the terrorist behavior. Many senior British officials were
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
attacked including Lord Minto who survived a murder attempt. This created a serious
problem for the British as they found it difficult to run the state affairs effectively.
The INC started the Swadeshi Movement in which boycott of the British goods and
institutions was observed. British titles given to the Hindus were returned and the
attendance in various institutes dropped significantly. At many places, the British
factory made cotton cloth was thrown in the bonfire to mark the hatred against the
Videshi/foreign goods. This created serious economic difficulties for the British as the
sale of their products sharply declined in the Indian markets.
King George V was scheduled to visit India in 1911. The INC, threatened to boycott
the Coronation ceremony of the King that was a royal tradition and a hallmark of
British authority over its colonies. This threat of the INC was a serious blow to the
pride and prestige of the British who were now pressurized to reconsider the partition.
Sir John Jenkins, a member of the Viceroy’s executive council, advised the British
government to reverse the partition and the King himself announced the reversal in
Delhi in 1911. Assam, Bihar and Orissa were separated from reunited Bengal.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
'Partition or reversal?' Were the reasons why Bengal was
partitioned in 1905 more important than those regarding its
reversal in 1911? Explain your answer.
(14)
Ans. Reasons for the partition of Bengal were very important. Bengal was a province with
a huge population spread over a small area. There was Hindu majority in the
western, and Muslim majority in the eastern part. The British thought it wise to divide
Bengal along communal lines in such a way that East Bengal would become a new
province with a Muslim majority, and West Bengal with a Hindu majority.
Bengal was also divided due to administrative reasons as it was difficult to govern
by a single governor. With two governors ruling two provinces, it became easier to
collect revenue and to maintain law and order in a highly populated province. As a
result of partition, Muslims felt greatly relieved as they became a majority in the
newly created province of East Bengal and Assam where they could prosper by
making their own government. The partition also affected the Hindu monopoly on
trade, economy and politics of Bengal as Muslim began to develop the Chittagong
port to compete with the Calcutta port in west Bengal. Hindus, therefore, considered
the partition as another example of the British policy of "divide and rule", because it
helped British establish their rule over India more firmly. Hindus also believed that
partition was aimed at striking at the roots of Indian nationalism and unity. Partition
had divided the province into two units with a distinct religious majority in each unit.
The INC considered all people living in Bengal only as Bengalis regardless of their
religious identity. So, the Hindus reacted violently.
As for the reversal of partition, it mainly came about as a result of the ever
growing Hindu pressure on the British. The Hindu-dominated INC organized a
country wide anti-partition campaign. Regular protests and strikes were held, and
boycott of British goods, titles and institutes was organized on a large scale. They
rejected the partition by linking it with the British strategy of dividing Indians into
sub-groups and creating communal differences.
The Hindu anger was further reflected in the Swadeshi movement. In this a
boycott of British goods was observed. At many places, the British factory made
cotton cloth was thrown in the bonfire and this caused a significant drop in the sale
of British goods. Gradually, the movement adopted terrorist activities when an
attempt was made to assassinate Lord Minto. British goods and institutes were
boycotted as a token of protest over the partition. Though the Muslims were assured
of the irreversibility of the partition, the circumstances forced the British to
reconsider this administrative decision. Pressure grew with time as all these
activities were paralyzing the state machinery and there was a visible threat to the
British prestige and power in India. The British, therefore, annulled the partition in
December 1911 in the Delhi Darbar and the announcement was made by King
George V himself.
When analyzed objectively, it can be concluded that the reasons for partition of
Bengal were more important because the Muslim community began to develop a
sense of "distinct identity" of their own, and also because they were alerted of the
possible consequences of a Hindu-dominated India. The partition gave a hint to the
Muslims about partition of India along communal lines.
How successful was the 1905 Partition of Bengal? Explain your answer.
[14]
Ans.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Bengal was the most populated province with a population of more than 80 million.
This huge population was spread over a small area, making it a very densely populated
province. It was difficult to govern such a big province as it created problems in maintaining
law and order, collection of taxes and providing emergency help in times of floods and
cyclones. So, it was sensible to divide it into two provinces.
The western part of Bengal had a population of 54 million with a Hindu majority,
whereas the eastern part had 31 million inhabitants with a Muslim majority. There was a
growing economic disparity between the Hindus and Muslims. Hindus were the dominant
community enjoying monopoly over industry, trade and politics. Muslims on the other hand,
were generally backward and poor. British perhaps wanted reduce this disparity.
British also closely observed the political activities of the INC in the 1890’s when
leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak had to be in prison as they delivered provoking speeches
in which they demanded self rule for India. Therefore, the British decided to distract the
attention of the INC towards a new issue. Accordingly, Lord Curzon, in 1903, advised the
British government to divide Bengal along communal lines and so, Bengal was divided in
1905 into a Muslim majority East Bengal and Hindu majority West Bengal.
Muslims felt delighted, and expressed thanks to the British as their socio-economic and
political position improved. They formed their own government in East Bengal, and began to
develop Chittagong port to compete with the Calcutta port. The partition ended the
oppression of Muslims under Hindu rule. They began to get jobs under a Muslim government
in the newly created province. Since 1857, for the first time, improved relations with the
British.
The Hindu-led INC, on the other hand, reacted quite angrily. It fully pressurized the
British government to reconsider the decision of partition. A country-wide anti-partition
campaign was launched. Mob rallies were organized and shutter down strikes were observed
as a token of resentment against the partition. With the passage of time, the opposition to the
partition became fierce and eventually adopted the terrorist behavior. Many senior British
officials were attacked including Lord Minto who survived a murder attempt. This created a
serious problem for the British as they found it difficult to run the state affairs effectively.
The INC started the Swadeshi Movement in which boycott of the British goods and
institutions was observed. British titles given to the Hindus were returned and the attendance
in various institutes dropped significantly. At many places, the British factory made cotton
cloth was thrown in the bonfire to mark the hatred against the Videshi/foreign goods. This
created serious economic difficulties for the British as the sale of their products sharply
declined in the Indian markets.
King George V was scheduled to visit India in 1911. The INC, threatened to boycott
the Coronation ceremony of the King that was a royal tradition and a hallmark of British
authority over its colonies. This threat of the INC was a serious blow to the pride and prestige
of the British who were now pressurized to reconsider the partition. Sir John Jenkins, a
member of the Viceroy’s executive council, advised the British government to reverse the
partition and the King himself announced the reversal in Delhi in 1911. Assam, Bihar and
Orissa were separated from reunited Bengal.
It may be concluded that the partition of Bengal was quite successful as it
strengthened the concept of Muslim nationalism. This feeling would gain strength in the
coming years. Muslims got an opportunity to run the political affairs of a province with their
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
majority. This would help them thinking of making a Muslim majority state where they could
live more comfortably.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q: What was the Swadeshi Movement?
(4)
Ans. It was launched by the Hindu-dominated INC (Congress) to oppose the partition of
Bengal in 1905. A boycott of British goods was observed in several parts of India
where the British-made cotton cloth was thrown into bonfires and Hindus were
encouraged to wear locally produced (Videshi) clothes. Educational institutes and
courts were also boycotted and strikes were observed, especially in Calcutta. Protest
rallies were organised to pressurize the British till the reversal of partition of Bengal in
1911.
Q
According to source A what message the heroine is conveying
about the feelings of the Hindus on the partition of Bengal.
(3)
Q (a) Source A:
This is an excerpt from a novel of the Nobel laureate, Rabindranath Tagore, where
the heroine of the novel says,
“I must burn all my foreign clothes as their outward shine carries a halo of darkness.
I feel as if I am guilty of betraying my country. I do not wish to ever wear them again
in this life until and unless the dividing communal line in Bengal is erased.”
Ans: The heroine symbolizes the strong Hindu resentment of the partition of Bengal. She
is condemning the use of the factory made cotton clothes of the British. She is
encouraging all Hindus to stop wearing foreign clothes and instead should prefer the
use of Indian clothes of hand-spun cotton as part of the Swadeshi Movement.
Q: Source B:
A picture showing the Swadeshi Movement launched by Congress after the partition
of Bengal, 1905-1911.
Q.(b) What does source B tell us about the partition of Bengal?
Ans.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
[5]
The source shows the power of Congress in urging the Indians to boycott the
British/Videshi goods, and buy the indigenous/Swdeshi products. The advertisement
mentions some major shop of a Hindu trader located on the Mall, Lahore. This means the
dominance of Hindu community on trade in the Muslim majority city of Lahore. It displays
some of the locally manufactured electric fans and a variety of cycles. We can infer the local
industry by the start of 20th century was well established in major cities of India. The purpose
of the Swadeshi movement was to pressurize the British to review the partition of Bengal.
Gradually, this movement would gain enough momentum forcing the British to reverse the
partition of Bengal in December 1911.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
THE SIMLA DEPUTATION







Brit decision to win Muslim support for their rule
Muslims observed the INC reaction over the partition of Bengal→growing protest of
Hindus disappointed Muslims →fear of Hindu domination & acceptance of demand to
reverse the partition
Muslims, being a minority, could not organize similar protest →decided to approach
the British to seek constitutional protection
Oct 1906, Simla (summer capital) → 33 Muslim delegates under the Aga Khan met
Viceroy Lord Minto.
Important demands for safety of Muslims e.g.,
I. Separate Muslim electorates → Muslim candidates in the council elections &
Muslim voters to elect them
II. Higher percentage of Muslims in the councils than their percentage in population.
Muslims supported their demands with strong arguments → strength of Muslim troops
in the British army, Muslim landowner class & fear of violence in case of joint
electorates.
Viceroy gave an encouraging response → agreed to the separate electorates.
Importance of the Simla Deputation



Result of efforts of Sir Syed & others to improve relations b/w Muslims & British →
now the British seemed to be ready work with Muslims.
Muslims now working to find constitutional protection in the Hindu –majority India →
the rivalry b/w Hindus & Muslims would now be seen in constitution, too.
A step towards the goal of Muslim nationalism → Muslims realized they should be
treated as a distinct community → need of a Muslim political party to work for the
protection of Muslims → AIML was founded, Dec 1906.
Reasons for the formation of AIML (All India Muslim League)




Muslims wanted to counter the influence of the INC → Muslims still felt insecure in
spite of steps taken by the British → partition of Bengal & acceptance of the separate
electorates
Hindu reaction on partition of Bengal→ protest , violence etc → Muslims needed to
present concerns of Muslims to the British through an organized political party
Increasingly pro-Hindu attitude of INC, esp its reaction on the partition of Bengal,
Hindu dominance on INC & encouraging response of the British to the Simla
Deputation → all this led to the formation of a separate Muslim party.
The newly elected Liberal govt in England declared to include more Indians in the
govt through elections→ elections could only be contested by a political party.
Formation of the ML

Prominent Muslim leaders on the 20th session of MEC
(Muhammad Educational Conference), Dhakka
 After the session, a meeting under Nawab Viqarul Mulk → AIML was formed, 30 Dec,
1906.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Aims of the ML





Protection of political rights & interests of the Indian Muslims
Representing Muslim needs to the govt
Loyalty to the British
Removing misunderstanding b/w Muslims & the British govt.
Preventing hostility in Muslims towards other communities of India.
Q:
What was the Simla Deputation/Delegation?
(4)
Ans. On 8th October 1906, a delegation of 36 Muslims led by Sir Aga Khan, called on the
Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla. The delegation conveyed to him a set of demands that
included the right of separate electorates for Muslims, and recognizing them in
respect of their political importance and the service they had rendered to the Empire.
It asked for a higher percentage of seats in the councils than their numerical strength.
The Viceroy promised to convince the British government for the acceptance of these
demands. This success became the immediate reason for the formation of the ML
(Muslim League) in December 1906.
Q:
Why was the Simla Delegation Important?
Ans.
(7)
The British showed their sympathy towards Muslims. The Muslim delegation was able
to persuade the British to accept them as an important Indian community. This was possible
mainly due to the attempts of Sir Syed and his colleagues to improve relations with the British.
Now, their efforts had started bearing fruit as the British were prepared to work with the
Muslims and grant them concessions like the separate electorates.
Success of the Simla delegation also showed the growing political awareness among
Muslims about their rights and status in India. Since the Hindus had already started making
progress in all walks of life, the rivalry between Muslims and Hindus was bound to grow. This
rivalry was now going to be visible in the constitution, too. The Muslims had started realizing
that they needed to secure a better position in the British India.
It also showed the growing sense of nationalism among Muslims. By asking for
separate electorates and a greater share in the legislative councils and the government jobs
demonstrated that Muslims had started working on proving themselves a distinct and
important community of India. For this reason, the Muslims decided to make their own political
party only after two months on 30th December 1906.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why was the Muslim League (ML) founded in 1906?
(7)
Ans. The Muslims wanted a political party of their own. The INC claimed to represent all
communities of India but it mainly worked for the interests of Hindus. Its reaction on
the partition of Bengal in 1905 was a shocking experience for the Muslims as they
realized the hidden INC aims of denying Muslims to make any progress. The way the
INC launched the Swadeshi Movement and a country wide campaign of protest and
strikes proved to be an eye opening experience for the Muslims. They increasingly
felt the need of their own political party that could counter any anti-Muslim activities
and campaigns.
In February 1906, the Liberal Party won elections in England. It was generally more
sympathetic towards the Indians and especially at times towards Indian Muslims. It
announced that it would expand the legislative councils by including more Indians.
Muslims realized it was time to think of making a Muslim political party because the
INC had not been sincere towards them. In order to join the legislative councils they
needed a political party to contest elections.
Another reason for the formation of ML was the success of the Simla Delegation. In
October 1906 about 36 Muslim delegates led by Sir Aga Khan called on the Viceroy
Lord Minto at Simla (the summer capital of the British India). It demanded a greater
share of Muslims in the councils and separate Muslim electorates. Lord Minto’s
encouraging response convinced the delegates that the organized efforts were more
likely to be successful. For this a political party was needed.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q
“The Muslim League was established in 1906 because of the
Hindus had their own political party.” Do you agree?
Give reasons for your answer.
[14]
Ans:
The Muslim League was founded on 30th December, 1906. The pro-Hindu INC
policies were a major reason for the formation of Muslim League (ML). The INC had been
demanding enforcement of Hindi as the official language replacing Urdu in various provinces.
It also opposed the partition of Bengal in 1905. This was shocking for the Muslims as they
realized the hidden INC aims of denying Muslims to make any progress. The way the INC
launched the Swadeshi Movement with country-wide protests and strikes, proved to be an
eye opening experience for the Muslims. The reaction of Hindus meant they could not tolerate
Muslims making progress. So the Muslims increasingly felt the need of their own political
party that could counter any anti-Muslim activities and campaigns.
Another reason for the formation of ML was the success of the Simla Delegation. In
October 1906 about 36 Muslim delegates led by Sir Aga Khan called on the Viceroy Lord
Minto at Simla. This delegation demanded a greater share of Muslims in the councils and the
government jobs. It also demanded separate electorates for the Muslims in view of their
political importance and numerical weakness against the Hindu majority. Lord Minto’s
encouraging response convinced the delegates that the organized efforts were more likely to
be successful. For this a political party was needed.
By the start of the twentieth century the activities of the Hindu extremist party, Arya
Samaj (Hindu Society), had become more intense. The purpose of this party was to purify
India from non-Hindu elements, especially Muslims. With the passage of time it began to use
force against the weak Muslims and there were reports of forcible conversion of Muslims into
Hindus. Muslims felt insecure about their cultural and religious identity and realized that a
political party could protect and promote their cultural and political rights.
In February 1906, the Liberal Party won elections in England. It was generally more
sympathetic towards the Indians and especially, at times, towards Indian Muslims. It
announced that it would expand the legislative councils by including more Indians. Muslims
realized it was time to think of making their own political party because the INC had not been
sincere towards them. In order to join the legislative councils elections had to be contested
through the platform of a political party. Therefore, prominent Muslim leaders gathered at the
residence of Nawab Salimullah Khan in Dhaka to attend the 20th session of the MEC
(Muhammadan Educational Conference). There they decided to convert the MEC into a
political party name All India Muslim Confederacy that was soon renamed as All India Muslim
League. Its main objective was to protect political and socioeconomic interests of the Indian
Muslims while keeping them loyal to the British.
It may be concluded that ML was founded mainly because the Hindus had their own
political party. In view of the prevailing circumstances it was vital for Muslims to constitute a
party that could voice their concerns and safeguard their political and cultural identity and
rights. Eventually the ML became the founding party of the Pakistan Movement that led to
the creation of Pakistan.
Source A: description of the background of the formation of All India
Muslim League from an Internet link:
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League
“In 1886, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Educational Conference, but a selfimposed ban prevented it from discussing politics. Its original goal was to advocate for British
education, especially science and literature among India’s Muslims. The conference, in
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
addition to generating funds for the MAO College Aligarh, motivated the upper Muslim class
to propose an expansion of educational uplift elsewhere.”
Q. (a) What purposes does Source A describe of the Muhammadan
Educational Conference?
[3]
Ans.
It was primarily a non-political body as its members were not allowed to discuss
politics. Its basic aim was to encourage Indian Muslims to acquire British education,
especially to be familiar with science and literature. It raised funds for the MAO College
Aligarh, and motivated the rich Muslims to work for uplifting educational standards in other
parts of India.
Source B: a photograph of the founder members of the All India Muslim
League.
Q. (b) Describe what Source B tell us about the foundation of the
AIML.
[5]
Ans.
Source B shows a simple but formal set up for the formation of the ML. All the six
members are making an invocation to God for the success of the ML that means they have
finalised the details of making the ML as the first Muslim political party. This also shows their
sincerity and devotion to their mission. All are clad in the western dress that reflects their rich
social background, the aristocrat class of the Indian Muslims. All except one are wearing a
cap that may mean his more westernised background. The ML would continue to be called a
party of elite Muslim class till the end of Congress rule in 1939.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The M.M (Morley-Minto) Reforms/Indian Councils Act, 1909


Jointly drafted by Lord Minto (Viceroy) & John Morley (Secretary of State), approved
by the govt.
More Indian share in all the councils:
1. The Imperial Council → 60 seats, with more non-official (not holding any govt
office) members→ on the whole , majority of the official members was retained
2. 60 more members in the Central Executive Council → members could discuss
general matters & advise the govt on some matters e.g. bedget
3. Expansion of the Provincial Councils → 50 members in the larger, 30 members in
the smaller provinces.
Importance of the M.M Reforms




Greater say of the Indians in the govt affairs by expansion of central & provincial
councils
British desire to train the Indians in politics, allow them to express opinion, but they
could not afford giving Indians any decisive powers→ the council members could
raise questions & give advice to the govt but could not make/ change any law→ real
powers with the British
More non-official members → gradually, more elected members in the councils in
future
Separate Muslim electorates → a major breakthrough in British –Muslim relations &
a major step towards national identity & protection of the Muslim community→ INC
opposed this measure.
Reasons for INC opposing the M.M. Reforms:



INC wanted more powers for the councils→ not satisfied with the limited concessions
granted under the reforms
Declared separate Muslim electorates against the spirit of democracy, although the
British didn't aim at introducing democracy in India→ they were granting as few
concessions to India as were necessary at that time.
For INC, this was another step against the Indian nationalism & unity
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Q: What was the Indian Councils Act 1909/The Morley-Minto
Reforms?
Ans.
[4]
They were jointly drafted by the Viceroy Lord Minto, and the Secretary of State for
India John Morley. Under these all the councils were enlarged. The Imperial Council now had
60 members, and 60 new members were added to the Central Executive Council. Provincial
Councils were increased to 50 members in the larger and 30 in the smaller provinces. The
councils, however, could not make, amend or annul any law but could only advise the
government on important matters. Muslims were given the right of separate electorate and,
therefore, the INC opposed the reforms.
Q:
Why were the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 opposed by the INC?
(7)
Ans.
The INC was disappointed by the reforms. The reforms gave nominal powers to the
central and provincial legislative councils. They could not make, change or annul any of the
laws. Instead, the members could only ask questions on important matters express their
opinions or advise the government respectfully. This went against the INC policy of making a
demand for self-rule in India.
The INC also wanted a greater increase in the size of the councils at all levels so that
a greater number of Indians could make way to the power corridor. The British knew all this
and therefore, they increased the size of the councils according to their own policies as they
were in no mood to raise the legislative councils to the status of a parliament or establish a
democracy in India as can be seen from the remarks of John Morley, “I for one would have
nothing to do with it (democracy/parliament).”
The INC sharply criticized the granting of separate electorate to the Muslims. It was
unhappy on Muslims getting a relatively higher position in the councils despite their much
smaller numbers. The INC declared this an undemocratic step because such a special
concession to Muslims directly threatened the Hindu dominance in Indian politics.
Source A: criticism on the separate electorates for Muslims , from an
Internet link :
https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/amp/indian-council-act-of-1909morley-minto-reforms-main-features-1443011546-1
“By granting separate electorates to Muslims, the British hoped to cut off
Muslims from the nationalist movement by treating them apart from the rest of the
nation. They told the Muslims that their interests were separate from those of other
Indians. To weaken the nationalist movement, the British began to consistently follow
a policy of communalism in India.”
Q. (a) What does Source A tell us about the British aims in 1909?
[3]
Ans.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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The basic aim of the British was to keep Muslims from the nationalist. They
convinced Muslims that their political interests were distinct from the rest of Indians.
This was part of the British policy of communalism in India.
Source B: a photograph regarding the Indian Councils Act, 1909.
Q. (b) From Source B what message do we get about the Indian Councils
Act, 1909?
[5]
Ans.
The photograph shows the insignia of the British Parliament more prominently
than the tricolour Congress flag. This conveys a message of the British dominance in
India as all legislation about India was made by the British Parliament. The Congress
flag represents the British awareness about the Indian reaction and political interests.
Place of the flag shows that the British did not consult the Indians while introducing
the Morley-Minto reforms as the British at that time could not grant any political
freedom to the Indians. Congress criticised the Act sharply as it wanted more powers
for the Council members, and was opposed to the separate electorates for Muslims.
Revolutionary attempts in India during the WW1
Q:
What was the Silk Letter Movement/Conspiracy?
[4]
Ans:
It was a revolutionary movement launched by the Deobandi sect of Sunni Muslims in
India from 1913 to 1920.It’s aim was to liberate India from the British rule with the help of
Germany, the Ottoman Turkey and Afghanistan. The Punjab CID uncovered the conspiracy
by capturing letters written by Maulana Ubaid Ullah Sindhi to Maulana Mahmud Ul Hassan.
These letters were written in silk cloth, hence the name “Silk Letters Conspiracy”. Both the
leaders visited Afghanistan and persuaded the Afghan Amir to initiate an insurrection in the
tribal belt of India. However, like many other similar secret attempts, this too was foiled by
the British.
Relations b/w Muslims & British before the
WWI (First World War)
 1911, reversal of partition of Bengal affected the relations because:
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013




Muslims took it as a betrayal of the British promises & reassurance to the Muslims
that the partition was final
They lost faith in British → they didn't expect any real political power to be given
to them by the British
Their frustration was reinforced when they saw the M.M. Reforms didn't grant any
genuine powers to the Indians.
1912-13 → the Balkan Wars → British supported the Balkan Satates (SE Europe)
against the Muslim Turkish Empire→ feeling among Muslims about the antiMuslim British policy in India & elsewhere → ML & INC would come closer in
future.
The WWI (1914-1918) & Indian view to support the British




Mixed views in India → Indian troops & resources, very important part of the British
army → British acknowledged that
Moderate politicians (idealists) wanted to support→ British fought for the rights of
nations for self-rule→ if British won, they would give Indians more political rights
through fresh reforms
Anti-British politicians (realists), not sympathetic to British→ British need & difficulty
should be exploited → opportunity for Indians.
These anti-British elements organized a series of attempts to destabilise the British
rule → Mutiny party of Lala Hardyal Singh (USA), 1913; planned uprising of Indian
nationalists in Punjab, 1915 & later, the Silk letters conspiracy & mutiny of Indian
troops in Singapore → all failed attempts.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Q:
Why were there mixed views in India about supporting the British
in the WW1?
(7)
Ans. The Indians were divided when the War broke out in 1914. Many of them were in a
way ‘idealists’ as they believed that in case of the British victory they surely would
reward Indian loyalty by introducing reforms to give the Indians a greater role in
governing the country. They, therefore, agreed with the idea of giving support to the
British on the ground that the British were fighting for the rights of nations to determine
how they should be governed (self-determination). The British, too, admitted that the
war would have prolonged beyond their calculations and indeed might not even have
been won without the help of the Indians.
However, it is also true that many Indians were not sympathetic to the British and
wanted to exploit the British weakness during the War. They saw Britain’s ‘necessity’
as ‘India’s opportunity’. They were, therefore, called the ‘opportunists’ or ‘realists’.
According to their views, Britain was in difficulty and needed help, so there was more
opportunity for the Indians to press the British for self-government. This ‘anti-British’
group soon began to take action in the form of the revolutionary activity in and beyond
India. They included the Mutiny Party of Lala Hardayal in the US in 1913, rise of the
nationalists in the Punjab in 1915 and the Silk Letter Conspiracy.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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The Lucknow Pact (LP), 1916
Reasons for the Signing of the LP





Failure of the British to grant more rights to the Indians, in the years upto 1915→major
parties realized the need to press the British for that.
Oppressive policies of the British in the early years of the WWI → Silk letters, Mutiny
party etc
Reversal of partition of Bengal & efforts of Jinnah to bring ML closer to INC →
Jinnah joined ML, 1913, while remaining a member of the INC, played important
role; ML changed its policy after 1911→from
"loyalty to the British" to a demand for self-rule.
Oct 1916 → British govt declared its decision for new reforms e.g. majority of the
elected in various councils.
ML & INC supported this & agreed on a number of joint demands.
Details of the LP










1915 → sessions of ML & INC in Bombay → joint councils to improve relations b/w
two parties
1916→ joint session of ML & INC
ML, led by Jinnah; INC, led by Ambeka Charan Mahajan.
INC agreed on → separate Muslim electorates in the Imperial & Provincial Legislative
Councils , even in Punjab & Bengal
1/3rd Muslim seats in the Councils ( Central govt)
Approval of 3/4th of members of some particular community to introduce any Act
related to that community
Protection of minorities
Provincial autonomy
More elected members in the councils
Resolutions (motions) passed with majority in the Councils to be binding on the govt.
Importance of the LP




First (& unfortunately, last) occasion of INC & ML making joint demand for political
reforms in India
Acceptance of separate electorates by INC meant → some kind / degree of partition
of India would be necessary in case of any self-rule
High water-mark of Hindu –Muslim unity, mainly due to the efforts of Jinnah → it would
be short- lived & lead to communalism in India → e.g. results of the K.M. of 19191924.
LP promoted the belief about some form of self-rule was possible in India → it was
supported by the Home Rule Leagues of 1917 → one led by Tilak & the other by Mrs.
Annie Besant.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Q:
What was Lucknow Pact?
Ans.
[4]
It was an agreement signed between the Muslim League and the Congress in
December 1916 at Lucknow. Jinnah led the ML while Mahajan led the INC. Congress agreed
to the separate Muslim electorates and one third Muslim seats in the Central Legislative
Assembly. Both demanded more seats in the Councils, provincial autonomy and protection
of minorities. It was the first occasion of Hindu-Muslim unity that showed the possibility of
starting some kind of Home Rule campaign.
Q:
Why was the Lucknow Pact signed in 1916?
Ans.
[7]
The INC and the ML decided to work together. Jinnah had joined ML in 1913 while
retaining his membership of the INC. He persuaded the ML leaders to change the policy of
“loyalty to the British” and make a demand for self rule. This brought ML closer to INC that
already was demanding “Swaraj” (self rule). Gradually both parties realized it would be better
to ask for constitutional reforms jointly.
The British were planning to introduce fresh reforms and this was leaked to the two
major parties. The British had failed to grant more rights to the Indians in the period upto
1914. Instead, the British policy of repression during the WW1 also brought the two parties
closer to each other. Therefore, both parties set up joint councils to improve common
understanding on key issues. So, both decided to cooperate with each other in order to
generate feelings of goodwill and friendship.
ML and INC also wanted to reduce mutual friction and to accommodate each other.
The main figure in this regard was Mr. Muhammad Ali Jinnah who believed in a unity between
the INC and the ML. He was, therefore, given the title of the ‘ambassador of Hindu-Muslim
unity’ by Mr. Gokhle. Thus, the INC and the ML held a joint session in Lucknow. In this INC
for the first time accepted the separate electorates for Muslims and one third Muslim seats in
the central government, in addition to preparing a draft of common demands for Indians.
Source A: part of a speech delivered by Mr Bal Gangadhar Tilak after the
signing of Lucknow Pact:
“It has been said that we, Hindus, have yielded too much. The concession that has
been made to our Mohammedan brethren in the Legislative Council is really nothing too
much. In proportion to the concession that has been made to the Moslems their enthusiasm
and warm-hearted support is surely greater. I urge the audience to give effect to the resolution
adopted by the Congress.”
Q. (a) According to Source A, describe the feelings of Mr Tilak about the
Muslims.
[3]
Ans.
Mr. Tilak is countering the objection about granting a greater share to the Muslims in the
Central Legislative Council. He is pointing to the fact that the support offered by the Muslims
in return, is more valuable. He is encouraging the Hindu audience to validate the resolution
presented in the Lucknow Pact.”
Source B: a photograph of the signing of Lucknow Pact.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q. (b) What does Source B tell us about the joint session of ML and
Congress?
[5]
Ans.
The Source shows the final phase of the session as Jinnah is endorsing the Pact by
signing the document. The session seems to have been held in a very formal way perhaps
due to the gulf between the Hindus and Muslims. Jinnah is shown wearing his eastern dress,
instead of his favourite western outfit, to convey a message of representing the Muslim
community. He, and all those around him, carry a very serious but relieved look that highlights
the importance of the agreement reached between the two major communities of India. The
person who convened the meeting is shown behind the ML and Congress leaders, and he
too, seems alert and focused. This shows the degree of understanding reached between the
two parties. Though a great occasion of Hindu-Muslim unity, the spirit of Lucknow Pact would
not last for a longer time mainly due to the changed stance of Congress in the years to come.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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The Mont-Ford Reforms (Govt of India Act, 1919)
Why were they introduced?



Mounting pressure on the British govt by Indians → growing demand for self-rule
The LP b/w INC & ML could not be ignored → demand for greater rights for Indians.
Woodrow Wilson, the US President & the wartime ally of Britain, insisted on granting
the right of "self-determination" to various nations after the war.
Details of the Act












Drafted jointly by the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford & Secretary of State, John Montague.
Issued, July, 1919.
Recommended some degree of responsibility to the elected representatives
Legislative Council → now called Legislative Assembly, with 145 members’ → 103 to
be elected for a period of 3 years.
Out of 103, 32 to be Muslims
Legislative Assembly → lower house & the Council of States → upper house , 60
seats, 33 to be elected → a Bicameral set up
A Council of Princes , 108 seats → to allow state princes to discuss important matters
→ no real powers → just a " talking shop"
Diarchy in the provincial govt → two lists of responsibilities → " reserved subjects"
under the governor & his Executive Council of 2-4 members
Provincial ministers got the "transferred subjects" → ministers were responsible to the
Provincial Legislative Councils.
Greater number of voters → 5.5 millions out of 250 million
Real powers still with the British , both in the Center & the Provincial levels → Viceroy
could pass any law → Executive Council had nominated members, though 3-4 were
Indians
Provincial ministers, chosen by the Viceroy, from the Councils.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Reaction of the Indians to the 1919 Act





The Act disappointed the major political parties of India
Indians expected much more as reward for their role in the WWI , but the real powers
still with the British → Viceroy & the Executive Council
Gandhi & Jinnah opposed the Act → Aug 1918, special session of INC declared the
Act as :
"Inadequate, unsatisfactory & disappointing"
Jinnah, however, asked all to avoid violence and urged on working together.
Other minorities also began to demand for the separate electorates’ → more divisions
among Indians.
The Rowlatt Act





British anticipated violent reaction from the Indians → they were ready to deal with
such reaction strictly
Dec, 1917 → a committee under Justice Rowlatt, to investigate revolutionary activity
in India.
Apr 1918 → a the committee recommended some emergency measures under the
Defence of India Act:
1. arrest without warrant
2. detention without bail
3. the rights of the provincial govt to order people where to live.
Widespread opposition by all major leaders → strikes & demonstrations
Violence eventually escalated to the tragic “Amritsar Massacre" 1919 → General
Dyer ordered fire on the unarmed crowd in the Jillianwala Bagh, Amritsar.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What were the Mont-Ford reforms/The Government of India Act
1919?
(4)
Ans. They were jointly drafted by the Secretary of State, John Montague and the Viceroy,
Lord Chelmsford. A bicameral set up was introduced at the Centre with an Upper
House, the Council of States, and a Lower House, the Legislative Assembly. Out of
145 members of the Legislative Assembly, 103 were elected. At the provincial level,
Diarchy was introduced under which some of the reserved subjects of the Governor
were transferred to the ministers. The right of separate electorates was extended to
the Sikhs, too. The number of voters was increased to 5.5 million. Both INC and ML
opposed the reforms.
Q:
What was the Rowlatt Act?
(4)
Ans. The British anticipated a violent reaction to the Mont-Ford reforms. They appointed
an investigative committee under Justice Rowlatt in Dec. 1917. In the light of its report
the Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919. The Act empowered the local
administration/police to arrest anyone without warrant, detain him without the right of
bail and decide where the people in a province should live. Gandhi launched a
countrywide strike against it, and Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative
Council in protest. A protest by 20,000 unarmed people led to the tragic massacre at
Jillianwala Bagh, a public park, in Amritsar, in April 1919.
Q:
Who was General Dyer?
[4]
Ans.
He was a British commander, in charge of the police in Amritsar. He quickly mobilized
his troops against a huge number of Indians who had gathered in a public park,
Jallianwala Bagh. He thought the aim of these people was to protest against the
Rowlett Act. On 13th April 1919 he ordered a direct shoot out on the peaceful
gathering. Hundreds of people were killed and several more injured. Dyer was trialed
for his cruel action and removed from his post.
Q:
Describe the Amritsar Massacre?
(4)
Ans. As part of protest against the Rowlatt Act, there was unrest in Amritsar and five
Europeans were killed. An angry mob of 20,000 gathered in a public park, Jillianwala
Bagh. Though all were peaceful protesters, General Dyer, the local British
Commander was determined to restore peace as he had banned all public meetings.
He sealed the only exit of the park and ordered a shootout without warning. Over 1600
rounds were fired and about 400 people were killed while another 1200 were
wounded. Dyer was trialed under the Hunter Committee and was removed from his
service without any further punishment.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why were Indians not given self-rule by 1919?
[7]
And:
The WW 1 had ended in 1918, and the British had suffered huge losses during the
four years of the War. Their top priority was to pay attention to the repair and reconstruction
of Britain that had been damaged by the Germans, and that made India a secondary issue
for them. Britain very well knew about many other colonies ruled by the Europeans had
started asking for independence thinking the British had been weakened by the War. It was
not easy and simple to leave India abruptly at that time. Therefore, they rejected the Indian
demand of self-rule.
Indian subcontinent was still a source of heavy income for the British. Its resources
had a strong attraction for the British, and so, it was rightly called the Jewel in the Crown.
Strategic location of India was vital for the trading interests and naval force of the British.
There were sea trade routes from India towards the Far East, Southeast Asia, the Middle
East and Africa. They could not afford to pull out of India at this crucial time when they
desperately needed revenue to keep their economic growth in a good shape. Moreover,
several Indians, especially the Muslims and Sikhs were bulk of the British army. Along with
these Indians, there were several thousand British employees in India, including
missionaries, civil servants, businessmen and military officers. If India was given self-rule
without a thorough planning, these British serving in India would have turned from an asset
to a liability.
Finally, the question of British prestige was also a considerable factor. The British
thought their prestige was likely to be damaged before the rest of the world if they had given
in before the growing demand of self-rule by the Indians. Such a step might have conveyed
a message of weak position of the British in India, and that too, after their victory in the WW1.
It is equally true the Indians in 1919 were not politically mature and trained to run the state
affairs on their own. Therefore, the British decided to keep their control over India by making
new laws like the Montford reforms of 1919.
Q:
“The Montague-Chelmsford reforms were more important than any
other political developments between 1909 and 1919.’ Do you agree
or disagree? Give reasons for your answer.
(14)
Ans: The Montague-Chelmsford reforms (M.C reforms) were jointly drafted by John
Montague, Secretary of State of India, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy. They
became operative in 1919. They enlarged the size of the legislative councils,
increased the number of voters to 5.5 million and granted the right of separate
electorate to Sikhs, too.
In the Centre, a bicameral set up was introduced with an upper house, the Council of
State and a lower house the legislative assembly. The Council of State had 60 seats,
33 of whom were elected. The Legislative Assembly had 145 members, with 103
being elected for a period of 3 years. These 103 included 32 Muslims. A Council of
Princes was setup with 108 members where Princes could debate important topics.
At provincial level, Diarchy was introduced. In this, subjects were divided between the
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
governor (reserved subjects) and ministers (transferred subjects). Enlargement of the
councils, increased number of voters and protection of minorities were welcomed.
The real powers were, however, still with the British, as the Viceroy could pass any
law he liked in the Centre. Governors of the provinces, likewise, could veto any law
they disliked. The Council of Princes, too, didn’t have powers and eventually it
became a kind of a ‘talking shop’.
To make things worse, the Rowlatt Act was enforced. It gave powers to the police to
arrest anyone without warrant and detain him without the right of bail. The Act led to
the tragic Amritsar massacre.
However, some other political developments also took place during the same time
period. Before the 1919 Act, the British had introduced the Indian Councils Act 1909,
also known as the Morley-Minto reforms (M.M. Reforms). Under this act, size of the
provincial and central legislative councils was increased: for larger provinces 50 and
for smaller provinces 30 members. The Imperial Council was increased to 60
members by adding more non official members. Also, the Central Executive Council
was expanded by adding 60 new members, including many Indians. Muslims were
given the right of separate electorates. The councils, however, had little powers. The
members could ask questions and express their opinion and advise the government
on some issues. INC was not satisfied with these provisions and it sharply criticized
the provision of separate electorates for Muslims. For INC, it was an undemocratic
concession, but for Muslim League, it was recognition of their political importance.
The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was an agreement between INC and Muslim League. Due
to the efforts of Jinnah, ML and INC held their joint session at Qaiser Bagh Baradari,
Lucknow. INC was led by Ambeka Charan Mahajan and ML was represented by Mr.
Jinnah. Both parties agreed on a charter of common demands, called the Lucknow
Pact. The Pact asked the British for provincial autonomy, enlargement of the councils
by including more Indians. A very important clause was the acceptance of separate
Muslim electorates by the INC. It also agreed to give Muslims one-third seats in the
Centre. The Lucknow Pack marked a great occasion of Hindu-Muslim unity. It also
showed the desire of self-rule among Indians, as there were two more Home Rule
Leagues during the same period ---- one by Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak and the other by
Mrs. Annie Besant It, however, also reflected that Hindus would be ready to accept
any degree of partition of India along communal lines in future.
With objective analysis, it seems that the Mont-ford reforms were the most important
political development, because the introduction of Diarchy and bicameral set up
showed the British willingness to grant Indians more rights, though rather slowly.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Alternative judgements:


Q:
The 1909 Act may be considered to be the most important development because by
granting separate electorates for the Muslims, the British strengthened the idea of
nationalism among Muslims which would evolve into their demand for a separate
homeland.
The Lucknow Pact looks to be the most important development because it showed
the possibility of joint struggle for independence by the two largest communities of
India, Hindus and Muslims. If the spirit of the Pact had been retained, British might
have been pressurized more than their expectations.
How successful were political developments in seeking a solution
to the problems in the sub-continent between 1909 and 1919?
Explain your answer.
[14]
Ans.
The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 were jointly drafted by the Viceroy Lord
Minto and the Secretary of State for India, John Morley. Under these the size of the
central and provincial legislative councils was enlarged. The Imperial/Central Council
was increased to 60 members. Provincial Councils and the Central Executive Council
were also increased by adding more members. The Muslims were given the right of
separate electorates. This means more Indians were included in the government
affairs and they could express their opinions too. Granting of separate electorates to
Muslims was a major step towards the development of Muslim nationalism. However,
the INC opposed this because it viewed this as an undemocratic step. The councils
could not make, amend or annul any laws. Therefore, the INC opposed the reforms
as it wanted more Indians in the councils and more power for the council members.
The Lucknow Pact was signed between the ML and the INC in 1916. Both
parties gathered in Lucknow with Jinnah representing the ML and Ambeka Charan
Mahajan led the INC delegation. Both parties agreed to demand provincial autonomy
and enlargement of councils in India. The INC accepted the separate electorates for
Muslims and even agreed to one third seats in the government. For the first time both
major parties had shown such a unity. It was a reflection of the campaign for self-rule
in India. This success was greatly attributed to Jinnah who was hailed as “the
ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity”. However, it also showed the depth of communal
divide in India because the separate electorates was linked with the distinct Muslim
identity.
Secretary of States John Montague and the Viceroy Lord Chelmsford
introduced the Mont-Ford Reforms as the Government of India Act 1919. As Indians
expected some reward for their contribution in the WW1, the British gave them some
concessions in the new reforms. In the Centre, a bicameral set up was introduced
with an upper house, the Council of States, and a lower house, the Legislative
Assembly. There was majority of the elected people in the Assembly. At provincial
level, Diarchy was introduced in which some of the reserved subjects of the provincial
governors were transferred to the ministers. This was claimed to be a step towards
self-rule. Separate electorates was also extended to the Sikhs. Both the INC and the
ML opposed these reforms as they had expected more political rights for the Indians.
The British had anticipated this disappointment. Therefore, they implemented the
infamous Rowlatt Act that empowered the police to arrest anyone without a warrant
and detain the arrested person for an indefinite period. The Indian anger grew as
Jinnah and Gandhi sharply criticized the Act. Hundreds of Indian protestors were
killed in the Jillianwala Bagh in Amritsar.
If viewed objectively, it seems that all these political developments were a
failure because they eventually escalated to dissatisfaction among Indians over
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whatever was offered to them by the British. The political deadlock persisted despite
efforts by both the British and the Indians.
Q:
Which of the following had the most important effect on the
Pakistan Movement 1909 and 1919?
[10/14]
Ans.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909
The Reversal of Partition of Bengal, 1911
The Lucknow Pact, 1916
The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 were jointly drafted by the Viceroy Lord Minto and
the Secretary of State for India, John Morley. Under these the size of the central and
provincial legislative councils was enlarged. The Imperial/Central Council was increased to
60 members. Provincial Councils and the Central Executive Council were also increased by
adding more members. The Muslims were given the right of separate electorates. This means
more Indians were included in the government affairs and they could express their opinions
too. Granting of separate electorates to Muslims was a major step towards the development
of Muslim nationalism. The INC opposed this because it viewed this as an undemocratic step.
This supposition by the INC further alerted the Muslim community that was already upset
over the Hindu reaction on the partition of Bengal.
As for the reversal of partition, it mainly came about as a result of the ever growing
Hindu pressure on the British. The Hindu-dominated INC organized a country wide antipartition campaign. Regular protests and strikes were held, and boycott of British goods, titles
and institutes was organized on a large scale. They rejected the partition by linking it with the
British strategy of dividing Indians into sub-groups and creating communal differences. The
Hindu anger was further reflected in the Swadeshi movement. In this a boycott of British
goods was observed. At many places, the British factory made cotton cloth was thrown in the
bonfire and this caused a significant drop in the sale of British goods.
Gradually, the movement adopted terrorist activities when an attempt was made to
assassinate Lord Minto. British goods and institutes were boycotted as a token of protest
over the partition. Though the Muslims were assured of the irreversibility of the partition, the
circumstances forced the British to reconsider this administrative decision. Pressure grew
with time as all these activities were paralyzing the state machinery and there was a visible
threat to the British prestige and power in India. The British, therefore, annulled the partition
in December 1911 in the Delhi Darbar and the announcement was made by King George V
himself. The announcement shocked the Muslims who felt betrayed by the British. They felt
they could no longer trust either the INC or the British for the safeguarding of their political
interests. Therefore, soon on the advice of Jinnah, the ML would demand self rule instead of
its earlier policy of promoting loyalty to the British.
The Lucknow Pact was signed between the ML and the INC in 1916. Both parties
gathered in Lucknow with Jinnah representing the ML and Ambeka Charan Mahajan led the
INC delegation. Both parties agreed to demand provincial autonomy and enlargement of
councils in India. The INC accepted the separate electorates for Muslims and even agreed
to one third seats in the government. For the first time both major parties had shown such a
unity. It was a reflection of the campaign for self-rule in India. This success was greatly
attributed to Jinnah who was hailed as “the ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity”. However,
it also showed the depth of communal divide in India because the separate electorates was
linked with the distinct Muslim identity. Thus, the recognition of political significance of
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Muslims by the Hindus contributed towards the shaping of the Pakistan Movement.
It may be concluded that the reversal of the partition of Bengal had the most
important effect on the Pakistan Movement because it created political awareness
among Muslims who realized how insecure they would be in a Hindu-ruled India
where they would be denied any chance of making progress or prospering in politics
and economy.
Q.
Was the introduction of the Rowlatt Act was the sole cause of
violence in India during 1919 and 1920? Explain your answer.
[14]
Ans.
The British had been closely watching the revolutionary activities in India during the
WW1. After the War, they offered Indians some political concessions in the 1919 Act. They,
however, were determined to strengthen their grip on India, and deal with those who opposed
the British rule. Accordingly, while drafting the 1919 Act, they appointed a committee in 1917
under Justice Rowlatt. The committee was assigned the task of investigating the
revolutionary activities in India. The committee declared in its report in April 1918 that there
was ample evidence of revolutionary attempts in India. It recommended extending strict laws
in the Defence of India Act,1915 permanently to deal with such anti-British activities. These
strict laws included ,arresting any suspect without warrant and detaining the arrested person
for an indefinite period without granting him the right of bail. Moreover, they included such
steps as ‘juryless’ in camera trials , and empowered provincial government to ask residents
of any area where to live.
These proposals angered the Indians a lot as they contradicted two of the central
principles of the British justice system, namely trial by jury, and providing safeguards against
illegal imprisonments. Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest, and
Gandhi immediately launched a campaign against the proposals. Throughout April 1919
there were strikes and demonstrations throughout India as the Indians rejected such
unusually strict measures. The Viceroy Lord Chelmsford, however, remained firm , ignoring
all protests. The report was presented as two bills in the British Parliament, and they were
called “ Black Bills” by the Indian leadership. The Bills were passed and enforced as the
Rowlatt Act in 1919. He mishandled the situation by adopting more unpopular measures such
as putting a ban on publishing anti-British articles.
The politically volatile situation resulting from the implementation of the Rowlatt Act
worsened with time as the British were totally inflexible about it. They tried to restrict the
Indian protests, and banned public meetings. Moreover, by early 1919, they deported two
prominent nationalist leaders, Dr Satyapal and Dr Saif-ud- Din Kitchlew. The public unrest
gained momentum especially in Punjab. On 10 April, large scale riots in Amritsar led to
attacking two banks and killing of five Europeans. Violence escalated when the British
commander of the area, General Dyer banned all public meetings. The notice of this ban was
not publicised widely. So several Hindu and Sikh villagers primarily gathered to celebrate the
their annual festival of Baisakhi in the public park. They also wanted a peaceful demonstration
against the Act .
Dyer was angered when he was told about a crowd of 20,000 gathered at Jillianwala
Bagh, a public park in Amritsar on 13 April 1919. The park had a narrow entrance surrounded
by a 5 foot wall. Dyer appointed his troops at the entrance, and ordered an immediate
shootout without any warning. Around 1600 rounds were shot causing about 400 deaths of
men, women and children. Another people 1200 were wounded. Dyer justified his step by
saying he wanted the Indians to obey the British rule in all circumstances. He was
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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reprimanded by the British government but the media defended his action. This further
angered the Indians, and consequently violence grew more in India.
The viceroy Lord Chelmsford and the Secretary of State for India, Lord John
Montague jointly drafted the Government of India Act 1919, also called Montford reforms.
Indians had high hopes of some reward for their contribution in the WW1. Several Indians
had sacrificed their lives , and several others had returned without any compensation. The
1919 Act enlarged the size of all legislative councils, now called assemblies. In the Centre, a
bicameral set up was introduced. The lower house was called the Legislative Assembly that
had a greater number of elected members. The upper house was the Council of State , while
a Council of Princes was also set up. At the provincial level, Diarchy was introduced under
which some powers of the governors were transferred to the ministers. However, the Viceroy
could pass any law he liked. Similarly, the provincial governor could declare emergency
without consulting the ministers. Therefore, the reforms greatly disappointed the Indians who
had expected more powers for the elected members. Congress, in August 1918, declared
the Act as inadequate, unsatisfactory and disappointing. Moreover, granting the right of
separate electorate, earlier given to Muslims,to other minorities led to communal divide and
then communal violence in India. Extremists left the Congress, and this caused further
violence.
It may be concluded that the Rowlatt Act was the most important reason of violence
as it negated fundamental human rights of the Indians, and weakened the British claims of
justice for all. The same law led to the tragic incident of the Amritsar massacre.
New Pattern Question:
Q:
(part a of Q1.) Source A, a statement of Jinnah against the Rowlatt
Act,
“In my opinion, a Government that passes or sanctions such a law in times of peace
forfeits its claims to be called a civilized Government. Passage of such laws is bound
to lead to unrest in the country and growth of resentment against the Government. I
advise the British to reconsider the Act.”
According to source A, what message is being conveyed by
Jinnah?
(3)
Ans. In Jinnah’s opinion the Rowlatt Act was passed at a wrong time. The clauses of the
Act negated the British claim of being a civilized Government in India. He is drawing
the attention of the British authorities towards a possible outbreak of large scale
violence.
Source B: (part b of Q.1)
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Gen. Dyer examining the site in Jillianwal Bagh after the shootout.
Describe the scene of the site of the massacre as shown in source B. [5]
Ans.
General Dyer has been escorted to the site of the shootout. He is closely observing
the scene and is being briefed about the whole incident by his soldiers. He seems to dominate
those around him as can be seen from his confident posture. This is evident from the
unusually respectful attitude of all his subordinates around him shows that he is in full control
of the situation. His subordinates comprise a mix of British and local Indian officials and
soldiers that proves his commanding position in Amritsar. The whole scene suggests that he
has achieved his objective of telling the Indians to obey the British in all circumstances. Soon
the Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) and Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement would reunite
the Hindus and Muslims against the British.
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The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924)
Causes









Deep rooted Muslim fears about anti-Muslim British Policy within India as well as
elsewhere.
Demolition of the eastern part of a mosque in Kanpur in July 1913 despite repeated
requests by the Muslims to the British government.
Tussle between Russia and British over how to rule Persia (Iran) and Afghanistan
without considering feelings of Muslim population of these countries.
British support to Balken states (south east Europe) against Turkey, in the Balkan
Wars, 1912-13; Turkey lost control over most of its territories in Europe.
Fears about break up of Turkish Empire (Ottoman Empire) by British after WW1 was
another major reason.
Indian Muslims supported British in WW1 against Germany and her supporters
(including turkey) on British promise of maintaining respect with Turkish Empire and
khilafat.
Khalifa of Turkey was the spiritual head of Muslims and was the custodian of holy
places of Islam in Arabia and elsewhere.
As the WW1 ended British began to punish Germany and her allies by various treaties
e.g. treaties of Sevres and Versailles.
Muslims were alarmed on this and organized the Khilafat Movement (K.M).
Progress of the Khilafat Movement:







Main leaders were Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Shukat Ali Jauhar, Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Doctor Mohammad Ansari and Gandhi would soon join
it.
First Khilafat conference was held in January 1920. They met the Viceroy to convince
about fair treatment of Turkey but there was no success.
In February 1920 another Khilafat deputation took place and they called on Prime
Minister Lloyd George to convince him for justice with Turkey but again there was no
success once again.
Gandhi merged his “non-cooperation movement” with the khilafat movement and that
greatly strengthened the K.M.
In August 1920 the Hijrat Movement began as India was considered to be Dar-ul-Harb
by Muslims scholars (a place where there was non-Muslim rule); so about 18,00020,000 Muslims migrated to Afghanistan in batches, and as a consequence many
died during long journey and lost jobs as well as houses to others.
The Prince of Wales visited Bombay/ Mumbai in 1921; nationwide strikes and
demonstrations welcomed him; 53 people were killed; increased anti-British
sentiments as they used force and arrested around 30,000 political workers.
The KM thus attracted both Muslims and Hindus for the common cause of opposing
the British rule.
End of the Khilafat Movement:
 Gandhi had joined the movement on condition of keeping it non-violent but after the
Chaura Chauri incident when 22 policemen were burnt alive he withdrew from the
movement.
 Main leaders were arrested after the third conference.
 In 1924 the Khilafat was abolished by Kamal Attaturk, who sent the last khalifa Sultan
Muhammad VI into exile and himself became ruler of modern Turkey.
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Causes of Failure of the Khilafat Movement:






Poor leadership: leaders of the khilafat movement were more concerned about the
fate of Turkey and Khilafat than western owners and government as well as bout the
people of Turkey. Kamal Attaturk abolished the Khilafat in dilemma. Thus they
couldn’t continue a movement whose very cause had been abolished.
Failure of Hijrat Movement: Thousands of Muslims suffered miserably during and after
the migration those who returned to India found their jobs and homes being occupied
by others.
Gandhi’s withdrawal: Gandhi’s condition of non-violence for his support to Khilafat
movement was not fulfilled as violence broke in parts of India e.g. Chaura Chauri.
Gandhi withdrew at a critical time. His withdrawal proved fatal for the Muslims.
Spirit of Khilafat Movement was greatly affected by a strong anti-British feeling as a
result of non-cooperation movement of Gandhi. This played important role in
weakening and failing of Khilafat Movement because the objective of the Khilafat
movement was made less visible.
The Moplah uprising, 1921; enthusiastic religious Muslims, destroyed a local police
station and damaged the Hindu property; targeted both the Hindu landlords and the
British.
Their activities seriously damaged the Hindu-Muslim unity; Hindus were already
hesitatant to support the Khilafat Movement.
Effects of the Khilafat Movement:
Positive Effects:


Muslims realized the importance of their political power as they were now no more
pets of the British but could rise in unity for a common cause.
The Hindu-Muslim unity proved possibility of self-rule in future as both joined hands
in non-cooperation; this unity greatly worried the British as a united front was more
challenging for them.
Negative Effects:




The Hindu-Muslim unity was short lived as there were essential differences between
the two.
The Hijrat Movement had drastic effects on the thousands of innocent Muslims.
The British-Muslim relations were damaged.
The primary objective of saving the Khilafat was not achieved; this shocked the Indian
Muslims.
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The Khilafat Movement 1919-1924
Q:
What was the All India Khilafat Conference?
(4)
Ans. It was held in Delhi in November 1919, led by the Ali brothers, Maulana Muhammad
Ali Johar and Maulana Shaukat Ali. They hoped to try and persuade the British to
keep their promises about maintaining the respect of the Turkish Empire. Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad and Gandhi attended it as representatives of the INC. Gandhi hoped
to keep Hindus and Muslims united in his non-violent campaign against the British.
Azad warned the Conference that the British PM Lloyd George planned to punish
Turkey for fighting against the British in the WW1. The Conference passed a
resolution for sending a delegation to Britain to tell it about the strength of the Muslim
support for the Khalifa and the institute of Khilafat.
Q:
What was the Khilafat Movement?
(4)
Ans. It was started in 1919 by the Muslim religious leaders of India to save the respect of
Turkey and the institute of Khilafat. Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, Maulana Shaukat
Ali and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were its major leaders. Gandhi merged his noncooperation campaign with it. Three Khilafat Conferences were held, a delegation was
sent to the British PM Lloyd George in February 1920 to persuade him for a fair
treatment of Turkey. Thousands of Muslims migrated to Afghanistan in the Hijrat
Movement in 1920. Jinnah and the ML stayed away from it but supported the cause
of the Khilafat Movement. The Movement ended in 1924 with the abolition of the
Khilafat by Kemal Attaturk.
Q:
What was the Moplah uprising?
(4)
Ans. It was a violent uprising by the Moplahs, Muslim peasants in South India during the
Khilafat Movement. Their anger was against Hindu landowners and the British. In
August 1921, nearly 10,000 Moplahs at Tirur destroyed the police station and seized
all arms and also destroyed Hindu property including temples. The British troops
reacted quickly and killed more than 4,000 Moplahs while several more were
wounded. There were only 100 British casualties.
Q:
What was the Hijrat Movement?
(4)
Ans. It was a religious move that was started by the Muslim leaders of the Khilafat
Movement in August 1920. The leaders urged Muslims to leave Dar ul Harb, India,
and migrate to the neighbouring Dar ul Islam, Afghanistan. Around 18000-20000
Muslims migrated, selling their houses and leaving their jobs. They were promised a
better future but the Afghan government refused to accommodate them. Many died
on their way back to India.
Q. Who was Sultan Muhammad/Mehmet VI?
[4]
Ans.
He was the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire who ruled from July 1918-1922. His
decision to support Germany against Britain in the WW-I proved disasterous as
Turkey lost control over Baghdad, Jerusalem and Constantinople (Istanbul). The
Ottoman Empire was abolished by the Allies under the treaty of Sevres, August 1920.
As he lost popularity, the Turkish Grand National Assembly under Kemat Attaturk
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deposed the Sultan and sent him into exile to Italy. Attaturk abolished the Khilafat in
1924. He died in May 1926 and was buried in Damacus.
Q. What was the Chauri-Chaura incident? [4]
Ans.
Chaura-Chauri is a village in Gorakhpur district, UP. A violent incident took place there
in February 1922 during the peak phase of the Khilafat Movement. An angry mob
participating in the non-cooperation movement of Gandhi attacked the local police
station. The police opened fire, and in retaliation the mob set fire to the police station.
This resulted in burning alive of 22 policemen and killing of 3 civilians. Gandhi, who
had conditioned his support for non-coopertion movement with Ahimsa / Ahinsa or
non-violence, withdrew from the movement. This greatly weakened the Khilafat
Movement.
Q:
What was Non-Cooperation Movemet?
[4]
Ans.
It was primarily launched by Gandhi 1920 onwards, also followed by the Muslim
leaders after Gandhi’s merger of non-cooperation with the Khilafat Movement. The
third and last Khilafat Conference was held in July 1921 in Delhi. The leaders of the
movement urged people to boycott British educational institutions, stop working in the
police or cooperating with the British in any other way. All major leaders of the Khilafat
movement were arrested after the conference. Muhammad Ali Jauhar was sentenced
to two years’ imprisonment. His defiant statements during his trial made him a hero
among the Muslims.
Q:
Why was the Khilafat Movement founded?
(7)
Ans.
The Indian Muslims wanted to keep the Khilafat alive. Turkey’s decision to
support Germany in the WW1 had put the Indian Muslims in a predicament as they
feared harsh treatment of Turkey in case of the defeat of Germany. They, therefore,
had conveyed their reservations to the British in the beginning of the War. The British
promised that no harm would be done to the Caliphate/Khilafat and the Muslims
troops fought for the British on this reassurance. However, after the War, through the
peace treaties such as the Treaty of Sevres, it became evident that Britain and France
would punish Germany and abolish the Turkish Empire by dividing its slices among
the victors.
They had a special respect for the Turkish/Ottoman Empire as the Sultan of
Turkey was also the spiritual head or Khalifa of the entire Muslim world. He was the
custodian of all the holy places of Islam in Arabia and other Middle Eastern states.
Therefore, any punishment of Turkey meant an insult of the Khalifa and that
tantamounted to hurting the religious sentiments of the Muslims. Therefore, in an
attempt to maintain the respect and its Khalifa, the prominent religious leaders of
India, like the Ali brothers, hastily organized the All-India Khilafat Conference in 1919.
Finally the Indian Muslims had long been developing fears about the British
policy towards them not only in India but in other parts of the world, too. The governor
of UP, Sir James Meston, ordered demolition of the eastern part of a mosque in
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Kanpur as part of a project of widening a road in the city. A Hindu temple on the same
road was spared when Hindus pressurized the British government. This generated
anger among Muslims as it reflected a disregard for the Muslim holy places by the
British. Consequently many Indian Muslim leaders began to believe that British
wanted to induce a fear of Hindus so that Muslims could be forced to cooperate with
the British wherever needed. For this reason, leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
sharply criticized the Muslims who had joined the British army. Clash of views
between Russia and Britain about governing Afghanistan and Persia (Iran) further
added to their worries as the two powers did not consider the feelings of the Muslim
population of these states.
Q:
Why did the Khilafat Movement fail by 1924?
(7)
Ans. The Movement was not well organized. Gandhi had supported the Movement on the
condition of Ahimsa/non-violence while merging his non-cooperation movement of
Swaraj/self-rule. However, the violence at Chauri-Chaura in 1922 forced him to
withdraw his support. About 22 policemen were burned alive by an angry mob that
had taken control of the Police station in this town of Gorakhpur district. Gandhi’s
support had strengthened the Khilafat Movement significantly, and therefore, his
withdrawal proved fatal for it as it lost the support of the Hindu majority. Thus, trusting
Gandhi also reflected lack of political insight in the leaders of the Khilafat Movement.
In August 1920, about 18,000 Muslims left for Afghanistan after selling their properties
and leaving their jobs after their leaders had declared India as Dar ul Harb/a land
under the enemy rule. They also promised them a bright future by asking them to
cultivate the fertile lands in Afghanistan. However, most of these migrants were
pushed back by the people and the Government of Afghanistan as the country did not
have enough resources to accommodate a growing number of migrants. Many died
during the long journey and those who managed to reach back their homeland, faced
serious economic problems as their homes and jobs had been occupied by others.
They lost enthusiasm in the movement and trust in the leaders.
Finally, the last nail in the coffin of the Khilafat Movement was driven by the Turkish
Military leader Kemal Attaturk (Mustafa Kemal Pasha). In 1922 under a military
revolution, Turkey became a republic and the last Khalifa Sultan Muhammad/Mehmet
VI was deprived of political powers. Attaturk, in the meantime, had regained some of
the lost Turkish territories and forced the Allies for a new peace treaty, the Treaty of
Lausanne. This made him a hero in the eyes of the Turkish people. In 1924, the new
Turkish Government led by Kemal Attaturk, abolished the institute of Khilafat and later
sent the last Khalifa into exile. This proved to be a decisive blow to the Khilafat
Movement since it showed that the Turks didn’t care for the struggle of the Indian
Muslims. That is why some historians have described the Khilafat Movement, as a
wrong ideology, romantic and out of touch with realities. The Indian Muslims were
greatly disillusioned by this act of a fellow Turkish Muslim and it sealed the fate of the
Khilafat Movement.
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Q:
The Khilafat Movement (KM) was founded mainly due to the deep
seated fears among the Muslims about the anti- Muslim British
policies. Explain why you might agree and disagree?
(14)
Ans.
Muslims were suspicious of many of the British policies. Indian Muslims had
been developing fears about the British policy towards Muslims not only in India but
in other parts of the world. The governor of UP, Sir James Meston, ordered demolition
of the eastern part of a mosque in Kanpur as part of a project of widening a road in
the city. A Hindu temple on the same road was spared when Hindus pressurized the
British government. Many Muslims requested the governor not to demolish any part
of the mosque but did not accept their request. This generated anger among Muslims
as it reflected a disregard for the Muslim holy places by the British. Consequently
many Indian Muslim leaders began to believe that British wanted to induce a fear of
Hindus so that Muslims could be forced to cooperate with the British wherever
needed. For this reason, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad sharply criticized Muslims who
had “cooperated with the Satans of Europe”. As a result of such statements, there
were a large number of desertions by Muslim soldiers in the British army when they
were asked to fight against fellow Muslims in Turkey. The neighbouring Muslim states,
Afghanistan and Persia (Iran) had been the subject of clash between Russia and
Britain. Both powers agreed on the way the two Muslim states should be run without
consulting or considering the opinion of Muslim majority in the two states.
Therefore when, the WWI ended. the British aims about the fate of Turkey became
public, prominent Muslim leaders in India did not hesitate in organizing a powerful
Khalifat Movement whose aim was to save the sacred institute of Khalifat.
Roots of KM are to be traced in the beginning and the end of WWI (World War One,
1914 – 1918). Since Turkey had decided to support Germany in the War, the Indian
Muslims felt themselves in a predicament as they developed a fear that Indian
Muslims might be forced to fight against the Turkish Muslims if they were pitted
against each other during the War. To this was added the fear of harsh treatment of
Turkey by the British-led Allies in case of British victory. On the British reassurance
the Muslims soldiers decided to support the British army So they sought reassurance
about the respect of Turkey. After the war, the peace treaties of Versailles and Sevres
unfolded the British plans of abolishing the Turkish empire alongwith punishing
Germany and Austria. The Muslims felt disillusioned about the British promises and
immediately founded a Khalifat Committee to launch the KM.
Turkey was not just the only Muslim empire in the World, it was also the last seat of
the institute of Khalifat for many centuries. Sultan of Turkey was the Khalifa (spiritual
head) of the Muslim world and in that capacity, he was custodian of the Holy places
of Islam in Arabia and other parts of the Middle East. His name was pronounced in
the Friday sermons throughout the Muslim world as a token of respect for his dignified
status. This was so because of the sanctity of institute of Khalifat since the days of
the Rightly Guided Caliphs (632 AD – 661AD and onwards). Thus Indian Muslims,
like Muslims of the other part of the world, had great respect for Turkey in general and
the Khalifa in particular. Therefore they felt themselves morally and religiously bound
to make all out efforts to save the Khalifat.
In view of all these, we may conclude that the fear about the anti Muslim British
policies was the most important reason for the foundation of the KM because the
Indian Muslims had started believing that the British were bent upon weakening the
Muslims so that their imperial designs of ruling various parts of the world could be
effectively materialized.
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Q:
The Khilafat Movement failed because Gandhi withdrew his
support. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
(14)
Ans: Gandhi withdrew his support at a critical moment. Initially Gandhi had conditioned his
support for the Khilafat Movement with Ahimsa (non-violence). When in February
1922, an angry mob took control of a police station in the UP town of Chauri Chaura
and burned 22 policemen alive, Gandhi reacted on this violent event and announced
the withdrawal of his support for the Khilafat Movement. It was a deadly blow to the
movement. Gandhi was perhaps using this movement in order to strengthen his
Swaraj Movement. Now, just as Gandhi’s support was vital for the movement, his
withdrawal proved fatal because he had unified the two largest communities of India
---- Hindus and Muslims. In the following years, violent communal clashes between
the Muslims and Hindus erupted which marred the Khilafat Movement, for example,
the Moplah uprising in Southern India.
Failure of the Hijrat Movement also damaged the stability of the Khilafat Movement.
In 1920, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and other leaders declared India as Dar-ul-Harb
(literally, “battle field” and, in Islamic Sharia, “a land under enemy/non Muslim rule).
They asked the Muslims to migrate to the nearest independent Muslim state
Afghanistan. The exact figures aren’t known but it’s estimated that anywhere from
around 15000 - 20000 Muslims resigned from their jobs, sold their properties and left
for Afghanistan. Many students left their studies and joined the migrant Muslims.
These Muslims had been promised a good future in Afghanistan where, by cultivating
the fertile lands, they could start a new phase of life. Unfortunately, these promises
proved fake as Afghanistan was a resource-deficit country with a rugged landscape
and without any fertile land. In the beginning the migrant Muslims were welcomed but
as their number grew they were pushed back. Many were accommodated in
Peshawar and neighbouring towns of modern day KPK but many died during the long
and dangerous journey. Those who managed to get back to India found their jobs and
homes occupied. This Hijrat Movement brought economic disaster and miseries to
thousands of Muslims and also damaged the creditability of the Khilafat leaders.
Indian Muslims also realized that Muslims of others states were not as much
concerned about the Khilafat as they themselves had been.
In southern India the Muslim peasants of the Arab origin became violent in August,
1921. They were enthusiastic religious Muslims, who were angry with both the
powerful Hindu landlords as well as the British authorites. At Tirur nearly 10,000
Moplahs destroyed the local police station and seized arms and ammunition. They
also damaged the Hindu property including temples. The British troops soon took
strict action as they killed more than 4,000 Moplahs and wounded several others. The
British suffered around 100 casualties. The violence damaged the cause of the
Khilafat Movement by dividing Muslims and Hindus in all parts of India. The Hindu
community gradually withdrew its support for the Khilafat Movement.
Finally, the last nail in the coffin of the Khilafat Movement was driven by the
Turkish Military leader Kemal Attaturk (Mustafa Kemal Pasha). In 1922 under a
military revolution, Turkey became a republic and the last Khalifa Sultan
Muhammad/Mehmet VI was deprived of political powers. Attaturk, in the meantime,
had regained some of the lost Turkish terror ties and forced the Allies for a new peace
treaty, the Treaty of Lausanne. This made him a hero in the eyes of the Turkish
people. In 1924, the new Turkish Government led by Kemal Attaturk, abolished the
institute of Khilafat and later sent the last Khalifa into exile. This proved to be a
decisive blow to the Khilafat Movement since it showed that the Turks didn’t care for
the struggle of the Indian Muslims. That is why some historians have described the
Khilafat Movement, as a wrong ideology, romantic and out of touch with realities. The
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Indian Muslims were greatly disillusioned by this act of a fellow Turkish Muslim and it
sealed the fate of the Khilafat Movement.
It may be concluded that the Khilafat Movement failed mainly due to the
abolition of the Khilafat by Kemal Attaturk because the Indian Muslims found it
pointless to continue a movement whose vary foundation had been lost. They also
felt totally isolated as Muslims of other states did not support them against their
expectations.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Q:
How successful was the Khilafat Movement?
Or
The Khilafat Movement did not achieve any major objective. Do you
agree? Give reasons for your answer.
(14)
Ans. The Khilafat Movement was a failure. Due to the poor leadership and its defective
planning the Movement adversely affected several Muslims. The failed Hijrat
Movement brought economic disaster for thousands of Muslims as they had left their
jobs and properties before migrating to Afghanistan. They were greatly disappointed
when they were returned by the people and the Government of Afghanistan. They
stopped trusting their leaders who had made false promises of a bright future in
Afghanistan.
Another negative impact of the failure of the Khilafat Movement was the short-lived
Hindu-Muslim unity. The Khilafat leaders had immediately welcomed Gandhi’s offer
of merging his non-cooperation campaign with the Khilafat Movement, though he had
subjected his support to non-violence. Therefore, the lack of insight of the Khilafat
leaders became evident when Gandhi withdrew his support after the violent incident
at Chauri Chaura. His withdrawal at a critical moment damaged the Movement on one
hand, while it drove a wedge between Hindus and Muslims. Communal violence
erupted shortly afterwards in other parts of India, too. For example, in Southern India
about 4000 Moplah Muslims were killed in similar acts of violence. More over, the
primary objective of saving the institution of Khilafat was not achieved as a Turkish
Muslim, Kemal Attaturk abolished it in 1924.
However, there were also some significant benefits of the Khilafat Movement. The
policy of non-cooperation brought Hindus and Muslims closer to each other and their
joint efforts pressurised the British a lot because they were the two largest
communities of India. This joint struggle also indicated rejection of the British rule.
Therefore, the Movement may be seen as the first step on the road to independence.
The Khilafat Movement changed the image of the Muslims to a great extent and they
began to realise their political power. They got united for a common cause that they
wanted to be respected by the British. They were no more seen as ‘pets of the British’
and they began to realise that they did not have to rely on either the Hindus or the
British to gain their rights. In fact, the temporariness of the Hindu-Muslim unity came
as a blessing in disguise to them because they realised that in future they would have
to work independently. This proved true when they made a demand for Pakistan in
March 1940.
It may be concluded that despite some of its positive effects, the Khilafat Movement
on the whole was a total failure because the ultimate goal of restoration of the institute
of Khilafat could not be achieved. Instead, Muslims learned a hard lesson that their
attempt for starting a Pan-Islamic Movement was only a dream that was not destined
to materialise.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Source B Question
Q. What do we learn about Gandhi and Khilafat movement?
[5]
Ans.
The source shows the initial phase of the Khilafat Movement. It is the occasion when
Gandhi had merged his non-cooperation movement with the Khilafat Movement in order to
reinforce the pressure against the British. Gandhi is surrounded by Hindus and Muslims,
including the famous Muslim scholar, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. Maulana Azad is advising
something important to Gandhi, that shows the intimate relationship between the two. Gandhi
is wearing his favourite simple dress of locally made cotton that reflects his resentment
against the British cloths. The non-cooperation movement initially strengthened the Khilafat
Movement. However, the violent incident at Chauri Chaura would force Gandhi to withdraw
his support for the Khilafat Movement. Thus, the dream of Hindu-Muslim unity would be
shattered.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
1927-1939
1927 The Simon Commission (S.C.)
CAUSES:



British promise to review the 1919 act after 10 years. But violence in India grew so
British took action two years earlier. They appointed an advisory body i.e. Simon
Commission to advise about future constitution of India.
Conservative party government feared loss to labour party who could grant too many
concessions to India.
So, a seven member commission was sent under Sir John Simon which reached India
in early 1928.
PROCEEDING:



Q:
S.C. was opposed by major parties in India as it was “an all white body” as no Indian
included; it was greeted by the slogans like “Uninvited guest of India, go back.”
However, S.C. completed its work that was published in 1930 in two volumes.
S.C. report was rejected by INC as well as ML as its contents didn’t satisfy either.
What were the Delhi Proposals?
[4]
Ans.
In the wake of growing communal violence, Jinnah organized an All
Muslim Party Conference, on March 20, 1927, in Delhi. He presided over
the session. It was aimed at safeguarding the political rights of the
Muslims while attempting to improve relations with the Congress. The
proposals included: making Sindh an independent province, political
reforms in the NWF and Balochistan to grant them provincial status and
one third seats for Muslims in the Central Legislative Assembly. The ML
would drop its demand for separate Muslim electorates on the
acceptance of these proposals. These would later become part of
Jinnah’s fourteen points.
Q:
What was the Simon Commission Report?
[4]
Ans. The Conservative government sent a constitutional commission of seven members
headed by Sir John Simon in 1927. The Simon Commission prepared a report amidst
opposition by the major Indian political parties. It recommended a federal form of
government for India, abolition of diarchy and separate electorates for Muslims but no
one third Muslim seats in the government it also opposed making Sindh and the NWF
as provinces. INC and ML rejected it and the Nehru Report was prepared in its
response in 1928.
Q:
Why was the Simon Commission sent to India?
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
[7]
0333-4257013
Ans.
While introducing the 1919 Act the British had promised to review the Act after
ten years. However, after the Khilafat Movement, the communal violence in India
became so serious by 1927 that it threatened any cooperation between Hindus and
Muslims. Major Indian parties had already rejected the 1919 Act and wanted fresh
political reforms. The Indians wanted a greater degree of provincial autonomy by
abolishing the confusing clause of Diarchy of the 1919 Act. The Conservative
Government, therefore, decided to advance the date of reviewing the 1919 Act by two
years.
Moreover, Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India feared a defeat of
the Conservative Party in the upcoming elections, and thought that the Labour Party
might grant too many political concessions to the Indians. The ruling Consertive Party
government usually was not in favour of accepting most of the demands of the
Indians. The Labour Party, on the other hand, was usually viewed relatively as more
sympathetic towards the Indian question.
Therefore, the Conservative Government constituted a committee of seven
members of the British Parliament under Sir John Simon in 1927. It also included
Clement Attlee of the Labour Party, who would become committed to Indian
independence in 1934. The Simon Commission reached India by the start of 1928
and prepared a set of proposals for the future constitution of India. The report was,
however, rejected by the major political parties of India.
Q:
Why was the Simon Commission Report rejected?
Ans.
[7]
The Simon Commission Report did not satisfy the major political parties of India. In
fact, all the seven members of the Commission were British. The INC and the ML,
therefore, rejected the team by declaring it an “all white body”. The Indians wanted
their participation in the process of making the future constitution for India but Lord
Birkenhead had predicted the disunity among Indians would foil all efforts of the
Commission. So, all major political parties of India took it as an insult to their self
respect, and rejected the Commission and its report.
In February 1928, the Commission was confronted by several protesters in
Pondicherry. Similar portests were organised in several other cities. A strike began,
and many people turned out to greet the Commission with black flags. A prominent
Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai led a huge protest in Lahore. He was beaten by the
police very harshly, and died of the engeries in November 1928.
The recommendations of the Report failed to satisfy the major political parties
because they were not acceptable to either the INC or the ML in totality. The INC
wanted a federal form of government with most of the powers with the Centre whereas
the ML wanted a weak Central government with a greater degree of provincial
autonomy. The ML also was disappointed as the Report recommended separate
electorates for Muslims but did not favour one third Muslim seats in the central
legislative assembly. The report also declared that there was no need of making Sindh
and the NWF as new provinces.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
New Pattern Question:
Source A (part ‘a’ of Q1): An excerpt from the speech of Jinnah against
the Simon Commission:
“A constitutional war has been declared on Great Britain. Negotiations for a settlement
are not to come from our side….We are denied equal partnership. We will resist the
new doctrine to the best of our powers…I welcome Pandit Malaviya, and I welcome
the hand of fellowship extended to us by Hindu leaders from the platform of the
Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha…this offer is more valuable than any concession
which the British Government can make.”
Q:
According to source A describe Jinnah’s feelings about the Simon
Commission.
[3]
Ans. Jinnah is expressing his unwillingness to accept any British offer that Sir John Simon
was going to make. He seems determined to resist the British in a legal way because
of British denying Indians an equal share in the process of constitution making. He is
ready to cooperate with the Hindu parties like the INC and the Hindu Mahasabha for
the common cause.
Source B: (part b of Q1)
A cartoon about the Simon Commission, 1927.
Q:
According to Source B describe the Indian feelings towards the
Simon Commission.
[5]
Ans.
The cartoon depicts the Indian response to the Simon Commission in a sarcastic way.
John Simon has been portrayed as a magician who is desperately trying to draw the attention
of the uninterested audience. However, the audience seems to be deliberately oblivious to
the tricks of the “magician”. The audiences are the major political parties of India who already
know that the British were in no mood to give any significant political concessions to them.
That is why they are not attracted by whatever John Simon is going to offer. Their feelings
are endorsed by Simon taking out a snake, symbolizing the British traditional cleverness,
from the hat instead of a rabbit/any harmless creature. This would be followed by the Nehru
Report, Jinnah’s 14 points and the three Round Table Conferences, 1930-1932.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The Nehru report
CAUSES OF PRESENTATION


It was presented in reply to criticism by lord Birkenhead secretary of state about
disunity among Indians. He sharply criticized Indians while appointing Simon
Commission.
INC was not satisfied with the Simon Commission report, claimed to represent all
Indians and so presented its own proposed constitutional scheme for the future of
India.
CLAUSES OF THE REPORT:






India to be a federation with two houses of parliament.
Strong central government, limited provincial autonomy.
No separate Muslim electorates, one third Muslim seats in centre (instead only one
fourth seats)
Sindh to be a province etc.
These were made by the Nehru committee that was formed in the all parties
conference organized by the INC but without strong Muslim representation. Nehru
committee was headed by Motilal Nehru.
The Muslim league rejected the Nehru report because:
1. Muslim league wanted greater degree of provincial autonomy.
2. They wanted separate electorates; as well as one third seats in the centre ( as
was agreed in the Lucknow Pact 1916)
3. In the absence of Jinnah, no major Muslim leader was member of the Nehru
committee.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the Nehru Report?
[4]
Ans. It was drafted by the Nehru Committee, headed by Mr. Motilal Nehru and approved
by the All-Party Conference in September 1928. It asked for Dominion status or selfrule for India, a federal form of government with a bicameral parliament and Hindi as
the official language of India. It also rejected the separate electorates for minorities
though it recommended a system of reserved seats in the central parliament. This
meant there would be no separate electorates or one third seats in the Central
Government for Muslims. Gandhi gave a deadline of one year to the British to accept
it. In January 1929, the All India Muslim Conference rejected the report.
Q:
Why was the Nehru Report rejected?
[7]
Ans. The Nehru Report ignored many political interests of the Indian Muslims. Although it
had been drawn up by an All-Party Conference, there was no significant Muslim
representation in the conference. Jinnah was in England to see his wife who was on
her death bed. Only Sir Ali Imam and Shoaib Qureshi represented the Muslims but
they were not major leaders of the ML. they, too, were perhaps forced to accept the
report.
The Report asked for too many sacrifices from the Muslims. The INC was turning its
back on the agreement it had made in the Lucknow Pact of 1916 by rejecting the
separate electorate for Muslims and their one third seats in the Central Government.
It also reiterated its old demand of making Hindi the official language. This negated
the INC claim of representing and respecting all communities living in India.
Jinnah desperately tried to maintain the Hindu-Muslim unity by proposing four
democratic amendments in the report in January 1929. He demanded one third
Muslim seats in both the houses of the central legislature, Muslim seats in the Punjab
and Bengal according to their size of population, residuary powers to be with the
provinces, and making Sindh and the NWF as full provinces. Unfortunately, the INC
did not accept these proposals and Jinnah very rightly termed it ‘the parting of the
ways’.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Ans.
What was Gandhi’s Salt March?
[4]
It marked the start of the second phase of the non-cooperation campaign of the INC.
The British did not comply with the Nehru Report and, therefore, Gandhi was given
charge of the campaign. He started his Salt March as part of his Satyagraha (truthforce) on 12 March 1930 from his Ashram (retreat) near Ahmedabad and marched for
24 days to reach the coastal town of Dandi. He was accompanied by thousands of
his followers. Primarily its aim was to condemn the unfair Salt Laws of the British, but
gradually it began to reject all unfair laws of the British rule. The British banned the
INC and arrested several INC leaders including Gandhi and Nehru.
Q:
What was Gandhi’s ‘Satyagraha’ campaign?
Ans.
When the Khilafat Movement was gaining momentum, Gandhi developed a type of
peaceful protest against the British, called the Satyagraha. It is a Hindi word meaning
‘truth-force’ and involves non-violent resistance. According to Gandhi, it meant putting
one’s soul against the tyrant, and therefore, had spiritual dimensions. Its supporters
were required to have a high degree of self-sacrifice. It was demonstrated by sit-ins,
peaceful strikes including hunger strike, protest marches and boycotts. Gandhi urged
his followers to accept any torture by police as a way of self-purification. His Salt
March was a part of it. Though Jinnah disagreed, the campaign gave Gandhi
international fame.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
[4]
0333-4257013
New Pattern Question
Source A
“We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have
freedom.....We believe that if a government deprives a people of these rights, the people
have a right to alter or abolish it.... The British government has ruined India economically,
politically, culturally and spiritually.... We believe that India must sever the British connection
and attain complete independence.” (Part of the Declaration of Independence 26 January
1930)
Q: (a) According to source A what message Gandhi is conveying about
the Indian aspirations?
(3)
Ans. Gandhi is urging the Indian people to resist the political policies of the British by
referring to their impact on all spheres of Indian life and economy. He is justifying any
revolt or non-cooperation against the British on the basis of the atrocious policies of
the British. He is inciting Indians to stop any kind of cooperation with the British.
Source B, a photograph of Gandhi’s Salt March.
Q. (b) According to source B, describe Gandhi’s aims and his impact on
his followers.
[5]
Ans.
The photograph shows one of the phases of the Salt March. Gandhi seems to be fully
determined in mobilizing as many Indians as he could against the British. He and his followers
are all wearig very simple dress of locally manufactured hand woven cotton. This reflects
Gandhi’s sense and message of Indian nationalism. At the same time, this hints towards
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
hatred against the British. The people led by Gandhi are all bare-footed like himself. This
shows Gandhi’s strong determination and commitment as he is oblivious to the hardships
resulting from such acts. The Salt March was aimed at pressurising the British to reconsider
their unfair salt laws. The photograph foretells the eruption of large scale violence and a strict
British response that awaited Gandhi.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Jinnah’s 14 Points, 1929
Reasons:



NR (Nehru Report) asked for too many sacrifices-------------no separate electorates,
1/3 seats for Muslims, as agreed in Lucknow Pact.
Refusal of INC to three amendments in NR proposed by Jinnah.
Basis of: 1. any future negotiations with INC/British, 2. Future demand for separated
Muslim homeland (1940).
Details:



January 1929, ML (Muslim League) session Dehli, 14 point by Jinnah.
14 points unified various factions of Muslims.
14 points were formally accepted, March 1929.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What were Jinnah’s 14 Points?
Ans.
[4]
In January 1929, Jinnah presented his 14 Points in the ML session in Delhi and they
were formally accepted in March 1929. Jinnah demanded maximum safety of political rights
of all minorities, especially Muslims. He demanded one third Muslim seats in the Central
Government, preservation of the existing provincial boundaries and no acceptance of a law
about any community unless it was approved by three fourth members of the same
community.
Q:
Why did Jinnah present his 14 Points in 1929?
[7]
Ans.
They were presented in response to the Nehru Report. Jinnah wanted to maximally
safeguard the political rights of Indian Muslims. Earlier, the Nehru Report drafted by and the
All-Parties Conference greatly disappointed Jinnah. It asked for too many sacrifices from
Muslims. It rejected the separate electorates for Muslims as well as one third Muslim seats in
the Central Legislative Assembly. It only promised reserved seats and religious liberty for all
minorities. Moreover, his four proposed amendments in the Nehru Report had been rejected
by the INC.
Jinnah, therefore, wanted to lay down the basis of any future negotiations with the
INC or the British. He demanded adequate Muslim share in all the legislatures, the government
and state services. Since the 14 points were presented shortly after the rejection of the Nehru
Report, it was evident that the gulf between Hindus and Muslims was getting unbridgeable.
This meant that events would be moving towards a separatist movement as the 14 points
contained so many demands for the safety of the Muslims.
This way, they would eventually become the basis of the demand of Pakistan in 1940
by the ML. Jinnah had tried his best to work together with the INC but its leadership always
adopted an uncompromising attitude. While unfolding these points in January 1929, Jinnah
had adopted a threatening tone by saying, “No scheme for the constitution of the Government
of India will be acceptable unless all the following basic principles are given effect to.” Thus,
these fourteen points became an essential part of the manifesto/objectives of ML.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was the only beacon of hope for HinduMuslim Unity between 1914 and 1930. Do you agree?
[14]
Ans.
The Lucknow Pact was signed in 1916. In 1913, the Muslim League added self-rule
to its demands on the advice of Jinnah, and it shared a common ground with INC. In 1916,
both parties held their annual sessions jointly in Lucknow. Due to the support of Jinnah from
the League and Mahajan from the Congress, the Lucknow Pact was drawn up. The Congress
agreed for separate Muslims electorates and 1/3rd Muslim seats in the Centre. There would
be a protection of minorities and all provinces would have provincial autonomy. No law could
be passed if 3/4th of the members did not support it. The pact was a move towards self-rule
and brought the Muslims and Hindus together for the first time in a cordial atmosphere. The
Muslim rights were protected and this way the INC showed an accommodative attitude
towards Muslims. The pact was high water walk for Hindu Muslim unity.
In 1909, the Morley-Minto reforms had promised more governing powers to the
Indians. Therefore, in 1919, the Montague-Chelsmford reforms gave some more powers and
share in the councils/assemblies to the Indians. They proposed a system of two houses for
the Central Legislature. It introduced a system of ‘Diarchy’ in provinces. According to this, the
‘transferred’ subjects (education, healthcare and agriculture) were to be given to the Indians
and ‘reserved’ subjects (finance, law, justice and foreign relations) were left with the
governors. Although the number of voters increased, the system was discriminatory. The
reforms disappointed both the League and Congress and both still did not have substantial
power. Hence, the Mont-Ford Reforms kept the Hindus and Muslims together as both had
opposed them.
The Khilafat Movement, 1919-1924, also brought Muslims and Hindus on one
platform after Gandhi’s decision to support Muslims through his non-cooperation movement.
The ML, however, did not support the Khilafat Movement practically. Moreover, there were
incidents of Hindu-Muslims riots after Gandhi withdrew his support following the violent
incident Chaura Chauri.
In May 1928, members of all the political parties met in an All-Party Conference to
draft the constitution, which the INC thought could govern India. It was drawn up by Pundit
Motilal Nehru in September 1928 and was called the Nehru report. It included demand for
immediate dominion status for India; a two chamber-parliament; the protection of minorities
through a system of reserving seats but no 1/3rd seats for Muslims and no separate Muslim
electorates. It also recommended federal form of government but with a strong centre and
limited provincial autonomy. The recommendations of the Nehru report were a
disappointment for the Muslims as they asked for too many sacrifices from them. The three
main points, including the introduction of Hindi as a National Language were against the
Muslims. Therefore, Jinnah commented on it by saying that it marked “parting of the ways”.
In 1929, Jinnah put forward the 14 points in an answer to the Nehru report. Before
these 14 points, he had proposed 3 very reasonable amendments to the Nehru Report. These
points were introduced to protect the political rights of Muslims. In the 14 points Jinnah
demanded for the federal form of government, provincial autonomy, Muslims representation
by 1/3 seats in all cabinets and no law about a community to be approved without 3/4th
members of the same community in the legislative assembly approving it. These 14 points
were opposed by the Congress, because they clearly reflected the political aspirations of the
Muslims. Thus it was an occasion of failed Hindu-Muslim relations though Jinnah still believed
in joint struggle.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Hence, it can be concluded that Lucknow pact was the only beacon of hope. Not only
did it unite Muslims and Hindus in 1916, it demonstrated the possibility of a united front
against the British by the two largest communities of India. Such a spirit would never be seen
again in future.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The RTCs 1930-1932
Why held



Primarily, to review SC report since its rejection by major Indian parties; to draft future
constitution of India in presence of Indian leaders
INC absent in 1st RTC; so, another RTC necessary
Deadlock between Jinnah & Gandhi in 2nd RTC, over the issue of rights of minorities;
so, another RTC was needed & thus, a total of 3 RTC’s.
Why 2nd RTC unsuccessful:


Labour party lost the elections; new coalition govt less keen in resolving political,
communal and constitutional issues of India.
Gandhi’s inflexible attitude on the question of rights of minorities; not ready to grant
constitutional protection to minorities.
Details and Results of RTC’s
1st RTC:
 Nov 1930, attended by Labour Party, state princes & ML (Jinnah, Aga Khan &
Muhammad Ali Johar).
 Successes: Agreement on federal form of govt (Representative govts in provinces)
 Assurances by state princes to be part of federation if protection guaranteed.
 Failures: INC absent; Gandhi in jail for his non-cooperation movement.
 No major progress about princely states.
2nd RTC:
 Sep-Dec 1931:
 Jinnah, Gandhi, Iqbal, Aga Khan
 March 1931, Gandhi-Irwin Pact to ensure his participation.
Successes:
 ML & INC present, discussed various issues including the rights of minorities
 Abolition of diarchy; 3 new provinces: Sindh, NWFP & Orissa.
Failures:
 Deadlock b/w Gandhi & Jinnah over the rights of minorities
 New coalition govt in England less enthusiastic in RTC’s.
3rd RTC,
 Nov 1932
 New Viceroy Lord Willington; non-cooperation re-started & Gandhi, Nehru were
arrested, Jan 1932
 Communal Award by PM MacDonald, Aug 1932; INC rejected ML accepted.
Successes:
 Attended by 46 delegates including Sir Aga Khan
 Only some discussion about future of India.
Failures:
 No major leaders / parties; Jinnah went into exile from politics, disillusioned by the
pace of events, Gandhi imprisoned for his non-cooperation movement.
 NO state prince & so, no major progress
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q
Why was it necessary to hold three RTCs?
Or
Explain why there were three Round Table Conferences between
1930 and 1932.
[7]
Ans.
The Indian political community rejected the Simon Commission Report of 1927. The
Congress and the Muslim League both refused to accept the recommendations of the Simon
Commission. Different political parties gave vent to their feelings different ways. The Indian
political situation seemed deadlocked. The British government refused to contemplate any
form of self-government for the people of India. This caused frustration among the masses,
who often expressed their anger in violent clashes. This political chaos forced British to come
up with some decisions so, in order to review the Simon Commission Report, they announced
the holding of an RTC which was held between November1930 – January 1931. It was
attended by Muslim League but not the INC because Gandhi was in jail for his noncooperation movement.
In the absence of INC, the largest political party of India, it was not possible to make
any major decision regarding the future constitution of India. Gandhi was, at that time, the
most prominent spokesman and leader of the INC. Therefore, some arrangements had to be
made to involve him in the political proceedings organized by the British in England. Lord
Irwin met Gandhi in jail and persuaded him to call off his non-cooperation movement. Both
reached a settlement called the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of March 1931. Under this Gandhi was
released and allowed to go to London to attend the second RTC.
The second RTC was held September – December 1931. After some successful
rounds of talks there was deadlock between the Gandhi and Jinnah over the issue of the
rights of minorities. Jinnah wanted concrete constitutional protection of minorities but Gandhi
insisted that granting of religious liberty to the minorities would be sufficient. Both leaders
firmly struck to their guns and the RTC failed. Therefore, one more RTC was needed that
was held in November – December 1932 in order to reach some consensus about the future
Constitution of India. However, this conference was held only as a formality because the
Labour Party, that had been enthusiastic for the conferences, had been replaced by a national
government after the elections. It was attended by only 46 delegates including Allama Iqbal
and Sir Agha Khan representing the Muslims.
Q:
What was the Gandhi-Irwin Pact?
[4]
Ans. Gandhi could not attend the first Round Table Conference of November 1930, as he
was in jail. The Viceroy Lord Irwin wanted his participation in the next RTC. So, he
held a number of meetings with Gandhi in February 1931 and urged him to call off his
non-cooperation movement. Finally, Gandhi agreed and the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was
signed on 5th March 1931. Irwin promised to release most political prisoners and
return the property seized by the government during the protests of the noncooperation movement. Gandhi also gave up his demand for full independence in
return for a promise that in a federal India, Indians would have a genuine say in the
government affairs.
Q:
What was the Communal Award?
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
[4]
0333-4257013
Ans. It was announced on 16th August 1932 by the British PM Ramsay MacDonald after
the failure of the second RTC as he wanted to resolve the political crisis of India. It
gave the right of separate electorates to all the minorities in India and the principle of
weightage was also applied. Though, Muslim majority in Bengal and Punjab was
reduced, the ML accepted it in order to reach a political settlement for the future of
India. The INC rejected it and Gandhi protested against the declaration of the
Untouchables as a minority. He began a strike of Maran Bharatt (fasting unto death).
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q
Why was the
unsuccessful?
[7]
Ans.
The second conference was held from September – December 1931. Gandhi was
able to attend the RTC as a result of the Gandhi – Irwin Pact of March 1931. Muslims
were represented by Sir Aga Khan, Allama Iqbal and Jinnah. During the talks Gandhi
adopted a very rigid and inflexible attitude regarding the issue of minorities in India.
He insisted that religious liberty was enough for all the minorities whereas Jinnah
demanded an adequate constitutional protection of all minorities including Muslims.
In other words Gandhi stood by the Nehru Report and further worsened the
atmosphere by claiming to represent the INC and to speak for all Indians including
Muslims. This stance of Gandhi annoyed both Allama Iqbal and Jinnah who firmly
held their viewpoint of safeguarding the rights of Muslims.
By the time the second RTC was held, the Labour Government, that had been
enthusiastic about the RTCs, had now been replaced by a coalition or national
government dominated by the Conservative Party. The Conservatives were not much
interested in the proceeding of the RTC and their lack of interest also contributed
towards the failure of second RTC. Hence, the communal issue was once again
postponed leading to a deadlock. Therefore, the only major outcome was the creation
of two Muslim majority provinces, Sindh and the NWFP (now KPK).
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
Second
Round
Table
Conference
of
1931
0333-4257013
Q:
How successful were the three RTC’s of 1930 – 1932?
Or
The three RTC’s achieved little. Do you agree? Explain your
answer.
Or
The first RTC of 1930 was more successful than those of 1931 and
1932. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
[14]
Ans: The RTC’s were held in London. The first RTC was held in November 1930 at the
House of Parliament London. It was attended by 89 delegates including Mr. Jinnah
and Sir Aga Khan. The purpose was to review the Simon Commission Report. The
RTC was successful because federal form of government for India was approved and
the state princes promised to join the federation of India on the condition of protection
of their rights. However, its main failure was the absence of INC as Gandhi was in jail
for his non-cooperation movement. INC wanted a guarantee of implementing
everything agreed in the RTC such a guarantee could not be given. In the absence of
INC no major decision could be reached. Also, there was no significant progress on
the details of the federal form of government and the reservations of the princely
states.
In order to include the INC, Lord Irwin met Gandhi in jail to persuade him to cooperate
with the British. Both reached an agreement, the Gandhi–Irwin Pact, signed in March
1931 under which Gandhi called off his non-cooperation movement and was allowed
to attend the Second RTC that was held in September - December 1931. It was
successful in the sense that all important political parties and leaders attended it. They
included, Jinnah, Iqbal, Sir Aga Khan, Gandhi and state princes. Also three new
provinces were created, Orissa, Sindh and the NWFP/KPK. Diarchy was shifted from
provinces to the Centre. However, the RTC had failures too. Firstly the deadlock
between Gandhi and Jinnah over the question of rights of minorities. Gandhi refused
to provide any special protection to minorities and suggested that religious liberty was
sufficient for them. He also insisted that the INC alone represented all Indians. Jinnah
and other Muslim leaders were infuriated over the stubborn attitude of Gandhi.
Another failure was the replacement of Labour Government by a national government
dominated by Conservative party that was not very much concerned about the RTC.
Instead the British want that if Indians did not reach a consensus, the British would
impose their own terms.
Before the third RTC the British PM Ramsay MacDonald, announced the communal
award in 1932. This was about the representation of minorities. INC rejected it but ML
accepted it though the Muslim majority in Punjab and Bengal was reduced. The third
RTC was held in November 1932 but was attended by only 46 delegates with Muslims
being represented by Sir Aga Khan and Iqbal. The only success of the third RTC was
that it was held against all odds and that it was attended by some delegates including
the Muslims. The failures of this RTC therefore outnumbered the successes. Gandhi
had started his non-cooperation movement once again and was jailed. Jinnah had
quit politics temporarily to start his law practice in London. Interestingly, he was not
even invited to attend the RTC, but he did not miss much.
In the final analysis, it may be concluded that the three RTC’s were on the whole
successful because they provided a neutral venue to all the Indian leaders to discuss
the future constitution of India. Also, based on the proceedings of the RTC’s, the
government of India Act 1935 was implemented which was a very comprehensive
document as both Pakistan and India made their constitutions to a great extent on the
basis of the same.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
1935 Act
The Govt of India Act 1935



Details of RTC’s & proposals of British govt were published as a “White Paper”, March
1933.
Discussed and approved by British parliament, Dec 1934
Aug 1935, the Bill became Govt of India Act 1935.
Contents:









India to be a federation (federal form of govt) with Brit Indian provinces + states willing
to join it
Two houses of parliament (bicameral set up) with an upper housp (Council of State)
& lower house (Legislative Assembly).
Elected members from provinces, nominated from states
Some reserved subjects with Viceroy (e.g. defence, foreign affairs etc), others with
the provincial administration
Diarchy shifted from provinces to the centre; greater degree of provincial autonomy.
3 new provinces: Sindh, NWFP & Orissa
Viceroy (Governor General) head of federation with special powers; governors also
had special powers – could dismiss provincial govt & declare emergency.
No. of voters increased; 25% of total population.
The part related to the central govt was never implemented because of rejection by
princes.
Indian Reaction






ML & INC rejected & criticized the Act
Nehru: “Charter of Slavery” ; “ a machine with strong brakes but without an engine”
Jinnah: “thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad & totally unacceptable”.
State princes resented loss of power the Act would entail
Apparently, greater share & powers for Indians, real powers were still with the British
e.g. Viceroy & governors could use emergency powers.
Property qualification restricted the number of voters so, only 25% of total population
could vote.
Importance of the Act



An important step towards independence as it became the basis for future
negotiations that would pave the way for the British departure.
Federal & palimentary system ensured greater Indian powers & representation in
govt.
3 new provinces, out of which 2 were Muslim majority – good for Muslims.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the Government of India Act 1935?
Ans.
After discussing the summary of the three RTCs in the British Parliament, the
Government of India Act 1935 was passed in August 1935. It introduced a federal
form of government for India with an upper house, the Council of State and a lower
house, the Legislative Assembly. Diarchy was shifted to the Centre. A greater degree
of provincial autonomy was given and three new provinces were created: Sindh, the
NWFP and Orissa. Right of vote was given to 25 % of the Indians. The real powers
were still with the British as the Viceroy could veto any law made by the provinces. It
was sharply criticized by both the ML and the INC.
[4]
Q:
Why was the Government of India Act 1935 so important to the
future of the Sub-continent?
[7]
Ans. The Government of India Act 1935 was the last major legislation that the British
government passed before independence was granted. It was very important because
Federal form of government and a kind of parliamentary system meant that British
were pressurized to grant India self rule. The provincial governments were, to a great
extent self governing units except for the emergency powers of the Governors and
the Viceroy. The Central Assembly and the Council of States were greatly enlarged
by including more Indians.
A 5 times increase in the number of voters ensured that more Indians, 25% of total
population including 5 million women, had the right to elect their own representatives
as compared to the previous number of voters, though 3/4th of the total population
was still deprived of this right. This increase was, however, strengthened by the
creation of three new provinces – Sindh, the NWFP, (both Muslim majority provinces)
and Orissa. Thus an increase in the number of provinces was coupled with increased
degree of provincial autonomy. Thus India was seen to be nearing independence.
This Act laid the basis of future negotiations between the Indians and the British and
thus paved the way for India eventually getting decolonized from the British rule. The
Princes States could decide to participate in political affairs for the first time. Most
importantly, the Act was such a comprehensive and effective document that both India
and Pakistan would base their respective constitutions on this document.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q
Why did Indians reject the Government of India Act 1935? Why was
there so much opposition to the Government of India Act of
1935?
[7]
Ans.
The Government of India Act 1935 was opposed by the major Indian political parties.
For them many of its clauses did not grant Indians the powers they had expected. The
main reason for its rejection was that Indians demanded complete independence but
the British retained real powers such as the foreign relations and defence that Indians
wanted to have under their control. Thus in reality, the British very cleverly maintained
their control on the key positions in the Indian government.
Moreover, the provincial ministers were apparently given more control over all
departments, the Governors of the provinces could interfere with the provincial
governments in the name of emergency. The state of emergency could only be
declared by a provincial governor. The Governors could veto any legislation made by
the Indians that they thought was against the interests of the British. This meant the
Indians were given much lesser powers than they had expected.
Though the number of voters was increased by five times, 3/4th of Indians were still
deprived of voting right due to the strict property qualification. Thus a great majority
of Indians were not empowered to decide their future by electing representatives of
their choice. The state princes also resented the loss of their powers. Due to these
reasons both ML and INC opposed the Act and sharply criticized it. According to
Jinnah it was simply “thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and totally unacceptable”.
Nehru, initially declared the Act as “Charter of Slavery” and later on became more
sarcastic by saying “it is like a machine with strong brakes but no engine.” This shows
how much disappointed the major political parties were with the Act.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Which of the following was the most important in the development
of the Pakistan Movement:
(i)
14 points of M.A Jinnah
(ii)
Gov. of India Act of 1935
(iii) Simon Commission
[14]
Ans. The Pakistan Movement was a historic political movement which was aimed to break
from the independent nation-state, Pakistan. Many leaders and political figures rose
and spoke for the formation of Pakistan. They brought a sense of realization amongst
the people about Pakistan. In the face of such criticism, faced from the British and the
Hindus, they still remained steadfast and led to such circumstances which made the
creation and development of the Pakistan Movement inevitable. The political reforms
such as the Simon Commission of 1927 also played some role in the development of
the Pakistan Movement. It was a commission sent to the sub-continent by Sir Simon
in order to negotiate with Hindus and Muslims and to come up with a set of reforms
accepted by both parties. It was a response of the 1919 reforms. But it also met the
same fate like the previous reforms and was rejected. But, in it’s failure was also
hidden success for the Muslims. It led to the drawing up of the Nehru Report which
proved to be an eye-opener for the Muslims.
In 1929, Jinnah came up with his fourteen points. This effort of Mr. Jinnah was the
golden key which opened the door to the Pakistan Movement. They were to be the
basis of the Muslim League’s position in any future negotiations with the Congress.
In this he asked for a future constitution to be federal, but giving provincial autonomy.
He asked to safeguard the rights of Muslims in all territory expanded areas. Although
no demand for separate homeland was made, yet it brought political perception
among the Muslims which proved very vital for the years to come ahead.
Later in 1935 the Government of India Act was passed and was the last major
legislation that the British passed before the final independence. The most salient
upshot of this Act was that provincial governments became in effect self-governing
and were no longer controlled by the British. Although the British had no intention of
giving up India, their power over the provinces was weakening and Independence
came closer. This was significant for the Muslims as now they could fight for their
rights. It was very important in the history as it provided negotiations which finally
resulted in British leaving India.
To recapitulate, I infer from these details that the Fourteen Points of Mr. Jinnah were
the most important in the development of the Pakistan Movement. There’s an ample
evidence that supports this fact. The Muslim League united in support of these
demands. These points prepared the Muslims of India for a bold step to struggle for
freedom. The vital role of these points can be judged by the fact that these points
were presented in the Round Table Conference of 1930.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Was the introduction of Jinnah’s 14 points in 1929 the most
important factor in the development of the Pakistan Movement
between 1928 and 1935? Give reasons for why you might agree or
disagree?
[14]
Ans. In 1929, Jinnah came up with his fourteen points which were in response of the Nehru
Report of 1928. ML had rejected the Nehru Report as it asked for too many sacrifices.
It rejected the separate Muslim electorates and one third Muslim seats in the Central
Government. Jinnah proposed three amendments to the report but the INC did not
accept them. In his fourteen points Jinnah asked for maximum safeguarding of
political rights of Muslims. He demanded that there should be one third Muslim seats
in the Centre and the existing provincial boundaries should not be changed. He also
proposed that no law about a community should be enforced without three fourth
members of the same community in the legislative assembly approving it. These 14
points became the basis of any future negotiation with the INC or the British and
gradually evolved into a demand for Pakistan in March 1940.
In 1928, the British asked the local people to frame a constitution for themselves. In
response, the INC presented the Nehru Report. It was a purely Congress document
as it rejected the Muslim right of separate electorates and their one third
representation in the Center. Jinnah proposed three amendments to it but the INC
rejected them. A positive aspect of the Report was that it resulted in the unity of the
divided Muslim groups.
The British invited the Indians in the three Round Table Conferences, 1930-1932.
Despite a deadlock between Gandhi and Jinnah, all parties agreed on a number of
important clauses for the future constitutional reform for India. Based on the
recommendations of the three RTCs, the Government of India Act 1935 was passed.
It was the last package of political reforms introduced by the British before the
independence of India. It introduced a greater degree of provincial autonomy, federal
form of government for India and shifting the diarchy from provinces to the Centre.
Sindh, the NWFP and Orissa were given provincial status, making a total of eleven
provinces in India. It allowed 25% Indians to exercise their right of vote which was a
significant increase as compared to that for the 1919 Act. Though it was sharply
criticized by Nehru and Jinnah, both accepted it because the British had announced
elections for the provincial assemblies.
Elections were held for the provincial assemblies in 1937. The ML did not perform
well in the elections and the INC was able to form its ministries in eight provinces. The
two and a half year long INC rule was marked by several anti Muslim atrocities
committed by the INC ministries. Muslims, therefore, got united after the end of the
INC rule in 1939.
To conclude, it can be said that the introduction of Jinnah’s 14 points in 1929 was the
most important factor in the development of the Pakistan Movement as they
represented the deep rooted fear among Muslims about a possible Hindu-dominated
India. By asking for so many political safeguards for Muslims, it became apparent that
ML was preparing itself for the partition of India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Elections 1937


ML & INC didn’t approve the 1935 Act; accepted it due to elections, Jan-Feb 1937,
for provincial assemblies only
Jinnah’s return, 1934; permanent president of ML; still hoped some Hindu-Muslim
unity after the elections but Nehru unwilling.
Results:


INC won absolute majority in 5 provinces; formed govt in 8 provinces (including
NWFP)
ML: 109/482 seats reserved for Muslims; performed a little better in the Muslim
minority provinces.
Importance of the Elections



First major elections; various factions of ML got united
ML learned a lot about election campaign organization & planning; how to approach
the voters
It realized: (1) its support lay in Muslim minority areas; no threat of Hindu domination
in Muslim majority provinces; it would eventually make inroads in these provinces (2)
it had an ‘image problem’ – a party dominated by the elite Muslims e.g., princes,
Nawabs etc, whereas INC was popular among all socio-economic segments of
society.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why were the 1937 elections important for the ML?
(7)
Ans. The 1937 elections taught ML important lessons. Despite opposing the 1935 Act, both
ML and INC accepted it as both decided to contest the elections for provincial
assemblies that were to be held under the Act. ML did not perform well in the elections
as compared to INC. Out of 489 Muslim seats the ML won only 109, though it captured
a number of seats in the Hindu majority provinces. These were the first major elections
contested by ML that gained good experience of launching the election campaign and
creating a good vote bank. Jinnah had little time to re-organized a highly disorganized
ML and so, the ML leaders realized how organized INC was.
ML also realized that it had the ‘image problem’. For most of Muslims, the ML was a
party of the elite Muslim community dominated by rich Muslim landed aristocrats. INC
on the other hand, had been a party popular among all segments and socio-economic
classes of India. Jinnah, therefore, would make hectic efforts 1937 onwards to
overcome this image problem so that ML could make inroads into all classes and
spheres of India.
The elections told ML of the importance of winning seats in Hindu majority provinces
because there was no fear of Hindu domination in the Muslim majority provinces.
Votes from Hindu majority provinces were crucial for ML because they reflected the
growing political awareness and fear of Hindu domination in the Muslims of these
provinces. ML could use these votes to prove its claim of representing all Indian
Muslims. This way the INC claim of ‘an all Indian party’ could be effectively countered.
Q:
What were the outcomes of the provincial elections of 1937?
[4]
Ans. The ML won only 109 seats while the INC got absolute majority in 5 provinces and
became the single largest party in 4 other provinces by getting 707 seats. The ML
realized that it had to overcome the “image problem” and reorganise itself for the
future elections. The INC committed several atrocities against Muslims by introducing
the Wardha Scheme, compulsory singing of the Bande Matram, an anti-Muslim
nationalistic song of Hindus and showing disregard to the mosques and the
congregational prayers.
Q. How successful were the provincial elections held in India in 1937?
Explain your answer.
[10/14]
Ans.
Though the INC and ML did not approve of the 1935 Act, they decided to participate
in the 1937 elections. Nehru, gradually unfolded the INC aims by saying, “The
Congress can carry its message to the millions of voters and scores of millions
of the disenfranchised, to acquaint them with our future programme and
policy.” The results of the elections were shocking for the ML as the INC got a
massive victory by winning 707 seats out of a total of 1585 seats. It was the single
largest party in four while it had an absolute majority in five more provinces. It claimed
to be the sole representative of all the Indians as it was able to rule many major
provinces. It was invited to form governments in the United Provinces (UP), the
Central Provinces (CP), Bihar, Orissa, Madras (Chennai), Bombay (Mumbai), and
later, Assam and the NWFP (KPK). Thus it formed ministries in these provinces.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
However, the Congress alienated the ML after the elections as it asked the victorious
ML members to join the INC. It refused to cooperate with the ML where the latter was
the largest single party. The INC agreed to the Muslims forming the government as
long as they were not the members of the ML. Its claim to represent the whole of India
further frustrated the Muslims. Once Nehru was assured by Lord Linlithgow, the
Viceroy, that the provincial governors would not use their special powers to interfere
in the provincial governments, he asked the INC to form cabinets in 8 provinces. It
soon introduced a series of measures which threatened Muslim culture and political
interests. Singing of Bande Matram, the Hindu nationalistic song was made
compulsory before the start of official business in the morning. Gandhi’s educational
policy, the Wardhah Scheme and the Congress tyranny drove a wedge in any possible
Hindu-Muslim unity.
These were the first major elections for the ML, and they unified various factions of
the ML. It learned a great deal about how to launch election campaign and contest
elections. It realized the need of improving its organization and planning. It decided
to seek more support from the Muslim minority provinces as there was no threat of
Hindu domination in the Muslim majority provinces. It also realized that it had to
overcome its ‘image problem’ as it was generally seen to be a party of the eliete
Muslims. Most of its leaders were aristocrats and princes.
Performance of the ML was disappointing as it won only 109 out of the 482 seats
reserved for the Muslims, about 25% of the total Muslim seats. The INC, due to its
strong leadership, managed to get 26 Muslim seats, too. In the Punjab it got just 1
seat out of a total of 86 Muslim seats. Majority of the seats, 101 were swept away by
the Unionist Party that was friendly towards the INC. The Khalsa Party of the Sikhs,
and the INC also bagged some seats in the Punjab. Similarly, in the NWFP 7 seats
were won by the Hindu-Sikh Nationalists.
Moreover, the Muslims felt betrayed by the British who they thought were mainly
concerned with giving the INC an opportunity to form governments without
considering the Muslim rights. The British apathy towards the anti-Muslim policies of
the INC in various provinces further disappointed the Muslims. They developed a
sense of insecurity in a Hindu dominated India.
It may be concluded that the poor performance of the ML, and the INC rule came as
a blessing in disguise for the Muslims. The INC policies strengthened the Muslim
nationalism, and justified a demand for a separate homeland for the Indian Muslims.
The ML got a chance to bring Muslims on its platform. Therefore, the elections were
quite successful for the two major political parties of India.
The INC Rule 1937-39


INC victory in the 1937 elections
INC ministries in 8 out of 11 provinces
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013



Nehru got assurance from Viceroy Lord Linlithgow about governors not using special
powers to interfere with the provincial matters.
In areas of ML victory, INC’s condition of ML members to leave ML.
A series of anti-Muslim policies under the INC rule:
Bande Matram:

Hindu nationalist song with anti-Muslim expressions; compulsory singing in morning
in provincial assemblies; Muslims felt offended & worried about their future.
The Wardha Scheme:
 Gandhi’s educational scheme; spinning cotton by hand, part of teaching in schools;
no religious education; Hindi, medium of education; compulsory bowing before
Gandhi’s portrait in schools for all students; for Muslims, it was anti-Islamic; fear of
imposition of Hinduism.
INC tyranny:
 Ban on beef in some places; ban on & disturbance of Azaan; attacks on mosques
during congregational prayer; pushing pigs into mosques during prayers; local
authorities were biased against Muslims; no complaints of Muslims were entertained;
attacks on Muslim houses & anti-Muslim riots; hoisting INC flag with the Union Jack
to show there were only 2 political powers in India; Muslims felt threatened about their
cultural & political identity & importance.
 Linlithgow himself received reports of anti-Muslim measures from some places.
 Start of WW2, Sept 1939; INC ministers resigned; Muslims celebrated “Day of
Deliverance” on Jinnah’s call, 22 Dec 1939, to mark end of INC rule.
ML under INC rule
 Rejection of Jinnah’s offer of INC-ML coalition, by INC
 Jinnah’s massive campaign to awaken Muslims & warn them of the Hindu aim of
establishing ‘Hindustan’.
 Chief Ministers of Punjab, Bengal & Assam joined ML by 1938; membership of ML
grew dramatically.
 INC began to recognize Jinnah but didn’t accept ML as the only party representing
Indian Muslims.
 On the whole, v.poor Hindu-Muslim relations by 1939.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the INC Rule?
[4]
Ans. The INC formed its ministries in 8 out of 11 provinces. It introduced series of measures
which threatened Muslim culture and identity. An educational scheme, the Wardha
Scheme, of Gandhi was implemented in the schools. Students were required to bow
before Gandhi’s portrait and any religious education and teaching in Urdu were
banned. Singing of the Hindu nationalistic song, Bande Matram, was made
compulsory in the morning assemblies. The INC flag was hoisted together with the
Union Jack on various buildings. Azan was disturbed at many places and pigs were
thrown in the mosques. When the INC ministers resigned in 1939, Muslims celebrated
the Day of Deliverance on 22 December 1939.
Q:
What was the Wardha Scheme?
[4]
Ans. It was a part of the INC rule, 1937-1939. Gandhi introduced it as a Basic Education
scheme at Wardha for the INC ministries. This scheme made Hindi the medium of
education, removed any religious education and made cotton-spinning by hand a part
of the school curriculum. In some schools of the CP (Central Provinces), Muslim
students were required to bow before the portrait of Gandhi in a worship manner.
Even the Urdu language was undermined under this policy. Thus it became evident
that even with legal safeguards Muslims could not trust the INC to protect their rights.
Therefore, it was one of the reasons of hatred against the INC rule.
Q:
What was the Day of Deliverance?
[4]
Ans.
After the resignation of all INC ministers, Jinnah called on the Muslim community to
celebrate this on 22 December 1939. He appealed to all local, district and provincial
branches of the ML to hold public meetings to support this declaration. He also
appealed to celebrate the occasion in all gatherings in a peaceful and sober way. The
INC objected to this celebration.
Q:
Why was the INC rule hated so much? / Why did Muslims celebrate
the Day of Deliverance at the end of the INC rule?
[7]
Ans. The INC introduced many anti-Muslim policies. Under Gandhi’s Wardha Sceme, hand
spinning of cotton was made part of the school curriculum and Hindi was enforced as
the medium of education in various provinces. Religious education was banned and,
in some places, Muslim pupils were required to bow before Gandhi’s portrait in a
worship manner. This was against the fundamental beliefs and practices of Muslims.
Singing of Bande Matram was made compulsory in the morning assemblies. It was a
Hindu nationalistic song composed in Bengali by Mr. Bankim Chatterji and Muslims
considered it contained anti-Muslim expressions. Since Muslim students were also
compelled to sing it, Muslims began to realise that in a Hindu-dominated independent
India they would not be secure and their survival would be difficult.
At many places, the Azan was disturbed by playing loud music while pigs were pushed
into the mosques during the congregational prayers. Similarly, slaughtering cow and
eating beef were banned in the Hindu majority areas and Muslims were abused and
killed by the extremist Hindus. At many state and semi-state buildings the tri-colour
INC flag was hoisted together with the Union Jack in order to convey a message that
there were only two political powers, the British and the INC. Muslims felt their political
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
interests endangered by such measures. With the start of the WW-II, when the INC
ministers resigned, Muslims on the call of Mr. Jinnah celebrated the Day of
Deliverance on 22 December 1939.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Was the main reason why Congress rule (1937 – 1939) was hated
so much because of the Bande Matram? Explain your answer. [14]
Ans:
INC introduced a number of anti-Muslim policies. Muslims hated INC rule so
much that at the end of INC rule they celebrated the Day of Deliverance on 22 nd
December 1939. After taking charge in July 1937, Congress declared Bande Matram
as the national anthem. This was a Bengali song composed by Bankim Chatterji and
it meant “Hail you O’ motherland”. It contained anti Muslim sentiments through which
Hindus were encouraged to expel Muslims from Hindustan through expressions
peculiar exclusively to Hinduism. For example, it says, “Thou art Durga, Lady and
Queen, with her hands that strike, and her swords of sheen; thou art Lakshmi lotus
throned”. This was not a Congress policy, but the singing of the song was made
compulsory before the start of official business everyday in the provincial assemblies.
This greatly offended the Muslims who began to feel that were being forced to become
familiar with Hinduism.
A number of anti Muslim measures were adopted which were collectively
called the INC tyrannies. The Congress flag was given the status of national flag by
hoisting it together with the Union Jack. This was done to convey the message that
there were only two political powers in India i.e. British and Congress. Muslims felt
that INC was bent upon ignoring the political importance of Indian Muslims. Muslims
were forbidden to eat beef and received harsh punishments and slaughtering of cows
was prohibited. Muslims were not allowed to construct new mosques. Hindus would
play drum in front of mosques during the deliverance of Azan and pigs were pushed
into the mosques when Muslims were praying. Sometimes there were anti-Muslim
riots in which Muslims were attacked and their houses and property set on fire. They
also feared that if they lodged complaint against the Hindus, the local administration
would act in favour of Hindus. Viceroy Lord Linlithgow himself admitted ‘many
instances of continued oppressions in small ways’. Muslims developed a strong fear
about their religious and cultural traditions in case of a Hindu dominated India.
In the INC ruled provinces, the Wardha Scheme was implemented. It was an
educational scheme based on Gandhi’s views and introduced into all educational
institutes. Under this, teaching was to be in Hindi. Spinning of cotton by hand was
made part of curriculum in all schools. Religious education was banned for all
students. Students, regardless of their religion, were expected to bow before the
portrait of Gandhi in a worship manner. Muslims saw these measures as an attempt
to subvert their love for Islam as their religion did not allow bowing before any image
or portrait. A ban on Urdu and religious education inculcated insecurity among
Muslims about their cultural identity.
It seems that the most important reason for hatred against the INC rule was
the singing of Bande Matram /Vande Matram because through this song a kind of
‘brain washing’ campaign was launched against Muslims. They were being prepared
to adapt to Hindu traditions, otherwise their survival in the independent India would
be very difficult.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Do you agree that the celebration of Day of Deliverance in 1939 was
justified? Give reasons.
[14]
Ans: Day of Deliverance was observed by Muslim League on 22nd December 1939 after
the end of the INC ministers. After taking charge in July 1937, INC adopted an anti
Muslim stance in the provinces under its rule. A number of anti Muslim measures were
introduced which were collectively called the INC tyrannies. The Congress flag was
given the status of national flag by hoisting it together with the Union Jack. This was
done to convey the message that there were only two political powers in India i.e.
British and Congress. Muslims felt that INC was bent upon ignoring the political
importance of Indian Muslims. Muslim were forbidden to eat beef and received harsh
punishments and slaughtering of cows was prohibited. Muslims were not allowed to
construct new mosques. Hindus would play drum in front of mosques during the
deliverance of Azan and pigs were pushed into the mosques when Muslims were
praying. Sometimes there were anti-Muslim riots in which Muslims were attacked and
their houses and property set on fire. Sometimes there were anti-Muslims riots in
which Muslims were attacked and their houses and property set on fire. They also
feared that if they lodged complaint against the Hindus, the local administration would
act in favour of Hindus. Viceroy Lord Linlithgow himself admitted ‘many instances of
continued oppressions in small ways’. The Muslims developed a strong fear about
their religious and cultural traditions in case of a Hindu dominated India.
In the INC ruled provinces, the Wardha Scheme was implemented. It was an
educational scheme based on Gandhi’s views and introduced into all educational
institutes. Under this, teaching was to be in Hindi. Spinning of cotton by hand was
made part of curriculum in all schools. Religious education was banned for all
students. Students, regardless of their religion, were expected to bow before the
portrait of Gandhi in a worship manner. Muslims saw these measures as an attempt
to subvert their love for Islam as their religion did not allow bowing before any image
or portrait. A ban on Urdu and religious education inculcated insecurity among
Muslims about their cultural identity.
After taking charge in July 1937, Congress declared Bande Matram as the national
anthem. This was a Bengali song composed by Bankim Chatterji and it meant “Hail
you O’ motherland”. It contained anti Muslim sentiments through which Hindus were
encouraged to expel Muslims from Hindustan through expressions peculiar
exclusively to Hinduism. For example, it says, “Thou art Durga, Lady and Queen, with
her hands that strike, and her swords of sheen; thou art Lakshmi lotus throned”. This
was not a Congress policy, but the singing of the song was made compulsory before
the start of official business everyday in the provincial assemblies. This greatly
offended the Muslims who began to feel that were being forced to become familiar
with Hinduism.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
On the other hand, the celebration of the ‘Day of Deliverance’ was unjustified in a way
as it deteriorated the relations between the INC and the ML. It was clear that now both
parties could not work together which meant no further chance of a joint struggle for
the independence of India. This indeed endorsed the British viewpoint that Indians
were doomed to remain disunited.
The INC ministers had resigned with the sole purpose of pressurizing the British
during the initial phase of the WWII so that the British, who desperately needed the
Indian support, could be persuaded to negotiate for the independence of India. By
distancing itself from the INC, the ML reduced the required pressure that could be
exerted on the British who now concentrated on the war front getting rid of any chance
of Hindu-Muslim united front during the war years.
In the final analysis it may be concluded that the celebration of the Day of
Deliverance was not fully justified because by doing so the ML lost a good opportunity
to drive the British out of India with the help of the INC. Retrospectively, if ML had not
parted ways with the INC, the aim of achieving Pakistan might have been easily
accomplished.
Q:
How did Jinnah reorganize ML between 1937 and 1939?
[7]
Ans.
After failing to unite Hindus and Muslims, Jinnah devoted himself to organize Muslims
and bring them on the platform of Muslim League. At the Lucknow meeting of ML in October
1937, Jinnah urged the party members to build up support from the grass roots. He argued
that in the 1937 elections the ML won seats in the areas where it had established its branches
before 1937. He launched an aggressive campaign to increase the vote bank of the ML. He
toured several cities to win support for the ML, and delivered convincing speeches in favour
of the party. His efforts began to bear fruit, and its membership grew tremendously. By 1938,
several thousand Muslims joined the ML including the Chief Minister of Bengal, Assam and
Punjab.
Jinnah began to urge Muslims to seek political guidance from Islam. He advocated
that Islam taught its followers liberty, equality and strong bonds of fraternity. This had a
positive impact on the Muslims who could now see that their rights and cultural interests were
seriously threatened by the INC. During its rule 1937-1939, the INC had significantly
endorsed the views of Jinnah. Though the Muslim members of the INC criticized Jinnah’s
efforts and predicted his failure, he continued his efforts with a strong determination. At the
annual meeting of the ML in 1938, a women’s sub-committee was set up, led by Miss Fatimah
Jinnah. This way Jinnah was able to involve Muslim women in the mission of the ML.
The INC was alarmed over this progress of the ML, and it began to recognize the
importance of the ML. Arrangements were made for talks between Jinnah and Nehru, though
the INC refused to accept Jinnah’s stance that the ML alone was the representative of all
Indian Muslims. Consequently, by 1939 Hindu-Muslim relations were quite strained.
Therefore, the Muslims, on the call of Jinnah, quite justifiably celebrated the Day of
Deliverance in December 1939 to mark the end of the INC rule. Finally, Jinnah was able to
attract hundreds of thousands of Muslims to attend the historic session of the ML held in
Lahore in March 1940. The ML representatives from the Muslim majority and minority
provinces fully supported Jinnah’s demand for a separate Muslim homeland.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
New Pattern Question
Source A Mr. Jinnah said, "We want our rights and we would only get our rights when
the community with one voice, demands it. The Frontier Province is a
predominantly Muslim province, 95 percent of the population being Muslims,
but the Congress is ruling that province and the orders are issued from
Wardha are carried out by the Frontier Government. This shows the depth of
our degradation and inaction. The fact remains that the Congress is in power
in seven provinces and the decisions are taken there by the majority which is
invariably Hindu.
Q (a): According to source A describe Jinnah’s views.
[3]
Ans. Jinnah is drawing the attention of Muslims towards the INC rule specially in the Muslim
majority province of the NWFP (now KPK) . He is expressing his concerns about
the interests and rights of Muslims being undermined by the rule of a government of
Hindu majority in such Muslim majority provinces. He is awakening the Muslims by
alerting them about their disgrace in future if they continue to remain oblivious to such
realities around them.
Source B
Q (b): What message is being delivered about Gandhi’s Wardha
Educational Scheme?
[5]
Ans.
The source shows the spinning of cotton by hand that was the basic component of
Wardha scheme. Gandhi reflects the hardwork and dedication required for this. He has been
shown working in peak summer heat of India as his body seems to be sweating profusely.
However, he looks unaffected by this heat. This means he is urging his countrymen to adopt
the custom of self-dependence for the ultimate goal of achieving independence. The purpose
of implementing this scheme in the school curriculum was to target the young minds that are
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
more receptive and responsive to such messages. This can be seen from the determined
look of Gandhi. The scheme would, however, become a major reason of hatred by Muslims
against the INC rule.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Role of Allama Iqbal and Ch. Rehmat Ali in Shaping the Pakistan
Movement
Allama Iqbal
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Born, 1877, Sialkot
Educated in Sialkot, Lhr, Germany, Cambridge (England).
1922, Knighted by British
1926, member of Punjab Assembly
1930, presidential address of ML, Allahabad.
1931-32, attended 2nd & 3rd RTC.
Philosopher – poet & political leader died 1938.
Importance of Allama Iqbal
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Delivered a historic address, 1930, Allahabad.
Explained Muslim nationhood in the light of two nation theory.
Predicted & hoped for the creation of a Muslim state (within or outside India) of NW
Muslim majority Indian provinces.
Gave hope & courage to Indian Muslims to direct their struggle towards a concrete
goal.
Source of inspiration for other leaders e.g. Ch. Rehmat Ali & Jinnah
ML would adopt his views, March 1940 & so, he is “architect of Pakistan”.
Also important for persuading Jinnah (though Liaqat Ali Khan also did the same) to
return to India & lead the Indian Muslims as a political leader.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Who was Allama Iqbal?
[4]
Ans. He was a philosopher-poet born in Sialkot in 1877. He was knitted for his services by
the British in recognition of his poetry. He was elected as a member of the Punjab
Legislative Assembly in 1926. He gained unusual fame after his famous Allahabad
address, 1930 that he delivered while presiding over the ML session in the absence
of Jinnah. In this address he hinted at the possibility of a Muslim state comprising the
north-western Muslim majority provinces of India. He represented Muslims in the
second and third Round Table Conferences. He persuaded Jinnah to return to India
to lead Muslims. He died in 1938 and Jinnah paid him rich tribute on the passage of
Lahore Resolution in March 1940.
Q:
Why was Dr. Allama Iqbal an important influence on the struggle
for a separate homeland, Pakistan?
[7]
Ans. Allama Iqbal was a philosopher – poet who eventually became a politician. He was
knighted in 1922 in recognition of his poetry and later he was elected as member of
Punjab Legislative Assembly later in 1926. In the absence of Jinnah, Iqbal presided
over the historic session of ML and in December 1930 at Allahabad. He elaborated
the two nation theory by highlighting the distinctive cultural, civilizational and historic
features of the Muslim community. He spoke against the imperialistic powers of the
West and said it was unfair to occupy lands of the independent people. He said,
“European democracy cannot be applied to India without recognizing the fact of
communal groups. I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Balochistan
amalgamated into a single state”. This way, Iqbal predicted as well as expressed his
desire of the possibility of creation of a Muslim homeland in the North Western Muslim
majority provinces of India. As a result communal division of India was seriously
considered by many Muslims during the 1930’s.
Iqbal is also important because of his inspiring poetry that gradually infused the spirit
of Muslim nationalism among Muslims who began to see a clear goal ahead of them.
His poetry gave hope to the Muslims telling to them to be proud of their past and of
their heritage. He believed that the British and the Hindus were equally opposed to
the Muslim cause. Ch Rehmat Ali scheme of Pakistan was greatly influenced by the
views of Allama Iqbal.
His efforts were strengthened by both Ch. Rehmat Ali and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. It
was Iqbal who had persuaded Jinnah to come back to India to lead the Muslim
community. Therefore, Jinnah on the passage of Lahore Resolution in March 1940
paid rich tribute to Iqbal and wished if Iqbal had been alive to see his dream come
true. Iqbal is rightly called the “Architect of Pakistan” as well as the first leader from
the ML to have dreamed of a separate Muslim homeland.
Q:
Why was Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal was asked to chair the Muslim
League at Allahabad in 1930?
[7]
Ans:
Allama Iqbal had become a reputed politician, thinker and poet by 1930. His poetry
had an inspiring effect on the Indian Muslims by inculcating among them a sense of their
distinct nationalism. His poetry awakened Muslims to start struggling for making progress in
various walks of life. The essence of his poetry was the philosophy of being self-dependent
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
and vibrant. This enhanced his image as a sincere and mature thinker who was worried
about the future of Indian Muslims. With time, his political importance grew significantly in the
late 1920s.
By that time Jinnah was not in favour of the Two Nation theory as he believed in some
kind of joint struggle against the British colonial rule. He, therefore, proposed four
amendments in the Nehru report, and promised to drop the demand of separate electorates
of Muslims if the amendments were accepted by the Congress. Iqbal, on the other hand, was
opposed to any such unity between Hindus and Muslims as he could foresee the
consequences of a united India ruled by the Hindu majority. He was also opposed to the
British imperialism as it went against fundamental Islamic beliefs. He sharply criticised the
colonial rule in his 1938 address. Thus Iqbal’s views gradually evolved into the demand for a
separate Muslim homeland.
He, therefore, began to persuade many ML leaders to build an effective political force
against the British rule as well as the Congress plans of a Hindu-dominated India. He had
closely observed the Western colonial mindset during his stay in Europe in the start of 20th
century. Thus his views made him a well-respected and authoritative leader to represent the
Indian Muslims. Finally, he made a formal demand for an independent state for Muslims while
presiding over the annual ML session in December 1930. He elaborated his demand by
strong reasoning in his historic Allahabad address.
Ch. Rehmat Ali
Introduction:
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Born – 1897, Punjab;
Educated at Islamia College, Lhr.
Law practice 1918 onwards
Masters degree in law, Cambridge University.
Developed idea of a separate Muslim state in NW Indian provinces, 1930’s.
Attended RTC’s 1930-32, tried to convince Muslim leaders to accept his idea.
Jinnah & other leaders didn’t agree, thought such a scheme as too premature.
1933, Pakistan National Movement & his pamphlet, “Now or Never”, introduced the
word “Pakistan”.
Collection of his articles, “Pakistan – the fatherland of the Pak nation”.
Importance of his work
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Issued first direct call for a separate Muslim state in the NW Muslim majority provinces
of India; surpassed Sir Syed & Allama Iqbal in making his demand
Gave a name to the proposed state – Pakistan, a meaningful term – literal meaning
“land of the pure people (Muslims) & each letter for a Muslim majority area. P: Punjab;
A for Afghanistan (NWFP); K for Kashmir; S for SIndh & “tan” for Balochistan.
According to his explanation, the acronym “Pakistan” included the Indian & Asian
homelands of Muslims
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013

ML adopted his idea & the name “Pakistan”, March 1940 & worked to achieve the
goal of a Muslim state of NW & NE Muslim majority provinces.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Who was Ch. Rehmat Ali?
(4)
Ans. He was born in 1897 and studied in England in the 1930s. He attended the Round
Table Conferences and developed the idea of struggle for a separate and
independent Muslim state comprising Muslim majority provinces of the north-western
India as he was opposed to any kind of an India federation. In 1933, he used the word
‘Pakistan’ for the Muslim homeland in his pamphlet, ‘Now or Never’. Each letter in the
word Pakistan represented a Muslim majority area. Though he gained popularity,
Jinnah considered such a struggle in the 1930s as too premature to be started. So,
he remained less popular than Iqbal and Jinnah who even refused to meet him.
Q:
Why was Ch. Rehmat Ali important?
(7)
Ans. He presented the scheme of Pakistan. As a young student, he attended the Round
Table Conferences in London in the 1930s and was opposed to any kind of federation
of India. Instead, he believed in launching an active struggle for a totally independent
and separate Muslim homeland comprising the north-western Muslim majority
provinces of India. He tried to persuade the Muslim leaders to accept his scheme but
failed to impress them, though the idea of partition of India appealed many.
He gave the name Pakistan to the independent Muslim state in his famous pamphlet
‘Now or Never’ that was published in 1933. Literal meaning of the word Pakistan is
‘land of the pure (Muslims)’ and each letter of the word represented a Muslim majority
area within and beyond India. They are: Punjab, Afghania (NWFP), Kashmir, Iran,
Sindh, Tokharistan, Afghanistan and Balochistan. Despite Jinnah’s refusal to meet
him, the word Pakistan was adopted by the ML for the independent Muslim state. For
the same reason the Lahore Resolution is also called the Pakistan Resolution.
His views were really ahead of his time and different from those of Iqbal who proposed
a Muslim state within or outside India. For this reason most Muslim leaders did not
accept them but the idea of partition of India began to be considered by many in the
1930s.
Q:
Assess the significance of the contributions of Allama Iqbal and
Rehmat Ali to the Pakistan Movement. Explain your answer.
Or
Was the work of Allama Iqbal more important to the Pakistan
Movement than that of Rehmat Ali? Explain your answer. [14]
Ans.
Both Iqbal and Rehmat Ali laid the foundation of the Pakistan Movement.
Allama Iqbal was a philosopher – poet who eventually became a politician. He was
knighted in 1922 in recognition of his poetry and later he was elected as member of
Punjab Legislative Assembly later in 1926. In the absence of Jinnah, Iqbal presided
over the historic session of ML and in December 1930 at Allahabad. He elaborated
the two nation theory by highlighting the distinctive cultural, civilizational and historic
features of the Muslim community. He spoke against the imperialistic powers of the
West and said it was unfair to occupy lands of the independent people. He said,
“European democracy cannot be applied to India without recognizing the fact of
communal groups. I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Balochistan
amalgamated into a single state”. This way, Iqbal predicted as well as expressed his
desire of the possibility of creation of a Muslim homeland in the North Western Muslim
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
majority provinces of India. As a result communal division of India was seriously
considered by many Muslims during the 1930’s.
Iqbal is also important because of his inspiring poetry that gradually infused
the spirit of Muslim nationalism among Muslims who began to see a clear goal ahead
of them. His poetry gave hope to the Muslims telling to them to be proud of their past
and of their heritage. He believed that the British and the Hindus were equally
opposed to the Muslim cause. Ch Rehmat Ali scheme of Pakistan was greatly
influenced by the views of Allama Iqbal.
His ideas were followed and strengthened by both Ch. Rehmat Ali and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah. It was Iqbal who had persuaded Jinnah to come back to India
to lead the Muslim community. Therefore, Jinnah on the passage of Lahore
Resolution in March 1940 paid rich tribute to Iqbal and wished if Iqbal had been alive
to see his dream come true. Iqbal is rightly called the “Architect of Pakistan” as well
as the first leader from the ML to have dreamed of a separate Muslim homeland. He
presented the scheme of Pakistan. As a young student, he attended the Round Table
Conferences in London in the 1930s and was opposed to any kind of federation of
India. Instead, he believed in launching an active struggle for a totally independent
and separate Muslim homeland comprising the north-western Muslim majority
provinces of India. He tried to persuade the Muslim leaders to accept his scheme but
failed to impress them, though the idea of partition of India appealed many.
He gave the name Pakistan to the independent Muslim state in his famous
pamphlet ‘Now or Never’ that was published in 1933. Literal meaning of the word
Pakistan is ‘land of the pure (Muslims)’ and each letter of the word represented a
Muslim majority area within and beyond India. They are: Punjab, Afghania (NWFP),
Kashmir, Iran, Sindh, Tokharistan, Afghanistan and Balochistan. Despite Jinnah’s
refusal to meet him, the word Pakistan was adopted by the ML for the independent
Muslim state. For the same reason the Lahore Resolution is also called the Pakistan
Resolution. His views were really ahead of his time and different from those of Iqbal
who proposed a Muslim state within or outside India. For this reason most Muslim
leaders did not accept them but the idea of partition of India began to be considered
by many in the 1930s.
It can be said that Allama Iqbal contributed more significantly to the
development of Pakistan Movement because his Allahabad address became one of
the most prominent milestones on the road leading to a formal demand of Pakistan
by the ML in March 1940. Moreover, his poetry had a greater inspirational impact on
the Indian Muslims as it gave more power to the idea of Muslim nationalism.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q
Which of the following contributed the most to the Pakistan
Movement:(i)
Allama Iqbal’s Address of 1930
(ii)
Chaudhry Rehmat’s scheme of Pakistan
(iii) Jinnah’s Lahore Resolution of 1940?
(14)
Ans: All the three were of utmost importance for the Pakistan Movement. Iqbal was a
philosopher – poet who later became a politician. His Allahabad address of December
1930 carries immense importance in the shaping of the Pakistan Movement. In this
address he proved Muslims as a distinct community of India in the light of the Two
Nation theory. He spoke against the imperialistic powers of the West and said it was
unfair to occupy lands of the independent people. He said, “European democracy
cannot be applied to India without recognizing the fact of communal groups. I would
like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Balochistan amalgamated into a single
state”. This way, Iqbal predicted as well as expressed his desire of the possibility of
creation of a Muslim homeland in the North Western Muslim majority provinces of
India. As a result communal division of India was seriously considered by many
Muslims during the 1930’s. He represented Muslims in the second and third round
table conferences. He persuaded Jinnah to return to India and lead the Muslim
community. He was rightly called the Architect of Pakistan because from March 1940
onwards the ML under Jinnah struggled to materialize the dream of Iqbal.
Ch Rehmat Ali was a student leader in the Cambridge University in the 1930s. He
attended the RTC’s as an observer. During these years he developed the idea of a
separate Muslim homeland comprising the northwestern Muslim majority provinces of
India for which he coined the name Pakistan in his famous pamphlet “Now or Never”.
The word Pakistan literally means “land of the pure” and each letter in the word
represents a Muslim majority area /province: P for Punjab, A for Afghania (NWFP) K
for Kashmir, (‘I’ was later inserted to the word Pakistan), S for Sindh, TAN for
Balochistan. He tried to persuade Muslim leaders to launch an active struggle for
achieving Pakistan but most of them were not impressed by his views. For Jinnah it
was too premature an idea to be adopted at that time. However, he and the ML
adopted the same name (Pakistan) coined by Ch. Rehmat Ali despite all differences
with him. His views were distinct because neither Sir Syed nor Allama Iqbal had gone
to the extent of declaring Muslims as a nation.
Then, in 1940, the Lahore Resolution of Mr. Jinnah was adopted. He was the most
prominent leader of the ML. At first Jinnah was not in favour of a separate Muslim
homeland and believed that Muslims might live comfortably in a federation of India
with maximum provincial autonomy. But the INC rule of 1937 – 1939 greatly changed
his views about the future of Indian Muslims. He presided over the historic session of
ML on 22nd March 1940 in which Maulvi Fazal ul Haq presented a resolution
demanding that “Regions in which the Muslims are numerically a majority, as in the
NW and Eastern zone of India, should be grouped to constitute independent states in
which the constitutional units shall be autonomous and sovereign. The resolution was
unanimously passed on 23rd March, 1940. This marked the start of active struggle for
Pakistan that was achieved after only seven years. A remarkable feature of Lahore
Resolution is that it demanded for both NW and NE Muslim majority provinces
whereas Iqbal and Ch Rehmat Ali had focused on NW provinces only.
To conclude, the Lahore Resolution seems to be the most important because it was
the ultimate result of the views and efforts of leaders like Sir Syed, Iqbal and Ch.
Rehmat Ali. It gave Muslims a visible goal for which they started their struggle under
the leadership of Jinnah.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q: Why did Muslims not demand complete independence from Britain
before 1940?
(7)
Ans:
Muslims wanted a greater role, like Hindus, in running India. For this reason
the ML on Jinnah’s advice in 1913, changed it’s policy of promoting loyalty to
the British. It began to ask for self rule as it felt betrayed over the reversal of
partition of Bengal in 1911. The ML, however, knew if it pressured the British
too much, the latter might leave India putting them at the mercy of Hindus. It’s
fears got stronger when the Nehru Report was presented in 1928. The Nehru
Report rejected the Muslim demands of separate electorates and one third
seats in the Central Legislative Assembly. It declared these demands were
based on the “illegal fear” of the Muslims. The report asked for a strong central
government that would surely be dominated by the Hindus.
Jinnah, therefore, tried to persuade the INC to amend the Nehru Report to
make it acceptable to the Muslims, but his advice was rejected. Jinnah, till the
late 1930’s had a hope of Hindu-Muslim unity, but the INC rule of 1937-39
compelled him to demand a separate homeland for the Muslims. This period
of the INC rule was marked by a number of anti-Muslim policies in the
provinces controlled by the INC as a result of which the Muslim fear of living
under a Hindu- dominated India got materialised into a demand of their own
sovereign state. This demand was formally made in March 1940.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
End of the INC Rule and Start of the Pakistan Movement
The Lahore / Pakistan Resolution
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Jinnah opposed to a separate state for Muslims, all through 1930’s → believed in
Hindu-Muslim unity or any sort of Indian federation where Muslims had political
autonomy & protection of their political rights.
Gradual evolution of the idea of a separate, independent Muslim homeland in 1930’s
→ Iqbal’s 1930 address ub Allahabad j& Ch. Rehmat Ali’s scheme of ‘Pakistan’,
began to influence the Muslims as well as Jinnah → Two Nation Theory began to get
more relevant
1937-39 INC rule unified most of the ML leaders under Jinnah to make a demand for
a separate Muslim country.
22 March 1940, ML session in Lahore, under Jinnah → all ML leaders from India
Maulvi Fazal Ul Haq forwarded the famous Lahore Resolution → unanimously
adopted → formal demand for Pakistan, comprising the Muslim majority provinces in
NW & NE India.
Marked start of struggle for Pakistan.
The Hindu press sarcastically called it the “Pakistan Resolution” → ML adopted this.
ML would take another seven years to achieve its goal.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the Lahore/Pakistan Resolution?
(4)
Ans. The annual session of the ML held at the Minto Park (now Iqbal Park) in Lahore on
22 March 1940 was presided over by the Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah. It
was attended by the ML representatives from all provinces of India. The premier of
Bengal, Maulvi Fazl-ul-Haq put forward a resolution demanding a separate and
independent Muslim state comprising the Muslim majority provinces in the northwestern and north-eastern zones of India. The Resolution was passed unanimously
on 23 March 1940 as the ‘Lahore Resolution’. However, the Hindu press soon began
to call it the ‘Pakistan Resolution’ in a sarcastic way, and the same title was eventually
accepted by the ML.
Q:
Why did ML make a demand for Pakistan in 1940?
(7)
Ans. Muslims wanted their own homeland. Jinnah and the ML had tried their best to
maintain some kind of Hindu-Muslim unity but this dream was shattered repeatedly.
Jinnah was ready to accept the Nehru Report, 1928 with some democratic
amendments regarding the security of political rights of Indian Muslims in an Indian
Federation but the INC rejected them. Jinnah, therefore, presented his 14 Points but
the INC did not accept them.
During the second RTC, 1931 Gandhi adopted an inflexible attitude by refusing to
grant them adequate constitutional protection and insisted that the provision of
religious liberty would be sufficient to safeguard the rights of the minorities. Jinnah
knew that such a provision was ambiguous and would surely lead to communal
violence. The deadlock between the two leaders widened the gulf between Hindus
and Muslims.
The INC rule, 1937-1939 embittered the relations between the two communities that
were damaged irreparably. The atrocities committed by the INC ministers against the
Muslims paved the way for the partition of India. Muslims were denied religious liberty
when extremist Hindus pushed pigs into the mosques and the Wardha Scheme forced
Muslim students to bow before Gandhi’s portrait. Such acts were aimed at attacking
the fundamental religious beliefs of Muslims. Therefore, by celebrating the Day of
Deliverance, the ML had indicated towards making a separate and independent
Muslim state where Muslims could live without any fear of Hindu domination.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
New Pattern Question
Source A
“No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless
geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so
constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary. That adequate,
effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the constitution
for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural,
economic, political, administrative and other rights of the minorities.”
Q(a) According to source A what scheme about the future of India has
been outlined?
(3)
Ans. The source declares that any constitution for a united India would not be suitable and
acceptable for the Indian Muslims. It is asking for a separate Muslim homeland
comprising the Muslim majority geographical units of India. The source further
guarantees the respect and protection of non-Muslim minorities that would be equal
citizens of the independent Muslim states.
Source B, a scene of Jinnah addressing the historic session of the Muslim League in
March 1940.
Q (b): Describe the interaction between Jinnah and his audience.
Ans.
[5]
The source portrays Jinnah’s strong, commanding and confident stature during his
address. The unusually huge size of the audience demonstrates success of Jinnah in
mobilizing the Indian Muslims for the common cause of an independent Muslim state. Jinnah
has been garlanded that shows the degree of warmth in his reception and the importance of
the occasion. Jinnah is wearing his traditional cap and the Achkan/Sherwani, a kind of long
cloak instead of his favourite attire of a pent-coat suit which reflects his nationalistic sense.
His saluting hand conveys the message that his scheme of partition of India has been
unanimously accepted by the audience. The occasion marks the official start of the struggle
for Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The WW2 and the Political Negotiations for Independence in India
WW2 (1939-1945) and Political negotiations in India

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3 Sept 1939, start of WW2 b/w Britain and Nazi Germany
Viceroy Linlithgow announced: India, too, at war with Germany
INC objected → wanted promise of independence as condition to support the British
→ Birtish could promise Dominion status after the war
INC ministers resigned in protest, but also disapproved:Nazism ( German
nationalism) & Fascism ( Italian nationalism ).
ML demanded → end of anti-Muslim policies of INC; no law about Muslims without
approval of 2/3rd majority; INC should form coalition with ML in provinces.
INC & British couldn’t promise this
Like INC, ML also rejected Nazism & Fascism,
22 Dec 1939 → Day of Deliverance celebrated by Muslims on Jinnah’s call → marking
end to the INC rule.
The Cripps Mission, 1942


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
ML demanded Pakistan, March 1940
INC → fully opposed partition of India
Brit not ready to withdraw form India
INC ministers resigned to pressurize the British as it could support the British war
efforts on condition of full independence
March 1942 → British sent the Cripps Mission to try some compromise.
The Mission proposed:
 an Indian Union with dominion status after the war
 non-accession clause → any province(s) could opt out of the Union
 except for defence & Viceroy, all Indian ministers
 a Constituent Assembly to draft a constitution after the war
 elections for the Constituent Assembly after the war
Indian reaction:
 ML & INC rejected the plan
 ML → the plan didn’t mention Pakistan →Jinnah not satisfied with the non-accession
clause
 INC → Gandhi termed it “a post-dated cheque on a failing bank’ → equated British
rule with a “failing Bank”, & the plan with a ‘post-dated cheque’.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Important Events during the second World War
Q:
Describe the Atlantic Charter.
(4)
Ans:
It was an agreement between the British PM, Winston Churchill and the US President
Franklin Roosevelt in August 1941, during the Second World War Both met in a ship
off the Newfoundland coast. They agreed on the rights of self-determination, selfgovernment, and free speech for all nations of the world. They also called for a fairer
international economic system, and insisted on stopping the use of force. The Labour
Party in England drew the attention of Churchill towards the independence of India by
referring to the Atlantic Charter. During the Second World War it supported the Indian
demand of independence.
Q:
What was the August Offer?
(4)
Ans:
In order to win the Muslim support in the Second World War, the Viceroy Lord
Linlithgow, made an offer to the Muslim League in August 1940.He promised that a
new Indian constitution would not be finalised without the agreement of the Muslims.
The Muslim League, however, wanted an equal or greater membership of Muslims in
the proposed Defence Council. The Viceroy did not accept this, and therefore, the
Muslim League, rejected the August Offer. Most of its members in the Central and
Provincial governments resigned from their posts.
Q:
What was the Cripps Mission Plan?
(4)
Ans. In March 1942, the British sent Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British Cabinet,
to India. He tried to reach a compromise between the British and the Indians. He
proposed to grant India the Dominion status in the form of a Union of India after the
War, to hold elections to elect a Constituent Assembly that would frame a new
constitution for India. The Plan also proposed that any province or state could opt out
of the proposed Union. Both Gandhi and Jinnah rejected the Plan on different
grounds.
Q:
Why did the Cripps Mission fail?
(7)
Ans.
The proposals of the Cripps Mission Plan were not acceptable to the INC and
the ML. In March 1942, the British sent Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British
Cabinet, to India. The Mission proposed to grant India the Dominion status in the form
of a Union of India after the War, and framing of a new constitution by a newly elected
Constituent Assembly. It also suggested that any province or state could opt out of
the proposed Union of India. It, however, did not define the political status of the
provinces opting out of the proposed Union.
Jinnah, therefore, rejected it as he was not satisfied with the ‘opting out clause’
and wanted a direct recognition of Pakistan by the British as the ML had fomally
demanded the same in March 1940. In order to reiterate the demand for Pakistan, he
declared it an unacceptable plan.
Gandhi, on the other hand, having the suppost of the Hindu majority rejected
the plan in a more sarcastic way. He declared it ‘a post-dated cheque on a failing
bank’. He thus equated the British rule in India with a failing bank, and the Plan with
a post-dated cheque as he believed the British had to leave India after the War and,
therefore, they were not in a position to make such offers. In May 1942, he started his
Quit India campaign and was arrested.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The Quit India Movement



Gandhi’s address, May 1942 → no threat of Japanese attack if British left India → so,
British should be pressurized.
Aug 1942 → INC passed the Quit India Resolution → asked British to leave India
immediately → Gandhi, Nehru & others were arrested; INC was banned → large scale
violence → e.g. aerial bombing.
ML didn’t support →considered it INC attempt to drive British out to establish their
own, anti-Muslim rule → Jinnah termed it “political blackmailing”.
Q:
What was the Quit India Movement/Resolution?
(4)
Ans. In May 1942, Gandhi addressed an INC meeting in Allahabad and sharply criticised
the lack of compliance shown by the British during the negotiations of the Cripps
Mission Plan. He urged the INC to start a non-violent protest against the British. On
8th August 1942, the Quit India Resolution was passed, calling for the immediate
withdrawal of the British from India. This led to widespread riots in several parts of
India, and the British retaliated with full force.
Q:
Why did the Congress/INC start the Quit India Movement?
(7)
Ans. Gandhi had rejected the Cripps Mission Plan. While addressing an INC meeting in
Allahabad in May 1942, he expressed his resentment of the Plan. In his address, he
talked of how, “British behavious towards India has filled me with great pain.” There
were rumours of a possible Japanese attack on India as the Japanese forces had
captured Singapore recently. Gandhi argued that in case of British departure from
India, there was no danger of any such attack by Japan. Even if India was attacked,
Indians would persuade Japan by non-violent protest, under his Satiya Graha
philosophy of peaceful opposition.
He also knew that regardless of the result of the WW2, the British would be forced to
leave India due to the huge losses they had incurred in the early phase of the War.
On 8th August 1942, the All India Congress Committee asked its Quit India Resolution
asking the British to leave India quickly. To support the campaign, Gandhi urged ‘a
mass struggle on non-violent lines on the widest possible scale’. Two days later on
Gandhi, Nehru and several other senior leaders were arrested and the INC was
banned. This led to large scale violence and Gandhi was arrested. British had to use
the strongest measures including the use of machine guns and aerial bombing. The
pressure on the British, however, kept mounting despite all their attempts to keep
India under their control. The ML did not support the INC.
Q: Why did the Muslims League Condemn the Quit India Movement? [7]
Ans.
Gandhi-led-Congress launched another anti-British civil disobedience campaign, the
Quit India Movement in 1942. The idea was that by increasing political pressure on the British,
they would be forced to leave India. However, against the expectations of the Congress, the
British proved determined to retain their control over India. About 1000 people, many of them
women, were killed. Those who took part saw themselves as freedom fighters. The Muslim
League opposed the Quit India Movement. In their opinion it could not succeed and would
end up provoking the British, and exactly the same happened.
The Quaid-i-Azam saw this as a ploy by Congress to gain full control once the British
left and to compel all other parties to deal with them on Congress terms. He believed that
Congress would never negotiate the question of Pakistan with the Muslim League. He,
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
therefore, criticized the campaign as a kind of blackmailing the British, and trying to exploit
the British who were engaged in the WW-II. Gandhi was ostensibly raising the slogon of
Hindu-Muslim unity, by saying the British could not be driven out of India without he
cooperation of the Muslims. A meeting of the ML Working Committee was held in Bombay
on August 16, 1942. To decide the policy of the ML regarding Gandhi’s campaign. The
meeting continued for four days presided over by the Quaid-i-Azam. It noted with deep
concern that the Congress had started an open rebellion against the British only for the
establishment of the Hindu Raj in India. He directed the Muslims to remain peaceful, and also
not to participate in any anti-Congress activities during the Quit India campaign.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
New Pattern Question
Source A, an excerpt from Jinnah’s statement after his talks with the
Cripps Mission.
“If all parties agree to the Muslim demand for Pakistan or partition and Muslim right
for self-determination, details to be settled after the war, then we are prepared to any
reasonable adjustment with regard to the present. So far it seems that the British are
reluctant in recognizing the idea of Pakistan in a direct and clearer way.”
Q (a): What views are being expressed by Jinnah about the Cripps
Mission Plan?
(3)
Ans. Jinnah is pointing to a support for his demand of Pakistan by both the INC and the
British. He wants the right of self-determination for the Indian Muslims so that he could
make any future negotiations successful. He is expressing his dissatisfaction over the
British response about the question of Pakistan.
Source B, a painting showing the violent scenes of the Quit India
Movement of 1942.
Q (b): With the help of the source B, describe the progress and the
immediate consequences of the Quit India Movement.
Ans.
[5]
The painting displays the horrifying scenes of the Quit India Movement. It shows the
involvement of a huge population of India in support of the movement. British seem to
dominate the scene as their soldiers carry a determined and stern look with a variety of
weapons in their hands. Distress and misery of the Indians is quite evident in the painting as
most of them are at the mercy of the British troops. Some of the Indians are being punished
on the spot as some of them have been hanged using the trees as the gallows. Many others
have been arrested to demonstrate the British strength. Prominence of the Union Jack
conveys the message of firm determination of the British to suppress the movement though
they are engaged in the War against Germany. Such events would give the British more time
to stay in India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The Gandhi-Jinnah Talks, 1944

May 1944, Gandhi was released by the new Viceroy Lord Wavell → wrote to Jinnah
for talks to discuss future of India as British departure was now sure.
 Jinnah accepted → several rounds of talks, Sept 1944, Jinnah House, Bombay.
 Many expected a consensus → after some initial success, talks failed because :
I. Gandhi insisted on joint struggle to force British for independence → after that,
partition of India might be settled → Jinnah’s refusal → difficult to believe why INC
would agree to it after the British departure
II. Jinnah: defence and foreign affairs to be with the provinces, in a united India →
Gandhi: the central govt to have these.
III. Gandhi’s claim to represent all Indians → Jinnah considered him as the INC
spokesman → his legal mind couldn’t accept Gandhi as leader of all the Indians
IV. Gandhi rejected the Two Nation theory → didn’t accept Muslims a nation, ‘Couldn’t
accept demand of a state by “a body of local converts” → Jinnah tried to persuade:
Muslims a nation.
V. The talks failed but success for ML → INC considered ML an important party, &
Jinnah an important leader → Gandhi discussed conditional acceptance of
Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What were the Gandhi Jinnah Talks?
(4)
Ans. After his release in May 1944, Gandhi wrote to Jinnah to meet him to discuss the
future of India. Jinnah invited Gandhi at his house in Bombay and several rounds of
talks were held in September 1944 that also involved corresponding between the two
leaders. After some success the talks ended in failure as Gandhi rejected the twonation theory and suggested a joint struggle against the British till their departure from
India. He also wanted the Central Government to have control over defence and
foreign policy that Jinnah wanted to be with the provincial governments.
Q:
Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks fail?
(7)
Ans.
Gandhi and Jinnah disagreed on key issues. After his release from jail in May
1944, Gandhi proposed to Jinnah that the two meet to consider the future of India
after the British departure. Accordingly, several rounds of talks were held at Jinnah
House Bombay in September 1944. Gandhi insisted on being treated as an Indian
representing all Indian communities. Jinnah could not treat him in any capacity other
than an INC spokesman as Gandhi had been the most popular leader of the INC.
Gandhi rejected the two nation theory by saying that Muslims were only local
converts in India and they could not be considered a nation only by changing their
religion. He said he could not find any example in the world history in support of
Muslim nationhood in India. Jinnah countered his argument by highlighting the
historic, civilizational and cultural differences between Hindus and Muslims.
Jinnah demanded the key areas such as defence and foreign policy should be
given to the provincial governments while Gandhi wanted them to be with the Centre.
Gandhi was willing to consider the partition of India if the ML launched a joint struggle
with the INC to drive the British out of India. Jinnah had no reason to trust Gandhi
because the condition of the joint struggle seemed dubious to him. Thus the talks
ended in failure.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
New Pattern Question
Source A, part of Gandhi’s address to Jinnah in his letter:
“I find no parallel in history for a body of converts and their descendants claiming to
be a nation apart from their parent stock. If India was one nation before the advent of
Islam, it must remain one in spite of the change of faith of a very large body of her
children. The more I think about the two-nation theory the more alarming it appears
to me. Mere assertion is no proof.”
Q (a): Describe Gandhi’s views about the two-nation theory.
(3)
Ans. Gandhi is rejecting the two-nation theory on the ground that a change of religion is
not sufficient to change a community into a nation. He is persuading Jinnah to accept
the reality that with the arrival of the Muslims there was no impact on Indian
nationalism. Feeling unimpressed by Jinnah’s arguments he is warning him of the
consequences of the partition of India along communal lines.
Source B, Jinnah receiving Gandhi at Jinah House Bombay, 1944.
Q: (b) With the help of the source B describe the scene of the meeting
between Gandhi and Jinnah.
[5]
Ans.
Jinnah is according a warm welcome to Gandhi. At the same time, Gandhi also seems
enthusiastic about the future dialogue with Jinnah. The contrast between the outfits of the
two leaders is quite meaningful. Jinnah, with a strong background of living in England, is
wearing an expensive dress and holding a cigar between his fingers that reflects his
candidness towards Gandhi. The posh looking residence of Jinnah also shows his good
financial status. Simple cotton clothing of Gandhi shows his staunch Indian nationalism and
a subtle rejection of the British living style. Jinnah seems to have scored first point by
convincing Gandhi to come to his residence for the talks. Failure of the talks would be one of
the deadlocks between the two major political parties of India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The Simla Conference, 1945

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Early 1945, British departure visible with the WW2 nearing its end → Wavell to London
to discuss future of India with the British govt.
Wavell Plan → Executive Council (govt) to run India under the 1935 Act, till a new
constitution was agreed on → equal no. of Hindu & Muslim ministries in govt; all Indian
ministries except for defence & the Viceroy.
Conference in Simla, June 1945 to discuss the Wavell Plan → leaders of all parties
ML → Jinnah, Liaqat & Kh. Nazim ud Din
INC → Gandhi + INC president Abul Kalam Azad → to weaken ML claim of
representing all Muslims.
Consensus of all parties in the start on the Executive Council & other points, but soon
deadlock over:
1) Jinnah not satisfied with equal no. of H & M ministers →the Sikhs & Scheduled
Castes to vote for INC → ML would be a permanent minority in that case.
2) Jinnah opposed INC demand to nominate both H& M ministers → he argued, ML
won every by-election in the last two yrs & so, the only party to represent Indian
Muslims.
3) Wavell admitted failure 14 July 1945
4) Last political negotiation during WW2 failed.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Describe the Simla Conference/Wavell Plan.
(4)
Ans. In March 1945, Lord Wavell consulted the British government and drafted the Wavell
Plan, and invited all political parties of India to Simla to discuss it. The Simla
Conference was held in June 1945. The Wavell Plan proposed an Executive Council
comprising equal number of Hindu and Muslim ministers, with control over all affairs
except for the Viceroy and a British member controlling the defence. The Conference,
attended by all major Indian political parties, ended in failure on 14 July 1945 due to
a deadlock between Gandhi and Jinnah.
Q:
Why did the Simla Conference fail?
(7)
Ans.
It was held in June-July 1945. The Viceroy, Lord Wavell drew up a plan for the
future of India and convened the Simla Conference to discuss it with all political parties
of India. Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan and Kh. Nazim-ud-Din represented the ML. The
Wavell Plan suggested the formation of an Executive Council with an equal number
of Hindu and Muslim ministers. Jinnah pointed out that the other non-Muslim parties
would surely support the INC, making Muslims a permanent minority in the Executive
Council. They included the Sikhs, the Scheduled Castes and the Christians. Lord
Wavell could not increase the number of Muslim ministers who were already granted
a share greater than their numerical strength in India.
Gandhi was accompanied by the INC president Abul Kalam Azad with the
intention of weakening the ML claim of representing all Muslims of India. Therefore,
he demanded that the INC should be given the right of nominating some Muslim
ministers, too. Jinnah rejected this demand by saying that the ML had been winning
all Muslim seats in every by election held since 1940.
Jinnah also knew that the acceptance of Gandhi’s demand of nominating a
Muslim minister would surely loosen the grip of the ML in some provinces of his
proposed map of Pakistan as the INC was already popular in the NWFP. So, the
Conference failed to reach a consensus on the Wavell Plan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Do you agree that during the Second World War there was no
significant progress towards independence in the sub-continent?
Give reasons for your answer.
[14]
Ans.
A number of negotiations were held with successes and failures. With the start
of the WWII the INC (Congress) ministers resigned with the intention of pressurizing
the British for granting independence.
The British needed Indian support in the WWII. So, they dispatched a team,
the Cripps Mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps, with a set of proposals for the future of
India in March 1942. The Cripps Mission proposed the making of a Union of India in
which almost all the ministers were to be Indians, and the possibility of granting
dominion status to India after the war. It also provided for any province to opt out of
the proposed Union of India. The Plan reflected British willingness to gradually
decolonize India. Gandhi and Jinnah rejected the proposals and this showed the
possibility of a united stance against the British, though Gandhi and Jinnah had their
own reasons to reject it. For Gandhi, the British were not in a position to put forward
such a scheme as they would have to leave India sooner or later. He, therefore,
commented on the plan by saying that it was a post- dated cheque on a failing bank.
He launched the Quit India movement and was arrested with many other INC leaders.
Jinnah felt disappointed as he wanted a clear mention of Pakistan and was not
satisfied with the ‘opting out clause’. So, the plan was turned down by Indians.
After Gandhi was released from jail, he wrote to Jinnah to hold talks with him
about the future of India. Jinnah accepted it and invited Gandhi at his home in
Bombay. Several rounds of talk hiss were held in June, 1944. The talks showed
Gandhi’s acknowledgement of Jinnah as a major leader. He also suggested joint
struggle of INC and ML after which the partition of India could be discussed. This
shows his conditional acceptance of Pakistan. However, the talks had more failures
than successes. Gandhi insisted on being treated as an ordinary Indian but this
irritated Jinnah’s legal mind as for him Gandhi was only an INC spokesman. Gandhi
also rejected the two nation theory by saying that a community couldn’t become a
nation just by changing religion. Majority of Indian Muslims were local converts from
Hinduism or Sikhism. Jinnah asked for keeping the defence and foreign affairs under
the provincial governments in case of a united India. So the talks ended in a deadlock.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
By June 1945, the WWII was nearing end and British were now determined to
leave India. Viceroy Lord Wavell, after consulting with the British government, drafted
the Wavell Plan. The plan was discussed in the Simla Conference in June-July 1945.
The ML delegation included Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan and Abul Kalam Azad, the INC
President. Lord Wavell unfolded the plan of an interim Executive Council
(government) comprising equal number of Hindu and Muslim ministers. All parties
agreed on the idea of the Executive Council, and the independence of India. However,
Gandhi insisted on nominating Hindus as well as some Muslim ministers. Inclusion of
Azad was aimed at conveying the message that INC too represented Muslims. Jinnah
replied that ML alone was a party of all Muslims as it had been winning almost all by
elections for the Muslim seats during the last 3 years. Jinnah also objected to equal
number of Hindu and Muslim ministers by pointing towards other non-Muslim
minorities. If those minorities allied themselves with INC, Muslims would remain a
minority. The session ended without any success and Wavell admitted failure of the
conference on 14th July, 1945.
If analyzed objectively, it seems that these negotiations were all successful
because each of these resulted in building of more pressure on British by both INC
and ML. The cumulative result of negotiations eventually forced the British to leave
as well as partition India in 1947.
OR (if students wished to prove that the negotiations achieved nothing)
It analyzed objectively, the negotiations were all failures because each led to a
deadlock mainly because of the ever widening gulf between the ML and INC that
benefitted British only as they were able to prolong their stay in India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
New Pattern Question
Source A, comments on the INC claims:
“Many other non-Muslim Indians resented Congress claiming to speak for them. At
Simla, Jinnah was asked, as well as representing the League, also to speak for the
Indian Christian Association and the South Indian Liberal Federation. In this way he
represented more non-Muslims than the Muslims that Congress claimed to speak for.”
Q (a): Describe the comparison between the ML and the INC as presented
in the Source A. (3)
Ans. The source tells about the growing popularity of the ML against the INC. The ML has
gained support by many important non-Muslim minorities of India. Representatives of
these minorities have rejected the claim made by the INC of representing all
communities of India.
Source B, a cartoon depicting the failure of the Simla Conference, June
1945.
Q (b): According to Source B what do we learn about the results of the
Simla Conference?
[5]
Ans.
The cartoon displays the inherent disunity among Indians that has been symbolised
as a tiger. The elephants represent the major political parties of India that have been given
an opportunity by the British to overpower the intimidated monster of disunity. They are
rushing towards their target but in their individual capacity instead of making a single team
by encircling tiger. This reflecs the inherent disunity among Indians. The slogan on the Union
Jack represents the Wavell Plan that has offered the major parties of India to keep India
united. Wavell is desperately trying to persuade them to accept his plan. However, the Indians
seem destined to remain disunited and that would lead to the partition of India only after a
couple of years.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The 1945 Elections






Winston Churchil’s Conservative govt was replaced by the Labour Party P.M. Clement
Attlee → effort to give sefl-rule to India
Elections for central & provincial assemblies to set up an Executive Council of major
parties
INC campaigned for an independent, undivided India;
ML → for a separate Muslim state.
Results, Dec 1945: INC → 91% of non-Muslim vote → majority in 8 provinces
including the NWFP, 19/36 seats against ML → 17/36.
ML → 87% of total Muslim vote → 100% seats in the centre; 446/495 seats in
provincial assemblies → govts in Bengal & Sindh; largest party in Punjab.
Why ML performed better in 1945:
 Because more organized & popular → learned a lot from the 1937 elections →
launched more effective compaign
 The INC rule 1937-39 shocked Muslims into unity → realized INC would mistreat them
if they voted it
 March 1940, Lhr Resolution → struggle of ML for a separate state, Pakistan → ML
equal with INC → deeper communal divide.
 “Image problem” was overcome greatly → ML had made inroads into all sections of
society.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Describe the 1945-46 Elections.
(4)
Ans. The Labour Party P.M. Clement Attlee asked Wavell to hold elections for the central
and provincial assemblies so that an Executive Council of the Indians could be set
up. The INC campaigned for an independent, undivided India but the ML for an
independent and divided India. The INC got 91% of non-Muslim vote to get a majority
in 8 provinces including the NWFP where it bagged 19/36 seats whereas the ML got
17/36. The ML won 87% of total Muslim vote 100% seats in the central assembly and
446/495 seats in provincial assemblies.
Q:
Why did ML perform better in the 1945 Elections?
(7)
Ans.
Many factors helped Muslim League (ML) perform better. It was now more
organized and popular than in 1937. Jinnah had played key role in unifying its various
factions. In the Lucknow meeting of the ML in October 1937 he persuaded the party
to build up support from the grass roots. Due to his efforts the chief ministers of
Assam, Bengal and Punjab joined the party by 1938 and the vote bank of the ML was
enlarged significantly. It was able to win most of the by-elections between 1940 and
1945.
It had learned a lot from the 1937 elections. So, it launched a more effective
campaign in 1945. It made successful efforts to overcome the ‘image problem’. For
many years the ML was seen as a party of elite Muslim class because the
circumstances of its foundation were marked by the presence of rich
landowners/nawabs. A mass contact campaign was launched by Jinnah to approach
all segments of the Muslim community in various provinces.
The INC rule 1937-39 had shocked Muslims into unity. They realized that in
an INC-dominated India their political and cultural identity would be seriously
threatened. Therefore, only three months after the celebration of the Day of
Deliverance, Muslims got united on the ML platform to make a demand for Pakistan.
This demand changed the political landscape of India, and by 1945 the Muslims had
a clear objective and goal to achieve. Therefore, a great majority of Muslims voted for
the ML in the 1945 elections.
Q.
Was the success of the Labour Party in winning the British
General Election in 1945 the most important reason why the
subcontinent of India was partitioned in 1947? Explain your
answer.
[10/14]
Ans.
The Labour Party won a massive and unexpected victory in the 1945 General
Election. It won 393 seats against the Conservative Party that won only 197 seats.
The party was opposed to imperialism and eager to promote independence for India
following the election. Thus the signs for an independent state of some kind looked
very positive. However, there was a problem, since the new government was proCongress and Gandhi, so partition was most unlikely and instead the favoured route
was for a federal India rather than two separate states.
However, there were other factors too, that led to the partition of India in 1947.
Following the Simla Conference in 1945, Lord Wavell announced new elections. The
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
results demonstrated that the Congress had control of the non-Muslim votes but that
the League had equally gained control of the Muslim vote. It was clear that the League
was an equal player to the Congress and that the demand for partition could no longer
be ignored by the Congress or the British Government. However, in March 1946,
members of the British Cabinet Mission arrived in India to work out a plan for achieving
independence for India as a federation. The Mission met with some 470 Indian leaders
but Jinnah stuck firm to his stance that partition was the only way forward as far as
the Muslims were concerned. Once the plans for groupings the provinces were
known, the ML accepted the plan as long as the groupings were to be compulsory.
Congress however refused to accept the groupings and that they would not be bound
by any British plan. The British government decided to form an Interim Government
headed by Nehru of Congress. Eventually members of the ML joined it too.
The ML got worried that the British would leave India without organizing a
settlement and didn’t want Congress to be left in charge of organizing a new country.
Thus the ML organised a Direct Action Day in the summer of 1946 in an attempt to
stop the British government giving in to Congress. Rioting on a massive scale took
place and thousands died. The British got increasingly worried that civil war would
ensue and gradually a change of mind grew over partition. In February 1947 came
the announcement by Attlee that the British would leave the sub-continent by 1948
and the subsequent violence in the Punjab in March 1947 that convinced Nehru that
partition should take place quickly. This was formalized in the 3rd June Plan of 1947
in which Mountbatten, the new Viceroy brought about partition in August 1947.
It may be concluded that the victory of the Labour Party was the most decisive
factor in the partition of India. After winning the election it acted wisely and preferred
to reconstruct England after the WW-II instead of retaining the burden of colonial rule
over India. Moreover, it had demanded independence of India after the Atlantic
Charter agreed between British PM and the US President in August 1941.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946



Last British attempt for Indian unity → some solution acceptable to all parties
A 3 member-mission of British cabinet →Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander &
Pethic Lawrence (Secretary of State for India) reached India, March 1946
Dialogue with major parties & found:
o Jinnah wanted independent Pakistan with undivided Punjab & Bengal→
after this, central agency might be considered to look after some common
subjects
o INC → totally independent & undivided India
o Cabinet Mission → an interim govt, while the British were leaving → the
interim govt to form an All India Commission of elected members → the
commission to decide whether one or two constitutions for India → INC &ML
rejected it.
o May 1946, final proposal of the Mission → grouping of provinces → no
Pakistan ; 3 groups of provinces → (1) the Hindu Majority Provinces (2) NW
Muslims majority provinces (3) NE Muslim majority Provinces.
o Full autonomy for each group → could make its own constitution
o Defence, foreign affairs & communication to be under a Central Indian
Union.
o ML approved it, but Nehru →declared it just a proposal & so, not binding on
future Indian govt after independence.
o ML was forced to drop the plan.
Direct Action Day





Summer 1946 → British withdrawal ready
ML feared Hindu domination if British left without settling the question of
Pakistan → ML wanted to convey a message of its strength to the British.
July 1946 → ML passed resolution asking Muslims to be ready for final struggle
for Pakistan.
16 Aug 1946 → Direct Action Day to show strength.
‘Great Calcutta Killing’ → 4000 people were killed.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the Cabinet Mission Plan?
(4)
Ans. In March 1946, the British sent a three member delegation to India to hold talks with
the INC and the ML. It included Sir Stafford Cripps, Lord Pethic Lawrence and Mr. A.
V. Alexander. The Commission first proposed the formation of an All India
Commission by an interim government, After its rejection by the INC and the ML, it
proposed an Indian Federation with three groups of provinces: the Hindu majority
territories, the western Muslim provinces, and Bengal and Assam. The ML accepted
it but Nehru termed it only a scheme that was not binding on any Indian government.
Q:
Why did the Cabinet Mission fail?
(7)
Ans.
It was rejected by the INC and the ML. British made a last attempt to keep
India united and dispatched a commission of three members of the British Cabinet in
March 1946. They were Lord Pethic Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and Mr. A. V.
Alexander. The Commission found dichotomy between the INC and the ML. the INC
insisted on an undivided and independent India whereas the ML demanded
independence and partition of India. Both parties firmly stuck to their guns.
The Commission, therefore, proposed the formation of an interim government
that would set up an All India Commission. This Commission would comprise
members of the Provincial and Central Legislatures. It would decide whether there
should be one or two states after the British had left. Both parties rejected it as they
wanted a permanent settlement in the presence of the British.
Finally, in May 1946, the Cabinet Mission announced its final plan according
to which a federation of India was to be set up comprising three autonomous units:
one unit of Hindu majority provinces, another unit of the western Muslim provinces
and a third unit of Bengal and Assam. Each unit could make its own constitution and
foreign affairs, defence and communication would be under the central government.
The ML accepted it and was ready to nominate members but Nehru stated that the
INC would not be bound by the plan after the British departure. This spoiled the whole
scheme.
Q:
What was the Direct Action Day?
(4)
Ans: By late summer 1946, the British were planning to leave India. The ML feared a Hindudominated India if British left without settling the question of Pakistan. In that case
they would suffer at the hands of the Hindus. So, it was important to demonstrate
Muslim solidarity on a large scale to all. In July 1946 the ML passed a resolution
asking Muslims to be ready for final struggle for Pakistan. On 16 th Aug 1946, the ML
called for a Direct Action Day to show the strength of Muslims. This marked the start
of widespread communal riots in various parts of India. In the ‘Great Calcutta Killing’,
4000 people were killed.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
New Pattern Question
Source A, an excerpt from Jinnah’s speech in July 1946:
“We want peace, but if war is forced upon us, we accept it. Now the time has come
for the Muslim nation to resort to Direct Action, to achieve Pakistan, to assert their just
rights and get rid of the British slavery and contemplated future caste-Hindu
domination.”
Q (a): According to Source A what message is being conveyed by
Jinnah?
(3)
Ans. According to Jinnah the circumstances were forcing the Muslims to adopt violent
means as all their efforts for a peaceful settlement of division of India had failed. He
is urging Muslims to be ready to take direct control of the Muslim majority provinces
that would become the independent state of Pakistan. He is asking them to struggle
to get rid of the long period of British rule and a possible Hindu rule on a united India.
Source B, a scene of riots resulting from observance of the Direct Action
Day:
Q (b): What does Source B tell us about the political situation of India in
August 1946?
[5]
Ans.
It is a horrible scene showing several dead bodies at one place. Some people seem
to have been killed recently while the bodies of others have decayed visibly. The condition of
the dead and the presence of vultures over them proves that the local authorities have not
paid attention to this tragedy. The buildings in the neighborhood are damaged and carry a
deserted look which means that the inhabitants have abandoned the place to save their lives.
The number of the dead conveys the message that the violence would soon spread to other
parts of India as there would be a wave of retaliation by the affected community. Such
campaigns would eventually force the British to announce independence as well as partition
of India only after one year.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the 3 June Plan?
(4)
Ans. British PM Attlee announced that India would be independent by June 1948. He sent
the new Viceroy Lord Mountbatten in March 1947 to finalize the plan of independence
of India. Realising that partition of India was inevitable, on 3rd June 1947, he
announced that there would be two states, India and Pakistan each having a
Dominion status. Muslim majority provinces would decide to join either state by voting.
Both countries would adopt the 1935 Act as the interim constitution.
Q:
What was the Radcliffe Award?
(4)
Ans. Mountbatten appointed a Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to draw the
boundary line between India and Pakistan. Radcliffe had four assistants, two
nominated by the ML and two by the INC. The Radcliffe Award was announced on
16th August 1947. The ML was disappointed as Calcutta in Bengal and the Muslim
majority districts of Frozepur and Gurdaspur in Punjab were given to India. Gurdaspur
provided a land route to India to have access to Kashmir. Jinnah unwillingly accepted
the Award.
Q:
What was the Independence Act?
(4)
th
Ans. It was passed on 15 August 1947 and stated that from that day India would be
partitioned into two Dominion states: India and Pakistan. Each state would be totally
free to make any laws it wished. The 1935 Act would serve as the interim constitution
till both the states had framed their own constitutions. Pakistan adopted 14th August
and India 15th August as the Independence Day.
Q:
Who was Lord Mountbatten?
(4)
Ans. He was a great-grandson of Queen Victoria. He joined the Royal Navy when he was
just 16 and performed meritorious services as the Supreme Commander South-East
Asia. Prime Minister Attlee sent him as the last Viceroy of India in March 1947. He
drafted the scheme of independence and partition of India that is popularly known as
the 3rd June Plan. On the request of the INC he became the 1st Governor General of
India on 15th August 1947 and served in that capacity till 21st June 1948. He with his
family was killed by the IRA (Irish Republican Army) in Ireland in 1979.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q
Were the 14 points of Mr. Jinnah the most important achievement
of Mr. Jinnah between 1929 and 1947? Do you agree?
(14)
Ans:
In 1929, Jinnah came up with his fourteen points in response of the Nehru
Report of 1928. ML had rejected the Nehru Report as it asked for too many sacrifices.
It rejected the idea of separate Muslim electorates and one third Muslim seats in the
Central Government. Jinnah proposed three amendments to the report but the INC
did not accept them. In his fourteen points Jinnah asked for maximum safeguarding
of political rights of Muslims. He demanded one third Muslim seats in the Centre and
maintaining the existing provincial boundaries. He also proposed that no law about
any community to be enforced without three fourth members of the same community
in the legislative assembly approving it. These 14 points became the basis of any
future negotiation with the INC or the British. Also, they gradually evolved into the
demand for Pakistan in 1940.
Jinnah continued to work for the Indian Muslims after his return from England
in 1934. During the INC rule of 1937 – 1939, he reorganized the ML and visited
various provinces to raise the vote bank for ML. The chief ministers of Assam, Bengal
and Punjab formally joined the ML. As a result of his efforts, its membership grew
especially in the Muslim majority provinces. He was also able to improve the image
of ML.
The Lahore resolution was passed in the historic session of ML in March 1940. The
session was presided over by Jinnah and the Resolution was adopted by all the ML
representatives. In this Resolution ML officially demanded a ‘separate and sovereign’
Muslim state in the north-western and north-eastern Muslim majority provinces of
India. It marked the start of active struggle for Pakistan. Now, Jinnah and ML had
become the only guiding light for the Muslims to struggle for independence.
In 1942 the Cripps Mission brought the idea of the “Union of India” comprising
the British Indian provinces and the princely states. In the proposed union, almost all
ministers were to be Indians. The plan allowed any province/provinces to opt out of
the Union. However, Jinnah rejected the plan as he was not satisfied with the “opting
out clause”. The clause did not state the political status of the opting out provinces.
Therefore, Jinnah wanted a more clear and specific mention of Pakistan. Followed by
the Cripps Mission Plan, Jinnah made an important achievement in the Gandhi-Jinnah
talks of 1944. Though the talks failed, Jinnah scored many points. Gandhi had come
to Jinnah to hold talks as he had recognized him as major leader. The INC for the first
time, negotiated with the ML on an equal footing. Mr. Jinnah stood firm on his stance
and did not accept any suggestion of the withdrawal of the demand for Pakistan.
Gandhi’s conditional acceptance of Pakistan was the main outcome of these talks.
Jinnah rejected Gandhi’s proposal of first launching a joint struggle for independence
and later settling the issue of Pakistan.
The victory of the ML in the 1945 elections proved to accelerate the pace of
struggle for achieving Pakistan. The major reason for this dramatic change in favour
of the Muslims from 1937 to 1945 was the increased popularity of ML among Muslims.
The results of the 1945 elections were in favour of ML as it had won most of the
Muslim seats in the Central and Provincial Assemblies. This greatly raised the spirit
of Muslims to continue their struggle for Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Finally, all the efforts of Mr. Jinnah bore their fruit when Lord Mount Batten
announced the future of India in the 3rd June Plan, 1947. In this plan, the British
Government officially announced the independence of India and the creation of two
separate states of India and Pakistan. The Muslim League accepted the plan though
under this Punjab and Bengal were to be divided. Pakistan had finally been accepted
by the British.
In the final analysis it seems that the 14 points were the most important
achievement between 1929 and 1947. If Jinnah had not presented his 14 points,
neither the British nor the INC would have been forced to hold a series of negotiations
with Jinnah in the 1940’s that culminated in the form of creation of Pakistan.
Q:
The Cripps Mission Plan contributed the most towards the
creation of Pakistan between 1940 and 1947. Explain why you
might agree and
disagree.
(14)
Ans: Cripps Mission was sent in March 1942. The British needed Indian support in the
WWII. So, they dispatched a team, the Cripps Mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps, with
a set of proposals for the future of India in March 1942. The Cripps Mission proposed
the possibility of dominion states for India after the war. It also provided for any
province to opt out of the proposed Union of India. The Plan reflected British
willingness to gradually decolonize India. Gandhi and Jinnah rejected the proposals
and this showed the possibility of a united stance against the British, though Gandhi
and Jinnah had their own reasons to reject it. For Gandhi, the British were not in a
position to put forward such a scheme as they would have to leave India sooner or
later. He, therefore, commented on the plan by saying that it was a post- dated cheque
on a failing bank. He launched the Quit India movement and was arrested with many
other INC leaders. Jinnah felt disappointed as he wanted a clear mention of Pakistan
and was not satisfied with the ‘opting out clause’. So, the plan was turned down by
Indians. The British, it seems, had indirectly acknowledge the idea of Pakistan.
Two years before the Cripps Mission, a historic session of ML was held in Minto Park
Lahore, 22-23 March, 1940. It was presided over by Mr. Jinnah. Maulvi Fazal ul Haq
presented the Lahore Resolution demanding that ‘Regions in which the Muslims are
numerically a majority, as in the north western and eastern zone of India, should be
grouped to constitute independent state(s) in which the constituent units shall be
autonomous and sovereign’. The Resolution was passed on 23rd March and
eventually became known as the Pakistan Resolution. The Resolution was
unanimously adopted by all ML representatives from both Muslims majority and
Muslim minority provinces. It was a success for ML as it now formally started the
Pakistan Movement and mobilized Indian Muslims on the ML platform for their
common goal.
After Gandhi was released from jail, he wrote to Jinnah to hold talks with him about
the future of India. Jinnah accepted it and invited Gandhi at his home in Bombay.
Several rounds of talk hiss were held in June, 1944. The talks showed Gandhi’s
acknowledgement of Jinnah as a major leader and ML as a major Muslim Political
party. He also suggested joint struggle of INC and ML after which the partition of India
could be discussed. This shows his conditional acceptance of Pakistan. Though
Gandhi rejected the two nation theory by saying that Muslims were mainly local
converts, Jinnah asserted that Muslims were a nation by any definition because of
their historic, cultural, religious and linguistic differences with Hindus. Jinnah asked
for keeping the defence and foreign affairs under the provincial governments in case
of a united India. This shows strength of Jinnah’s determination for achieving
Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The 1945-46 elections results were in favour of Pakistan.ML swept the board with
87% of the Muslim votes. In the Central Assembly, ML won all 30 seats reserved for
Muslims. In the Provincial Assemblies too it performed impressively by winning
446/495 seats. The results proved that ML was the only major party for Muslims.
Performance of ML justified and augmented its demanded for Pakistan.
Finally, after hectic efforts, Lord Mountbatten announced the plan of independence of
India on 3rd June, 1947.Under the 3rd June Plan India was to be divided into two states,
India and Pakistan on 15th August 1947. Each state was to have a Dominion status
with an Executive (Governor General) responsible to a Constituent Assembly
(parliament) Muslim majority provinces would vote to remain part of India or join
Pakistan. As a result of voting Sindh and Balochistan joined Pakistan whereas Punjab
and Bengal got divided along communal lines. After a referendum, the NWFP also
joined Pakistan. The 3rd June Plan was the fruit of all efforts of Jinnah and ML in
keeping Indian Muslims united for a common goal of achieving Pakistan. The Plan
also reflected the magnitude of the pressure of ML on both the British and INC.
Cripps Mission may be regarded as the most important contribution towards Pakistan
because through it British demonstrated their willingness to leave and hinted at the
possibility of Pakistan. This boosted the confidence of ML making it more determined.
Or
Students may give the following judgement:
The Lahore Resolution was the most important factor in the creation of Pakistan
because it was a collective demand of Muslims of both Muslim majority and Muslim
minority provinces through the platform of ML. After the passage of Lahore Resolution
ML remained unshaken in its commitment of achieving a separate homeland for
Muslims.
Q:
To what extent was Direct Action Day more significant in the
creation of Pakistan than other key events of the 1940s? Explain
your answer.
[14]
Ans.
Muslim League (ML) was concerned over future of Muslims after British departure. It
decided to show solidarity and strength of Muslims. Lord Wavell’s invitation to the Congress
to form an interim government added to their concerns. It was also known that a majority of
the Labour Members of the Parliament were more sympathetic to the Congress than to the
Idea of Pakistan. In July 1946, it passed a resolution asking Muslims to prepare for the final
struggle against both the British and Congress. On 16th August 1946, the Direct Action Day
was observed to demonstrate the strength of Muslim feelings, and to stop the British
government giving in to the Congress. Jinnah called on Muslims to protest peacefully and in
a disciplined manner. However, violence erupted and spread to several parts of India. In
Calcutta alone 4000 deaths were reported. British got worried about a civil war and had to
change their plan for partition.
A historic session of ML was held in Minto Park Lahore, 22-23 March, 1940. It was
presided over by Mr. Jinnah. Maulvi Fazal ul Haq presented the Lahore Resolution
demanding that ‘Regions in which the Muslims are numerically a majority, as in the north
western and eastern zone of India, should be grouped to constitute independent state(s) in
which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign’. The Resolution was passed
on 23rd March and eventually became known as the Pakistan Resolution. This marked the
start of an active struggle for Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The British needed Indian support in the WWII. So, they dispatched a team, the Cripps
Mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps, with a set of proposals for the future of India in March
1942. The Cripps Mission proposed the possibility of dominion states for India after the war.
It also provided for any province to opt out of the proposed Union of India. The Plan reflected
British willingness to gradually decolonize India. Gandhi rejected the plan as he knew the
British would soon be leaving India. He launched the Quit India movement and was arrested
with many other INC leaders. Jinnah felt disappointed as he wanted a clear mention of
Pakistan and was not satisfied with the ‘opting out clause’. So, the plan was turned down by
Indians. The British, it seems, had indirectly acknowledge the idea of Pakistan.
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks were held in June, 1944. Gandhi suggested a joint struggle of
INC and ML after which the partition of India could be discussed. This shows his conditional
acceptance of Pakistan. Though Gandhi rejected the two nation theory by saying that
Muslims were mainly local converts, Jinnah asserted that Muslims were a nation by any
definition because of their historic, cultural, religious and linguistic differences with Hindus.
Jinnah asked for keeping the defence and foreign affairs under the provincial governments
in case of a united India. This shows strength of Jinnah’s determination for achieving
Pakistan.
The 1945-46 elections results were in favour of Pakistan.ML swept the board with
87% of the Muslim votes. In the Central Assembly, ML won all 30 seats reserved for Muslims.
In the Provincial Assemblies too it performed impressively by winning 446/495 seats. The
results proved that ML was the only major party for Muslims. Performance of ML justified and
augmented its demanded for Pakistan.
In March 1946, the British sent a three member delegation to India to hold talks with
the INC and the ML. It included Sir Stafford Cripps, Lord Pethic Lawrence and Mr. A. V.
Alexander. The Commission first proposed the formation of an All India Commission by an
interim government, After its rejection by the INC and the ML, it proposed an Indian
Federation with three groups of provinces: the Hindu majority territories, the western Muslim
provinces, and Bengal and Assam. The ML accepted it but Nehru termed it only a scheme
that was not binding on any Indian government.
Finally, after hectic efforts, Lord Mountbatten announced the plan of independence of
India on 3rd June, 1947.Under the 3rd June Plan India was to be divided into two states, India
and Pakistan on 15th August 1947. Each state was to have a Dominion status with an
Executive (Governor General) responsible to a Constituent Assembly (parliament) The 3 rd
June Plan was the fruit of all efforts of Jinnah and ML in keeping Indian Muslims united for a
common goal of achieving Pakistan. The Plan also reflected the magnitude of the pressure
of ML on both the British and INC.
It may be concluded that Direct Action Day contributed the most towards the creation of
Pakistan because the British were persuaded to re-evaluate the demand of ML for a
separate Muslim homeland. The resultant violence forced the British to accept the idea of
Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Section 3
(1947-1999)
1947-1948
Problems of Partition and the Achievements of Mr. Jinnah
Early difficulties/Problems of Partition:
(1)
Geographical problems:
Two wings, 1600Km Indian territory b/w E & W Pakistan; communication difficult b/w
the two wings; gulf b/w E & W Pak would widen also due to cultural, political and
historical differences; E.Pak, mainly Begalis; W,Pak, diverse recial graph; Punjabis,
Sindhis, Pathans, Baloch.
(2)
Political problems:
India had an established govt infrastructure; state buildings, officials, team of
experienced politicians, guidance of Mountbatten; Ist Gov General; Pak’s 1st Govt &
Constituent. Assembly; mainly rich landowners, some civil servants with little
experience; E.Pak; above 50% population but bulk of civil and military establishment
from W.Pak; Jinnah had to find a capital, form a govt & inculate feeling of national
unity among the people; falling health of Jinnah; tuberculosis with overwork;
performed most executive duties though G.G.was not required to do (later this
precedent would be misused by selfish politicians).
(3)
Economic Problems;
Mostly underdeveloped parts; 90% rural population; 8 towns with population over
100,000+ Karachi, the only developed city; no surplus agricultural production except
for jute; world’s 70% jute in E.Pak but no jute mill’ few other industries
cotton
textile, cement & sugar.
(4)
Social Problems:
Diverse regional & linguistic group lacking common values except for Islam; lack of
nationalism of a single nation; Bengal & Balochistan reluctantly joined Pakistan, so
did the NWFP; Urdu not accepted sincerely as the national language.
(5)
Princely States:
462 pincely states; choice of accession to Pak/India; most states joined either country
based on location & population composition; problem in Hyderabad ,Junagarh &
Kashmir; Hyderabad and Junagarh; Muslim rulers, non-Muslim majority,
geographically closer to India; Muslim rulers wanted to join Pak, India forcibly took
over both (Aug 1948, Hyderabad; Nov 1947 Junagarh).
Trouble in Kashmir; largest state, Muslim majority, Hindu Maharaja, Hari Singh,
wanted accession to India; forced Muslims to leave Kashmir; unrest, Indian troops, 1st
war over Kashmir; UN mediated a ceasefire, January 1948; Azad Kashmir & IHK
(Indian Held Kashmir) by a Line of Control; issue; Unresolved, no referendum as
promised by Nehra.
(6)
Division of assets:
Financial assets at 17:5 for India & Pak; Pak’s share Rs. 750 m; India gave Rs.200m
only; war began, India with held the rest; argued Pak would get weapons for war,
asked Pak to forget Kashmir; Gandhi’s influence; another Rs.500 m to Pak.
Military assets; Pak needed weapons & force for security; 36% & 64%; for Pak & India,
after a lot Brit reluctance to division; India gave worn out, damaged weapons to Pak;
Pak, short of officers; had to hire Brit officers for its army; no ordinance factory in Pak
& India refused any factory to Pak; paid Rs.60 m & Pak built a factory at Wah. Division
of regiments only went smooth; Muslim troops to Pak & non-Muslims to India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
(7)
The Canal Water Dispute:
Rivers of Pak from India; headworks of canals in Indian Punjab due to division of
Punjab; Indian promise not to stop water but soon it closed two headworks; Ferozpur
and Madhupur (Bari Doab Canal) Indian; claim that the headworks in its territory; Pak
argued its economy depended on irrigation canals; May 1948, a temporary
agreement, India allowed flow of water conditionally; mediation of World Bank, Indus
Water Treaty, 1960.
(8)
Accommodation of refugees:
violence in Punjab & other provinces even before partition; millions of Muslims were
forced to migrate to Pak; migrants were attacked by Sikhs & Hindus; two millions in
Karachi alone; poor resources in Pak to provide medical care & shelter; more burden
on a newly created & underdeveloped country.
Achievements of Jinnah/Govt of Pak in overcoming early difficulties:

(1)
Mix of successes & failures in one year:
Making a government:
Vital to run a state ; announced 1st Constituent Assembly, Cabinet under P.M Liaqat
Ali Khan, Karachi as Capital, Urdu as national language, Central Secertariat; himself
as G.G. (Gov General); even then performed most of executive functions.
Inexperienced politicians & civil servants + shortage of officers & equipment remained
a problem; constitution not made in his life
(2)
Nation building:
Urged to promote nationalism, reject regional & linguistic differences; Urdu, the only
national language, though E. Pak resented it; Declared himself “Protector General” of
minorities to counter religious Intolerance; encouraged nation to accommodate
refugees; set up Relief Fund for recognition of Pak as nation state, membership of
UNO, Sep 1947.
(3)
Building an economy:
State Bank of Pak, July 1948
 Announced first industrial policy, 1948 to set up industries
 Compromise with India in the Canal water dispute; Indian promise not to damage
Pakistan’s agriculture
 Pak share of financial assets.
(4)
Establishing National Security;
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Hired Brit officers in Pak Army
Set up HQ’s of the armed forces
1st ordinance factory, Wah.
Mobilized army in the 1st Indo-Pak war, 1948.
Stressed, Pak not to be a military state, asked military to act as servants to the
people.
Continued to work for the Kashmir issue till his death.
Laid basis of Pak’s foreign policy; wished Pak-India relation like those of USACanada; the dream was materialized.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the Canal Water Dispute?
(4)
Ans. With the division of Punjab, some of the headworks of rivers of Pakistani Punjab were
left in the Indian Punjab. On 1st April 1948, India closed the Firozpur and Madhupur
headworks, Pakistan faced serious shortage of water as its irrigation system of 6
rivers and 30 canals was seriously affected. Millions of acres of agricultural land was
threatened. Negotiations began between the two states, and in May 1948 some water
was reinstated by India. The issue was fully settled under the Indus Water Treaty
(IWT) in September 1960
Q:
Describe the refugee problem?
(4)
Ans. Communal riots had started in the summer of 1947, and worsened with the
announcement of the Radcliffe Award. Millions of people found themselves living in
the wrong country and were forced to migrate. About 10 million people, both Muslims
and non-Muslims migrated across the Pak-India border. Migrating caravans were
attacked that led to large scale violence and massacre. Around one million people
were killed and 20 million were rendered homeless. Karachi received 2 million
refugees alone.
Q:
Describe the problem of the division of the financial assets.
(4)
Ans. The British decided to divide all financial assets on the ratio of 17 to India and 5 to
Pakistan. In June 1947, the British agreed to pay 750 million rupees to Pakistan out
of a total of 4 billion rupees in the Reserve Bank. First 200 million rupees were paid
but the remaining amount was stopped as the first Kashmir war broke out in 1948.
India feared that Pakistan could use the money to buy weapons to fight against India.
On Gandhi’s insistence, a further 500 million rupees were given to Pakistan and the
remaining 50 million rupees were never paid.
Q:
Describe the problem of the division of the military assets.
(4)
Ans. In August 1947, all weapons were left in India. The British were initially reluctant to
divide the armed forces and the weapons, but eventually agreed to give 36% of the
assets to Pakistan and 44% to India. India deliberately gave worn out and damaged
weapons to Pakistan. The armed forces personnel were given the option of joining
either Pakistan or India. Majority of the Muslim regiments went to Pakistan and nonMuslim to India. Pakistan got only 2,500 trained Muslim officers against its need of
4,000.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Sample Question
Source A, part of Jinnah’s address to the Constituent Assembly in
August 1947.
“If you will work in cooperation, forgetting the past, burying the hatchet, you are bound to
succeed. If you change your past and work together in a spirit that every one of you, no matter
to what community he belongs, no matter what is his colour, caste or creed, you will surely
make remarkable progress”.
Q(a): What message is being delivered by Jinnah to the Constituent
Assembly?
(3)
Ans. Jinnah is advising the members of the Constituent Assembly to work as a single
community while forgetting all bitter memories of the past. He is pointing to the
importance of developing a sense of belonging to one nation regardless of their
cultural background. He is giving them a guarantee of success if they erased all other
marks of distinction or identity.
Source B
Q.(b): Describe the condition of the refugees.
Ans.
[5]
This seems to be a hastily arranged set up for the refugees. They have been given
shelter in a building that looks to be a military barrack. Refugees are lying on simple cots
without any additional comfort. There is no luggage visible around them and that means they
have reached Pakistan leaving all their assets in India. This also means they have been
forced by Hindus and Sikhs to leave for Pakistan. Many have managed to avail the shaded
part of the building while many are forced to stay under the open sky. We can infer that the
government and people of Pakistan will have to face this challenge on their own without any
hope of any kind of foreign aid.
Source A: Part of an Article by Muhammad Iqbal Chawla of University of the Punjab
Lahore
“For Pakistan, among the scars of partition, the unfair division of the boundaries is
one still abundantly draining. The friendly relations could have been established in 1947, only
if Mountbatten had not become a party with Congress to help Nehru have his birthplaceKashmir by making Radcliffe to compromise in the Radcliffe Award. The Boundary
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Commission did not do justice with Pakistan as it gave Gurdaspur, a Muslim majority district
to India.”
Q.1 (a)
What does source A tell us about the problems resulting from
the Radcliffe Award?
[3]
Ans.
According to the source Pakistan continues to have a bleeding wound by the unfair
division of the boundaries between the two states. It was possible to have friendly Indo-Pak
relations if Mountbatten had stayed neutral. Giving Gurdaspur to India was an injustice to
Pakistan.
Source B, a photograph of refugees migrating to Pakistan in 1947.
Q. Describe what Source B talks about the condition of refugees.
[5]
Ans.
This is migrating caravan of very poor refugees who have failed to board a train or
bus. The refugees barely managed to get some bull cart that has a limited capacity to
accommodate many passengers. Those on the bull cart are carrying some of their
belongings. This means they had a threat to their lives due to which they had to leave their
native towns in a hurry. These emigrants perhaps had been denied any road or railway
transport means. Many refugees are accompanying the cart partly to provide security, and
partly to reach Pakistan in groups. Accommodation of refugees would become a major
problem for the newly created state of Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why was Pakistan faced with a refugee problem in 1947?
Ans.
(7)
Communal violence had started in India in the summer of 1947 when the 3rd June
Plan was announced. Although Congress and the Muslim League called for peace, violence
grew across India with the passage of time. Several Muslims wanted to live in their
independent homeland. They began to migrate, and these migrating families were attacked
by angry mobs led by extremist Hindus and Sikhs.
The Radcliffe Award divided Bengal and Punjab along religious lines into the Indian
and Pakistani provinces. With this many people found themselves living in the wrong country.
Muslims in many parts of Punjab and neighbouring provinces were forced to leave India. It is
alleged that the Indian government deliberately created difficulties for the newly created state
of Pakistan. In non-Muslim princely states the local authorities used troops to support attacks
on Muslims, forcing them to migrate. Karachi alone received about 2 million emigrants.
Things got so worse that martial law was imposed on Delhi in September 1947 to stop
the massacre of Muslims. Hindus and Sikhs living in Pakistan were, in retaliation, targeted by
the Pakistani Muslims. They attacked their houses and forced them to leave Pakistan.
Consequently, round 20 million people became homeless in both the countries. Nearly one
million deaths were reported of the Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs. It became difficult for Pakistan
to accommodate so many refugees as it did not have enough resources to provide food,
shelter, clothing and medical aid to a huge population of refugees.
Q:
Formation of a government was the most important challenge faced
by the newly created state of Pakistan in 1947.
Do you agree? Explain.
(14)
Ans: Pakistan had to make an efficient government in 1947. There was a shortage of the
state buildings, office equipment and devoted and experienced politicians. Also, there
were not many experienced officers and civil servants to run the state affairs. Except
for Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan and few others, most of the politicians were either
inexperienced or insincere. India, on the other hand, had a huge team of skilled
politicians with Lord Mountbatten as its 1st Governor General. Therefore, Pakistan
found it difficult to build a strong political base. The process of making a constitution
was also delayed as there were not many experts in the Constituent Assembly. Due
to a shortage of state buildings, military barracks were temporarily used as offices.
Above all, Jinnah’s deteriorating health and his death only one year after the creation
of Pakistan worsened the political problems.
Division of military and financial assets was also a major dispute. Pakistan needed
funds and military equipment to run the state affairs and ensure its defence. India
unwillingly gave damaged and worn out weapons to Pakistan under the agreed ratio
of 36% of military assets for Pakistan. So, Pakistan was forced to build an arms
manufacturing factory, the POF (Pakistan Ordinance Factory) at Wah. Only the
division of the troops went smoothly as majority of Muslim troops opted for Pakistan
and majority of non-Muslims for India. Similarly, out of a total of 750 million rupees,
the Indian government first gave only 200 million rupees to Pakistan. Then the war on
Kashmir broke out and India withheld the remaining payment saying Pakistan would
buy weapons with that money. On Gandhi’s insistence, another 500 million rupees
were given to Pakistan. The remaining 50 million rupees were never paid.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Another big problem was the accommodation of refugees coming from India. After
partition of India, Muslims living in the Indian Punjab and the neighbouring districts
were forced to migrate to Pakistan. The migrating families were attacked in an
organized way by the militant Hindus and Sikhs. Pakistan began to receive trains
loaded with the dead and the injured. The government of Pakistan had little to provide
shelter, medical care and food to millions of refugees on urgent grounds. They were
accommodated in refugee camps and military barracks without appropriate facilities
of living.
Then there was the issue of the division of the canal water. In April 1948, India
closed the two headworks Madhupur and Firozpur that controlled the waters of Ravi
and Sutlej rivers of Pakistan. This created a serious shortage of water threatening the
crop production in the affected areas of Punjab. This issue was finally solved under
the mediation of the World Bank through Indus Water Treaty in 1960.
Division of the princely states was also a problem. India had a total of 462 princely
states and these states were given choice of accession either to India or to Pakistan
after the partition. 459 states joined either state on the basis of their location and
population composition quite smoothly. Problem arose in the states of Hyderabad,
Junagadh and Kashmir. Hyderabad and Junagadh had Muslim rulers ruling the nonMuslim majority states. India occupied the two states using its military. State of
Jammu and Kashmir had a Muslim majority but was ruled by the Maharaja of the
Dogra Dynasty. Much to the disappointment of the Kashmiri Muslims, the Maharaja
continued to delay the announcement of accession to Pakistan. This led to protest
and violence in Kashmir. The Maharaja invited the Indian army to help him, and this
resulted in the 1st Pak-India war in the start of 1948. A ceasefire was reached with the
help of the UN and a temporary boundary line, the LoC (Line of Control) was drawn
between the IHK (Indian Held Kashmir) and Azad Kashmir. It still remains an
unresolved issue between the two states.
East and West Pakistan were separated by a 1600 km long Indian territory. This
created difficulties of communication between the two wings of Pakistan. People living
in the two wings were often ignorant of the problems of each other. This geographical
gap was exploited by India to create difficulties for Pakistan. During the Pak-India war,
the Indian government would deny its territory to the Pakistani aeroplanes flying
between East and West Pakistan. Moreover, the cultural differences between the two
wings and within West Pakistan also created political and social problems. Various
cultural communities of Pakistan had little in common except for Islam.
It seems that formation of a government was the most important problem because if
Pakistan had established a concrete political foundation after independence, it would
have been able to overcome other problems with less difficulty while starting some
social development projects with a team of expert politicians.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
“Dealing with economic issues was the most important
contribution made by the Quaid-e-Azam as the first GovernorGeneral of Pakistan.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your
answer.
(14)
Ans:
Mr. Jinnah became the first Governor General of Pakistan, in August 1947. India had
withheld Pakistan’s share in the financial and military assets. Mr. Jinnah negotiated with the
Indian government for the release of 750 million rupees. He took several other steps to run
the newly created state. He inaugurated the State Bank of Pakistan in July 1948, and
Pakistan issued its own currency. A Development Board was set up in 1948 for planning a
strategy for the industrial development. When India closed the Firozpur and Madhupur
headworks, Pakistan faced serious shortage of water. Mr. Jinnah persuaded the Indian
government to release some water so that Pakistan’s agriculture was not destroyed. The
issue of canal waters was, however, fully resolved as late as 1960.
The Government of Pakistan presented its first budget in 1948-49. It was a balanced
budget which indicated Pakistan’s stable economic conditions. However, despite his best
efforts, there was no major industrial development till the 1960’s. India gave 700 million
rupees to Pakistan but the remaining 50 million were never paid. Jinnah took various steps
for the formation of a government. He declared Karachi as the capital of Pakistan and
inaugurated the headquarters of the armed forces and the civil secretariat. He made it clear
that the sole role of the army was to be ‘the servant of the people’. However, the future
governments could not keep army from politics.
Jinnah appointed the first Constituent Assembly and the first cabinet with Liaqat Ali
Khan as the Prime Minister. The 1935 Act was adopted as the interim constitution with some
amendments. He urged the civil servants to dedicate their lives to the service of the nation.
In order to highlight Pakistan’s peaceful aims, Pakistan joined the UNO in September 1947.
Jinnah wanted peaceful relations with India just like the US-Canada relations.
However, Jinnah retained executive powers which, according to the parliamentary
form of government, should have been relegated to the PM. He used to chair the Cabinet
meetings, and take important decisions. This was used as a wrong precedent by the future
Governor Generals. The process of constitution making was lingered on even after his death
as he had to induct some non-political figures in the cabinet due to a shortage of genuine
politicians. His dream of good relations with India was also shattered and both countries had
their first war in 1948.
For building a nation, Jinnah declared Urdu as the national language, so that it could
unify various linguistic groups in Pakistan. In order to ensure the protection of religious
minorities Jinnah declared himself as the “Protector General of Minorities”. In his address to
the Constituent Assembly, he had made it clear that all Pakistanis were free to follow their
religion without any fear. Declaring Urdu as the only national language was strongly resented
by East Pakistan where all people spoke Bengali. They considered this as a step of West
Pakistan’s domination over East Pakistan. The Quaid was opposed to religious intolerance,
provincialism and racialism. In order to safeguard the rights of the minorities, and project
Pakistan as a tolerant state he adopted the symbolic title of the ‘Protector-General’ of religious
minorities. His advice was often sought by the non-Muslims, and he inducted a Hindu minister
in the cabinet.
To help the refugees, he set up the Quaid-e-Azam Relief Fund, and temporarily
shifted his headquarter to Lahore to personally supervise the process of their
accommodation. Unfortunately, millions of refugees would continue to suffer after his death
because of shortage of the required resources. All of them could not get medical care, jobs
and accommodation. He also negotiated with the Indian government for the Canal Water
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
dispute, and persuaded it not to stop the water altogether. The conflict was, however, fully
resolved years after his death in 1960.
In order to resolve the conflict of the three princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh
and Jammu and Kashmir he could not get any success as India occupied the first two states
by force and imposed a war on Pakistan for Kashmir in April 1948. Thus Jinnah’s dream of
peaceful relations with India was shattered. To conclude it may be said that Jinnah was quite
successful in overcoming most of the early problems because, against all odds and wishes
of India, Pakistan not only survived but also began to make progress in various sectors of
economy and became an important country in the regional and global politics.
Q. How successful was the Government of Pakistan in solving the problems
of partition?
[14]
Or
How successful was Jinnah in developing the newly created state of
Pakistan?
[14]
Ans.
Jinnah faced many serious challenges to run the newly created state of Pakistan.
After the 3rd June 1947 Plan, the ML had a little over two months to make preparations for
handling the largest Muslim state in the world. In order to frame a constitution, he established
the Constituent Assembly on 10 August 1947, under his Chaimanship. He addressed the
Assembly on 11 August, and urged the need of making a constitution for Pakistan. The 1935
Act was adopted as the interim constitution with some amendments. He declared Karachi as
the Capital of Pakistan. There he set up the first Civil Secretariat, and urged the civil servants
to dedicate their lives to the service of the nation. He inaugurated the headquarters of three
armed forces, and negotiated with India for the release of military and financial assets for the
defence of Pakistan. An ordinance factory, the POF, was set up in Wah. In order to highlight
Pakistan’s peaceful aims, Pakistan joined the UNO in September 1947. Jinnah wanted
peaceful relations with India just like the US-Canada relations.
However, it is to be noted that Jinnah retained the executive powers which, according
to the parliamentary form of government, should have been relegated to the PM. He used to
chair the cabinet meetings, and take important decisions himself. This was used as a wrong
precedent by the future Governor Generals. The process of constitution making was lingered
on even after his death as he had to induct some non-political figures in the cabinet due to a
shortage of genuine politicians. His dream of good relations with India was also shattered
and both countries had their first war in 1948. However, due to his failing health, other
problems of partition created by India, and a lack of sincere and experienced constitutional
experts, there was no progress on constitution making.
Jinnah inaugurated the State Bank of Pakistan in July 1948 so that Pakistan
introduced its own currency. The Government of Pakistan presented its first budget in 194849. It was a balanced budget which indicated Pakistan’s stable economic conditions. He also
announced the First Industrial Policy of Pakistan. However, despite his best efforts, there was
no major industrial development till the 1960’s. India gave 700 million rupees to Pakistan but
the remaining 50 million were never paid.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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The Quaid was opposed to religious intolerance, provincialism and racialism. He
advised the people to think, feel and act as Pakistanis and be proud of it. He toured all the
areas of Pakistan to spread the message of Pakistani nationalism. In order to safeguard the
rights of the minorities, and project Pakistan as a tolerant state he adopted the symbolic title
of the ‘Protector-General’ of religious minorities. His advice was often sought by the nonMuslims, and he inducted a Hindu minister in the cabinet. He emphasized the Islamic ideas
about justice and equality demanded that any non-Muslims who chose to remain in Pakistan
should be treated fairly. Jinnah could do little about the geographical distance of 1,000 miles
between East and West Pakistan. This geographical distance would gradually become a
political gulf that would lead to the separation of East Pakistan in 1971.
To help the newly arrived refugees he set up a Relief Fund to rehabilitate them as
quickly as possible, and temporarily shifted his headquarter to Lahore to personally supervise
the process of their accommodation. Unfortunately, millions of refugees would continue to
suffer after his death because of shortage of the required resources. All of them could not get
medical care, jobs and accommodation. He also negotiated with the Indian government for
the Canal Water dispute, and persuaded it not to stop the water altogether. The conflict was,
however, fully resolved years after his death in 1960.
Jinnah wanted to resolve the issue of the three princely states of Hyderabad,
Junagadh and Jammu and Kashmir but could not get any success as India occupied the first
two states by force and imposed a war on Pakistan for Kashmir in April 1948. Thus Jinnah’s
dream of peaceful relations with India was shattered.
To conclude it may be said that Jinnah was quite successful in overcoming most of
the early problems because of his firm determination, political insight and strong leadership
qualities. He made all achievements while suffering from the terminal stage of pulmonary
tuberculosis that could not deter him from his mission.
1948-1958
Kh. Nazimud Din, 2nd G.G. of Pak [Sep 48 – Oct 51]
Allowed L.A Khan to exercise executive powers, role of G.G became less important
(1)
March, 1949;
The Objective Resolution; Pak being run under the Indian Independence Act; an
amended version of the 1935 Act.
 The constituent Assembly set up a Basic Principles Committee to draw principles
of future constitution.
 Finding of the Committee are called the Objectives Resolution; democracy,
independent judiciary, fundamental human rights, Islam & protection of minorities
etc.
 Presented to the Assembly, Sep 1950
 It was opposed & criticized by:
 The religious groups who considered it insufficiently Islamic
 E.Pak who resented equal seats of W.Pak as it had more population resented
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
(2)
& Urdu as the national language
Provincial politicians who wanted provincial autonomy & opposed power to G.G.
and central govt.
PRODA (Public & Representatives Office Disqualification Act).
Complaints against corrupt officials, inquiry by judges & debarring those found guilty
Mainly, misused by govt against the opposition.
(3)
Minorities Agreement /Liaqat –Nehru Pact;
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(4)
Hyderabad, Junagarh and Kashmir;
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(5)
Stopped movement of refugees across the border and visa system for refugees
17 Sep 1947, Indian attack on Hyderabad; 5 Jan 1948 UNO arranged a ceasefire
on the Kashmir war
India occupied Junagarh; February 1948, under a plebiscite about 99% of the
population voted to join India. Thus Junagarh part of India.
Rawalpindi conspiracy, 1951;
Jan 1951, Gen-Gracey was replaced by Gen Ayub.
 Now most officers were Pakistani
 Many officers still unhappy & organized a failed coup against the Govt, March
1951; the Rawalpindi conspiracy
 Arrest of 15 officers & punishment
 16 Oct 1951; Liaqat was shot dead, Rawalpindi.
3rd G.G, Malik Ghulam Muhammad (MGM) Oct 1951 – Aug 1955.
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Death of L.A Khan; MGM, former Finance Minister, replaced Kh.Nazim as G.G
Kh.Nazim became P.M
1951, a six year plan for economic development by the Planning Commision
1953, a Planning Board to review the development & prepared a five year Plan to
follow on from the six year plan from 1956
1952; 1st jute mill, Narayarjang, E.Pak & discovery of natural gas, Sui, Balochistan.
1951-53, severe food shortage violence against govt + about the Qadians – Dec,
1952, revised version of Basic Principles Committee’s report.
Apr 1953, Kh.Nazim was replaced by Muhammad Ali Bogra.
Under Bogra’s govt:
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Apr 1953; US,Canada,Australia extended aid to Pak
Planning Board + Pak joined the CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation),1954
Revised version of the constitutional report unpopular; MGM wanted to dominate
but Bogra didn’t allow.
In absence of MGM, Bogra got it up provisions approved by the Assembly e.g.
G.G. to act on advice of his ministers, & the ministers to be members of Assembly.
PRODA was also repealed in the same session.
MGM sent Bogra abroad, dismissed his govt, Sep 1954
Appeal of Maulvi Tamizud Din, Speaker of the Assembly, was upheld by Sindh
High Court but the Federal Court gave decision in favour of MGM.
New Assembly, July 1955
Aug 1955, MGM was forced to resign due to ill health
Iskandar Mirza, 4th G.G.
Iskander Mirza (IM)
As G.G, Aug 1955 – March 1956;
As President, March 1956 – Oct 1958 Politician with a military
background
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Dismissed Bogra, appointed Ch.Muhammad Ali (CMA) new PM, Sept 1955.
Strict instructions to CMA to make the constitution
The constitution was enforced , 23 March,1956; Accord to it
 Urdu and Bangali national languages
 Equal seats of E & W Pak
 Parlimentary form of govt but the president could close & dismiss PM.
 Islamic provisions______to enforce Shariah.
 One Unit Scheme & rule of parity to counter numerical majority of E.Pak, though
it was unpopular in E.Pak & the smaller provinces of W.Pak one Unit Scheme
since Oct, 1955.
 Steps for modernization of Pak e.g. industrialization, rural development,
completion of Karachi airport, modernization of railway & expansion of
telecommunication.
 Political differences b/w E & W Pak continued; CMA was dismissed, Sep 1956,
new PM; H.S. Suhrwardy.
 Suharwardy was replaced by I.I Chundrigar, Oct 1957
 Dec 1957, Feroz Khan Noon replaced Chundrigar.
 Noon headed a large coalition govt
 Unpopularity of I.M. grew, lost support of many politicians, postponed elections
due to be held 1957
 Turned to military; 1st martial laq, 7 Oct 1958
 Made Gen Ayub PM, 24 Oct 1958
 Ayub overthrew IM, took all control, 27 Oct, 1958.
 The 1956 constitution was abrogated.
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Khwaja Nazimuddin to the Imposition of the First Martial Law
Q:
What was the Objectives Resolution?
(4)
Ans. The first Constituent Assembly of Pakistan set up a Basic Principles Committee of 25
members to draft the constitution. It presented the Objectives Resolutions on 12th
March 1949. It recommended observance of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance
and social justice so that Muslims and non-Muslims could follow their faith
comfortably. It also recommended a bicameral parliament. It was sharply criticized by
the Ulama/religious scholars and the East Pakistan. This draft was presented to the
Constituent Assembly on 28th September 1950.
Q:
What was the PRODA/Public
Disqualification Act?
and
Representative
Officers
(4)
Ans. It was passed by the government of Liaqat Ali Khan and Khwaja Nazimuddin in 1949.
It was aimed at curbing corruption and misuse of power by the politicians and civil
servants. Complaints in this regard could be made to the Governor-General or
Provincial Governors who could order an enquiry by judges. Anyone found guilty
could be debarred from office for a suitable period of time. However, it was seen as a
device that allowed the ruling elite to remove those it did not like. It was repealed in
September 1954 by the Assembly of Malik Ghulam Muhammad.
Q:
Describe the constitutional crisis of 1950.
(4)
th
Ans. On 28 September 1950, the draft of the Objectives Resolution was presented before
the Constituent Assembly. East Pakistan immediately opposed it as it wanted a share
in the parliament according to the size of its population whereas the Resolution
recommended equal seats of East and West Pakistan. It also opposed imposition of
Urdu as the official language. The provincial politicians opposed the powers of the
head of state and the central government. The Ulama considered the draft
insufficiently Islamic. In November 1950, Liaqat Ali Khan had to withdraw it.
Q:
Describe the Liaqat-Nehru Pact/the Minorities Pact.
(4)
Ans. It was signed to stop the movement of minorities across the Pak-India border. In April
1950, Pakistani PM Liaqat Ali Khan and Indian PM Jawahar Lal Nehru signed this
agreement. It was agreed that each country would provide protection and religious
freedom to the religious minorities living in Pakistan and India so that these minorities
would be encouraged to stay back in their native state. However, the movement of
people belonging to religious minorities continued to migrate across the border as
they did not trust any such statements made by the government about giving them
protection.
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Q:
What was the Rawalpindi conspiracy case?
(4)
Ans. Some army officers were not happy with the government, and they plotted a coup to
overthrow the government. In March 1951, the ‘Rawalpindi Conspiracy Case’ was
discovered by General Ayub Khan and the conspirators were arrested, tried and
imprisoned. They included senior officers like Major-General Akbar Khan and 14 other
officers including the famous poet Faiz Ahmed Faiz. This proved to be a forerunner
of the involvement of army in the politics of Pakistan.
Q:
Why was it so difficult to agree on a new Constitution in 1950? (7)
Ans.
There were divergent views on the future constitution of Pakistan in 1950. The
Objectives Resolution of March 1949 was the first step towards constitution making.
It was presented to the Basic Principles Committee in September 1950, but majority
opposed the proposals of the Committee. East Pakistan had greater population than
West Pakistan and wanted seats in the bicameral parliament according to the size of
its population. West Pakistan insisted on equal seats for both wings.
East Pakistan also opposed Urdu as the only national language since Bengali
was a developed language and there were no regional languages in East
Pakistan.Bengali was such a rich language that the famous Bengali poet,
Rabindrahnath Tagore, became the first Indian to receive the Nobel Prize in literature.
There were riots against Urdu in East Pakistan till both Urdu and Bengali were
declared the national languages.
Many regional and religious politicians also opposed the proposals. For tire
provincial parties, powers of the President and the central government had to be
reduced in order to guarantee provincial autonomy. Religious parties wanted
enforcement of the Sharia' (Islamic law) and considered the Resolution insufficiently
Islamic. Finally, Liaqat Ali Khan had to withdraw the constitutional proposals and
Pakistan would have to wait another six years to have its own constitution.
Q:
Describe the 1954-55 constitutional crisis.
(4)
Ans. Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad wanted to retain the executive powers
whereas his PM, Muhammad Ali Bogra opposed him. He was in favour of a purely
parliamentary form of government with the PM as the executive head of state. On 21st
September 1954, Bogra got an important bill passed by the Assembly while Ghulam
Muhammad was abroad. Under the bill, it was binding on the Governor-General to
take the advice of his Ministers. The Assembly also repealed the PRODA (Public and
Representative Officers Disqualification Act). Ghulam Muhammad, acting quickly,
dissolved the Constituent Assembly and dismissed the Bogra government on 29
September 1954.
Source A: Part of a joint statement of Liaqat Ali Khan and Nehru
“With a heavy heart we both have reached a consensus about stopping the movement
of minorities across the Indo-Pak border. We know well this will lead to division of millions of
families. However, this will give an opportunity to both the countries to set examples of
tolerance and generosity towards the respective minorities. We pledge to materialize this
dream.”
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.1 (a) According to source A what message is being delivered by the two
heads of states?
[3]
Ans.
India and Pakistan have agreed to stop the movement of minorities from one to the
other country. Both the Prime Ministers are expressing their sadness over the decision.
They want to set example of kind treatment of minorities.
Source B, a photograph of Liaqat-Nehru Pact signed in New Delhi in 1950.
Q.
What does Source B tell us about Pak-India relations in 1950?
[5]
Ans.
This is an important meeting the Prime Ministers of Pakistan and India. There are
several delegates of both countries witnessing the signing of the Pact. Liaqat Ali Khan is
wearing the national dress introduced by Jinnah that reflects his strong sense of Pakistani
nationalism whereas Nehru is clad in typical Hindu outfit. Both Prime Ministers have reached
a consensus about stopping the movement of minorities across the border as both are signing
the documents. This Pact would mark a temporary improvement in Pak-India relations as well
as a significant stoppage of minorities across the Indo-Pak border.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Sample Question
Source A, part of the declaration of Malik Ghulam Muhammad,
“The Governor-General, having considered the political crisis with which the country is faced,
has decided to declare a state of emergency. The Constituent Assembly, as at present
constituted, has lost the confidence of the people and can no longer function. Until such time
as elections are held, the administration of the country will be carried out by a reconstituted
Cabinet”.
Q:
According to source A, how is Malik Ghulam Muhammad
justifying his
act?
(3)
Ans. Ghulam Muhammad is referring to the political crisis that necessitated the declaration
of emergency. According to his claim, the Constituent Assembly was rightly dissolved
as it had lost the confidence of the people. He is talking about his plan of holding fresh
elections so that a new assembly could be elected.
Source B,
A Photograph of Malik Ghulam Muhammad inaugurating the Golden
Jublee Session of the Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu in October 1953.
Q: What do we learn about the ambitions of Ghulam Muhammad
regarding the promotion of Urdu?
[5]
Ans.
The source shows a very important occasion as the Governor General is surrounded
by some important state officials. The Baba-e-Urdu, Maulvi Abdul Haq is seated very close
to Malik Ghulam Muhammad, that reflects the recognition of his importance in working for
Urdu. Both carry a serene look that reflects their dedication to the promotion of the national
language. All the participants are wearing the national dress of Pakistan, the traditional
‘sherwani’ with pyjamas that conveys a message of Pakistani nationalism. This will be one of
a series of steps taken by various governments of Pakistan to promote national unity by way
of patronizing the national language, Urdu.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q: Describe the 1956 constitution.
[4]
Ans. It was approved by the 2nd Constituent Assembly elected under the rule of Iskander
Mirza. It was a compromise between the Muslim League and the United Front.
Pakistan was officially called Islamic Republic of Pakistan and Mirza became the
President. It empowered the president to choose the PM and dissolve the National
Assembly and the Cabinet under his emergency powers. The President had to be a
Muslim. There were equal seats of East and West Pakistan in the Assembly under
the One Unit Scheme. It was abrogated in October 1958 under the first martial law of
Pakistan.
Q:
What was the One Unit Scheme?
[5]
Ans. On 14th October 1955, Governor-General Iskander Mirza implemented the One Unit
Scheme. Under this, all provinces of West Pakistan were unified to become a single
province against the single province of East Pakistan. Both East and West Pakistan
were given equal seats in the National Assembly though East Pakistan had 10 million
more people than West Pakistan. Therefore, it was opposed by East Pakistan and the
smaller provinces of West Pakistan. However, it remained valid in the 1956 and the
1962 constitutions. It was scrapped by General Yahya Khan in March 1969.
Q:
What was the SEATO/South East Asia Treaty Organization?
[4]
Ans. In September 1954 the SEATO was set up to counter the communist/Soviet influence
in the South East Asian states. Its members were the US, the UK, France, the
Philippines, Thailand, New Zealand and Australia. Pakistan joined it in 1955 in the
face of fierce opposition at home. Under the treaty, if any member was attacked by a
communist state, it could seek help from other members. Pakistan tried to persuade
the members to set up a permanent military to protect all members against an attack
by any country but in vain. Thus Pakistan failed to receive any help by the SEATO in
the 1965 and 1971 wars. It left it in 1972.
Q:
What was the CENTO/Central Treaty Organization?
[4]
Ans. It was a US-sponsored military bloc aimed at countering the communist/Soviet
influence in the Middle East. Initially, Turkey and Iraq had signed the treaty called the
Baghdad Pact in 1955. Pakistan, Iran and the UK joined it the same year. Iraq left it
in 1959 because of a revolution, and the treaty was renamed CENTO. However,
despite regular meetings the group never became a permanent structure with a
combined army. Like the SEATO, it too could not help Pakistan in the 1965 and 1971
wars. It was dissolved in 1979.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Who of the following contributed the most to Pakistan’s domestic
policies between 1948 and 1958:
(i)
Liaquat Ali Khan
(ii)
Malik Ghulam Muhammad;
(iii) Iskander Mirza
Explain with reference to all three above.
(14)
Ans. All 3 had their own achievements. Liaqat Ali Khan acted as PM first with Muhammad
Ali Jinnah. Khawaja Nazam ud Din became 2nd Governor General in September, 1948
and Laiqat Ali Khan made some achievements. His major contribution was the
passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949. It was a constitutional draft that
outlined the objectives and principles of the future constitution of Pakistan. It was
reviewed by the Basic Principles Committee in September 1950 and the revised draft
recommended a bicameral legislature/parliament with both houses having equal
powers. Urdu was kept as national language and President was to be elected by the
joint session of the parliament. However, the religious parties declared it insufficiently
Islamic. East Pakistan objected to equal share in the parliament as it had 10% more
population than West Pakistan. It also criticized on Urdu being the only national
language because Bengali was also a developed and only language spoken
throughout East Pakistan.
Liaqat Ali Khan managed to keep Pakistan’s economy growing by presenting surplus
budgets. Also, he implemented the PRODA (Public and Representative Officers
Disqualification Act) in order to curtail corruption in Pakistan. However, corruption
would continue to bother future governments.
Liaqat Ali Khan was able to foil a coup of about 20 military officers who were unhappy
over the presence and influence of British officers in the Pakistan Army. In March
1951, in the famous Rawalpindi Conspiracy case, Major Akbar Khan and fourteen
other officers were arrested. However, in October 1951. Liaqat Ali Khan was killed in
Rawalpindi while addressing a public rally.
Malik Ghulam Muhammad became the 3rd Governor General in Oct. 1951. He
persuaded Khawaja Nazam ud Din to step down as Prime Minister enticing him that
he would enjoy more executive powers. Being an expert in financial affairs he
introduced the scheme of 6 Year Plan that was later changed into a 5 Year Plan. Its
aim was to make economic planning regarding agriculture, industry, power and
transport sectors. He set up a Planning Board in 1953 to review various developments
schemes. A major jute processing plant was set up in 1952 in East Pakistan as a
result of efforts for exploring oil and gas reserves, natural gas was discovered at Sui
in Balochistan in 1952.
In 1952-53 Pakistan had positive Balance of Payment (BOP) due to a huge demand
of cotton and jute in the wake of the Korean war that caused large scale export of
these commodities.
During the same period, however, there was serious food shortage due to severe
drought in East and West Pakistan. This caused unrest and violence that was
aggravated by an anti-Qadiani movement. Religious parties demanded removal of
Qadinis /Ahmadis from key posts including the foreign minister Sir Zafar ullah Khan,
Malik Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Khawaja Nazam ud Din in April 1953 on his
failure to control the crisis.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Muhammad Ali Bogra, the new PM, worked on constitution making. He was ready to
implement the constitution in December 1954. A clause about restricting the powers
of the Governor General was passed in just 15 minutes in the absence of Malik
Ghulam Muhammad. PRODA was also abolished as G.G could misuse it. When
M.G.Muhammad came to know about this he quickly acted and dismissed Bogra’s
government and dissolved the Constituent Assembly in September 1954. The new
Constituent Assembly was elected in June 1955. In August 1955 M.G. Muhammad
fell ill and Iskandar Mirza became the new Governor General.
Mizra, a retired military general, took bold steps. First he dismissed Bogra and
appointed Ch. Muhammad Ali as new P.M. Ch. M. Ali drafted Pakistan’s first
Constitution that was implemented in March 1956. It introduced federal, parliamentary
form of government though the President had powers to appoint and dismiss the P.M.
Under the One Unit Scheme, East and West Pakistan had equal seats in the one
house parliament, the National Assembly. However, the Constitution was abrogated
in Oct.,1958 by Mirza himself.
The One Unit Scheme, introduced in Oct.,1955 was aimed at unity by merging
together all provinces of West Pakistan to make two provinces East and West
Pakistan. It, however was bitterly opposed by E. Pakistan and smaller provinces of
W. Pakistan
Mirza also started some industrialization and development plans as well as rural
development schemes. Karachi airport was completed, railways were modernized
and telephone network was expanded. Steps were taken for provision of health and
education.
Mirza failed to have good relations with his Prime Ministers and dismissed them at
short intervals. Ch. M. Ali was replaced by Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy in
Sept.,1956. Suharwardy was replaced by I.I. Chundrigar in Oct.,1957 who himself
was dismissed in Dec.,1957. Malik Feroze Khan Noon was the last civilian P.M. under
Mirza from Dec.,1957 to 7th October, 1958. Finally, on 7th Oct., 1958 he declared
Martial Law and appointed General Ayub Khan as the CMLA (Chief Marital Law
Administrator).
In conclusion, Liaqat Ali Khan seems to be the most successful as he took first step
towards political and economic stability of Pakistan. The Objectives Resolution of
March 1949 remains the preamble of the 1973 Constitution till today.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why were there so many governments between 1951 and 1958? (7)
Ans. Pakistan did not have a good team of skilled politicians. Jinnah died in 1948 without
accomplishing his mission of providing a strong political base to Pakistan. Murder of
Liaqat Ali Khan in 1951 worsened the political conditions as the newly created state
of Pakistan lost the two most experienced leaders and the country went in the hands
of inexperienced and selfish politicians like Malik Ghulam Muhammad and Iskander
Mirza. Due to their flawed policies, there was political instability and uncertainty
between 1951 and 1958. Several prime ministers were dismissed and the first
Constituent Assembly was dissolved by Malik Ghulam Muhammad in September
1954.
The Indian government was bent upon creating difficulties for Pakistan. It continued
to delay the release of Pakistan’s share of assets and announce the accession of the
State of Kashmir to Pakistan. It imposed a war on Pakistan in 1948 as a result of
which Pakistan was forced to pay more attention on its defence instead of building a
strong political foundation. The Indian PM Mr Nehru never fulfilled the promise of
holding a plebiscite in Kashmir in the 1950s which led to failed relations between the
two states. India closed the two headworks in the Indian Punjab that supplied water
to Pakistan and this added to the problems of Pakistan throughout the 1950s.
East Pakistan wanted a share in the government according to its population size that
was 10% greater than that of West Pakistan but it was given equal seats in the
National Assembly under the undemocratic One Unit Scheme and the rule of parity.
West Pakistan dominated the political affairs with Karachi as the capital and the
headquarters of the armed forces located in its territory. Declaring Urdu as the
national language further alienated East Pakistan, and the geographical distance
between the two wings of Pakistan gradually became a political gulf.
Q:
Why did Ayub Khan come to power in 1958? / Why was martial
law imposed in Pakistan in 1958?
(7)
Ans. Political instability worsened between 1955 and 1958 as several Prime Ministers were
dismissed in this period. Differences between West and East Pakistan grew as the
latter wanted a share in the government according to its population size that was 10%
greater than that of West Pakistan but it was given equal seats in the National
Assembly under the undemocratic One Unit Scheme and the rule of parity. West
Pakistan’s dominance over the political affairs was strongly resented by East Pakistan
as it was already backward economically.
The 1956 Constitution empowered the President to nominate and dismiss the Prime
Minister. President Iskander Mirza terminated as many as four governments between
1955 and 1958 as a result of which he began to lose popularity and power. PM
Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy gave very tough time to Mirza by uniting the major
political leaders of Punjab and Bengal against him. He challenged Mirza to hold a vote
in the Assembly to test his popularity. Mirza feared a defeat and, therefore, decided
to declare martial law on 7th October 1958 and appointed General Ayub Khan as the
CMLA (Chief Martial Law Administrator).
Ayub was appointed Prime Minister by Mirza on 24th October 1958. Ayub had already
declined an offer from Ghulam Muhammad to take over the country as its executive
head. Now he could see the nominal powers of Mirza who was holding his post
forcefully. Therefore, Ayub decided to assume power himself. He removed Mirza from
office and himself became the executive head of state on 27th October 1958.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
1958-1969
Ayub Khan Oct 1958 – March 1969
Introduction:




7 oct 1958, 1st martial law on Pakistan by Iskandar Mirza → General Ayub as CMLA
(Chief Martial Law Administrator ) → all assemblies were dissolved, the 1956
constitution was abrogated
27 Oct 1958, I.Mirza was removed & all powers with Ayub → 27 Oct 1958 → Glorious
Revolution
27 Oct 1958 → Justice Munir of Supreme Court validated the martial law.
Ayub started a number of reforms.
Political Reforms




Why → Ayub opposed parliamentary democracy → “ a luxury that Pakistan couldn’t
afford”
Believed in some kind of “ controlled democracy” or “democrary with discipline”
Political instability b/w 1951 & 1958
Believed in the Presidential form of government.
Details:
27 Oct 1959 → Basic Democracies Ordinance
 Basic Democracy → a four tier structure of elected & nominated/official bodies
(1) Local Committees → (a) Union Councils and (b) Tehsil Councils, elected by
ordinary people
(2) (a) District & (b) Divisional Council elected by the local committees, run jointly by
the civil servants (District & Divisional Commissioners) and the elected councils.
 Also, a Co-ordination Committee to Co-ordinate b/w Local & District Councils
 Two Provincial Development Advisory Councils (PDAC) to co-ordinate b/w the
provincial governors & Divisional Councils.
 All these councils to supervise local development schemes e.g. sanitation, health,
education, roads, raising taxes.
 Elected members of Local Committees were called BD’s (Basic Democrats).
 Vote of confidence by BD’s, 1959 → more than 90% supported Ayub.
 120,000 BD’s from E & W Pakistan, 1st elections, Dec 1959-Jan 1960.
 BD’s formed Electoral College to elect NA that, in turn, elected the President.
 Shifted capital from Karachi to Islamabad.
The 1962 Constitution


No constitution since Oct 1958
New Constituent Commission drafted the 1962 Constitution; adopted without debate
by NA (National Assembly), 1 March, 1962.
Main Features



Presidential form of govt → President could be removed only by an impeachment
motion of NA
One house of parliament → NA, with equal seats of E &W Pak
President nominated: the cabinet from NA; provincial governors & the heads of
judiciary
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013




NA to make all laws with President’s approval → even ¾th majority of NA couldn’t
force him to approve a law he didn’t like.
If President from W, the speaker NA to be from E. Pakistan
NA sessions alternately held at Dhakka & Islamabad.
Urdu & Bengali national languages.
Result of political reforms:
Political stability in start
 BD’s → a clever system to legalize Ayub’s powers
 No political parties were allowed to take part in elections for BD’s.
 Major landlords dominated & influenced the BD elections due to their strong social
position.
 E. Pakistan not happy with equal seats in NA, unusual powers of the President, who
was from W.Pakistan
 E. Pakistan felt being ruled by Civil & Military establishment of W. Pakistan.
 Elections for President, Jan 1965 → Ayub’s Conventional Muslim League → 64%;
combined opposition under Fatima Jinnah→ 36% Ayub began to lose popularity
Agricultural Reforms
Why →



Need of increased productivity & yield for a rapidly growing population
Need of modernization of agriculture
Unfair distribution of land → V.large land holdings with powerful land owners &
fragmented holdings with several poor farmers.
Details →





Land reforms , 1959 → no farm to be smaller than 12.5 acres: land ceiling: not larger
than 500 acres of irrigated & 1000 acres of unirrigated land holdings
Redistribution of fragmented holdings to make larger holding by joining; owners of big
holdings were forced to find tenants for parts of their lands.
Modern methods → HYV/GM seeds, mechanization, chemical fertilizers,
insecticides/pesticides etc
IWT 1960→ dams, barrages, canals for irrigation
Loans to farmers to build tube wells.
Results:




Increased land productivity & crop yield
Ayub named these reforms a ‘Green Revolution’
Poor success rate of land reforms due to strong social position of big landowners
Modern methods (machinery etc) were affordable by rich farmers only → economic
disparity b/w rich & poor farmers, in the long run
Industrial Reforms
Why →


Poor industrial base since 1947
Availability of funds from : sale of agricultureal output, donor countries e.g. USA, UK,
Germany
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013

Economic advisors, esp those from the Harvard University
Details →





Encouraged private sector for manufacturing industries by incentives→ Export Bonus
Scheme, tax holiday, stable policies, abolition of Business Profit Tax
Borrowed loans from the West
Oil refinery, Karachi, 1962-RCD with the Iran & Turkey to promote mutual trade &
economic ties, in 1964
PMDC (Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation) for exploration & exploitation of
Minerals
2nd Five year plan for economic development ( 1960-65)
Results →






Immediate results quite impressive→ 7% annual growth rate ( thrice that of India),
14% increase in per capita income
Industrial growth
Long term→ undue concentration of wealth in few hands→22 families owned 66%
industries & 80% of banking & insurance
All from W.Pakistan
High economic disparity b/w E & W Pak & within W.Pak as most schemes were
launched in W.Pak.
Dependence on foreign aid increased → it would have long term serious
consequences in later years
Social Reforms
Why→ to improve literacy, health care; to reform civil laws; to control high population growth
rate. Details→
 Free, compulsory primary education→ new schools & colleges; technical education
institutes; new hospitals, medical colleges; family Planning programs; new Family
Laws→ registration of marriage/ divorce; nursing training schools
 Revised curriculum & text books
 Housing Schemes in Karachi for the refugees, under General Azam.
Results →

Mix of success & failure → better health & education care, though literacy didn’t
improve a lot.
 Religious scholars opposed Family Planning & Family Laws
Success in providing houses to the shelterless.
Fall of Ayub Khan








2nd Indo-Pak war, 1965, over the Kashmir issue
Ayub’s presumption of liberating Kashmir but neither country was victorious
Ayub’s false claim of victory → the Tashkent Accord exposed the truth & the nation
felt betrayed & shocked
Ayub sacked foreign minister Z.A.Bhutto whom he blamed for the failure of the war
Political unrest → Z.A.Bhutto emerged as the main opposition leader, formed his own
party → the PPP & mobilized masses against Ayub
Strikes, arrests but violence grew
Combined opposition – DAC (Democratic Action Committee)
Thousands of BD’s resigned
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013



Unpopularity of all reforms
Feb 1969 → lifted emergency to negotiate with the DAC, but too late
25 March 1969→ resigned & handed power to Gen Yahya Khan→ 2nd martial law.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Ayub Khan
Q:
What were the Basic Democracies?
(4)
Ans. These were the local governments announced under the Basic Democracies Order
of 26th October 1959. People elected the Basic Democrats of the union councils in the
1959-60 elections held on non-party basis. They then elected the councils for tehsil,
district and division. 80,000 Basic Democrats thus elected, formed the Electoral
College to elect the President. 95% of them elected Ayub Khan in a referendum on
17th February 1960. These were abolished by General Yahya Khan in 1969.
Q:
Describe the 1962 Constitution.
(4)
Ans. It was implemented on 1st March 1962 by a Constituent Commission appointed by
Ayub Khan. The President was the executive head of the state elected by the electoral
college of the Basic Democrats. He nominated the Cabinet from the members of the
National Assembly. He also nominated the provincial governors and the heads of the
judiciary. The National Assembly had equal seats of East and West Pakistan, and
could not pass a law without the approval of the President. Urdu and Bengali were
declared as the national languages. It was abrogated by General Yahya Khan in April
1969.
Q:
What was the Green Revolution?
(4)
Ans. Ayub’s agricultural reforms are called the Green Revolution. Under this HYV (High
Yield Variety) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides were used to
maximize the crop yield. Tractors, harvesters and threshers were also introduced to
speed up various processes. Under the Land Reforms Act of 1959, smaller land
holdings were consolidated while an upper limit or a land ceiling was fixed for the
ownership of the land holdings. As a result, the agricultural output increased
significantly.
Q:
Describe Ayub’s fall from power.
(4)
Ans. After the signing of the Tashkent Accord in 1966, Ayub’s foreign minister Z.A. Bhutto
resigned and formed his own political party, the PPP/Pakistan People’s Party in 1967.
He mobilized masses against Ayub with the help of the Democratic Action Committee.
In East Pakistan, Sheikh Mujeeb had emerged as the most popular leader. Ayub’s
celebration of the Decade of Development from 27th October 1967 to 27th October
1968 was greatly resented by a majority. Ayub failed to negotiate a settlement with
the opposition and declared martial law on 17th March 1969. A week later, he resigned
on 25th March 1969 and handed over power to the army chief General Yahya Khan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Ayub’s visit to Moscow, USSR
Q:
Describe Ayub’s visit to Moscow
(4)
Ans:
The new Soviet President Khurushchev showed interest in establishing friendly
relations with Pakistan. He extended an invitation to President Ayub Khan to visit
Moscow. Pakistani government was already upset by the U-2 incident of 1959 and
the US military aid to India in 1962, while it was already receiving aid from the Soviet
Union. So, Ayub visited the Soviet capital Moscow in April 1965.Both sides discussed
matters of bilateral interests including the Pak-US relations, and the Soviet support to
India and Afghanistan. Pakistan received a package of financial aid from the Soviets,
and signed agreements about trade and oil exploration. Soviet PM Alexis Kosygin
declared it a successful visit.
Q: What was the Operation Grand Slam?(4)
Ans:
It was a plan drafted in May 1965 by the Pakistan Army. Under this, the army had to
attack the Akhnoor Bridge in Jammu and Kashmir, the lifeline of a full Indian infantry
division as well as a possible post to target Jammu and Kashmir. Unfortunately it
failed as the military objectives were not achieved and the Pakistan Army had to
retreat. This operation escalated to the second Indo-Pak war in September 1965.
Q: What was the Operation Gibraltar?
(4)
Ans.
It was a secret military operation started by the Pakistan Army in August 1965. The
Kashmir Regular Force troops entered the Indian Held Kashmir (IHK) in order to
organize an uprising of the Kashmiri Muslims. However, due to poor coordination the
operation didn’t achieve its objectives, and the presence of Pak Army was discovered
by India. This, like the Operation Grand Slam, eventually led to the second Indo-Pak
war in September 1965.
Who was Fatimah Jinnah?
[4]
Ans.
She was born as sister of Muhammad Ali Jinnah in July 1893. She sacrificed her
career as dentist for the sake of supporting Jinnah especially after the death of his
wife. She stood by Jinnah’s side in his struggle for Pakistan. She contested elections
of the Basic Democracies in 1965 as a strong rival to Gen. Ayub Khan and managed
to bag 36% of the total votes. Due to her popularity and respect she was given the
titles of Khatoon-i-Pakistan (First Lady of Pakistan) and Madar-i-Millat (Mother of the
nation). She died in Karachi in July 1967.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why were the years 1958 to 1969 called the ‘Decade of Progress’?
(7)
Ans. Ayub started many economic development projects. He hired economists and
advisers, many of whom had been trained in the Harvard University, the USA. He got
huge amounts of foreign aid that was used to stimulate industrialization. He offered
several incentives to the private sectors that included concession in taxes, tax holiday
and the Export Bonus Scheme. These measures attracted a great number of
industrialists and the large scale manufacturing industry grew rapidly. During the
Second Five Year Plan (1960-1965), manufacturing output grew at an annual average
rate of around 11.5%. During this period people’s incomes went up by an average of
14%. As a result, Pakistan achieved a very high economic growth rate of 7% that was
thrice that of India.
Ayub’s agricultural reforms are rightly called the Green Revolution. He introduced
modernization of agriculture. Tractors with other machines, HYV (High Yield Variety)
seeds, chemical fertilizers and insecticides and pesticides were used to maximize
agricultural output. Under the IWT (Indus Water Treaty) 1960, Pakistan was funded
to build large dams and barrages. Thus water for irrigation and power production was
stored on large scale and output of major crops increased significantly.
His social reforms were also very popular. In order to provide better health care, new
medical colleges and hospitals were setup. Attempts were made to control a high
population growth rate through a family planning programme. He tried to raise the
literacy rate by encouraging primary education, and set up polytechnic institutes to
prepare a trained industrial workforce. Though most of the benefits of these reforms
went to West Pakistan, Ayub was able to deflect criticism be celebrating the Decade
of Development in 1968.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q
“Agricultural reforms were the most important of Ayub Khan’s
domestic policies.” Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for
your answer.
(14)
Ans: Ayub Agricultural reforms were very successful. He wanted to modernize agriculture
and ensure a fair distribution of land holdings. Majority of farmers were poor and
possessed smaller then standard size land holdings (fragmented holdings of less than
12.5 hectares) which caused poor yield. On the other hand, a small percentage of rich
land owners (zamindars) were in possession of unusually large land holdings that
were under the tenant cultivators. Under the 1959 land reforms, no land owner could
possess more than 1000 acres of un-irrigated or 500 acres of irrigated land holdings.
The excess land was to be taken by the government and given to the poor farmers.
The smaller holdings were joined under the land consolidation. Due to strong social
position of landed aristocrats (many of whom were members of parliament) the
success rate of these reforms was very poor, though some people benefitted from it.
In order to produce agricultural raw material and feed a growing population agriculture
was modernized. Under this, mechanization, chemical fertilizers, HYV (High Yield
Variety) or GM (genetically modified) seeds, insecticides /pesticides and modern
irrigation methods were introduced. Under the Indus Water Treaty 1960, three new
dams and several perennial canals were built. Loans were given to poor farmers.
Land productivity increased impressively and therefore Ayub’s agricultural reforms
were called Green Revolution. However, these caused economic disparity between
the rich and the poor farmers because the main beneficiaries were the rich farmers.
Industry had remained neglected throughout the 1950’s and due to the Green
Revolution agricultural raw material was abundantly available. Moreover, foreign aid
was given to Pakistan by the USA, UK and Germany. And Oil refinery was setup at
Karachi to reduce the import cost of oil. To extract minerals, the Mineral Development
Corporation was setup. To encourage the private sector, a number of incentives were
offered that included subsidies and taxes, tax holiday and the Export Bonus Scheme
(EBS). Large scale industrialization took place in the 1960s that resulted in a robust
economic growth rate of 7%, one of the highest in the world. However, these reforms
too caused huge disparity between the rich and the poor. By 1968 only 22 families
(mostly from W. Pakistan) owned 66% industries and 80% banking and insurance.
Hence, sense of deprivation grew among the E. Pakistanis as most of the
development was in W Pakistan.
In politics, Ayub opposed the western democracy and believed in a kind of “controlled
democracy” or “democracy with discipline” because there was high degree of
instability in the 1950s, specially 1955 to 1958. Ayub also, a new constitution was
needed as the 1956 constitution had been abrogated into Oct., 1958. Ayub introduced
the Basic Democracies (BD’s) under the Basic Democracies Order, Oct., 1959 it was
a four tier system under which elections were held at village, tehsil, district and division
level to elect the union council, tehsil council, district council and divisional council. In
the first elections of 1959-60, 80,000 BD’s were elected which were later increased
to 120,000. These BD’s were responsible for local development including health,
education, local taxes, water and sanitation and roads. They also formed an Electoral
College to elect the members of the assemblies and thence to elect the President.
Two PDAC’s (Provincial Development Advisory Councils) were created to coordinate
between BD’s E & W Pakistan. Ayub shifted the Capital from Karachi to Islamabad.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The new Constitution was enforced in March 1962 and it introduced Presidential form
of government. President, elected by the Electoral College for five years, had all
executive powers. He could pass any laws and reject / annul any laws made by the
National Assembly. He could dissolve the assemblies under his emergency powers.
The National Assembly, also elected by the Electoral College, had equal seats of East
and West Pakistan under the One Unit Schemes. There were two provincial
assemblies one each for East and West Pakistan. These reforms ensured political
stability for many years but the indirect election and powers of the President were
criticized specially by East Pakistan.
In order to improve a poor literacy rate, provide better healthcare and control
a high population growth rate, Ayub set up new schools, technical training institutes
and medical institutes and hospitals. Under the new Family Laws, polygamy was
discouraged. These had some degree of success.
Ayub’s agricultural reforms seem to be most successful because they
benefitted not only the farming community but also contributed towards an
appreciable industrial growth by providing plenty of raw material for agro-based
industries.
Alternative Judgements


Political reforms of Ayub Khan may be declared his greatest achievement because
he not only ensured stable political system but also was able to implement his other
reforms
Ayub’s industrial reforms were most successful because they created several jobs
and improved the economic growth rate of Pakistan which became model for some
of the “Asian Tigers” like, South Korea and Malaysia.
Instruction:
Candidates may skip the social reforms if they face the problem of time management, but if
the question mentions “social reforms”, first paragraph should contain details of social
reforms. In such a case, any one of the remaining three reforms may be skipped.
Were the economic reforms of Ayub Khan the most important of his domestic
policies in the ‘Decade of Progress’ between 1958 and 1969? Explain your
answer.
[14]
Ans.
Ayub’s economic reforms comprised a series of steps in the agricultural and industrial
sectors. He wanted to modernize agriculture and ensure a fair distribution of land holdings.
Majority of farmers were poor and possessed smaller than standard size land holdings
(fragmented holdings of less than 12.5 hectares) which caused poor yield. On the other hand,
a small percentage of rich land owners (zamindars) were in possession of unusually large
land holdings that were under the tenant cultivators. Under the 1959 land reforms, no land
owner could possess more than 1000 acres of un-irrigated or 500 acres of irrigated land
holdings. The excess land was to be taken by the government and given to the poor farmers.
The smaller holdings were joined under the land consolidation. Due to strong social position
of landed aristocrats (many of whom were members of parliament) the success rate of these
reforms was very poor, though some people benefitted from it.
In order to produce agricultural raw material and feed a growing population agriculture
was modernized. Under this, mechanization, chemical fertilizers, HYV (High Yield Variety) or
GM (genetically modified) seeds, insecticides /pesticides and modern irrigation methods were
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
introduced. Under the Indus Water Treaty 1960, three new dams and several perennial
canals were built. Loans were given to poor farmers. Land productivity increased impressively
and therefore Ayub’s agricultural reforms were called Green Revolution. However, these
caused economic disparity between the rich and the poor farmers because the main
beneficiaries were the rich farmers.
Industry had remained neglected throughout the 1950’s and due to the Green
Revolution agricultural raw material was abundantly available. Moreover, foreign aid was
given to Pakistan by the USA, UK and Germany. And Oil refinery was setup at Karachi to
reduce the import cost of oil. To extract minerals, the Mineral Development Corporation was
setup. To encourage the private sector, a number of incentives were offered that included
subsidies and taxes, tax holiday and the Export Bonus Scheme (EBS). Large scale
industrialization took place in the 1960s that resulted in a robust economic growth rate of 7%,
one of the highest in the world. However, these reforms too caused huge disparity between
the rich and the poor. By 1968 only 22 families (mostly from W. Pakistan) owned 66%
industries and 80% banking and insurance. Hence, sense of deprivation grew among the E.
Pakistanis as most of the development was in W Pakistan.
In politics, Ayub opposed the western democracy and believed in a kind of “controlled
democracy” or “democracy with discipline” because there was high degree of instability in the
1950s, especially 1955 to 1958. Ayub also, a new constitution was needed as the 1956
constitution had been abrogated in Oct., 1958. Ayub introduced the Basic Democracies
(BD’s) under the Basic Democracies Order, Oct., 1959 it was a four tier system under which
elections were held at village, tehsil, district and division level to elect the union council, tehsil
council, district council and divisional council. In the first elections of 1959-60, 80,000 BD’s
were elected which were later increased to 120,000. These BD’s were responsible for local
development including health, education, local taxes, water and sanitation and roads. They
also formed an Electoral College to elect the members of the assemblies and thence to elect
the President. Two PDAC’s (Provincial Development Advisory Councils) were created to
coordinate between BD’s East and West Pakistan. Ayub shifted the Capital from Karachi to
Islamabad.
The new Constitution was enforced in March 1962 and it introduced Presidential form
of government. President, elected by the electoral college for five years, had all executive
powers. He could pass any laws and reject / annul any laws made by the National Assembly.
He could dissolve the assemblies under his emergency powers. The National Assembly, also
elected by the electoral college, had equal seats of East and West Pakistan under the One
Unit Schemes. There were two provincial assemblies one each for East and West Pakistan.
These reforms ensured political stability for many years but the indirect election and powers
of the President were criticized specially by East Pakistan.
In order to improve a poor literacy rate, provide better healthcare and control a high
population growth rate, Ayub set up new schools, technical training institutes and medical
institutes and hospitals. Under the new Family Laws, polygamy was discouraged. These had
some degree of success. New medical colleges and hospitals were set up to provide health
care at a larger scale. Steps were taken against hoarding goods and selling them at inflated
prices. The prices of milk and other food items were fixed to stop profiteering that helped
families to live comfortably.
Ayub’s economic reforms seem to be most successful because there was a generalized state
of prosperity coupled with political stability. This helped Ayub to stimulate many development
projects and gain popularity for a longer period of time.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why was Islamabad chosen as the new capital of Pakistan?
(7)
Ans. Islamabad was located at a better place. Ayub wanted to be closer to the army’s
command headquarters (GHQ) in Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab which he
considered vital in times of martial law. Also, he got closer to Punjab and the NWFP
(KPK) that provided bulk of troops for the armed forces of Pakistan. He could see a
visible influence of the commercial districts of Karachi on many of the government
officials.
Many of them had started taking interest in trade instead of their official
duties. Development of Karachi as the port and the capital city had left northern
Pakistan relatively under developed. Ayub wanted to shift the power base from the
industrially and commercially developed south to the Punjab in the north.
Karachi has a warm and humid climate whereas Islamabad was located at the
Margalla hills near Murree with a pleasant climate suitable for working. It was an
abandoned place where it was easier to build a planned city with a desired layout.
Karachi had become overburdened with a growth of buildings and population due to
large scale influx of refugees from India and rural-urban migration. The existing state
buildings in Karachi were not adequate to meet the needs of a modern capital.
Karachi’s location on the Indus Delta Coast made it vulnerable to attacks by the Indian
navy. In such a case, there was a fear of huge cost of reconstruction if it was destroyed
by the Indians in case of a war. Islamabad, being a land locked city, was at a
reasonable distance from the Pak-India border and was a much better option.
Therefore, construction work was continued in the 1960s and the capital was officially
shifted to Islamabad in 1967.
Q:
Why did Ayub Khan fall from power?
(7)
Ans. Ayub had become unpopular by 1969. His agricultural reforms had created huge
disparity between the rich and the poor farmers. As a result of his industrial reforms,
only 22 families of West Pakistan became owners of 66% of Pakistan’s industries and
80% of banking and insurance companies. People were angry on the celebration of
the Decade of Development from 27th October 1967 to 27th October 1968 in which
millions of rupees were spent while there was large scale unemployment. East
Pakistan also felt frustrated as most of the beneficiaries of Ayub’s reforms were from
West Pakistan. Moreover, East Pakistan complained of being left unguarded in the
1965 Pak-India war.
His political reforms also became target of criticism as he was accused of intimidation
and vote-rigging in the second presidential elections that were held in January 1965.
In these, Fatimah Jinnah managed to get about 36% votes against Ayub Khan.
Concentration of powers with the president was considered undemocratic as the
National Assembly could not pass any law without his consent. Most of his Basic
Democrats had resigned by the start of 1969.
Ayub especially became unpopular after the 1965 Pak-India war. He felt he had to
accept a humiliating ceasefire against the advice of his foreign minister Z. A. Bhutto.
Ayub had been assuring his people of Pakistan’s victory in the war but the Tashkent
Accord of 1966 contained no reference to this or the Kashmir issue. Bhutto resigned
in protest and founded the PPP/Pakistan People’s Party in 1967. Being a very
charismatic leader, he mobilized masses and launched an anti-Ayub campaign. In
January 1969 eight political parties formed the Democratic Action Committee and
demanded general elections. Ayub’s failure to negotiate with them ended in his
resignation on 25th March 1969.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q. How successful was Ayub Khan in improving Pakistan’s relations with
other states during his rule?
[10]
Ans.
Ayub was quite successful in his foreign affairs. Though he had offended the
Americans by visiting China and the USSR/Soviet Union in the early 1960s, he was able to
maintain friendly relations with the USA. He allowed the US to build air bases in Pakistan and
remained loyal to the US during the Pak-USSR conflict over the U-2 crisis. 1966 onwards the
US aid to Pakistan was restored. Ayub paid a historic visit to Washington in July 1961. The
US President J.F. Kenedy hosted a dinner in the White House tht was attended by 140
guests. It is described as the most dramatic and the most famous state dinner in White House
history. In return Mrs J.F. Kenedy paid a visit to Pakistan in 1963, and was given Ayub’s
favourite horse Sardar. When Ayub fell from power, the US was quite concerned over the
rise of a socialist-minded Z.A.Bhutto. Pakistan protested when the US extended military aid
to India in the India-China war, in September 1962. Ayub argued that the US should at least
have consulted Pakistan before extending aid to India. He also argued that the Americans
should have pressurized India to accept arbitration on the Kashmir issue in return for the US
aid. Pakistan felt let down when the US aid to both Pakistan and India was stopped in the
1965 war. Ayub’s visits to China in 1962, and the USSR in 1965 also displeased the USA.
Ayub laid the foundation of Pak-USSR relations by paying a visit to Moscow in 1965
after the incident of the U-2 spy plane in 1960. However, in 1961 the USSR offered some oil
exploration projects to Pakistan. Pakistan got a chance to get closer to both the USSR and
China in the 1962 Indo-China war. Consequently Pakistan received a Soviet aid of 11 million
pounds, and instead of supporting India over the Kashmir issue, the USSR adopted a neutral
stance. Therefore, in April 1965, Ayub paid a visit to Moscow and signed agreements on oil
exploration in Pakistan. In January 1966, the Soviet Union mediated a peace treaty, the
Tashkent Accord, between India and Pakistan after the 1965 war. In 1968, when the
Americans began to close their airbase at Peshawar, the Soviets began military aid to
Pakistan. That year Pakistan was the recipient of military aid from three mutually hostile super
powers, the US, the USSR and China, though the USSR was not happy with Pakistan
receiving aid from the other two super powers. The U-2 incident greatly angered the Soviets
in 1960. U-2 was an American spy plane that flew from the Peshawar air base, and was
captured by the Soviets. The Soviet President threatened Pakistan of serious consequences
of a similar misadventure in future. In the 1965 war, when US aid for Pakistan was stopped,
the Soviet aid to India greatly affected Pak-Soviet relations.
Ayub is also credited with the start of successful Pak-China relations. The Indo-China
war of 1962 gave Pakistan an opportunity to improve relations with China. In March 1962,
Pakistan and China began talks to settle their border dispute, and successfully settled the
issue by March 1963. China gave many concessions to Pakistan as it wanted to counter
India-USSR alliance with the help of Pakistan. In 1963, both countries signed many trade
agreements, and China granted Pakistan an interest free loan of 60 million dollars. In August
1963, regular PIA flights to China further improved bilateral trade. In 1964-65, China openly
supported Pakistan for the Kashmir issue. Pakistan, in return, supported China’s entry into
the UN at a time when the US was supporting the anti-communit Taiwan as the legitimate
government of China. China extended moral and material aid to Pakistan in the 1965 war
and applied diplomatic pressure on India. 1958-1962 there had been almost no progress in
Pak-China relations mainly because of Pakistan’s heavy dependence on the US.
Pak-UK relations generally remained successful in the 1960s. Britain played a major
role in ending the 1965 war as both were members of the anti-communist blocs, SEATO and
CENTO. The final agreement was signed in June 1965 at the Commonwealth Conference,
London. Several Pakistanis availed the 1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act to migrate to
the UK. They sent heavy remittances to Pakistan while working in the UK. The Queen
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Elizabeth-II visited Pakistan in 1961 as the Head of the Commonwealth. However, Ayub’s
visit to Moscow and Beijing somewhat worried the British authorities.
Pakistan and India signed the Indus Water Treaty in 1960 to resolve the canal water
dispute. In 1966, they signed the Tashkent Accord after the 1965 war. Pakistan was rightly
worried over India receiving the US aid in 1962. Both countries failed to resolve the Kashmir
issue, and fought their second war in September 1965. India was not happy over Pakistan’s
aid from three super powers in the late 1960s.
Pakistan Iran and Turkey signed the RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development)
in July 1964. Work was done on the RCD Highway and railway track. Many agreements were
signed to promote trade and cultural relations. However, Afghanistan refused to join the RCD.
Though most of the Afghanis supported Pakistan in the 1965 war, the Afghan government
remained neutral.
It may be concluded that Ayub Khan was quite successful in his foreign relations as
his era marked significant progress in extracting military and economic aid from the three
super powers as well as with the Muslim states. The economic aid was used to initiate
industrial and agricultural reforms.
Sample Question
Source A, a comment made by Quaid-e-Azam’s sister, Mohtarma Fatima
Jinnah, in an interview with the Morning News, 29 October 1958.
“A new era has begun under General Ayub Khan and the armed forces have undertaken to
root out the administrative malaise and anti-social practices, to create a sense of confidence,
security and stability and eventually to bring the country back to normalcy. I hope and pray
Allah may give them the wisdom and strength to achieve their objective.”
Q:(a) According to Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah what is going to happen in
Pakistan?
(3)
Ans. Miss Jinnah is expressing her hope of a better future of Pakistan under the military
rule of Ayub Khan. She is pointing to the prevailing political and social problems that
justified the martial law. She is conveying her best wishes to the military ruler for the
success of his mission of restoring political stability in Pakistan.
Source B: a photograph on the title page of the weekly magazine, TIME,
showing heads of states of Pakistan and India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.(b) According to source B what do we learn about Pak-India relations
in 1965?
[5]
Ans.
The source represents tense relations between the two states. President Ayub Khan
and PM Shastri carry a very stern look that reflects the hostile mood of the two heads. The
two swords are shown striking against each other meaning thereby a state of war between
India and Pakistan. Both Ayub and Shastri seem to be determined to firmly stick to their guns,
that implies the war was not going to end soon. The source tells that the world powers are
quite worried about this new war in South Asia. The war would drastically affect the relations
between Pakistan and India.
Source A: part of information obtained from an article by Mansoor
Akbar Kundi,
“Pakistan’s Foreign Policy underwent rapid changes under Ayub Khan. It was the
ultimate result of Pakistan’s need for security and development as well as preservation of its
ideology, the core principles of its governments. Ayub Khan adopted a policy more consistent
that it was in the Past due to frequent changes in ministries and governments. Ayub Khan
was in a better position to take independent decisions.”
Q.1 (a)
Describe Mr Kundi’s views about the Pak-US relations during
Ayub’s regime.
[3]
Ans.
The Foreign Policy of Pakistan witnessed rapid changes during Ayub’s rule. This was
because of Pakistan’s need of security and development while preserving. Ayub Khan’s
policy was more consistent due to his firm grip on state affairs as against the political
instability of the previous years.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Source B, a photograph taken during Ayub’s visit to USA in July 1961.
Q.
What message Source B convey about Pak-US relations in the
early 1960s?
[5]
Ans.
The Source displays a historic occasion of Pak-US relations. There is a huge crowd
wearing both western and eastern outfits that means American citizens of Asian origin are
also excited on Ayub’s visit. This also means the President Kennedy wants draw public
attention to his successful foreign policy. Both Ayub and J.F. Kennedy look happy and
overjoyed that means both leaders are eagerly willing to improve relations between the two
countries. A historic dinner was arranged in honour of Ayub Khan. Shortly after this meeting,
the US military aid to India in the Sino-India war of 1962 would damage Pak-US relations.
1969-1971
Reasons for the Creation of Bangla Desh/ Separation of E.Pakistan
Political, economic, cultural reasons:
 Political→ W.Pak’s dominance in political affairs→most political decisions, politicians
who ruled, HQ’s of the armed forces, civil servants in W.Pak→ more than ten years
of Ayub’s rule→ a military general from W.Pak; rule of parity & One Unit scheme
denied E.Pak its due share in govt by countering its numerical majority (55% of total
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013



population of Pak); E.Pak felt undefended as most of army on W.Pak border with
India.
Economic→ E.Pak less developed since 1947→ economic disparity grew during
Ayub’s reforms of 1960’s→ W.Pak benefited more from these reforms→ W.Pak’s per
capita income greater than that of E.Pak; trade of E.Pak with the Indian Bangal cut
off since 1947 →Sh.Mujeeb claimed “flight of capital” from E to W.Pak→ resources of
E.Pak spent on development of W.Pak.
Cultural→ E.Pak people’s pride in their rich cultural heritage →art, literature, music,
dance etc→ W.Pak looked down upon Bengali culture → civil servants of W.Pak
treated Bangalis with arrogance.
Post-1970 election crisis → AL (Awami League) got majority (160/300 Seats) but
W.Pak disallowed Sh. Mujeeb to form govt in the centre→ Z.A.Bhutto & General
Yahya backed out their promise with Sh.Mujeeb to make him President; start of
military operation in E.Pak, March 1971 – The Operation Searchlight; Bengali
separatist militant organization, Mukti Bahini (People’s Army) was trained & equipped
by Indain Army→ civil war, violence, feelings of separatism grew with military
operation & with the rejection of Sh.Mujeeb’s six points → events escalated to 3rd
Indo-Pak war, Dec 1971 → 1600km Indian territory b/w E & W Pak made it impossible
for W.Pak to win the war → 16 Dec 1971, Pak army surrendered before Indian army,
Dhakka→more than 90,000 Pak troops in Indian custody.
Reasons for Pakistan’s Defeat in the 1971 War



E.Pak determined to resist W.Pak army that desperately tried to keep E.Bengal part
of Pakistan →poor morale of Pak army to fight against fellow Muslims.
1600 km long distance b/w E & W Pak → very difficult to sustain supplies from W to
E with Indian territory b/w the two wings.
Poor chance of support by Pak’s allies → US & UN not interested in supporting Pak
in its internal matters; Treaty of Peace, Friendship & Commerce, Aug 1971, b/w India
and USSR blocked China’s possible aid to Pak → India continued to receive Soviet
aid.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Separation of East Pakistan
Q:
Who was General Yahya Khan?
Ans.
(4)
He was a distinguished military officer who had fought in the British Eighth Army in
the Second World War. He was the Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan Army when Ayub
handed him power after imposing the second martial law in March 1969. He held first general
elections in Pakistan in 1970 but could not control the resultant political crisis in East Pakistan.
He started military operation in East Pakistan in March 1971 that escalated to the third PakIndia war in December 1971 and defeat of Pakistan. This made him extremely unpopular and
he died in a state of house arrest in 1980.
Q:
Who was Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rahman?
(4)
Ans. He was the founder of the Awami League in 1949 that eventually became the most
popular political party of East Pakistan. He presented his six points in February 1966
in which he demanded complete internal and fiscal provincial autonomy as a solution
to the growing political and economic disparity between East and West Pakistan.
West Pakistan rejected them as they would mean a nominal federal government.
Mujeeb won a huge majority in 1970 elections but was arrested by West Pakistan. He
became the first Prime Minister of Bangladesh in 1971 but proved to be an autocratic
ruler. In August 1975, he and his wife were killed in a military coup.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What were Sheikh Mujeeb’s six points?
(4)
Ans. Sheikh Mujeeb, the most popular leader of East Pakistan, presented his six points in
February 1966. He wanted direct elections on the basis of universal suffrage and a
federal government that would control only defence and foreign affairs. All other
powers, including foreign trade, were to be given to the provincial governments. He
also demanded two separate and mutually convertible currencies as well as
paramilitary forces for East and West Pakistan. His party, the Awami League, won a
decisive majority in the 1970 elections because of his six points. Failure of any
negotiation between Sheikh Mujeeb and the West Pakistani leaders led to the
separation of East Pakistan in December 1971.
Q:
What was the Operation Searchlight?
(4)
Ans. It was a military operation launched by General Yahya in March 1971. Its aim was to
crush Bengali nationalism as Yahya thought the Awami League’s campaign was a
threat to Pakistan’s unity. Under the operation, Bengali intelligentsia, academics and
Hindus were targeted. Thousands of Bengalis were killed and press censorship was
imposed in East Pakistan. In retaliation, on 26th March 1971, the Bengalis announced
in a secret radio broadcast the formation of the ‘Sovereign People’s Republic of
Bangladesh’. Yahya sent more troops but the situation continued to worsen and
escalated to the third Pak-India war in December 1971.
Source A: part of an article published in a Pakistani newspaper.
“It was under the pretext of the second summit of OIC held in Lahore in Feb. 1974
that Pakistan recongnised the former East Pakistan as the Peoples Republic of
Bengladesh. Pakistan had initially not invited Bengladesh to attend the summit.
However, as members of the OIC group gathered in Lahore, several heads of the
Arab states put pressure on Pakistan’s PM Mr Bhutto to invite Sheikh Mujeeb, too. A
seven-member delegation from OIC visited Dhaka to invite Sheikh Mujeeb to
participate in the summit.”
Q. (a): What do we learn about the importance of Bangladesh in the 2nd
OIC summit?
[3]
Ans.
The OIC platform became a source of Sheikh Mujeeb’s participation in the summit.
Mr Bhutto was reluctant to invite him. The Arab leaders, however, played a key role in bringing
Sheikh Mujeeb to Pakistan, and attend the historic summit.
Source B: a photgraph of Z.A. Bhutto, Sheikh Mujeeb and Col. Gaddafi in
the 2nd OIC summit.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q. Describe the initeraction between Bhutto and Sheikh Mujeeb.
[5]
Ans.
Both leaders are accompanied by the Libyan President Col. Gaddafi. All look quite
cheered up, and holding each others’ hands to demonstrate their ambition of promoting
strong relations. Such gestures were aimed at erasing the scars of the tragedy of separation
of East Pakistan in 1971. Bhutto is wearing a western dress whereas Sheikh Mujeeb is clad
in a typical Bengali outfit that reflects his confidence in using national dress on such
occasions. They seem to have reached some consensus about promoting bilateral ties
between Pakistan and Bangladesh. Perhaps Col. Gaddafi has played an intermediary role in
this important achievement of Bhutto. Bangladesh was officially recognised by Bhutto in the
2nd OIC summit, and he would visit Bangladesh in July 1974 to further strengthen friendly
relations between the two countries.
Sample Question
Source A, part of a speech by Yahya Khan on 6th March 1971:
“Let me make it absolutely clear that no matter what happens, as long as I am in command
of the Pakistan Forces and Head of the State, I will ensure complete and absolute integrity
of Pakistan. Let there be no mistake on this point. I have a duty towards millions of people of
East and West Pakistan to preserve this country. They expect this from me and I shall not fail
them.”
Q.(a) What message is being delivered by Yahya Khan?
(3)
Ans. Yahya Khan is asserting his determination to keep Pakistan united in the capacity of
the head of the state and the armed forces. He seems to go to any extent for
accomplishing his mission. He is justifying his military action by referring to his
responsibility towards the millions of Pakistanis.
Source B,
a photograph of a military trainer training the members of the Mukti
Bahini.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q.(b) Describe the aims and ambitions of the Mukti Bahini as shown in
source B.
[5]
Ans.
Members of the Mukti Bahini (the Liberation Army) seem quite determined to acquire
military training. Most of them are not in proper clothing partly due to the summer heat and
partly to their poverty that drove them to adopt militancy. The tent huts in the background
show that it is a deserted place suitable for such secret training. The volunteer trainees are
mainly young Bengali men. The trainer looks to be an army man, perhaps an Indian army
officer, as he is holding the gun in a skilled way. This means the Mukti Bahini has willingly
accepted the Indian aid to achieve freedom from West Pakistan. The Pak Army would be
defeated by the Indian Army in the third Indo-Pak war in December 1971.
Q. (a) According to Mr Tanner, describe Bhutto’s reaction against the
Security Council.
[3]
Ans.
Mr Bhutto has accused the Security Council of legalizing the Indian aggression. He
expressed his anger by saying that he did not want to see the faces of the permanent
members of the Security Council. He went to extent of saying that a destroyed Pakistan was
acceptable to him.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
A photograph of Mr Bhutto walking out of the UNSC session on 15 December 1971.
Q. (b)
From source B what do we learn about Bhutto’s
presentation of Pakistan’s case in the UNSC? [5]
Ans.
Mr Bhutto carries an angry look as he is walking away in an informal way. It seems to
be a historic session of the UN Security Council as there are many delegates of other
countries including India. Though apparently disappointed, Bhutto seems determined and
firm in defending Pakistan’s case in the wake of the Indian attack on East Pakistan in
December 1971. Bhutto expressed his protest by tearing apart the UN resolution the Soviet
Union vetoed against Pakistan’s demand of withdrawal of Indian army from East Pakistan.
The third Indo-Pak war was lost by Pakistan and led to the creation of Bangladesh.
Q:
Why did the victory of the Awami League cause a constitutional
crisis?
(7)
Ans. The Awami League got a decisive majority in the 1970 elections. It won 160 out of a
total of 162 seats of East Pakistan and 300 seats of the National Assembly against
the PPP of West Pakistan that managed to win only 81 seats. Such a huge victory of
the Awami League allowed it to form the government on its own. In other words, the
future Prime Minister and his entire Cabinet could come from East Pakistan without
involving the PPP of West Pakistan.
Bhutto kept all his MNAs from attending the National Assembly session scheduled to
be held in Dhaka. He, in February 1971, threatened to break the legs of those who
tried to attend the session. This promoted anger among the Bengali MNAs as they
felt betrayed. The scheduled session of NA was thus indefinitely postponed.
General Yahya and Mr Bhutto visited Dhaka, in March 1971, and assured Sheikh
Mujeeb that he would be the future head of state. Yahya invited Mujeeb to West
Pakistan but the latter declined the offer thus losing a good opportunity to gain
popularity in West Pakistan.
Victory of the Awami League was also problematic as it had won the election on the
basis of Mujeeb’s six points that asked for a complete internal autonomy of East
Pakistan. He wanted provincial governments controlling foreign trade and taxation
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
policy. This would greatly reduce the funds available to the central government in
West Pakistan in addition to limiting its powers in general. Yahya Khan and the West
Pakistani politicians were not prepared to accept such a major change though Mujeeb
believed that the six points were negotiable. Instead of negotiating with him, he was
arrested and this marked the start of the worst kind of constitutional crisis in the history
of Pakistan.
Q:
Explain why East Pakistan wished to become independent of
West
Pakistan?
(7)
Ans. There was a growing economic disparity between East and West Pakistan. East
Pakistan had a weaker industrial base with fewer industries than West Pakistan. Its
economy was further weakened by floods and cyclones that destroyed its
infrastructure regularly. Due to the dominance of West Pakistan, most of the economic
policies mainly benefited its people. This disparity increased significantly in the 1960s
when 22 families of West Pakistan became owners of most of Pakistan’s wealth. By
1970, the per capita income of East Pakistan was 85% that of West Pakistan. This
was resented by East Pakistan.
East Pakistan was under-represented in government, armed forces and the Civil
Services though it had 55% of the total population of Pakistan. Under the One Unit
Scheme, both the wings were given equal seats in the National Assembly. When the
Awami League of Sheikh Mujeeb won a majority in the 1970 elections, West Pakistan
refused to transfer power to Mujeeb. His six points directly threatened the traditional
political dominance of West Pakistan. This led to a civil war in East Pakistan that
became Bangladesh after West Pakistan’s defeat by India in December 1971.
Both wings were separated by an Indian territory of 1600 km that resulted in difficulties
in communication between the two. In times of emergencies such as floods, West
Pakistan usually reacted slowly that inculcated a sense of alienation among Bengalis.
Ayub’s presidential form of government gave him unusual powers and this was
considered undemocratic by Bengalis. For the same reason, they boycotted Ayub’s
celebration of the Decade of Development in 1968-1969.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why was Pakistan unsuccessful in the 1965 and 1971 wars? / Why
was India successful in the 1965 and 1971 wars against
Pakistan?
(7)
Ans. India was militarily superior. The 1965 war was fought on the two gross
miscalculations of Ayub Khan who thought India was not prepared for a full scale war.
He also expected a massive Kashmiri uprising in favour of Pakistan army. However,
against all his expectations, India attacked with full force and Lahore was caught
unprepared on 6th September 1965, though Pakistan defended it well.
Pakistan could not receive the Western aid in the two wars. The US military aid was
stopped for both Pakistan and India. It affected Pakistan more as India continued to
receive the Soviet aid. It had blocked any chance of the US or Chinese aid to Pakistan
by signing a strategic agreement with the USSR in August 1971. Americans and
Chinese wanted Pakistan to resolve the matter on its own. Pakistan also expected
some aid by the SEATO but that too was not provided.
By 1971, India had developed a much bigger army against Pakistan in terms of
number of troops and weapons. It exploited the civil war in East Pakistan by training
and equipping the Bengali militant separatist body, the Mukti Bahini against Pakistan.
People of East Pakistan, in general, wanted freedom from West Pakistan. Therefore,
they did not support West Pakistan’s army that was already accused of killing the
Bengali intelligentsia on large scale. The 1600 km long distance from West Pakistan
also played a decisive role in Pakistan’s defeat.
Q:
Economic factors contributed the most towards the separation of
East Pakistan in 1971. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for
your answer.
(14)
Ans. Economic disparity between East and West Pakistan grew with time. East Pakistan
had been poorer than West Pakistan since 1947 as its weak industrial base was
repeatedly damaged by floods. Unfortunately, this gap was widened mainly due to the
economic policies of Ayub Khan in the 1960s. West Pakistan became the major
beneficiary of his industrial and agricultural reforms. The 22 richest families of West
Pakistan owned 66% of the industries and 80% of banking and insurance companies
of Pakistan. East Pakistan was the largest producer of jute in the world (producing
75% of the total world jute) but its economic growth was slower than that of West
Pakistan. Earnings from the jute export and taxes collected from East Pakistan were
mainly spent on the development of West Pakistan. The per capita income of East
Pakistan was 85% that of West Pakistan by 1970. This means that every West
Pakistani was 15% richer then his East Pakistani counterpart on the average. The
Bengalis also questioned the justification of spending of the Kashmir issue while
keeping East Pakistan under developed. All this promoted a sense of deprivation and
frustration among the people of East Pakistan.
Political factors also contributed to the separation of East Pakistan. It wanted a share
in the government according to the size of the population that was 10% greater than
West Pakistan (55% of the total population). This was denied to them under the One
Unit Scheme and rule of parity as enforced in the 1956 and 1962 Constitutions. Most
of the political decision making was done in West Pakistan. East Pakistan was underrepresented in the armed forces and the Civil Services as the headquarters of the
armed forces were located in West Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The Awami League of Sheikh Mujeeb in East Pakistan won an overall majority in the
1970 elections. Mujeeb got this victory on the basis of his six points that asked for full
autonomy of East Pakistan in all matters except for defence and foreign affairs.
Mujeeb wanted separate fiscal, taxation and foreign trade policy of the two wings
which West Pakistan could not accept as it would weaken its traditional dominance in
politics and economy. Mujeeb was denied power and arrested that led to a civil war
in East Pakistan. Situation worsened as General Yahya ordered a military operation
in March 1971. There was massacre of Bengalis who retaliated with the help of India.
The Indian army had been training and funding the Mukti Bahini, the militant Bengali
separatist army. Finally, the 1971 war led to West Pakistan’s defeat and creation of
Bangladesh.
Cultural factors also contributed towards the tragic separation of East Pakistan.
Jinnah declared Urdu as the only national language on the basis of “One Nation One
Language”. This was resented by East Pakistan as Bengali was a fully developed and
the only language spoken throughout East Pakistan. The Bengalis took this as a step
of West Pakistan’s attempts to dominate them. After protests and violence, Bengali
was also declared as the national language with Urdu.
East and West Pakistan were separated by a 1600 km long Indian territory and this
caused difficulties in communication between the two wings. East Pakistan was
regularly ravaged by floods and cyclones that further weakened its economy. Failure
of West Pakistan to provide timely help in such emergencies also promoted a sense
of separatism in East Pakistan. It was affected by devastating floods only a couple of
months before the 1970 elections but West Pakistan did not show any concern in
providing relief to the flood victims. India offered aid ostensibly on humanitarian
grounds but West Pakistan did not allow it and this further hurt the people of East
Pakistan.
It may be concluded that economic factors contributed the most towards the
separation of East Pakistan. With a growing economic disparity and political
dominance of West Pakistan, East Pakistan felt that it was continuously being
exploited by West Pakistan. This situation was viewed by Bengalis as a continuation
of the colonial rule on them even after independence.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Z.A. Butto 1972-1977
Z.A Bhutto
President Dec 71 - Aug 73
PM
Aug 73- July 77
Hanged
Apr 79


Yahya resigned, 20 Dec 71,on fall of Dhakka (E.Pak)
ZAB
President + CMLA
Immediate Steps:
(1)
Army;
wanted to limit powers to prevent interference in politics; 29 senior officers e.g. Air
Marshal Rahim Khan & General Gul Hasan.
 Appointed his own men; created new post “Chief of Army Staff”
 Federal Security Force (FSF), Oct 1972, a paramilitary force to assist police.
 Simla Agreement, July 1972,with Indian P.M. Mrs.Indira Gandhi 90000 prisoners
released on condition of bilateral settlement of Kashmir no third party e.g. UNO.
 Imp of Simla Agreement; increased ZAB’s popularity in Pak
 Improved Pak’s image; willing to negotiate without war
 Reduced dependence on military; lesser chances of war
(2)
New constitution;
1962 constitution abrogated; LFO of Yahya worked only
Temporarily; desire for parliamentary govt; assembly session,
Apr, 1972.
 Constituent Committee; completed its work Apr 1973; new Constitution, Aug 1973.
Features




(3)
Parliamentary form of govt; PM executive head, president figure head, both for 5
yrs.
Two houses; NA for 5 yrs, directly elected;Senate by 4 provincial assemblies
half members retire every two yrs.
Four provincial assemblies
Islamic & general provisions; Islamic committee to advise govt for Islamic laws.
Party Politics







PPP of ZAB; decisive majority in NA & PA’s of Punjab & Sindh
JUI + NAP alliance in NWFP & alliance in Balochistan
Apr 72; PPP + JUI / NAP coalition:
o Free hand to JUI /NAP in return for support to PPP in NA
o Governors to be appointed with consent of respective PAs (Provincial
Assemblies).
After one year dismissal of govts of NWFP & Baluchistan; military operation
against Baloch Chiefs for 5 yrs.
Dream of provincial autonomy shattered
2 more constitutional amendments; ZAB’s autocratic rule:
o Apr 74; restricted press freedom
o ban on undesirable political parties
1975; unusual powers to FSF to suppress opposition; no right of bail, detention
on suspect.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
ZAB’s Reforms
(a)
Industrial reforms:- wanted to lower high inflation rate of 25%
Nationalized major industries (sugar, oil, textile, fertilizers etc) with these aims:
 Create funds for other development schemes
 Improve living standards of workers & allow them to make unions
 Reduce disparity of Ayub’s reforms
 Control industrial output; channel funds into industrialization
 Increase popularity of PPP in urban areas
(3)
Results;
Confidence of private sector was shaken
 Industrial growth slowed down in the early yrs
Reason for Failure:



(2)
Lack of managerial staff; nationalized units given to civil servants as not many
professional experts available
Inefficient burearocracy couldn’t manage huge job of coordinating across the
country
Decline in demand of industrial products due to worldwide economic recession
Agricultural reforms
Why; increased output due to modernization of agriculture; land ceiling could be
further lowered; same production on relatively smaller holdings
 Farmers & tenants; main voters for PPP
Details:
New land ceiling; 500 & 250 acres for unirrigated & irrigated holdings; Surplus land to be
sold to farmers
 Tenant cultivators to purchase land if the owner decided to sell; no eviction of tenants
without a genuine reason.
Results:
 Several landowners members of NA; anticipated such measures; large scale transfer
of land to relatives/trusted tenants.
 Many got land leased back (on paper) by exploiting a weak legal system
 Large scale eviction of tenants
 Tenants unable to challenge the owners due to their strong social position & influence
on revenue departments & courts.
(3)
Social Reforms
(a)
Education; why; to improve a poor literacy rate of 25%
 To develop each person’s personality, confidence, socio-economic status & skills
 To ensure uniform education, modernize curriculum & eradicate ignorance.
Details



Nationalized most of pvt sector schools
Introduced uniform syllabus in all institutes
New schools, free & compulsory primary education
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Reasons for failure
Initial yrs; serious difficulties due to a no. of factors:
 Only 13% of education budget for primary education
 Opposition to formal education by rural masses; fear of loss of earning due to
schooling of working child
 Overcrowding in many schools; drop in standards of education
 Insufficient administrative staff to run the nationalized institutes
 Education is a slow process; takes lot of time; 1% improvement in literacy even after
5 yrs.
B.Health & Family Planning
Why; to provide better health care to all; to control population growth
Details





RHC’s (Rural Health Centers) and BHU’s (Basic Health Units) in rural areas
Compulsory service in rural areas for the fresh doctors
New hospitals & medical colleges
Brand names of drugs were banned to reduce cost of medicines
Started a new family planning and vaccination program
Results



(4)
Improved medical care of Pakistanis
Shortage of doctors & nurses remained a problem
Reduced income of multinational pharmaceuticals who closed down their business
Administrative Reforms




Considered civil services corrupt, inefficient & full of unnecessary rules
Restructured civil services into a no. of smaller levels & unified by salary scales
Direct recruitment method; capable people could join at any level
Was criticized on this method; accused of favoritism neglecting merit.
1977 elections & fall of ZAB









Announced general elections, 1977
9 political parties; PNA (Pakistan National Alliance) determined to remove ZAB
PNA promised Islamic rule in Pak
Sweeping victory of PPP; PNA rejected results
Accused of rigging (done in only some areas); countrywide anti-ZAB campaign
Brutal force by ZAB to suppress PNA, but the campaign got stronger
Martial law, curfew in Karachi, Hyderabad, Lahore
Military closely observed as ZAB began to accept some demands of PNA; ban on
drinking, Friday holiday etc.
‘Operation Fairplay’ by General Zia Ul Haq, 5 July 1977; constitution suspended, ZAB
& other leaders were taken under military custody, shifted to Murree; 3rd martial law
on Pak.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Reason for downfall of ZAB


Opposition by industrialists & businessmen to nationalization program
Middle class opposed educational reforms; decline in standard in nationalized
institutes
Religious parties opposed the socialist / communist style of ZAB; use of FSF, military
operation in Baluchistan, strictness towards old supporters and loss of loyal workers
Execution of ZAB







ZAB shifted to Murree, released after some time
Zia’s promise of elections; ZAB began to attract huge rallies, challenged Zia’s steps
Zia decided to restrict ZAB; reopened an old murder case against ZAB
murder
of Nawab Muhammad Khan, father of Ahmed Raza Kasuri, ZAB’s opponent.
Arrest of ZAB 3 Sept 1977.
Death sentence by Lahore High Court, 18 March 1978.
Supreme Court upheld sentence.
4 April 1979; ZAB hanged, Rawalpindi
Q:
Describe the terms of the 1973 Constitution.
(4)
th
Ans. It was implemented on 14 August 1973 by Z.A. Bhutto. Under it Pakistan became
the Islamic Republic of Pakistan with a federal and parliamentary form of government.
Prime Minister became the executive head whose advice was binding on the
President. PM and President had to be Muslims. The bicameral parliament had
Senate as the Upper, and National Assembly as the Lower House. Senate had equal
number of seats from all provinces and could not be dissolved. National Assembly
had seats from all provinces according to their population. Fundamental human rights
were to be enforced by the Supreme and High Courts, and the armed forces were to
stay away from politics.
Q:
What is a BHU (Basic Health Unit) and an RHC (Rural Health
Centre)?
(4)
Ans. They were introduced as part of Bhutto’s health reforms to provide health care on a
large scale. One BHU was set up for every 20,000 people and One RHC for every
60,000 people. A BHU had a doctor with a few paramedics whereas an RHC was a
larger unit having a doctor, an LHV (Lady Health Visitor) and some other paramedics.
It also had facilities for some surgical procedures. These became a source of
providing employment to the medical graduates as Bhutto had set up many new
medical colleges.
Q:
What was the Simla Agreement?
(4)
Ans. Z. A. Bhutto visited India and signed a peace treaty with the Indian PM Mrs. Indira
Gandhi on 2nd July 1972, at Simla. India agreed to return 90,000 POWs (Prisoners of
War) of the 1971 war. In return, Pakistan promised to discuss the Kashmir issue with
India directly and not raising it on any international forum such as the United Nations,
though Z. A. Bhutto did not give up the claim for Kashmir. The agreement improved
Z. A. Bhutto’s popularity in Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Describe the OIC.
[4]
Ans.
After a failed attempt of burning the al-Aqsa Mosque, the Muslim states formed the
OIC/ Organization of Islamic Countries, in 1969. Its first summit was held in Rabat, Morocco,
that was attended by 24 heads of Muslim states. In the 2nd summit held in Lahore, in Feb.
1974, 35 heads states participated including the Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat. This
showed the importance of Pakistan in the Muslim world. It was renamed OIC / Organization
of Islamic Cooperation in 2011.
Q:
What was the FSF/Federal Security Force?
(4)
Ans.
Z.A. Bhutto wanted to limit the powers of the army as it had become unpopular after
its defeat in the 1971 war. He set up a paramilitary force in October 1972 under his direct
command. Ostensibly, its task was to assist the civil administration and the police in the
maintenance law and order without requiring the intervention of the military. However,
Bhutto’s critics called it a private army whose real duty was to curtail any opposition against
him. The FSF was misused to crush or punish Bhutto’s rivals even though they had been
loyal to him previously. It was dissolved by General Zia in 1977.
Q:
What was the nationalization policy of Z.A. Bhutto?
(4)
Ans. Under the Economic Reform Order of January 1972, Bhutto nationalized 70 major
industrial units taking them from their owners and placing them under the Federal
Ministry of Production. In March 1972, life insurance companies were nationalized,
and privately owned banks were nationalized in 1974. Though Bhutto hoped to
improve the economic growth, allegations were made for mismanagement of the
nationalized industries. Eventually, there was some success as inflation fell from 25%
in 1972 to 6% in 1976.
Q:
Describe Z.A. Bhutto’s land reforms.
Ans.
Z.A. Bhutto introduced the new land reforms in 1972. Under these, the maximum
amount of land that anyone could own was set at 250 acres of irrigated land and 500
acres for unirrigated land. Bhutto had promised that the landless would be given/sold
land after taking excess land holdings from the big landowners. This way, land would
also be available to allow many people to own their farms. However, the powerful
landowners undermined his reforms by transferring some of their landholdings to their
relatives or the trusted tenants and getting them leased back on long-term leases.
Q:
Describe the Security of Tenure scheme. [4]
(4)
Ans.
Z.A. Bhutto introduced this scheme as he wanted to grant security of tenure to the
tenant cultivators. Under this the tenant farmers had the first right to buy the land they worked
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
on. The land owners could not sell their lands without the consent of tenants. The powerful
land owners, using their political influence and social contacts, foiled it by evicting several
tenants.
Q:
Explain why Z.A. Bhutto adopted the policy of nationalization of
the privately owned industries.
(7)
Ans. Bhutto was inspired by socialism. Under the Economic Reform Order of January
1972, he announced nationalization of the private sector industries. He wanted to
raise the living standard of the industrial workers who, together with other ordinary
people, constituted bulk of his vote bank. Profits from the nationalized companies
were to be spent on improving public services such as health and education.
He wanted to promote economic growth and bring inflation down from a high level of
25%. By nationalizing industrial units the government could control industrial output
and channel the profits and investment into industrialization. This way the popularity
of his party, the PPP, was also expected to increase with the urban populace that was
an important sector of the party’s support.
He also wanted to even out the inequalities resulting from Ayub’s industrial reforms
of the 1960s. These reforms had benefitted only some people, the famous 22 families
that had become owner of about 80% of Pakistan’s large scale industry. Such a high
level of economic disparity had made Ayub Khan unpopular in the late 1960s.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why did Z.A. Bhutto’s industrial reforms fail?
(7)
Ans. Many of the nationalized industries were mismanaged. Capable factory owners were
often replaced by civil servants with little understanding of commerce and civil
services were already notorious for their inefficiency. Moreover, Pakistan’s education
system was not yet producing sufficiently educated workers to take managerial
positions in the industries under the Federal Ministry of Production.
The Federal Ministry had a huge job to do for co-ordinating the nationalization process
across the country. It was a time taking process and needed a hurdle free working
environment but unfortunately, it was often got bogged down in bureaucratic muddle.
The changes took place at a time when the world was going through an economic
recession that had lowered the demand of various products of industries. The newly
nationalized industries, therefore, could not improve their output in such conditions.
Foreign and some well-off Pakistanis, who did not like the socialist policies, shifted
their units out of Pakistan and invested elsewhere. Certainly, economic growth had to
be slower in such circumstances.
Q:
Why were Z.A. Bhutto’s educational reforms unsuccessful?
(7)
Ans. The nationalized schools could not perform better. Due to nationalization of schools,
there was a drop in the standard of education as they were over-burdened and could
not cater to the increased number of students without an increase in the trained staff.
In many places there was a lack of teaching, teacher training and administrative staff.
The government had allocated only 13% of the education budget to primary schools.
With such a small amount of funds the desired results could not be achieved.
Improving literacy rate and educational standard is a time taking process. It is not
possible to change the curriculum, trained teachers and develop the educational
infrastructure in a short time. As a result, there was only 1% increase in literacy even
after 5 years.
Most of the rural families were not interested in the formal education or literacy. They
usually preferred to make their children work on the farm and thus share the economic
burden of the family. They could not afford the loss of earnings even if they were
offered free education. Perhaps providing them agricultural education alongwith
formal education might have been a better option.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q
Why was Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto arrested and subsequently executed
in 1979?
(7)
Ans: Z.A. Bhutto had an authoritarian style of governance. The focal point of political power,
therefore lay with the party leadership, specially its Chairman Bhutto himself. As his
industrial and educational reforms began to lose popularity, Bhutto was sharply
criticized. Nationalization of industries led to a decline in economic growth. Similarly,
nationalization of private educational institutes resulted in overcrowded classrooms
and poor pace of improvement in literacy rate.
The election results of 1977 were rejected by the combined opposition, the PNA
(Pakistan National Alliance) on the basis of large scale rigging in elections, though
rigging had been reported only in some constituencies. Bhutto miscalculated the
opposition and was forced to negotiate with the PNA but it was too late. The Army
took it Bhutto’s weakness, and the military chief General Zia ul Haq toppled his
government on 5th July, 1977 and thus 3rd Martial Law was imposed on Pakistan.
Bhutto and opposition leaders were arrested.
Zia announced holding of elections in 90 days and allowed political activity. Bhutto,
having a strong “personality charisma”, began to attract huge rallies. He threatened
to frame Zia in a case of high treason once he was re-elected as PM. Zia was alarmed
and postponed the elections. An old murder case against Bhutto was reopened:
murder of Nawab Muhammad Khan, father of Ahmad Raza Kasuri who was a PPP
leader but had developed differences with Bhutto. The Lahore High Court and then
the Supreme Court of Pakistan awarded death sentence to Bhutto. He refused to
extend a mercy petition before the President Zia and was hanged till death in the
Rawalpindi jail on 4th April, 1979.
Q:
Constitutional reforms were the most important of Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto’s domestic policies between 1971 and 1977’. Do you agree
or disagree? Give reasons for your answer.
(14)
Ans: Z.A Bhutto’s constitutional reforms were very successful. He assumed power amidst
very critical circumstances. East Pakistan had become Bangladesh and there was no
constitution since March 1969. Z.A Bhutto headed the last Constituent Assembly that
comprised members elected in the 1970 elections. It began the tasking of framing a
new constitution. The new constitution was implemented on 14th August, 1973. It
introduced pure parliamentary form of government with the P.M the executive head
while the President only a figure head of state. A bicameral parliament was
introduced. The National Assembly, (the lower house), had members in proportion to
the population of each province. The Senate, (upper house), had equal number of
seats from each province, giving protection to the smaller provinces. Senators were
academics, professionals and technocrats.
The Constitution was criticized by the opposition because the focal point of political
power lay with the party leadership (Bhutto remained chairman of PPP till the end of
his rule). Bhutto became autocratic and authoritarian with time, and when political
matters worsened, all blame was put on him.
His other domestic reforms were also important. In order to improve literacy and
ensure a uniform standard of education, most of the private sector schools were
nationalized. Primary education was made free and compulsory. New Schools were
opened and the old ones were upgraded. These policies had little success due to lack
of funds, trained teachers and school buildings. Parents in rural areas opposed formal
education as it did not guarantee jobs for their children. Also , the funds allocated for
primary education were only 13% of the total budget for education.
To provide health care to all, and to improve life expectancy and infant mortality rate
(IMR) several BHU’s (Basic Health Units) and RHU’s (Rural Health Centres) were set
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
up. New medical colleges and hospitals were set up. Under the new drug policy, brand
names of drugs were abolished, so that medicines were available at cheaper prices.
This, however, resulted in declining earning of chemists and many pharmaceutical
companies closed their business in Pakistan.
Bhutto was inspired by communism and socialism with an aim of ensuring control of
the government on sources of production and to improve the standard of living of
industrial workers. Most of the large scale industries were nationalized, only cotton
textile sector was spared. To finance these industrial units, five commercial banks
were also nationalized. Industrial growth slowed down as the nationalized units were
given to civil servants who were not trained for the job. However, many industries
survived at the time of world-wide economic crises when many industrialists were
about to close down their units.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Bhutto had a strong vote bank of industrial workers and farmers. Since Ayub’s Green
Revolution had increased the land productivity but had also caused huge disparity
between rich and poor farmers, Bhutto lowered the land ceiling to 500 acres of unirrigated and 250 acres irrigated land holdings, it was further reduced to 300 and 150
acres respectively. Through the Tenant Safety Act he provided protection to tenant
cultivators who couldn’t be evicted without a valid reason. These measures increased
his popularity but their success rate was poor due to the strong social position of the
rich land owners (zamindars) many of whom were, ironically, members of the
Parliament.
It can be proved that Bhutto was most successful in his constitutional reforms because
the 1973 Constitution continues to survive till today, despite being suspended by two
military rulers in 1977 and 1999. This shows the inherent strength of the Constitution
and the ability of Bhutto to give a lasting constitution to the people of Pakistan.
Q. How successful was Z.A. Bhutto in his foreign policy in the 1970s?
[10]
Ans.
Bhutto improved relations mainly with the USSR, China and the Muslim world. So, he
failed to have friendly relations with the West. Bhutto paid two visits to Washington to keep
cordial relations with the USA. However, the US were unhappy over his friendly relations with
the USSR and China. Therefore, there was no significant progress in Pakistan’s relations
with the US, UK and the Commonwealth. Bhutto left both the Commonwealth and SEATO
when Great Britain recognized Bangladesh in 1971 as it reflected the British neutrality in
favour of India. After the 1971 war, Bhutto visited Moscow in 1972 and accepted the soviet
offer of building a steel mill in Pakistan. Accordingly, the PSM (Pakistan Steel Mill) was
established with the Soviet aid in the 1970s. Pak-Soviet relations remained stronger till the
downfall of Bhutto in July 1977.
China had remained neutral in the 1971 Indo-Pak war. After the war China again
began to support Pakistan openly. Bhutto visited China in February 1972. China agreed to
convert all previous loans into grants, and supplied military aircrafts and tanks. Pakistan’s
second iron industry, HMC (Heavy Mechanical Complex), Taxila was set up with the Chinese
assistance.
Bhutto convened the second summit of the OIC in Lahore in February 1974 in which
Pakistan recognized Bangladesh as an independent republic. Bhutto signed several
agreements with the rich Muslim states of the Middle East. Within two years Pakistan was
receiving heavy aid from many Muslim countries. Iran gave loans of 730 million dollars, the
UAE 100 million dollars and Lybia 80 million dollars. Bhutto offered friendly relations to the
Afghan President. In 1976, Bhutto and the Afghan President Sardar Daud exchanged many
visits in which the Shah of Iran played a key role. Attempts were made to sign the APTTA
(Afghan-Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement) to help Afghanistan avail Pakistan’s port.
However, Afghanistan’s rigidity over the Pakhtoonistan issue and refusing to accept the
Durand Line as an international Pak-Afghan border halted all efforts to improve bilateral
relations. The RCD remained a very effective bloc during Bhutto’s regime.
Bhutto visited India in July 1972 and signed the Simla Agreement with the Indian PM
Mrs Indira Gandhi. India agreed to release about 90,000 Pakistani POWs (Prisoners of War)
that had been in its custody since December 1970. Both Prime Ministers agreed to resolve
all mutual disputes without involvement of a third party (e.g. the UN). India, however, tested
its first nuclear weapons in Rajasthan desert in 1974. Feeling insecure, Bhutto retaliated by
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declaring that Pakistan would also develop nuclear technology. This adversely affected the
Pak-India relations.
Z.A. Bhutto was perhaps quite successful in his foreign policy as Pakistan built first
ever two large scale iron and steel industries in its history. Moreover, Pakistan was
recongnized as a very important Muslim state in the world.
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Sample Question
Source A,
Part of a speech of Z.A. Bhutto in the UN Security Council, on 15
December 1971
“The time has come when, as far as Pakistan is concerned, we shall have to speak the truth
whether members of the Security Council like it or not. We were hoping that the Security
Council, mindful of its responsibilities for the maintenance of world peace and justice, would
act according to principles and bring an end to a naked, brutal aggression against my people.
I came here for this reason.”
Q(a) Describe Bhutto’s feelings and views presented in his speech. (3)
Ans. Bhutto is highlighting the grave tragedy resulting from the Pak-India war of 1971. He
is addressing the session in a bold way by referring to the five permanent members
of the UNSC. He is reminding the UN Security Council of its responsibilities that it had
failed to observe in the 1971 crisis. This failure had led to several tragedies that
necessitated his visit to the Security Council.
Source B, a photograph of Bhutto addressing a public rally,
Q. (b): According to source B what do we learn about Z.A. Bhutto?
Ans.
[5]
The source shows Bhutto’s commanding, charismatic and popular personality. The
huge number of his audience proves that he is extremely popular among the masses. He
carries a cheered up look as he seems to have received a strongly positive response from
his people. He is clad in a simple safari suit instead of any expensive clothing that conveys
the message to the people that their leader is from among them. Bhutto’s way of addressing
his audience made him a great crowd puller and a successful statesman. Despite his
controversial role in the separation of East Pakistan, Bhutto would remain the most popular
leader during his regime.
Source A: part of information mentioned in the website:
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simla_Agreement
“Both countries will settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral
negotiations. India has, many a times, maintained that Kashmir dispute is a bilateral issue.
According to Simla agreement, it had denied any third party intervention even that of United
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Nations. The agreement converted the ceasefire line of 17th December 1971 into the Line of
Control between India and Pakistan.”
Q.1 (a)
[3]
What does source A tell us about the Simla agreement?
Ans.
Pakistan and India agreed to settle mutual disputes through bilateral dialogue only.
India had been asserting that there should be no third party intervention including the UNO.
The agreement also converted the international boundary between East Pakistan and India
into the LOC after the end of the war between the two states.
Source B, a photograph of Z.A. Bhutto’s visit to India in July 1972.
Q.
According to Source B what do we learn about Bhutto’s visit?
[5]
Ans.
The source shows a cordial interaction between the two PMs. Both carry a cheeredup look that suggests their agreement on reducing hostility between Pakistan and India.
Bhutto is wearing a winter clothing though it’s a summer month. This is due to the highland
climate of the hill station, Simla. Smile on Indira Gandhi’s face implies she has scored more
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points on the dialogue table. Soon, however, bilateral relations would be damaged after
Indian nuclear blast in Pokhran in 1974.
Source A: part of an article by Henry Tanner published in the New York Times.
“Pakistan’s Foreign Minister, Z.A. Bhutto, his face streaked with tears walked out of
the Security Council today after accusing it of ‘legalizing aggression’. Outside the chamber
he said, ‘I hate this body. I don’t want to see their faces again. I would rather go back to a
destroyed Pakistan.’ Then, followed by seven grim-faced members of his delegation, Mr
Bhutto strode down the carpeted main hall.”
Source A: part of Zia’s statement written by Sheikh Aziz on 15th June 2014,
“Bhutto’s release on bail sent Gen. Zia into shock: he, of course, wanted the
deposed Prime Minister to be kept in jail at any cost. The bail had been granted by the
Lahore High Court’s Justice Khawaja Muhammad Ahmad Samdani. When Bhutto’s bail
plea was presented before him, he granted it on the grounds that, ‘the case did not hold any
legal ground.’”
Q.1(a)
According to the author describe the scenario of Mr
Bhutto’s release on bail. [3]
Ans.
Gen. Zia was shocked on the release of Mr Bhutto on bail, granted by the Lahore
High Court. He wanted Bhutto remain in prison at any cost. Justice Samdani, on the other
hand, declared the case against Mr Bhutto very weak.
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Source B , a photograph of Bhutto receiving Gen Zia in November 1976.
Q.(b) With reference to the photograph describe the meeting between
Bhutto and Zia.
[5]
Ans.
This seems a very important meeting held in a pleasant environment. Zia carries a
broad smile across his face. Gen. Zia, perhaps after being appointed as the Chief of Army
Staff by Bhutto recently in March 1976. Bhutto too, looks confident with his upright posture
against Zia’s demeanour of shaking hand with Bhutto in a rather humble way. Another army
officer is saluting Bhutto while there are many civilians around that shows Bhutto’s dominance
over political affairs. This conveys a message of cordial civil-military relations at that time.
Within a year, however, Pakistan would be under military rule as Zia would topple Bhutto’s
government in July 1977.
General Zia (5th July 1977-17th August 1988)
General Zia Ul Haq
5-July 1977-17Aug 1988
1).
Immediate Steps → wanted to get rid of ZA Bhutto (ZAB)
 ZAB had promoted Zia by superseding senior officers→ difficult decision for Zia
to take
 ZAB still very popular → attracted huge rallies after release in July.
 An old murder case was reopened against ZAB →murder of Nawab Muhammad
Khan, father of Ahmad Raza Kausri, a critic of ZAB.
 ZAB arrested 3 Sept, 1977 → trial for about 2 yrs → death sentence → ZAB
refused to plea for mercy before Zia
 Executed, 4 Apr 1979, Rawalpindi
2).
End of military action in Balochistan:
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3).
Accountability:
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4).
Amnesty for tribal chiefs if they surrendered
Some development projects in Balochistan to normalize relations b/w the Central
govt & Balochistan.
Had declared to start process of accountability soon after assuming power
Nov 1977 → abolished the FSF
Investigation into corruption of ZAB’s govt
Objective→ to seek public support for a new and honest & Islamic govt.
Islamisation:
Why → wanted a strong & stable govt that was possible only under a military ruler in
an underdeveloped country like Pakistan
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

To undo the image and policies of ZAB and keep PPP out of power→ ZAB’s image
as a pro –socialist person was Zia’s target
Argued that Pak had been created in the name of Islam & so, only Islam suited it.
Benefits gained by Zia
By his Islamisation program
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Islam as counter –ideology against ZAB’s socialist views
Won support of religious parties, esp the Jama’at-i-Islami that was influential in the
army & administration
Dec 1979 → Soviet/Russian attack on Afghanistan →Zia exploited his pro-Islamic,
anti-communist regime to seek the western support & heavy aid.
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Steps for Islamisation
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1979 → Federal Shariat Court (FSC) to decide about existing laws being Islamic or
not → comprised a chairman, 5 judges and Ulema.
Hudood and Qazf Ordinance 1977 → Islamic punishments for theft, adultery drinking
and& slander/false accusation of adultery against an innocent woman.
Blasphemy Law → punishment for showing disrespect for the Holy Prophet/ the
Quran.
1980, the Zakat and Ushr Ordinance → 2.5% wealth tax on bank savings over a
certain amount → Zakat committees at various levels to distribute Zakat money
among the poor → strong Shi’a protest, 1984→ they were exempted
5% tax on agricultural income (Ushr)
Council of Islamic Ideology to advise the govt to make legal system according Islamic
values.
Dress code for women appearing on TV → to use headscarf → restrictions on women
sports & women participation in certain occupations
Islamiyat & Pak Studies compulsory in schools
Extra marks for those who had learnt the Quran by heart, in the competitive exams of
public service
Promotion of Arabic by Radio & TV.
Law & Government
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Several laws to restrict judiciary
Military courts to try offenders according to martial law
March 1980, PCO (Provisional Constitutional Order) no decision of president to be
challenged in any court → protesting judges were removed
Several military officers in civil services + fixed quota of military in civil services →40%
of Pak diplomats abroad were from military in 1982.
Tried to develop a political base → Majlis-i-Shoora ( Islamic Parliament) to advise Zia
about Islamic law → an advisory body, no legislative power
1984, referendum on the pretext of continuing Islamic reforms as president for another
5 yrs.
Poor turn out → 10% due to boycott of the combined opposition, MRD (Movement of
Restoration of Democracy) → referendum proved a failure → he was no more
popular.
1985 elections → non-party basis
MRD protested, tried to keep people away form elections but Zia was firm
Before elections, many amendments in the constitution to legalise all his steps &
strengthen his authority.
Elections, March 1985 → 52% turn out →big landlords & tribal chiefs were elected
despite the boycott by the MRD
A loyal & obedient assembly
Muhammad Khan Junejo, new PM, to gradually form a political party loyal to Zia
Dec 1985 → martial law lifted, constitution restored, with fundamental amendments
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The Afghanistan miracle & economy of Pakistan
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Dec 1979 → Soviet attack on Afghanistan
Pakistan, the only US ally in the region for anti-Soviet activities of the USA
Heavy economic and military aid to Pak by the west, esp the USA.
Heavy aid to accommodate Afghan refugees & to strengthen Pak army.
Huge defence budget → Pak became a major supplier of military force to the Muslim
world
Western aid + remittances by over 2 million overseas Pakistanis→ many economic
reforms e.g. denationalization of the nationalized industries & ban on further
nationalization
High annual GNP (Gross National Produce) growth rate of 6.23%
With such high growth rate, high inflation b/w 1977 & 1986
Improved standard of living but start of electric power crisis-loadshedding.
Problems for Zia
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Second half of 1980’s → problems due to easy availability of money & weapons & the
Afghan refugees.
Violence, drug addition smuggling, weapon smuggling, sectarian violence, esp sunnishia in Punjab & linguistic violence in Sindh → rise of the MQM (Muhajir Qaumi
Movement )
Karachi → centre of violence
Provincial differences → Punjab, loyal to central govt with rise of Nawaz Sharif
Sindh, NWFP & Balochistan turning against Zia, esp over the issue of the Kalabagh
dam.
Change in the world politics → Geneva Accord , 1988 → USA to stop supporting the
Afghan Mujahideen
(Who would soon be called miscreants ) in return for the Soviet withdrawl form
Afghanistan → no need to continue aid to Pak
Junejo & his ML (Muslim League) decided to exploit this change in order to strengthen
the civil political power.
Apr 1988 → Ojhri Camp disaster → an ammunition dump in Rawalpindi was
mysteriously blown up → hundreds were killed
Junejo’s decision to conduct open inquiry, involving military officers
29 May, 1988 → Zia, using powers under the 8th amendment, dismissed Junejo’s
govt & assemblies
Promised elections in 90 days
17 Aug 1988 → Zia, together with several senior officers & the US ambassador, was
killed in an air crash, Bahawalpur.
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Q.
What was the 8th Constitutional Amendment?
Ans.
[4]
Zia had suspended the 1973 constitution after his martial law in 1977. In February
1985, elections were held, on 30th December 1985 martial law was lifted and the constitution
was restored with the 8th amendment, article 58-2 (b). It empowered the President to appoint
the PM and the provincial governors as well as dismiss the PM and the National Assembly.
All previous laws of the martial law were also validated. Zia dismissed Junejo’s government
using the same powers. It was finally revoked by the Sharif government in 1997 under the
13th amendment.
Q.
What was the Ojhri Camp Disaster?
Ans.
[4]
On 10th April 1988, an army weapons dump at Ojhri Camp, Rawalpindi blew up
mysteriously. It caused hundreds of deaths of the civilians with thousands more injured as
the dump was located in a densely populated area between Rawalpindi and Islamabad. PM
Junejo announced an immediate transparent inquiry into the explosion and promised the
nation that he would bring the responsible people before the justice even if it meant the
dismissal of senior military officers. Zia and army could not afford such an inquiry. Therefore,
on 29th May 1988, using his powers under the 8th constitutional amendment, Zia dismissed
Junejo’s government and dissolved the National Assembly.
Q.
What were the Hudood Ordinances?
Ans.
[4]
They were a part of Zia’s Islamisation programme, implemented 1977 onwards. They
included Islamic punishments for the Offences against Property (theft), Zina (adultery), Qazf
(false accusation of Zina) and Prohibition (of drinking) Ordinances. Punishment for theft was
amputation of right hand, and that for drinking alcohol was 80 stripes of the cane. Such laws
helped Zia establish and prolong his rule for many years.
Describe the Zakat Ordinance.
Ans.
[4]
Its full name was the Zakat and Ushr Ordinance and it was promulgated in June 1980.
It was a part of Zia’s Islamisation programme. Under this a deduction of 2.5% of the total
savings on a certain amount in the banks was made on the first of every Ramadan. This
Zakat money was given to the Zakat committees of various levels in cities and villages for
distribution among the poor. The Shi’a Muslim community protested against it, as according
to their belief, payment of Zakat was a voluntary ritual. In order to pressurize the government,
several demonstrations were held in Islamabad in 1984. Zia was forced to exempt them from
paying Zakat. They were required to submit a declaration of being a follower of the Fiqh-iJafria with the concerned bank.
Q.
What was the Afghan Miracle?
Ans.
[4]
The USSR/Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979. This made Pakistan
a vital ally of the US, and Zia a leader of a Muslim state on the frontline against the Soviet
communist forces. The US and the Western Europe extended huge financial and military aid
to Pakistan. Military aid was given to help the Afghan Mujahideen whereas the purpose of
the economic aid was to enable Pakistan to accommodate millions of Afghan refugees. Zia
was able to use some of these funds for the economic growth of Pakistan by starting several
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development projects. This way the Soviet attack on Afghanistan became a miracle for Zia’s
military rule.
Q:
What is the Karakoram Highway?
Ans.
[4]
Pakistan and China started a joint project in 1966 to construct an 800 mile highway
connecting Pakistan with China. The project was completed in 1978 by following the old Silk
Road route in China. It was financed by China and built mainly by its engineers. It passes
through the dangerous highlands of Gilgit Baltistan and enters China through the Khunjerab
Pass. Several thousand workers were killed during the construction. It is known as the
Friendship Highway in China.
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2:
Who were the Afghan Mujahideen?
[4]
Ans:
Mujahideen, in Islamic Shariah, are those people who voluntarily get engaged in Jihad
(holy war).This term became popular in the 1980’s when the Afghan freedom fighters fought
against the Soviet/Russian army in Afghanistan. With the help of the ISI( Inter Services
Intelligence) of Pakistan and the US aid, these Mujahideen played key role in driving the
Soviet army out of Afghanistan. Benazir Bhutto and later Nawaz Sharif too, supported these
Mujahideen who would later be called the Taliban. She even titled herself as the “mother of
the Taliban” whose children had gone astray. The Taliban, however, would later become a
reason of the disturbed Pak-US relations. Freedom fighters in the Indian occupied Kashmir
are also called the Mujahideen who formed such bodies as the JKLF( Jammu and Kashmir
Liberation Front).
Q.
Why did Zia introduce his package of Islamic laws between 1979
and 1988?
(7)
Ans.
He wanted to justify his rule. Since he had toppled the elected government of Z.A.
Bhutto, he had to ensure a strong and stable government managed by people committed to
Islamic teachings. He enforced a strict Islamic legal code named the Hudood and Qazaf
Ordinance, so that the people of Pakistan would not object to his ignoring of the political
process. This way he could undo the image of Bhutto and prove that his government was unIslamic.
He planned to prove that Pakistan had been created in the name of Islam, and
therefore, people should live according to the Islamic teachings. So, he introduced Islamic
education like compulsory teaching of Islamiyat in schools and colleges. In order to make
sure that people showed due respect to the Holy Prophet, he enforced the Blasphemy Law
under which strict punishments were given to those showing disrespect to the Holy Quran
and the Holy Prophet.
He wanted to make Pakistan a truly Islamic welfare state where needs of the poor
and the unsupported were satisfied by the government according to the financial teachings
of Islam. In order to achieve this, he promulgated the Zakat and ’Ushr Ordinance under which
Zakat was deducted from the public savings deposited in the banks, in addition to being
collected by the Zakat Committees.
Q.
Why did Zia find it difficult to rule Pakistan in the late 1980s/What
difficulties did Zia find in ruling Pakistan during the late
1980s?
(7)
Ans.
There was a serious breakdown of law and order during the late 1980s. Sindh, with
Karachi as the largest city of Pakistan, became a victim of violence, sectarian riots, kidnap
for ransom and drug trafficking. Arrival of the Afghan refugees facilitated the availability of
weapons and drugs like heroin. The MQM (Muhajir/now Muttahida Qaumi Movement)
emerged as a popular party in urban areas of Sindh. It represented the Urdu speaking
migrants from India and it went into a clash with the Sindhi speaking population. There were
several incidents of communal violence in Karachi and Hyderabad.
Zia’s strict Islamic reforms resulted in sectarian differences leading to armed clashes
between the Sunni and the Shi’a community of Pakistan. Extremist religious organizations
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got weapons to fight against the rival groups. Jhang, a city in Punjab, began to breed many
extremist organizations. The NWFP (now KPK) had also developed differences with the
central government of Zia over his plans of building the Kalabagh Dam.
In April 1988, the explosion at the Ojhri Camp in Rawalpindi caused deaths of several
innocent people, and the PM Mr. Junejo announced to conduct a transparent inquiry of the
tragedy. This created a serious difficulty for Zia as he feared inclusion of top military officers
in the inquiry. He could not afford the loss of military support, and therefore, dismissed
Junijo’s government in May 1988. This worsened the political crisis for Zia.
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Q:
Economic reforms were the most important of Zia ul Haq’s
domestic policies between 1977 and 1988. Do you agree? Give
reasons
for
your
answer.
(14)
Ans.
Zia ensured a strict and stable regime. In order to win the confidence of the investors,
he renounced Bhutto’s policy of nationalisation. Industrial units were returned to their owners.
The industrial growth began to improve. Moreover, millions of overseas Pakistanis began to
send heavy remittances that were spent on several development schemes. From the Middle
East alone $ 4billion were sent every year by the Pakistani workers. Also, Pakistan became
the greatest beneficiary of the ‘Afghan Miracle’. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in
December 1979, Pakistan became the frontline state to counter the Soviets in Afghanistan.
It received heavy US aid for many years. Pakistan was given soft term loans and aid of $ 1.6
billion, £ 1.5 billion and then $ 4.2 billion military and economic aid between 1980 and 1986.
Pakistan’s GNP (Gross National Product) was 6.2% in three years.
This impressive economic growth rate, however, was accompanied by inflation, an
increased power consumption and loss of skilled workers to other countries. Since no new
power plants were set up, Pakistanis had to experience load shedding. Easy availability of
drugs and weapons led to drug addiction and violence in the country.
Zia also introduced Islamic reforms as he wanted a strong and stable government and
undo the image of Z.A. Bhutto. He also wanted to endorse the popular belief that Pakistan
was created in the name of Islam. Accordingly, he enforced a series of Hudood Ordinances
in 1977. Under these, Islamic punishment were prescribed for major offences such as
Zina/adultery (100 stripes), theft (cutting off the right hand), drinking (80 stripes) and
Qazf/false accusation of adultery (80 stripes). Under the Blasphemy Law a punishment of
imprisonment or fine or death sentence was prescribed for those found guilty of showing
disrespect to the Holy Prophet (PBUH). Under the Zakat and Ushr Ordinance of June 1980,
a wealth tax of 2.5% was levied on the bank savings. On the protest of the Shi’a community,
they were exempted from this tax. Ushr Ordinance imposed 5% tax on agricultural income
but it had little success. The Zakat money was distributed among the poor.
Programs on Radio and TV were started to promote Arabic language, and teaching
of Islamiyat and Pak Studies was made compulsory. Extra marks were given to the
memorisers of the Quran in the Civil Services. Interest-based banking was replaced with the
profit – loss sharing banking. The Council of Islamic Ideology was created to advise the
government to make laws according to Islam. Also, the Federal Shari’at Court was created
to examine the existing laws and Islamic theme. The Laws were strongly resisted by the
women activist groups and minorities as both felt insecure under these Laws.
Zia had to legitimise his stay in power and overcome the opposition, led mainly by the
PPP. He had suspended the 1973 constitution, and through the PCO (Provisional
Constitutional Ordinance) he restrained all the Courts from challenging any of the decisions
of the military rule. He appointed several military officers in civil services. In 1984 he held a
referendum asking people if they wanted Islamisation in Pakistan or not. With a poor
participation of 10% he got elected as the President for five years. In 1985, elections were
held on non-party basis, and a very obedient parliament was elected. PML led leaders were
appointed as Chief Minister (Nawaz Sharif) and Prime Minister (Muhammad Khan Junejo).
Zia restored the Constitution with the 8th amendment (article 58-2(b) that empowered him to
dismiss the elected government and dissolve the assemblies. Thus his position was
strengthened till his death.
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It may be concluded that Zia’s economic reforms were the most successful of his
domestic policies as they brought about prosperity on a large scale and so, common man
had no concern about a military ruler who had toppled a civilian govt.
Alternative Judgement
His Islamisation was more successful than any of his other reforms because he was
able to convince the people that enforcement of Sharia’ was much more important than
democracy or civilian governments.
Q: How successful was General Zia in his foreign policy?
Ans.
[10 / 14]
Zia was more inclined towards the West, though the US showed little interest in Zia’s
policies. In November 1979, the US embassy in Islamabad was burned down. The US blamed
Zia for encouraging the angry mob. Soon, however, the situation changed in favour of Zia.
The Soviets/Russians invaded Afghanistan in December 1979, and Pakistan suddenly
became important for the US due to its strategic location. Pakistan received heavy US military
and economic aid to support the Afghan Mujahideen and to accommodate millions of Afghan
refugees. In 1981, the US President Regan gave Pakistan a package of 1.6 billion dollars for
5 years. Then a loan of 1.5 billion pounds was to help Pakistan buy modern US weapons. In
1986, another 4.2 billion dollars were given to Pakistan. After 1986, there were signs of the
Soviet defeat in Afghanistan. Therefore, the US changed its behaviour towards Pakistan.
After the Geneva Accord in 1988, the US and the USSR agreed on peace in Afghanistan.
The Soviet troops were scheduled to leave Afghanistan, and Pakistan suddenly lost its
strategic importance. The US had ignored Pakistan’s nuclear programme during the Afghan
war, but in the late 1980s the Presslar Amendment of 1985 would gradually be applied on
Pakistan. Under this, a country could receive the US aid only after the American President
declared that country as non-nuclear. Pak-USSR relations were not successful in the 1980s
due to Pakistan’s support of the Afghan Mujahideen with the help of the US. In 1984, Zia
visited Moscow to attend the funeral rites of the Soviet Present Andropov, but was not
accorded a warm welcome. The Soviet war planes dropped bombs on various Pakistani
territories towards the end of 1984. One of these raids resulted in 140 deaths of Pakistani
civilians. Hostile relations continued till the signing of the Geneva Accord in 1988.
Pak-China relations generally remained friendly during Zia’s regime. In 1978, the
Karakoram Highway (KKH) was completed with the Chinese aid. Zia visited China in 1986,
and a nuclear technology treaty was signed between the two countries.
Zia was able to maintain friendly relations with the UK and the Commonwealth. British
PM Mrs Margaret Thatcher was the first Western leader to visit Pakistan during the start of
the Afghan War. Britain gave a huge aid of 30 million pounds to Pakistan for the welfare of
the Afghan refugees. Soon another 16 million pounds were given for the refugees. By 1986,
the amount of bilateral trade with. Britain was around 376 million pounds. The only failure
was that Pakistan remained outside the Commonwealth during Zia’s rule.
Relations with India were less successful. In the early 1980s, the Khalistan issue and
the Siachin glacier conflict adversely affected the relations. The Sikh separatists wanted an
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independent state, Khalistan and India accused Pakistan of supporting the Indian Sikhs. The
Indian PM Mrs Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguard in October 1984. Mr
Rajiv Gandhi, her son and the new PM, again accused Pakistan’s involvement in it though
Zia had declared a day of national mourning.
Zia was received in a cold way when he attended the cremation ceremony of Mrs Indira
Gandhi. By 1987, the Indian army began military exercises in the Rajasthan desert to
intimidate Pakistan. Zia, however, paid a surprise visit to India on the pretext of watching a
cricket ODI between the two countries. During his visit, he successfully persuaded the Indian
leadership to withdraw its army. The exercises were halted, and this political move of Zia is
called the Cricket Diplomacy.
Pakistan’s relations with the Muslim states generally remained successful. Pakistan
tried to end the Iran-Iraq war through the OIC summit meetings but without any success.
Pakistan’s relations with Iran were mainly unsuccessful due to sectarian violence in Pakistan.
Pakistan extended humanitarian aid to Bangladesh after severe weather calamities in 1985
and 1988. Relations with Afghanistan were also not successful as Pakistan had been helping
the Mujahideen against the communist Afghan government that had invited the Soviets.
Afghan war planes bombed many areas of KPK in retaliation.
It seems Zia was quite successful in his foreign policy because during his rule the world
got rid of the Cold War, and heavy foreign aid helped Pakistan to start many development
projects to improve economic growth.
Sample Question for Q1
Source A,
Text of the referendum on 19th December 1984, seeking a validation
of Zia’s stay in power:
“Whether the people of Pakistan endorse the process initiated by General Zia, the
President of Pakistan, to bring the laws of Pakistan in conformity with the injunctions
of Islam as laid down in the Holy Quran and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet and for
the preservation of ideology of Pakistan, for the continuation and consolidation of that
process for the smooth transfer of power to the elected representatives.”
Q (a) According to source A, how is Zia trying to find ways to become
an elected President?
(3)
Ans.
Zia is seeking the support of the people of Pakistan for the enforcement of Islamic
Shari’ah in the country so that its ideology could be safeguarded. He is promising to
do the same if people elected him as the President for five years. He is linking his
election with the holding of general elections afterwards.
Source B, a photograph, showing Zia greeting Imran Khan, captian of the
Pakistan Cricket Team.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q. (b) What message does the source convey to us?
[5]
Ans. The source shows Zia’s love for cricket. This seems to be a historic meeting with Mr
Imran Khan who is wearing the test cricket dress. The presence of the cricket coach,
Mr Intikhab Alam also shows the importance of the occasion. Zia carries his typical
smile on his face whereas Mr Khan looks in a formal mood. His way of shaking hand
with Zia reflects his confidence as he is extending only one hand, unlike many others
who would meet the military dictator in a submissive way by bowing down before him.
Zia would be using his famous cricket diplomacy in the 1980s to defuse tension with
India.
Source A: part of a speech by the British PM Mrs Thatcher delivered on
her visit to to Pakistan in Oct. 1981.
“Your Excellency, President Zia-Ul-Haq! I thank you most warmly for your hospitality.
The crowded and fascinating programme which you arranged for me was some
compensation for my all too brief visit to your marvelous country. I wanted to revisit Pakistan,
partly because you kindly invited me to do so, and partly because I wished to return the visit
which you paid to London about a year ago.”
Q.(a): According to source A describe Mrs Thatcher’s feeling towards
Pakistan.
[3]
Ans.
Mrs Thatcher is expressing her gratitude to Gen. Zia for his hospitality that comprised
some fascinating cultural events. She is mindful of her very brief visit to Pakistan. She is
declaring her visit as a reciprocation to Zia’s visit to London in 1980.
Source B: a photograph of a meeting between Gen. Zia and Nawaz Sharif.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q. (b): What does source B tell us about the relationship between the two
leaders?
[5]
Ans.
The source shows the intimate closeness between Gen. Zia and Mr Sharif. Zia is not
wearing his military uniform so that Mr Sharif could feel more comfortable. Moreover, Zia is
talking to Mr Sharif in a smiling and candid way that means the meeting is being held an
informal environment. Mr Sharif on the other hand, looks a bit formal. There is not third
person around in the meeting, and this means, the importance being accorded to Mr Sharif
by Gen. Zia. This is an occasion of improved relations between the military rulers and
civilians. In future, Mr Sharif would strengthen his ties with the military establishment, and
emerged as a powerful civilian Prime Minister.
Source A: part of an article by Babar Ali published on April 4, 1987,
“Since at least October last year, a great deal of new information has been made
public about the military relationship between the US and Pakistan. Most of the information
has come into the open thanks to a couple of scholars working on Pakistan while residing in
North America. They have had access to information for US sources, many of which are
confidential.”
Q.1 (a) What claims are being made by Mr Babar Ali?
[3]
Ans.
Babar Ali is claiming the release of some secret information regarding the military
relations between Pakistan and the USA. He declares that he got most of the information
from some Pakistani scholars living in North America. He, however, states that the sources
of information are confidential.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Source B, a photograph of Zia’s visit to USA in December 1982.
Q. Describe the significance of Zia’s visit to USA.
[5]
Ans.
This seems a very important occasion as President Zia and President Ronald Reagan
carry a serene look. Both are meeting in the White House that reflects the significance of Zia
for the USA. Zia looks confident wearing the national dress. Another important state official
is standing in front of Reagan perhaps to note down the minutes of the meeting. Zia was
invited to Washington in the early phase of the Soviet invasion on Afghanistan that highlights
Pakistan’s strategic importance for the USA against the Soviet expansionist designs. The
USA would keep extending heavy economic and military aid to Pakistan in order to help the
Afghan Mujahideen to fight against the Soviet army. Pakistan would play a decisive role in
ending the Cold War in fact of the USA.
Benazir Bhutto (1988-1990 and 1993-1996)
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17 Aug 1988, Zia was killed in an air crash
According the 1973 constitution, Chairman Senate, Ghulam Ishaq Khan became the
President.
As per Zia’s schedule, elections were held for national & provincial assemblies
B.B. emerged as the most popular leader, leading the PPP (Pakistan People’s Party)
of her late father, Z.A.Bhutto
Alliance of 9 main opposition parties, IJI (Islami Jamhoori Ittehad) with such parties
as : PML (Pakistan Muslim League) patronized by General Zia Ul Haq since 1985,
Jama’at-i-Islami (JI) & other religious parties; most important leader, Mian Nawaz
Sharif, Chief Minister of Punjab since 1985.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013

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Split of mandate → PPP got majority in the centre; PML-led IJI won majority in the
Punjab; other parties in the NWFP & Balochistan; Urban Sindh → the MQM (Muhajir
Qaumi Movement) & rural Sindh →PPP
Disturbed relations b/w the central govt and the Punjab govt → BB failed to counter
the Sharif govt in the Punjab; she tried to destablise his govt but this increased
popularity of N.Sharif.
She was accused of being too pro-US; she tried to normalize relations with India in
the wake of the Kashmiri uprising; also attempted to project Pakistan’s liberal image→
first Muslim state with a female head of state.
Problems in Sindh→ most PPP leaders unhappy over the PPP-MQM alliance in the
Sindh Assembly → growing ethnic violence in Karachi & Hyderabad (two major cities
under the MQM) → crack down on MQM → The Pucca Qila Operation in Hyderabad
under the military’s supervision & massacre of the Urdu-speaking (Muhajirs)
community.
Failure of the PPP govt to control violence & disturbed relations with the Punjab govt→
GIK (Ghulam Ishaq Khan), using powers under the article 58(2) (b) dismissed govt of
PPP, dissolved assemblies.
Care taker govt under Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, Aug 1990 & elections in 90 days.
Second Term of Benazir Bhutto, 1993-1997
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Elections & return of BB as PM for the second time
A senior PPP leader, Farooq Khan Laghari, from the southern Punjab, was elected
as the new President of Pakistan.
PPP also managed to install its chief minister, Mian Manzoor Watto, in the vital
province, Punjab
BB, however, inherited domestic & external problems of the Sharif regime → inflation,
sectarian & ethnic violence & unemployment.
Position of BB was further weakened by the reports of her husband, Asif Zardari’s
involvement in corruption.
All the claims of putting Pakistan on the track of democracy were diluted by
accusations of Asif Zardari’s involvement in corruption.
March 1996 → the al-Jehad case regarding the appointment of judges in the Supreme
Court further increased problems for B.B.
Nov 1996→ President Laghari, using his emergency power dismissed govt of BB on
grounds of corruption, misgovernance and failure to resolve economic problems.
Later, both BB & Zardari were arrested & finally, B.B. left Pakistan with self-imposed
exile.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Reasons for the Dismissal of B.B
i.
ii.
First term → confrontation with the Punjab govt → escalating tension with the govt of
Nawaz Sharif
 Failure to control violence in Sindh → operation against MQM in Karachi & Sindh.
 Failure to overcome economic crisis & corruption.
Second term → involvement of Mr.Zardari in various corruption cases & her failure to
prove him innocent
 Serious differences with MQM → growing unrest, violence and economic
problems.
 Misgovernance, interprovincial differences & continued violence.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Section 3
Q’s on 1988-1999
Q:
What was the Gulf War?
[4]
Ans:
On 2nd August 1990, the Iraqi forces occupied it’s neighbouring Muslim state of
Kuwait claiming to be part of Iraq.Kiwait sought the US intervention who launched an
offensive against Iraq, the Operation Desert Storm in January 1991.This operation
continued till February 1991.The acting PM Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi sent Pakistani
troops to help the US forces in September 1990.Benazir Bhutto, however, refused to
continue this policy of backing the US in the Gulf crisis, because several Pakistanis
opposed the idea of fighting the Muslim state of Iraq.According to many analysts, this
became one of the reasons of the dismissal of her government on 6 August 1990.
Q:
What was the Troika?
[4]
Ans:
PPP got majority seats in the 1988 elections and Benazir Bhutto became the Prime
Minister. Her powers were, however, restricted as the President Ghulam Ishaq Khan
had the decisive powers under the 8th constitutional amendment inserted by General
Zia.So, she had to accept the decisions made jointly by herself, the President and the
Army Chief.This informal arrangement was called the Troika. Under this she had to
retain General Zia’s Foreign Minister Sahibzada Yaqub Khan, perhaps part of an
unwritten condition of an agreement with the President who allowed her to form the
government. Due to this, she failed to exercise the executive powers of a purely
parliamentary form of government. Later governments in the 1990’s also had to
accept the Troika as they couldn’t ignore the role of army in the Pakistani politics.
Q:
Describe the problems caused by family feuds that faced the
Benazir Bhutto governments.
[4]
Ans. Benazir Bhutto developed differences with her mother Begum Nusrat Bhutto about
the top leadership of PPP (Pakistan People’s Party). Nusrat Bhutto wanted Benazir’s
brother Mir Murtaza Bhutto to be the Chairman. Due to Benazir’s tactics her mother
left politics and her brother went into exile. He founded the Al-Zulfiqar Organization
as tool to oppose and criticize Benazir. He also openly criticized Benazir’s husband
Asif Zardari because of his open involvement in corruption cases. Zardari was
notoriously titled as Mr. 10%. Murtaza was arrested on his return to Pakistan on
charges of terrorism, and mysteriously killed in 1996.
Q:
What was the Pucca Qila massacre?
[4]
th
Ans. On 27 May 1990, the PPP government of Sindh launched a crackdown against the
MQM in Hyderabad. A shoot-on-sight curfew was imposed and a house search
operation was conducted by the police. The Muhajir community strongly protested
against this. Many Muhajirs had taken shelter in the Pucca Qila (old fort, near the
railway station) and the police forced them to come out. A massive police attack
resulted in more than 300 deaths including women and children. As violence grew,
President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed Benazir Bhutto’s government in August
1990.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the Train March, 1994?
[4]
Ans. In September 1994, Nawaz Sharif launched a protest campaign against Benazir
Bhutto’s government by starting his famous train march. He, with his supporters
travelled from Karachi to Peshawar and delivered speeches against Benazir Bhutto
attracting huge crowds on various stations. Soon the protest became more organised
in September-October 1994. Benazir Bhutto responded by arresting several
opposition leaders but it only increased her opposition and problems.
Q: What was the “ No-Confidence Motion” against Benazir Bhutto?
[4]
Ans.
Benazir faced a strong opposition by the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad(IJI) led by
Nawaz Sharif . Just 11 months after assuming power, she faced a NoConfidence Motion tabled in the National Assembly (NA)by the Opposition in
October 1989 . The Opposition was able to muster 107 seats out of a total of
237 seats of the NA. 119 votes were needed to force the PM to resign, and
thus, Benazir survived by a narrow margin of 12 votes.
Q:
What was the Train March, 1994?
[4]
Ans. In September 1994, Nawaz Sharif launched a protest campaign against Benazir
Bhutto’s government by starting his famous train march. He, with his supporters
travelled from Karachi to Peshawar and delivered speeches against Benazir Bhutto
attracting huge crowds on various stations. Soon the protest became more organized
in September-October 1994. Benazir Bhutto responded by arresting several
opposition leaders but it only increased her opposition and problems.
Q: What was Benazir’s “Agenda of Change”?
[4]
Ans:
It was the slogan of Benazir Bhutto’s election campaign in 1993. After winning
the elections, she promised to improve social services. She expressed her concern
for women’s social welfare and health issues. She promised to establish women’s
police stations, courts and women’s development banks. She also wanted to address
the issue of discrimination against women. She, however, could not make any laws
as her party did not have the required majority in the Parliament. Moreover, it became
difficult to run state affairs smoothly because of her strong rival Nawaz Sharif.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why Benazir Bhutto was dismissed in 1990?
(7)
Ans. Benazir Bhutto was elected as the first female prime minister of Pakistan but she
never had a smooth sailing. She had a weak political base in the Centre as the largest
province, Punjab was under her strongest rival Mr. Nawaz Sharif who gave her a very
tough time mainly as a result of Benazir’s own mishandling of Mr. Sharif. She
launched a campaign of maligning his image but without any success.
Her government faced charges of corruption and mismanagement of political affairs.
There were allegations that loans from IMF were being used by her party supporters
including her husband Mr. Asif Zardari and his father Mr. Hakim Zardari. It was
believed that both were using the illegally acquired money to flourish their personal
business and suppressing opposition.
Situation was no better in her home province, Sindh. Urban Sindh was under the MQM
(Muhajir (now Muttahida) Qaumi Movement) and PPP had support in rural Sindh. She
soon developed conflict with the MQM as many of her party members blamed her of
preferring the MQM people over her party workers. Soon the PPP- MQM coalition
ended and a massive crackdown was started against the MQM. Violence and protests
spread in major cities of Sindh. Finally, the Pucca Qila massacre of Hyderabad in May
1990 led to the killing of several MQM workers including women and children. This
was followed by 300 more deaths in Karachi and other cities. This proved to be the
last nail in the coffin of her government as President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed
her government on 6th August, 1990 using his constitutional powers under the Article
58-2(b) on the charges of corruption and mismanagement.
Q:
Why was Benazir Bhutto removed in 1996?
Ans.
(7)
As Prime Minister, Benazir Bhutto did not enjoy comfortable times. She was opposed
on all sides and by almost all provinces. She developed differences with her mother
and brother. She cleverly pushed her mother, Begum Nusrat Bhutto, aside so that
she was no more active in politics. Later the murder of her brother, Murtaza in a police
operation in Karachi raised many questions about her legitimacy as PM. She locked
her horns with the Supreme Court by refuting the Court’s orders to dismiss 20 judges
appointed by the government in the infamous “Judges Case” of 1996
Economic performance of her government was also not impressive. Pakistan
borrowed heavily from the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and this led to strict
financial controls and inflation that were blamed on the government. She desperately
tried to improve economic performance of Pakistan but could not gain success mainly
due to growing corruption and her policy of favouritism. Her husband, Asif Zardari,
had become more notorious because of his alleged involvement in corruption and
political kickbacks. He was sarcastically called Mr. 10% as he is reported to have
asked for a share of 10% in exchange for approving the project of any person or
company.
Very strong opposition came from Punjab where the most powerful politician Mr.
Nawaz Sharif launched an aggressive campaign against her. He leveled charges of
corruption, mismanagement, inefficiency and flawed methods in handling various
affairs. He organized rallies and demonstrations in several cities. Benazir’s husband,
Mr. Zardari proved to be her Achilles’ heel as she faced charges of involvement in
various corruption cases, political kickbacks and paybacks. This greatly weakened
her position and damaged her image. . Then the dismissal her Chief Minister, Manzur
Wattoo came as a great setback for her government as she was sharply criticized for
mishandling the matter and losing more popularity in the largest province of Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
So, President Farooq Leghari using his powers under the article 58-2(b), dismissed
her government on 5 November, 1996.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
How successful was Benazir Bhutto in ruling Pakistan during
1988-1990 and 1993-1996?
(14)
Ans. Benazir Bhutto was elected as the first woman Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1988 and
served in office till 1990. She had a mix of successes and failures. She highlighted
her image as the first woman PM of the Muslim World both before the people of
Pakistan and the West. She ended a ban on the making of trade unions and students’
unions in order win the confidence of industrial workers and students. Also many
political prisoners of PPP were released that had been arrested by the Zia’s regime.
Moreover, she declared a general pardon for many other political prisoners. She also
initiated the rural electrification programme. She took some steps exclusively for the
welfare of women. First Women’s Bank was opened in 1989. She recruited women in
police and civil services under a special scheme and appointed for the first time
women judges of the High Courts. She tried to make Pakistan a democratic Islamic
republic while abandoning the strict Islamic policies of Zia but this was hard to
achieve. She couldn’t make any legislation in this regard because the opposition
dominated the Senate and the largest province Punjab was under her rival Mr. Nawaz
Sharif. He was able to table a no confidence motion against Benazir by the end of
1989 in the National Assembly. Though the motion was defeated by just twelve votes,
it was a serious blow to her government. Therefore, no new laws were made to
improve the status of women despite all her claims mainly because the Hudood
Ordinance could not be repealed. She gradually lost support as her government could
not fulfill the promises of reducing unemployment, making economic progress and
controlling inflation and a high population growth. The drug abuse problem also
worsened mainly due to the presence of several Afghan refugees in Pakistan.
Benazir faced serious opposition by her party in Sindh. She made a coalition with the
MQM, a party of Urdu speaking migrants from India but the PPP stalwarts in Sindh
opposed her. The MQM wanted due rights at par with the Sindhi speaking population
but this led to growing conflict between MQM and PPP. Violence erupted in Karachi
and other cities between September 1988 and May 1990 when the Pucca Qila
operation against the MQM in Hyderabad became a reason of dismissal of her
government.
In foreign affairs, she made some achievements. Pakistan rejoined the
Commonwealth in October 1989 as Pakistan had been recognized as a country with
a democratically elected government. She paid a successful visit to the USA in June
1989 and the Bush administration promised an aid of over $400 million. In December
1988, the Indian PM, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi visited Pakistan. It was a big success because
for the first time an Indian Prime Minister had visited Pakistan. Both countries signed
two agreements in 1989 to promote mutual peace and cooperation. A hotline
telephone link was set up between the two countries to be used in times of crisis. The
SAARC platform was also used to promote mutual ties. However, the massive
Kashmiri uprising since 1989 damaged the efforts of the two PM’s.
Benazir returned to power in 1993 and formed a coalition govt. with some independent
parties. MQM had boycotted the elections and performance of PPP was better in all
provinces. With her efforts Farooq Leghari of PPP was elected as the new President.
Once again she tried to improve the socio-economic status of women. She planned
to establish women’s police stations, courts and banks but failed to make any
legislation in this regard. So her ‘Agenda of Change’ did not work.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Nawaz Sharif launched an aggressive campaign against her. He started that train
march from Karachi to Peshawar while attracting huge crowds. Benazir arrested
several opposition leaders but in vain. She also faced many family feuds regarding
her mother Nusrat Bhutto and brother Murtaza Bhutto. Though she sidelined her
mother, mysterious killing of Murtaza Bhutto by police in 1996 greatly damaged her
repute. Her husband Mr. Zardari also earned a bad repute for his wife as he was
involved in many corruption cases and misuse of money. She failed to privatize the
UBL (United Bank Limited) by selling it to a Saudi-based company. The attempt was
halted due to serious doubts about the transitions. In 1995, she took a heavy loan
from the IMF but the economic situation worsened. Due to the Kashmir issue military
spending increased by 14% in 1995-96. The result was inflation, unemployment,
unrest and violence.
She had a confrontation with the Supreme Court by refusing to dismiss 20
judges appointed by the government. Her dismissal of the Punjab CM, Mr. Wattoo
also added to her difficulties. Wattoo began to exploit her weak position and start
working more independently ignoring the PPP and its allies. This made matters worse
for her government as she had opposite expectations from the Chief Minister of the
largest province of Pakistan.
It may be concluded that Benazir was not very successful serving twice as PM
mainly because she failed to have a two third majority in the parliament. This did not
allow her to make new laws or annul some old laws. Also, fierce opposition by Mr.
Nawaz Sharif who had started gaining more popularity foiled many of her attempts to
enjoy a stable government.
Q:
Was her confrontation with Nawaz Sharif the most important
reason of Benazir’s removal from power in August 1990? Agree or
disagree? Explain.
[14]
Ans.
Benazir Bhutto won a marginal majority in the 1988 elections. She was able
to form a coalition government in the Centre, but failed to do so in the largest province,
Punjab. Mr Sharif emerged as her most powerful rival from the platform of the IJI, a
coalition of the PML and various religious parties. She provoked her rival by
appointing Mr Ghulam Mustafa Khar, a senior member of the PPP, as the governor
of Punjab. The provincial government of Mr Sharif arrested three FIA (Federal
Investigation Agency) agents. They were sent by the central/ federal government to
investigate the case of tax evasion by a factory, Riaz Bottlers, owned by a minister of
the Punjab.
Mr Sharif established the Bank of Punjab in 1989, but Ms Bhutto opposed it.
She termed it “treason against the federation “, though the 1973 constitution allowed
such steps under the autonomy given to the provinces. He gradually organised a “No
Confidence “motion in the National Assembly in October 1989. Opposition against Ms
Bhutto was so great that 107 members of the Assembly voted against her while 119
were needed to disqualify her as PM. Thus her government survived by a shortage of
only 12 votes.
Benazir made an alliance with the MQM under the ‘Charter of Peace, Love
and Rights’ in December 1988. Both parties were diametrically opposed to each other
in the political views. Benazir had promised to protect the interest of the Sindhis and
stamp out violence. However, she failed in her mission, and there was a large scale
violence in many cities of Sindh. On 30 September 1988, militant Sindhis opened fire
on a crowd in Hyderabad, causing 250 deaths, mostly Muhajirs/Urdu speaking people
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
in Sindh. Later, there were more incidents of riots in Karachi. The most tragic event
was the Pucca Qila massacre of May 1989. Several workers of the MQM, alongwith
women and children were killed in a shootout by police in a fort in Hyderabad.
Newspapers reported that the women held copies of the Quran over their heads as
they cried out to the police stop shooting. Demonstrations and strikes were observed
at several places in Hyderabad and Karachi. Finally, in August 1989, the MQM ended
its alliance with the PPP and sided with Nawaz Sharif. This added to her troubles as
her government in the Centre as well as Sindh got weaker
Benazir Bhutto failed to have comfortable relations with President Ghulam
Ishaq Khan, and sometimes she openly clashed with him. A major area of
disagreement was over the key appointments in the military and the judiciary. Ishaq
Khan considered that he had the right to make such appointments as the 8th
constitutional amendment had empowered him to nominate and dismiss the PM and
the assemblies. Both had disputes over many such appointments. She faced
accusations of corruption, and her husband Mr Zardari was soon arrested on charges
of corruption and blackmail. He was jailed for two years while Ms Bhutto defended
him by saying that such charges were politically motivated.
Her government became unpopular as it failed to fulfill its promise of economic
development and employment. Inflation and unemployment remained high with a high
population growth rate. The government also failed in controlling the menace of drug
abuse in Pakistan. Due to a lack of majority in the Parliament, Benazir’s government
could not make any legislation regarding the rights of women and changes in the
Islamic laws introduced by General Zia-ul-Haq. Therefore, President Ghulam Ishaq
Khan used his power to dismiss her government on 6th August 1990 on the charges
of incompetence, corruption and misgovernance of the country.
It may be concluded that her rivalry with Mr Nawaz Sharif was the most
important factor in her exit from power in 1990 because she failed to gain support
from the largest province of Pakistan while losing popularity in major cities of Sindh,
too.
Q:
Were family feuds the main reason of Benazir Bhutto’s dismissal
from power during her second term as PM? Explain fully. [14]
Ans.
Benazir faced many problems after her election as PM for the second
time in 1993. Though she performed better in the provincial elections, she had
to form a coalition government in the Centre with the help of many independent
candidates and parties. A member of the PPP, Mr Farooq Leghari was elected
as President, and it was expected that her working with President would go
smoothly. Mr Leghari announced in his first speech to revoke the Eighth
Amendment, but it could not be done as PPP did not have a majority in the
parliament.
Benazir announced her” Agenda of Change”, and promised to improve
the status of women, particularly their social and health issues. She promised
to set up women’s police stations, courts and women’s development banks,
but could not make any laws regarding these.
Though Nawaz Sharif had broken his alliance with the IJI, he was able
to offer strong opposition to Benazir. In 1994, he launched a countrywide Train
March from Karachi to Peshawar. At various stopovers, he delivered
impassioned speeches against her government. He accused her of trying to
manipulate the judiciary and making her husband and other relatives too
influential in politics. He skilfully mobilised masses in observing strikes in
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
September and October 1994. Benazir ordered arrest of several opponents
but it only increased her difficulties.
Benazir was forced to increase defence expenses by 14% due to
growing hostility with India over the Kashmir issue. 1994 to 1996, Indian and
Pakistani armies were on the verge of war, and Pakistan failed to defend its
case before the UN. Moreover, destructive floods and pest attacks on crops
caused a serious decline in agricultural output. All this caused a growing
economic crisis, and Benazir’s government had to seek aid from the IMF
(International Monetary Fund) in 1995. In order to satisfy the IMF, new taxes
were levied on the people, and the rupee was devalued by 7%. This caused
inflation, and people became more frustrated. The IMF, asked for more taxes
and increased tariffs.
In 1996, in order to raise funds for economic development, Benazir tried
to privatise the UBL (United Bank Ltd). Though very poor offers were made by
various bidders, she allowed its sale to an apparently Saudi-based company.
Investigations proved that the buyers were actually some local businessmen
closely linked to the PPP. So, the sale of the bank was halted, and Benazir
became more unpopular.
A major problem faced by Benazir was her family feuds. Her mother,
Begum Nusrat Bhutto wanted his son Mir Murtaza Bhutto to be the party
chairperson which Benazir opposed. She removed her mother from a leading
position. Feeling disappointed, he founded Al-Zulfiqar Organization after his
exile. He sharply criticised Benazir for betraying the principles of their father
Z.A. Bhutto. He also targeted her husband, Mr Zardari who was involved in
various corruption cases, and had earned the meaningful title of Mr 10%.
Murtaza Bhutto was killed in a mysterious police encounter at a walking
distance from his residence in Clifton, Karachi. None of the policemen was
arrested, and instead, some were promoted. A judicial inquiry found the
involvement of the government in this murder.
Benazir also mismanaged the judiciary in the famous “judges case”. In
March 1996, she refused to dismiss the 20 judges on the order of the Supreme
Court. Her attempts to intimidate the Chief Justice of Pakistan greatly
damaged her image. She also failed to curtail the authoritarian Chief Minister
of the Punjab, Manzoor Watto. He was trying to exploit her weak position, and
so, was removed from his post. This, too, brought more problems for Benazir’s
government.
Benazir desperately accused some army officers with Islamic views
wanted to destabilise her government. Some officers were arrested in this
regard, and this prepared the ground for the end of her government. Much to
her surprise, President Leghari dismissed her government on 5th November
1996 on the charges of misgovernance and corruption. Before this, army had
taken control of all key points in Islamabad, and had arrested Asif Zardari.
It seems the family feuds contributed the most to Benazir’s ouster from
power because they weakened her abilities to concentrate on smooth running
of government affairs. She could not restrict her husband’s questionable
involvement in many important political matters.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
To what extent did Benazir Bhutto’s privatization policy contribute
to the government being replaced in 1996? Explain your answer.
[14]
Ans.
Benazir faced many problems after her election as PM for the second time in 1993.
She wanted to privatise power, banking and telecommunications in order to improve the
economic growth of Pakistan. However, she was criticised for trying to sell these units to
powerful politicians and wealthy industrialists. In 1996, with the intention of raising funds for
economic development, Benazir tried to privatise the UBL (United Bank Ltd). Though very
poor offers were made by various bidders, she allowed its sale to an apparently Saudi-based
company. Investigations proved that the buyers were actually some local businessmen
closely linked to the PPP. So, the sale of the bank was halted, and Benazir became more
unpopular. Moreover, the civil servants created serious difficulties in her privatization plans.
Benazir performed better in the provincial elections, but she had to form a coalition
government in the Centre with the help of many independent candidates and parties. A
member of the PPP, Mr Farooq Leghari was elected as President, and it was expected that
her working with President would go smoothly. Mr Leghari announced in his first speech to
revoke the Eighth Amendment, but it could not be done as PPP did not have a majority in the
parliament.
Benazir announced her” Agenda of Change”, and promised to improve the status of
women, particularly their social and health issues. She promised to set up women’s police
stations, courts and women’s development banks, but could not make any laws regarding
these because of a lack of majority in the Parliament. Her rival in Punjab, Mr Nawaz Sharif
offered strong opposition to Benazir. In 1994, he launched a countrywide Train March from
Karachi to Peshawar. At various stopovers, he delivered impassioned speeches against her
government. He accused her of trying to manipulate the judiciary and making her husband
and other relatives too influential in politics. He skillfully mobilised masses in observing strikes
in September and October 1994. Benazir ordered arrest of several opponents but it only
increased her difficulties.
Benazir was forced to increase defence expenses by 14% due to growing hostility
with India over the Kashmir issue. 1994 to 1996, Indian and Pakistani armies were on the
verge of war, and Pakistan failed to defend its case before the UN. At the same time, the US
military and economic aid for Pakistan was stopped as Pakistan’s significance for the US
decreased. Moreover, destructive floods and pest attacks on crops caused a serious decline
in agricultural output. All this caused a growing economic crisis, inflation and unemployment.
Benazir sought aid from the IMF (International Monetary Fund) in 1995. In order to satisfy the
IMF, new taxes were levied on the people, and the rupee was devalued by 7%. This caused
inflation, and people became more frustrated. The IMF, asked for more taxes and increased
tariffs.
A major problem faced by Benazir was her family feuds. Her mother, Begum Nusrat
Bhutto wanted his son Mir Murtaza Bhutto to be the party chairperson which Benazir
opposed. She removed her mother from a leading position. Feeling disappointed, he founded
Al-Zulfiqar Organization after his exile. He sharply criticised Benazir for betraying the
principles of their father Z.A. Bhutto. He also targeted her husband, Mr Zardari who was
involved in various corruption cases, and had earned the meaningful title of Mr 10%.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Murtaza Bhutto was killed in a mysterious police encounter at a walking distance from
his residence in Clifton, Karachi. None of the policemen was arrested, and instead, some
were promoted. A judicial inquiry found the involvement of the government in this
murder. Benazir also mismanaged the judiciary in the famous “judges case”. In March 1996,
she refused to dismiss the 20 judges on the order of the Supreme Court. Her attempts to
intimidate the Chief Justice of Pakistan greatly damaged her image. She also failed to curtail
the authoritarian Chief Minister of the Punjab, Manzoor Watto. He was trying to exploit her
weak position, and so, was removed from his post. This, too, brought more problems for
Benazir’s government.
Benazir desperately accused some army officers with Islamic views who wanted to
destabilise her government. Some officers were arrested in this regard, and this prepared the
ground for the end of her government. Much to her surprise, President Leghari dismissed her
government on 5th November 1996 on the charges of misgovernance and corruption. Before
this, army had taken control of all key points in Islamabad, and had arrested Asif Zardari.
It may be said that Benazir’s privatization policy was the decisive factor in the
dismissal of her government because she did not have a team of competent economists, and
the government officials created bottle necks in her plans. They suspected financial
embezzlement in such schemes.
Source A: part of analytical essay by Lawrence Ziring about Ms Bhutto’s fall from
power in August 1990,
“It was not a happy year for Benazir Bhutto. Although her second child was born in
January, there was little opportunity for her to enjoy the new addition to her family. While she
lived recuperating in Lady Dufferin Hospital, sixteen opposition parties massed in a huge
demonstration in the streets nearby, demanding the resignation of her government and the
holding of the elections. Cries of corruption and incompetence punctuated the speeches.”
Q.1 (a)
According to source A describe the problems faced by
Benazir Bhutto in August 1990.
Ans.
The source tells about the problems created by the opposition parties for Ms Bhutto.
The new year began with the birth of her second child, but this could not prove to be a joyful
occasion. Close to Lady Dufferin Hospital, the opposition parties had organised a
demonstration against her government. They accused her of corruption and demanded
resignation from her.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Source B, a photograph taken during Benazir Bhutto’s first term as PM
Q.
According to source B describe the civil-military relationship in
the 1990s.
[5]
Ans.
This seems to be an important meeting. President G.I. Khan is seated between PM
MS Bhutto and the army chief General Aslam Baig. This shows the importance of Mr. G.I.
Khan in politics who is empowered under the 8th constitutional amendment. General Baig is
clad in the army uniform, and this reflects the importance of army in Pakistani politics. All
three carry a serious and stern look that means some important matter is under discussion.
This formal arrangement was called Troika and it was aimed at striking a balance between
the elected government and the armed forces. Troika remained an important part of Pakistani
politics till Mr Nawaz Sharif was elected as PM in 1997.
Source A: a part of memoirs penned down by Iqbal Akhund after the 1988
swearing in of Benazir Bhutto as PM:
“Everybody looked happy....a justifiable feeling of pride at the smooth, amicable and mature
in which Pakistan had made the transition from dictatorship to democracy .... a French
newspaper wrote, ‘Benazir is indeed the woman of the year’ but more than that Pakistan itself
deserves to be called the nation of the year.”
Q(a) According to the source A what do we learn about the political
situation of Pakistan in 1988?
(3)
Ans. The source portrays Pakistan’s successful emergence from a long period of
dictatorship. Benazir Bhutto was elected in a democratic and peaceful way. She is
being admired for the remarkable achievement she made as a female politician for
which the whole Pakistani nation has also been praised.
Source B,
A cartoon showing the problems created and faced by Benazir Bhutto.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q(b) What message is being delivered about the problems faced by
Benazir Bhutto’s government 1993-1996?
[5]
Ans.
The source shows a very complex political situation for Benazir Bhutto. Her
government seems to have failed in working out a strategy to deal with the rise of the monster
of Taliban in the mid 1990s as well as the troubled situation in Afghanistan. Taliban are
occupying the Tribal Areas of Pakistan that has become a target of Afghanistan, too. Their
power and ferocity is quite visible against a confused coalition government in Islamabad that
has failed to reach a consensus over the challenges. The cumulative result of this imbroglio
would lead to Benazir’s dismissal from power.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Mr. Nawaz Sharif (1990-1993 and 1997-1999)
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N.Sharif won the majority & was elected as PM → first major Punjabi leader to become
PM (before him Choudhry Muhammad Ali & Feroz Khan Noon were weak PM’s in the
1950’s)
He had support of the religious parties that encouraged him to follow a somewhat
anti-US policy.
However domestic crisis frustrated his designs→ growing poverty, unemployment,
inflation coupled with an increasing foreign debt
Started construction of the Motorway, introduced the “yellow cab scheme”, started
privitisation of some of the state-owned industries to generate jobs but no significant
improvement.
Growing Kashmiri uprising caused worsening of Pak-India relations despite efforts of
Sharif to improve them.
Religious and business communities remained dissatisfied
Further problems → January 1993, mysterious death of the military chief, General
Aisf Nawaz Janju’a & rumors of Sharif’s involvement in the death as the armed forces
were quite powerful since the Afghan crisis (1979, Soviet attack on Afghanistan).
Sharif was pressurized to set an inquiry commission but took a hasty step by
suggesting that GIK was involved in the murder.
GIK, using his powers of the amended constitution (article 58(2)(b)) or the 8th
amendment, dismissed the Sharif govt & dissolved the assemblies → caretaker govt
& elections scheduled in 90 days.
Sharif’s appeal in the Supreme Court against the action of GIK; Chief Justice Naseem
Hassan Shah’s verdict against GIK→ serious political crisis, resolved only after
military intervention → both Sharif and GIK had to resign.
Nawaz Sharif as P.M. for the Second Time, Feb 1997-Oct 1999
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Elections and Mr.Sharif got heavy mandate in the centre and Punjab.
Nawaz Sahrif PM, while his brother, Shahbaz Sharif CM of Punjab, but urban Sindh
under the MQM.
Sharif further strengthened his position by replacing Mr. Laghari with Mr.Rafiq Tarar
as President of Pakistan.
Using two-third majority in the parliament, Mr.Sharif scrapped the infamous 8th
constitutional amendment, article 58(2) (b) to restore the 1973 constitution in its
original shape and enjoy true executive powers.
With Punjab also under the PML, the Sharif brothers started many development
projects e.g. completion of the M-2 phase of the Motorway, “the yellow tractor
scheme”, cheap housing schemes for the poor and distribution of land among the
landless peasants; also continued the privatization of the public sector enterprises.
Sharif, however, faced serious problems that would have serious long term
consequences
PML had been a right-wing party with the support of religious parties → it supported
the militant religious students trained at the religious schools called the ‘Madrassas’
(schools) → the Taliban
The Taliban were supported by Usama bin Laden (and perhaps the military
intelligence of Pakistan) in making govt in Afghanistan.
US pressure on Pakistan to influence the Taliban to hand over Bin Laden to the US,
as he was suspected to have master-minded the terrorist activities against the US
interests e.g. bombing the US embassy in Kenya.
Sharif earned huge popularity at home but world-wide criticism by conducting a series
of nuclear explosions in retaliation to Indian explosions, May 1998→ Pakistan became
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
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a nuclear power but lost economic support by several countries of the West as well
as Japan etc.
Foreign currency accounts in the Pakistani banks were frozen, as anticipation to a
serious financial crisis.
Feb 1999→ serious differences of Sharif with the Pak army → Pak & India on the
verge of war in the Kargal area → Pak’s claim of nearing victory but the troops had to
be removed due to the pressure of the super powers → both the govt and the army
blamed each other for the failure.
Earlier, Sharif had a dispute with the Chief Justice, Sajjad Ali Shah and managed to
force him to resign.
Finally, Oct 1999, Sharif tried to replace the military chief, General Musharraf with his
cousin while Musharraf was abroad → his plane was denied landing on the Islamabad
Airport.
There was a miscalculation of Mr.Sharif about the strength of the army.
Musharraf was able to foil Mr. Sharif, and toppled his govt, 12 Oct 1999.
He didn’t impose martial law but just the military rule; suspended the 1973 constitution
and dissolved the parliament; soon President Tarar would feel forced to resign.
Under a so called deal, Sharif with his family was exiled to Saudi Arabia → Pakistan
under military rule for the 4th time.
Reasons for the Dismissal of Nawaz Sharif
i.
ii.
Q:
First term → Failure to resolve economic and political problems inherited by the govt
of PPP.
 His support for the religious parties & the anti-US policy caused failure to bring
about economic revival in Pakistan.
 Loss of military support due to suspected involvement in the murder of General
Asif Janjua.
Second term → lost international support because of his flawed foreign policy →
support for the Taliban & nuclear explosion in the wake of worldwide opposition.
 Pak faced sanctions and suspension of economic aid by many countries
 Serious difficulties on domestic front → row with the superior judiciary (dismissal
of the Chief Justice of Supreme Court) & differences with MQM.
 Confrontation with army & failure in the Kargil issue → his miscalculations about
General Pervez Musharraf who outsmarted him on 12 Oct 1999.
What problems did Nawaz Sharif face as Prime Minister during the
1990s?
(4)
Ans. 1990 -1993 Mr. Sharif was elected from the platform of the IJI (Islami Jamhoori
Ittehad), so he was opposed by the PPP and other progressive elements. He also had
differences with the President G.I.Khan due to his power under the eighth
constitutional amendment. His Yellow Cab Scheme failed as many of the owners
became defaulters. His government faced the Co-operative Societies Scandal and
the mysterious closure of the BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce International) in
1991. He lost the US support as he refused to hand over Usama bin Laden to the US.
1997-1999. His conflict with the Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah made him unpopular.
Due to the nuclear explosions in May 1998 many countries stopped economic aid to
Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the BCCI Scandal?
(4)
th
Ans. The BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce International) was the world’s 7 largest
bank operating in Pakistan. It was founded by Mr. Agha Hasan Abedi in 1972. There
were concerns about the bank’s lending practices and an investigation was conducted
by a team of British accountants in 1991. The team detected widespread fraud,
embezzlement and manipulation in the bank. Following this, the bank was closed and
was required to pay huge fines. Ittefaq Industries of the Sharif family was its major
customer. Despite its closure, the bank was allowed to operate for several months in
Pakistan, raising doubts about the links of the Sharif’s government with the bank.
Q:
What was the Cooperative Societies Scandal?
(4)
Ans. The Cooperative Societies accepted deposits from members and extended loans only
to members for purposes that were beneficial for the Society. Two of such societies
were controlled by the relatives of Mr. Sharif. In 1991, four societies in the Punjab
suddenly collapsed as a result of which more than two million people lost their lifelong savings. The failure of the National Industrial Cooperative Credit Company was
the biggest financial collapse in Pakistan. Mr. Sharif’s family had borrowed huge loans
from these societies, and this increased unpopularity of his government.
Q:
What was the Motorway Project?
(4)
Ans. Mr. Sharif wanted to build a fast transportation network, the Motorway, to the
landlocked states of the Central Asia to provide them access to the ports of Pakistan.
The Motorway would also join the major cities of Pakistan with each other and with
the rural areas. Its first phase, the M2, was completed in November 1997 that
connected Islamabad with Lahore at a cost of several billion dollars. The project
suffered continual delays, first by the Bhutto government and then by General Pervez
Musharraf in 1999.
Q:
What was the Shari’at Bill?
(4)
Ans. The Sharif government passed the Shari’at bill in May 1991 as it had won elections
from the platform of its religious ally, the IJI (Islami Jamhoori Ittehad). It made the
Quran and the Sunnah the law of the land as long as this did not challenge the existing
system of government. The bill was criticized by both the IJI and the opposition
parties. Little was done by the government to enforce it. When the Federal Shari’at
Court asked for measures against interest/riba, no action was taken by the
government.
Q:
What was the 13th Constitutional Amendment?
(4)
th
Ans. Since the 8 Constitutional Amendment of 1985 had restricted the powers of the PM,
the Sharif government acted quickly to repeal it. In 1997, it got the 13th Constitutional
Amendment passed by the Parliament. Now the President lost power to appoint and
dismiss the government and dissolve the National Assembly. He could also not
appoint the three chiefs of the armed forces. The measure was supported by all
political parties. However, the events of 1999 would raise questions about its utility or
otherwise.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
What was the Kargil Conflict?
(4)
Ans. Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control in April 1999 and captured the
Indian occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. The Pakistan government denied any
involvement, but later admitted. India launched a counter attack and two of its aircrafts
entered Pakistani air space. One was shot down by Pakistan. Pakistani forces were
pushed back in May-June 1999. Fearing a horrible war between the two nuclear states
the US President Clinton persuaded Mr. Sharif to withdraw behind the LoC. This
brought Mr. Sharif into a conflict with the army.
Q: What was the Kalashinkov Culture?
(4)
Ans: It is the name given to the culture of violence and drug addiction that
started in the mid 1980s, and continued in the 1990s. Weapons, especially
Kalashinkov , and addictive drug heroine , were easily available as they were
brought by the Afghan refugees through the Tribal Areas to Pakistan. Crimes
like kidnap for ransom, and sectarian killings increased alongside drug
smuggling and addiction. In July 1991, Nawaz Sharif introduced the 12th
constitutional amendment to set up the STCs (Speedy Trial Courts) to deal
with it but the Opposition criticized these courts.
Q: What was the 14th amendment?
(4)
Ans: It was passed as the Anti-Defection Bill in 1997 by the parliament during
Nawaz Sharif’s second stint as PM. It restricted the parliament members from
switching loyalties so that such politicians could not destabilize a
government. Before this, the political turncoats (those changing membership
of various parties) could be enticed by various inducements against any
government. This strengthened Nawaz Sharif’s position but was criticized by
the Opposition.
Q: What was the 15th amendment?
(4)
Ans: It was passed by the National Assembly in August 1998 during Nawaz
Sharif’s second tenure as PM. It was first enforced as the Shriat Bill in May
1991 during Sharif’s first government. It empowered the Prime Minister to
enforce Islamic Shariah in Pakistan. However, there was no significant
progress in this regard as it was opposed by the opposition parties did not
like an increased role of Islam in the government. It was never taken to the
Senate for final approval.
Q: Describe the nuclear testing by Pakistan in 1998.
(4)
Ans: India conducted nuclear blasts in May 1998. Pakistan, feeling insecure,
also conducted nuclear explosions in the last week of May 1998. Though it
increased Nawaz Sharif’s popularity at home, Pakistan’s aid from the US and
Japan was immediately stopped, and several other countries criticised this
action. In order to prevent an economic disaster, Sharif’s government had to
raise fuel prices and negotiate bank loans. A state of emergency was
declared, and this became a reason of Nawaz Sharif’s fall from power.
Q: What was Nawaz Sharif’s conflict with the Supreme Court? (4)
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Ans: Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah, appointed by Benazir Bhutto, became a
critic of Nawaz Sharif. Sharif wanted to reduce the number of judges from 17
to 13. During the hearing of a case against Sharif in November 1997,
hundreds of Sharif’s supporters stormed the Supreme Court building . Sajjad
Ali had to flee for his safety. Sharif failed to persuade President Leghari to
remove Sajjad, and appoint an acting Chief Justice. He resigned and Rafiq
Tarar became the new President on 2nd December .Shortly later, Sajjad was
also replaced by Ajmal Mian as the Chief Justice on 23rd December 1997.
This increased opposition against Sharif.
o
Q:
Why did Nawaz Sharif fall from office in 1993?
(7)
Ans. Nawaz Sharif faced serious difficulties which eventually led to his dismissal from
power. He attempted to solve Pakistan’s unemployment problem by providing cheap
loans to men to buy taxis (Yellow Cab Scheme) that he had imported (Daewoo Cars).
Most of the borrowers were unable to repay the loans and hence became defaulters
and unemployed. This strained the economy and made him unpopular. Things
became worse when he tried to finance major investment projects that depended
upon foreign aid especially from the USA. This aid,$564 million was stopped under
the Pressler Amendment that was invoked due to the reduced importance of Pakistan
in the post- Cold War era 1992 onwards. So, Pakistan faced more economic
difficulties.
Moreover, the closure of a major bank, BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce
and Investment) also added to Mr. Sharif’s difficulties. An inquiry by a British team of
accountants detected large scale fraud and shady/questionabe lending practices of
the Bank. Along with this there was a decline in foreign remittances from the Middle
East due to the Gulf War. As a result of these policies Mr. Nawaz Sharif and his
government were blamed. The mismanagement of the Cooperative societies led to
millions of Pakistanis losing their life long savings. This money was lent to the Sharif
family’s businesses. Though the loans were immediately repaid, Sharif’s image had
been damaged. Violence in Pakistan that related to drugs and the use of guns led to
a strong response from Sharif but his actions were criticized by the opposition parties
for being too repressive. Finally, Sharif came into conflict with the President over the
appointment of an army chief of staff and also with the Eighth Constitutional
Amendment. Sharif was dismissed on charges of corruption. Though the Supreme
Court reinstated him as PM, the political crisis worsened and both the PM and the
President were shown the exit.
Q:
Was the collapse of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International
(BCCI) the main reason for the government ending in 1993? Explain
your answer.
[14]
Ans.
Nawaz Sharif was first elected in 1990 from the platform of the IJI (Islami Jamhuri
Ittehad). He gained fame for starting many new schemes but they were
overshadowed by various scandals. The BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
International) was the world’s 7th largest bank operating in Pakistan. It was founded
by Mr. Agha Hasan Abedi in 1972. There were concerns about the bank’s lending
practices and an investigation was conducted by a team of British accountants in
1991. The team detected widespread fraud, embezzlement and manipulation in the
bank. Following this, the bank was closed and was required to pay huge fines. Ittefaq
Industries of the Sharif family was its major customer. Despite its closure, the bank
was allowed to operate for several months in Pakistan, raising doubts about the links
of the Sharif’s government with the bank.
The Cooperative Societies accepted deposits from members and extended loans only
to members for purposes that were beneficial for the Society. Two of such societies
were controlled by the relatives of Mr. Sharif. In 1991, four societies in the Punjab
suddenly collapsed as a result of which more than two million people lost their lifelong savings. The failure of the National Industrial Cooperative Credit Company was
the biggest financial collapse in Pakistan. Mr. Sharif’s family had borrowed huge loans
from these societies, and this increased unpopularity of his government.
Nawaz Sharif introduced the “yellow cab” scheme by giving loans to the unemployed
youth to buy taxis. This however was a failed scheme as most of the borrowers
became defaulters as they were unable to repay the loans. He announced a national
reconstruction program to industrialize Pakistan. His economic policies were
undermined by a lack of capital for investment, especially after the stoppage of the
US aid of $ 564 million. Foreign capital increased when he loosened foreign exchange
restrictions and opened Pakistan’s stock market to foreign capital but the government
still faced a shortage of funds for investment. The US aid dropped significantly after
the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1988. The reduction in overseas aid, high
spendings by the government and a decrease in foreign remittances added to his
difficulties.
Sharif’s policy of supporting the Afghan warlords also created problems for him. This
led to a culture of drug trafficking and use of illegal arms (the Klashinkov culture) as
a result of the Soviet-Afghan war. The government had to deal with rampant crime,
terrorism and drug addiction especially in major cities like Karachi. The police and
military tried to maintain law and order but were unsuccessful. The government
passed the 12th amendment to the constitution which provided “Speedy Trail Courts”
to dispense summary justice. The aim of this was to control the crime rate but was
criticized by the Opposition as it suppressed fundamental human rights. Nawaz Sharif
passed the Shariat Bill in May 1991, making the Quran and Sunnah the law of the
land as long as it did not challenge the existing system of government. It was
welcomed by the religious parties but they wanted its immediate implementation. It
became unpopular as the Opposition criticized the increased role of Islam in
government. Nawaz Sharif’s first term ended in 1993 when Ghulam Ishaq Khan
dismissed his government on the allegations of corruption and mismanagement of the
economy.
Closure of the BCCI seems to be the most important reason for the downfall of Nawaz
Sharif because the scandals involving misuse of money lowered his grace in the eyes
of the whole nation. Working of the Bank despite proven irregularities in extending
loans to Sharif’s business raised many questions about the credibility of his
government.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why Nawaz Sharif was dismissed in 1999?
Or
Why did General Musharraf come to power in 1999?
[7]
Ans.
Nawaz Sharif earned the anger of Pak Army. He acted as a powerful PM 1997 – 1999
but had entangled himself with the judiciary and the army. He had started supporting
the Taliban and their government in Afghanistan. He refused to hand Usama bin Ladin
over to US who suspected his involvement in the bombing of the US embassy in
Kenya. This damaged the Pak-US relations that were already strained since the end
of the Cold War 1991-92.
The US was also critical of Pakistan’s nuclear ambitions. Its anger grew when
Pakistan tested nuclear weapons on 28th May 1998 in response to Indian doing the
same a couple of weeks ago. Pakistan’s economic and military aid was stopped by
US, Japan and West European states creating serious difficulties for Pakistan. Sharif
had to declare emergency in Pakistan and ordered freezing of the FCA’s (Foreign
Currency Accounts) of Pakistanis who had deposited their savings in foreign currency.
This made him unpopular.
In May 1999, the Pak Army was involved in a conflict with the Indian Army in Kargil,
Kashmir. After some initial gains it had to retreat and Sharif accused General Parvez
Musharraf for this humiliation. The army rejected Sharif’s accusation. Sharif tried to
replace Musharraf with Gen. Zia ud Din Butt, Sharif’s cousin. Accordingly, Musharraf’s
plane was denied landing on the Islamabad Airport on his return from Sri Lanka.
Musharraf had the support of the army who immediately took control of the
government from Nawaz Sharif on 12th October, 1999. General Musharraf declared
military rule, but not Martial Law and after some time, allowed the Sharif family to go
into exile in Saudi Arabia.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
How successful was Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister of Pakistan in
the years 1990-1993 and 1996-1999?
(14)
Ans.
Nawaz Sharif first came to power in 1990 and ruled the country in two terms, first;
from 1990 to 1993 and second; from 1996 to 1999.
Nawaz Sharif was first elected in 1990 from the platform of the IJI (Islami Jamhuri
Ittehad). He announced a national reconstruction program to industrialize Pakistan.
He introduced a policy of privatizing the SOU’s (State Owned Units) under which a
number of important industries, such as shipping, electricity supply, airlines and
telecommunications were opened up to the private sector under the Privatization
Commission. He introduced several large scale projects to simulate the economy,
such as the Ghazi Barotha Hydro Power Project and the Gwadar Miniport in
Balochistan. He introduced the “yellow cab” scheme by giving loans to the
unemployed youth to buy taxis. This however was a failed scheme as most of the
borrowers became defaulters as they were unable to repay the loans. Another major
project was to build the Motorway. The aim was to provide a fast transportation
network to the newly independent Central Asian Republics that needed access to
seaports. Although its first phase, the M2 (between Islamabad and Lahore) was
completed in Nov 1997, the project suffered from continual delays.
Nawaz Sharif’s economic policies were undermined by a lack of capital for
investment, specially after the stoppage of the US aid of $ 564 million. Foreign capital
increased when he loosened foreign exchange restrictions and opened Pakistan’s
stock market to foreign capital but the government still faced a shortage of funds for
investment. The US aid dropped significantly after the Soviet withdrawal from
Afghanistan in 1988. The reduction in overseas aid, high spendings by the
government and a decrease in foreign remittances added to his difficulties. The
closure of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) in 1991 was linked
with questionable lending practices and fraud, and blame was put on the government.
Sharif also lost popularity because of the ‘Co-operative Societies scandal’.
Cooperative societies accepted deposits from members and gave loans to them for
investment schemes. However, mismanagement of these societies led to their
collapse in which millions of Pakistanis lost money. It was soon discovered that these
societies had, granted large loans to Sharifs family business, the Ittefaq Group.
Although Sharif hurriedly repaid the loans, his unpopularity increased.
There was also the problem of drug trafficking and illegal arms (the Klashinkov
culture) as a result of the Soviet-Afghan war. The govt. had to deal with rampant
crime, terrorism and drug addiction especially in major cities like Karachi. The police
and military tried to maintain law and order but were unsuccessful. The govt. passed
the 12th amendment to the constitution which provided “Speedy Trail Courts” to
dispense summary justice. The aim of this was to control the crime rate but was
criticized by the Opposition as it suppressed fundamental human rights. Nawaz Sharif
passed the Shariat Bill in May 1991, making the Quran and Sunnah the law of the
land as long as it did not challenge the existing system of government. It was
welcomed by the religious parties but they wanted its immediate implementation. It
became unpopular as the Opposition criticized the increased role of Islam in
government. Nawaz Sharif’s first term ended in 1993 when Ghulam Ishaq Khan
dismissed his government on the allegations of corruption and mismanagement of the
economy.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Nawaz Sharif was again elected as the Prime Minister in 1997. This time he had a
decisive majority in the parliament. So, his first acts was to pass the 13th Amendment
which repealed the 8th Amendment that authorized the President to dismiss the Prime
Minister and the assemblies. This measure was supported by all political parties. To
cutail instability in the country. Sharif also passed the Anti-defection Bill under the 14th
amendment. This prevented politicians from switching parties (political turncoats) so
that they could not exploit any weak and vulnerable government. Using his powers
fully, Sharif arrested journalists who wrote critical articles against him. Unexpected
tax inspections of the selected newspaper editors were carried out.
In 1997, Sharif had to defend himself in the Supreme Court on charges of corruption.
He, using the Parliament’s support asked the President to dismiss the Chief Justice
Sajjad Ali Shah, and this led to a tussle between the government and the Supreme
Court. Sharif’s supporters stormed the building and proceedings had to be
suspended. In May 1998, Pakistan conducted nuclear explosions. This increased
Sharif’s popularity as people felt strengthened due to Pakistan becoming a nuclear
power but it caused loss of foreign aid from the US, Japan and other countries putting
Pakistan in serious economic difficulties. The Sharif government had to freeze the
FCA’s (Foreign Currency Accounts) of Pakistani depositors. Sharif had to raise the
price of fuel and negotiate bank loans to keep the government from bankruptcy. He
also introduced a state of emergency, curtailing all civil rights. Sharif tried to
strengthen his position by passing the 15th Amendment which made Sharia the
supreme law of Pakistan and empowered the PM to enforce the Sharia the full
authority. He did not ask the Senate to ratify the measure as he was uncertain about
the depth of his support. Sharif’s rule went into serious trouble during the Kargil crisis
during May 1999. He developed differences with General Pervez Musharraf over the
withdrawal of Pak Army from Kargil, Kashmir. Sharif tried to replace him with his
cousin Gen. Butt, but found his govt. toppled by the army on 12th Oct. 1999.
It may be concluded that Nawaz Sharif was not very successful twice as PM because
he failed to have good relations with such important institutes as the armed forces
and the supreme judiciary mainly because of his authoritarian way of governance and
partly due to financial scams surrounding his government.
Q: Was his conflict with General Perwez Masharraf the main reason of
toppling of Nawaz Sharif’s second government in 1999? Explain your
answer.
[14]
Ans:
Nawaz Sharif returned to power for the second time in February 1997. He had
a comfortable majority in the National Assembly and Senate. He, therefore,
was able to get important bills passed from the parliament. The 13th
amendment annulled the 8th amendment, and restored the powers of the PM,
and made President just a ceremonial head of the state. The 14th amendment
was passed as the Anti-Defection Bill that restrained the parliamentarians to
switch loyalties in order to exploit a weak government. Apparently these were
good steps but the results were not good. Sharif’s government became
oppressive towards the opposition parties and the media. The Opposition felt
insecure in the parliament. Journalists who wrote against his government were
threatened or jailed. Heavy taxes were imposed on some newspapers. Sharif’s
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secret police kidnapped a famous editor, Mr Najam Sethi, in May 1996, but
had to release him on international protests.
The same year Sharif locked horns with the Supreme Court. Sajjad Ali Shah
had been appointed as Chief Justice by Benazir Bhutto. He summoned Nawaz
Sharif to defend charges of corruption against him. Sharif wanted to reduce
the number of the Supreme Court judges from 17 to 12. Sajjad Ali asked the
President to reinstate the 5 judges, Sharif got a motion passed from the
National Assembly asking the President to dismiss the Chief Justice.
President Leghari, however, refused to obey Sharif’s unfair demand. In
November 1997, hundreds of Sharif’s supporters attacked the Supreme Court
building during the proceedings of a “contempt of court case”. Sajjad Ali had
to leave the court with other judges. In December 1997, both the President and
the Chief Justice resigned in protest. After some days, Rafiq Tarar, a retired
judge, loyal to the Sharif family, became the new President, and Sajjad Ali
Shah was replaced by Justice Ajmal Mian as the permanent Chief Justice in a
mysterious way. These developments affected Sharif’s popularity and
opposition grew against him. In May 1998, Pakistan conducted nuclear blasts
in response to the Indian nuclear testing the same month. Though it
strengthened Sharif’s political position, his government faced serious
economic challenges. Japan, the US and many other countries stopped aid to
Pakistan. Sharif declared emergency in the country, raised fuel prices and
ordered freezing of the FCAs (Foreign Currency Accounts) of all Pakistanis.
Army had been instrumental in Pakistani politics for a long time, and Sharif
made a desperate attempt to exclude army from political affairs. He removed
the army chief, General Jahangir Karamat when he demanded a position in
the National Security Council. Sharif appointed Pervez Musharraf as the next
chief thinking he would cooperate with the government. Soon, however,
Musharraf would prove more problematic than Sharif had imagined.
Only months after the Lahore Declaration of peace between India and
Pakistan, both countries were once again on the brink of a third war. The
Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the LoC (Line of Control) and occupied the
strategic Indian towns of Kargil and Drass in April 1999. India retaliated in May
1999 and bombarded Pakistani territories heavily. Sharif initially denied, but
soon India provided evidence of Pakistani involvement in Kargil. After failing to
seek the US intervention, Sharif ordered withdrawal of Pakistan army, and this
brought him in clash with Musharraf as both Sharif and army blamed each
other for the failure in Kargil. People, in general, also opposed Sharif’s
decision. Sharif feared a coup, and decided to replace Musharraf with one of
his close relatives, General Zia ud Din Butt. While Musharraf was on a tour to
Sri Lanka, Sharif ordered the CAA (Civil Aviation Authority) not to let
Musharraf’s plane land on any airport on his return. This unified top army
officials against Sharif, and on Musharraf’s safe landing, his government was
toppled on 12th October 1999. Musharraf declared military rule, not martial
law, in Pakistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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It may be said that Nawaz Sharif’s confrontation with General Musharraf was
the decisive factor in the loss of his government because, like Z.A. Bhutto, he
also miscalculated the power of the army as an organised and inherently stable
institution of Pakistan.
Source A: a statement by General Pervez Musharraf about the Kargil issue,
“Pakistan was in a dominating position in five different fronts in the war. The Prime
Minister Nawaz Sharif was briefed on the situation at least two times. Mr Sharif is wrong in
his statements about not taken into confidence regarding the withdrawal of the Pakistan army
from Kargil. He kept asking me whether we should withdraw. Raja Zafar ul Haq and
Chaudhary Shuja’at had opposed my decision of withdrawing the army.”
Q.1 (a)
What do we learn from the source A about Pervez Musharraf’s
stance over the Kargil issue? [3]
Ans.
Pervez Musharraf is claiming about the dominant position of the Pakistan army on
five different fronts. He is belying Mr Sharif’s statements about not being taken into
confidence over the Kargil issue. He is further asserting that two key cabinet members of Mr
Sharif were opposed to his decision of withdrawing from Kargil.
Source B, a photograph of PM Mr. Sharif meeting General Musharraf in the Kargil area of
Kashmir territory in 1999.
Q.
How does source B help us understand the Kargil crisis?
[5]
Ans.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
This seems a critical time as Mr. Sharif has reached the snow-covered area by a
military chopper/Helicopter. Mr. Sharif finds it difficult to make his way on the snowy ground
while General Musharraf is standing comfortably because of his tough military training for
such areas. Some important decisions seem to be taken that could not be discussed on a
wireless system. General Musharraf looks a bit more serious against Mr. Sharif who is
perhaps smiling. The Kargil conflict would lead to an increased hostility between India and
Pakistan as well as Mr. Sharif’s differences with Pak army.
Source A,
A part of an essay by Irfan Husain on the Kargil Conflict, 1999:
“Presumably, the idea behind the operation was to focus the international limelight on
Kashmir in the expectation that the world would hasten to defuse a potential conflict that could
go nuclear. It back fired badly. We were seen as the aggressors as nobody believed that
Kashmiri militants could mount or sustain an operation of this magnitude. So, India came out
smelling roses, while we had eggs all over our face.”
Q(a) According to the source, describe Pakistan’s failure in the Kargil
Conflict.
(3)
Ans. Pakistan expected an intervention by the world powers in the State of Kashmir but,
instead of this, it was accused of supporting the militants. It was seen as an
aggressive state that had crossed the international boundary between the two parts
of Kashmir. India, therefore, gained a diplomatic success and foiled Pakistan’s plan.
Source B,
A cartoon showing India and Pakistan becoming nuclear states.
Q(b) Describe the message being conveyed through the cartoon in the
source B.
[5]
Ans.
The source portrays the disastrous consequences of the acquisition of nuclear
weapons by the two states. It sarcastically renames India as ‘Hindushima’ and Pakistan as
‘Pagasaki’ reminding the horrible tragedies of Nagasaki and Hiroshima in August 1945. This
way it is warning the two states of the results of developing nuclear weapons. The multiple
cracks on the landscape of India and Pakistan, and the smoke being emitted from the big
craters convey the message of the impact of nuclear weapons. The remark on the source
foretells the failure of any peaceful negotiations about the Kashmir issue.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Miscellaneous Questions of Section 3
Q.
Why did Pakistan face so many problems with the provision of
education between 1947 and 1999?
(7)
Ans. Education is expensive in Pakistan. Despite several efforts by various governments,
the claim of providing free primary education has not proved true. Children are
expected to buy their own books and stationery. Similarly, parents have to pay for the
transport and uniform expenses. With an increasing inflation, this becomes difficult for
the poor rural population.
Educational facilities in most of the public sector institutes are not good, especially in
rural areas where about 65% of the population lives. There are poorly built schools
with poor seating arrangements and an inefficient water and sewerage system. In
many villages classes are held in the shade of trees. There is a high dropout rate due
to the issue of corporal punishment by the poorly paid teachers. Lesser funds are
available for education as most of the spendings are reserved for defence.
There is popular opposition to female education in most of the rural and tribal areas
as parents and religious scholars are opposed to this. There are not many trained
teachers due to a lack of teachers’ training institutes and programs. In tribal areas the
tribal chiefs usually resist any social development schemes like the provision of
education.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Q:
How successful was Pakistan in establishing a new constitution
between 1947 and 1973? Explain you answer.
(14)
Ans. Making the constitution was a slow process. In March 1949, the Objectives Resolution
was passed by the National Assembly under Liaqat Ali Khan’s government. It
proposed a plan of making the constitution based on the objectives of democracy,
equality and social justice as laid down by Islam. It also guaranteed protection of
human rights and religious minorities as well as an independent judiciary. In 1952,
certain Islamic clauses were included in the draft in order to satisfy the Ulema. The
head of state was required to be a Muslim. The government was to be guided by a
team of religious scholars to make laws according to Islam. Moreover, it
recommended a bicameral parliament with equal seats for East and West Pakistan.
However, the Objectives Resolution was criticised especially by East Pakistan who
resented that Urdu was to be the official language because Bengali was spoken by
all the East Pakistanis. It also opposed the idea of equal representation in the National
Assembly, and demanded seats according to the size of its population. The death, of
Liaqat Ali Khan in 1951, caused an unusual delay in the process of constitution
making. The Basic Principles Committee’s report also failed to resolve the issue of
the official language and the number of seats in the National Assembly.
The second Constituent Assembly, under Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, implemented the
constitution on 23rd March 1956. Under the constitution, name of the country was the
Islamic Republic of Pakistan whose president was to be a Muslim of over 40. He was
to be elected by the National and Provincial Assemblies and he had the power to
appoint and dismiss the PM and dissolve the assemblies. The National Assembly had
equal seats of East and West Pakistan. Urdu and Bengali were declared the national
languages. The constitution was, however, heavily criticised since it empowered the
president to dismiss the elected government and dissolve the parliament. This went
against the spirit of a parliamentary form of government. East Pakistan was very
unhappy at not having majority in the Assembly that it believed its vast population
deserved.
Ayub Khan introduced the Basic Democracies in 1959 that comprised a four tier
structure of local governments elected at various levels. Due to the success of this
system, a new constitution was enforced in March 1962 after lifting the martial law.
The constitution introduced a presidential form of government with the National
Assembly having equal seats for East and West Pakistan. The president was elected
by the Basic Democrats for five years. He could make any law or reject the legislation
of the parliament. However, the constitution gradually became unpopular due to the
dominance and powers of landlords in the parliament. The Basic Democracies often
used force or bribery to influence the results. The constitution also upset the people
of East Pakistan as they were once again under-represented in the Parliament that
was made a subordinate body to a military ruler.
In August 1973, Z.A. Bhutto enforced the 1973 Constitution that introduced a purely
parliamentary form of government with a bicameral parliament. The upper house was
the Senate while the lower house was the National Assembly. The PM, elected by the
National Assembly for five years, was the executive head whereas the president was
only a figure head of the state. It introduced more Islamic clauses. However, the
Ulema launched an anti-Qadiani movement in 1974, and the government was forced
to redefine a Muslim under a constitutional amendment.
It may be concluded that Pakistan was quite successful in making a new constitution
because the process was completed after several setbacks, political instability and
two military coups. The Pakistani politics evolved through all these hindrances to
finally achieve the goal of a purely parliamentary form of government in 1973. This
constitution managed to survive in the years to come.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
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Q: How successful have Governments of Pakistan been in Islamisation
of constitution between 1947 & 1999?
(14)
Ans
Various governments took steps for Islamisation of constitution. When the Objectives
Resolution was passed in March 1949, the Ulema realised it needed Islamic clauses. They
wanted to enforce Islamic Sharia in Pakistan. Therefore, it had to be reviewed by the Basic
Principles Committee. However, it was withdrawn by Liaqat Ali Khan.
The PM Ch. Muhammad Ali drafted the first constitution of Pakistan that was enforced
in March 1956. It required the President and the Prime Minister to be Muslims. Pakistan was
named as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. An Islamic advisory council was created to advise
the government to make laws according to the Quran and Sunnah. However, being advisory
in nature, it did not have legislative powers. Therefore, no significant progress was made for
making Islamic laws. The 1956 constitution was abrogated in October 1958.
President Ayub Khan implemented the new constitution in March 1962. Like the
previous constitution, the name of the country was the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, and the
head of the state was required to be Muslim. Similarly, the Islamic Advisory Council was
assigned the task of advising the government to make laws in conformity to the teachings of
the Quran and Sunnah. It too, however, was not empowered to make laws in this regard. This
constitution was abrogated in March 1969, and Pakistan remained without a constitution for
about four years.
The PM Mr Bhutto framed the third constitution that was implemented in August 1973.
It had more powerful Islamic clauses. Name of the country remained IRP, and the condition
of the head of state to be a Muslim was also retained in this constitution. Moreover, in the
wake of the decisive phase of the anti-Qadiani Movement in 1974, definition of the word
Muslim was revised. Accordingly, a Muslim was defined as the one who belived in One Allah
and Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) as the last Messenger of Allah. Teaching of Islamiyat and
Pakistan Studies was made compulsory at the school and college levels in all public and
private sector institutions. The Qadiani community strongly protested as it had been
unanimously declared non-Muslim.
General Zia ul Haq declared third Martial Law in July 1977, and suspended the 1973
constitution. He, however, introduced a series of Islamic laws that would be incorporated into
the constitution after its restoration in March 1985. He enfored the Hudood and Qazf
Ordinance in 1979. Under this, Islamic punishments were given to those found guilty of major
crimes like adultery, theft and drinking. Though several Muslims welcomed these steps, the
non-Muslims and the women organizations expressed their reservations. Under the Zakat
and Ushr Ordinance, Zakat was deducted from the bank deposits on the first of Ramadan
every year, and distributed among the poor. The Shia Muslims protested over compulsory
deduction of Zakat from their bank deposits, and soon, they were exempted from this. The
Blasphemy Law had been part of Pakistan’s legal system since beginning. Zia, however,
elevated its maximum punishment to the death sentence. The law was aimed at punishing
those who showed any degree of disregard to the Holy Quran or the Holy Prophet. The nonMuslims believed it to be a discriminatory law and felt insecure in Pakistan, though all
religious scholars fully supported it. He also set up the Federal Shariat Court that was
required to examine the existing laws to ensure if they were according to the Sharia or not.
Zia tried to give a more Islamic touch to the society under his so called “Chadar and Char
Diwari Culture” (women to observe Hijab and prefer to stay indoors). The Ulema welcomed
these measures while liberal women circles sharply ciritcised them.
Benazir Bhutto served as PM twice, 1988-90 and 1993-96. Having, liberal views she
opposed any significant role of Islam in Pakistan. She wanted to restore the 1973 constitution
in its original form. However, she could not repeal the Islamic laws of Zia as she did not have
a majority in the parliament.
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Nawaz Sharif during his first term as PM, passed the Shariat Bill in May 1991, making
the Quran and Sunnah the law of the land as long as it did not challenge the existing system
of government. It was welcomed by the religious parties but they wanted its immediate
implementation. It became unpopular as the Opposition criticized the increased role of Islam
in government. During his second term as PM, Nawaz Sharif tried to strengthen his position
by passing the 15th Amendment. It made the Sharia the supreme law of Pakistan and
empowered the PM to enforce it. However, he did not ask the Senate to ratify the measure
as he was uncertain about the depth of his support. So, there was no significant progress in
this regard.
It may be concluded that the process of Islamisation has not been very successful
because of a continued state of political instability and failure of the Ulema to win full support
of the people of Pakistan.
Foreign Relations of Pakistan
Pakistan-USA Relations
Q: Why did being a nuclear power create difficulties for Pakistan in the
1980s and 1990s? (7)
Ans:
Pakistan had started its nuclear programme in the 1970s but the world powers began
to object to it. Pakistan was pressurized to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
in 1980 but Pakistan subjected its acceptance to India doing the same. Benazir Bhutto
defended Pakistan’s nuclear programme in her speech in the US Congress as she could not
rick disturbed relations with the US. The US had started extending generous military aid to
Pakistan after the Soviet invasion on Afghanistan in December 1979. However, after 1985
this aid was stopped under the Presslar Amendment. Under this the US aid could be given
to a country that the American President declared as a non-nuclear state. By pointing to
Pakistan’s nuclear ambitions, the promised economic aid of $ 4 million was stopped.
The stoppage of the aid adversely affected Pakistan as it had been supporting the US
in its war against the Soviets through the Afghan Mujahideen. Pakistan had paid money to
buy 28 F-16 war planes from the US who suddenly refused to deliver the planes as well as
return the paid money. Pakistan was the third largest recipient of the US aid, and the
promised package was to run until 1993. This led to a significant deterioration of relations
between the two countries, and many economic development projects of Pakistan were
suspended.
In the early 1990s, Pakistan’s importance for the US decreased after the Soviet
withdrawal from Afghanistan and the end of the Cold War. In 1992, the US was about the
declare Pakistan as state sponsor of terrorism and place economic sanctions on it. Pakistan
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protested on this by pointing towards India who too had been more ambitious of acquiring
nuclear weapons. It also reminded the US of its support in the 1990 Gulf War but the US
continued to condemn Pakistan’s nuclear ambition. Finally, when Pakistan conducted nuclear
blasts in May 1998, after India had taken the initiative the same month. Pakistan, however,
faced more serious consequences. Many countries stopped economic and military aid to it
including Japan, the US and the UK. This led to Pakistan facing economic difficulties, and the
Sharif government had to declare a financial emergency, take fresh loans and freeze the
foreign currency accounts of several Pakistanis in the local banks.
Q:
How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with the USA
between 1947 and 1999?
(14)
Note: For Q.2-5, part c, 14 marks; for Q.1 part d, 10 marks
Ans: Pak-US relations have been generally successful. In 1947, at the time of creation of
Pakistan, the USA was engaged in the Cold War, a state of hostility between the USA
and the USSR/now Russia. It was busy in the anti-Soviet alliances in various parts of
the world. It, therefore, took some years for the USA to recognize the geo-political
importance of Pakistan. Pakistan’s Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan changed his plan
to visit Moscow, and flew to Washington in 1950. This laid the basis of the Pak-USA
relations.
Throughout the 1950’s Pakistan received military and economic aid from the USA and
joined the US-sponsored anti-Soviet/communist regional military blocs of the SEATO
(South East Asian Treaty Organization) and the CENTO (Central Treaty Organization)
to counter the Soviet in the South East Asia and the Middle East, in 1954 and 1955.
Under the Mutual Defence Assistance Agreement in May 1954 and some other
agreements heavy aid was granted to Pakistan.
In the late 1950’s, Ayub Khan allowed the USA to build air bases in Pakistan to
conduct espionage on the Soviets. After the 1965 Pak-India war, the US aid was
gradually restored but the warmth of relations was visibly reduced. 1979 onwards,
there was remarkable improvement in relations after the Soviet attack on Afghanistan.
Pakistan assumed great importance for the USA who extended heavy military and
economic aid to Pakistan so that it could help the Afghan Mujahideen against the
Soviets and accommodate millions of Afghan refugees. Zia’s government in 1981,
received and aid of $1.6 billion and a further 1.5 billion Pound Sterling loan at low
interest rate to buy modern American weapons. In 1986, $4.2 billion military and
economic aid was given. Thus, after Israel and Egypt, Pakistan became the 3rd largest
recipient of American aid. After the end of the Afghan war, Benazir Bhutto visited the
USA in June 1989 to try to improve relations. Nawaz Sharif’s visits to Washington
1991-1992, were attempts to convince the US about the peaceful nuclear program of
Pakistan. President Bill Clinton tried to restore relations by opposing the Pressler
Amendment that had stopped aid to Pakistan. In January 1995 the Defence
Secretary, William Perry visited Pakistan and promised aid. Benazir Bhutto visited the
USA in 1996 and, under the Brown Amendment, many sanctions were lifted and a
package of $388 million military aid was given to Pakistan. In 1996 Mrs. Hilary Clinton
visited Pakistan to further improve relations.
However, there were many failures in the relations. 1947-1950 the US attitude was
cold towards Pakistan. In the 1962 India-China war, American aid to India
disappointed Pakistan. Ayub’s visits to Beijing and Moscow in the 1960’s greatly
offended the Americans. In the wars of 1965 and 1971, the US aid to Pakistan was
stopped. Pakistan also could not receive any aid from the SEATO and CENTO
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because they could only help Pakistan in case of attack by a communist state (the
USSR).
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Z.A. Bhutto’s visible pro-Soviet and pro-China policies also damaged the Pak-USA
relations. Despite his visit to Washington in 1972, he could not get any aid. The US
also criticized Bhutto’s threat to develop nuclear weapons in 1974. Bhutto blamed the
USA for supporting the anti-Bhutto campaign of 1977. In Nov. 1979, during Zia’s
government, the US Embassy in Islamabad was burned by an angry mob. The US
accused Zia of supporting the mob. Under the Geneva Accord of 1988, the USSR
agreed to withdraw from Afghanistan. This suddenly reduced Pakistan’s importance
for the USA. Under various laws, the US aid was stopped and objections were raised
about Pakistan’s nuclear programs. Senator Larry Pressler in 1991 warned Pakistan
to take steps against the growth of fundamentalism (extremism in Muslims). In 1996,
the US objected to China’s plan to supply M-11 missiles to Pakistan. In the late 1990’s,
the issue of Taliban and Nawaz Sharif’s refusal to hand over Usama bin Laden to the
USA damaged the relations. In May 1998, Pakistan’s nuclear blasts shocked the USA
and all aid was stopped to Pakistan.
It may be concluded that the relations were generally successful because of
Pakistan’s strategic location in South Asia and its keenness to promote the American
interests in the region for the sake of maintaining a balance of power by countering
the Indian dream of becoming the policeman in the region.
Pakistan-USSR/Soviet Union Relations
The USSR till 1990; Russia/The Russian Federation/Russia 1990
onwards
Q:
Describe Pakistan’s involvement in the U-2 crisis.
(4)
Ans. Pakistan had allowed the US to use its air bases for espionage against the USSR. U2, a spy plane, was caught by the Soviets in 1960. On inquiry its pilot Francis Gary
Powers admitted that the plane had been launched from an air base in Peshawar.
The Soviets felt angry on this and threatened Pakistan of dire consequences including
a military action. It asked Pakistan not to let Americans use its air bases for any similar
espionage operation. This incident shows the close relations of Pakistan with the US.
However, this also became a reason for improving its relations with the USSR.
Q)
How successful was Pakistan’s relationship with the USSR
between 1947 and 1999? Explain your answer?
(14)
Note: For Q.2-5, part c, 14 marks; for Q.1 part d, 10 marks
Ans. Pakistan tried to establish good relations with the USSR after gaining independence
though circumstances proved otherwise.
The USSR being very close to
Pakistan’s neighbourhood via Afghanistan, first established the diplomatic relations in
May 1948. It invited PM Liaqat Ali Khan to visit Moscow, and Liaqat was about to
leave for Moscow when he received another invitation from Washington. In 1961
Soviets offered oil exploration in Pakistan after the 1960 U-2 incident. Soviets had
captured the American spy plane U-2 that had been launched from Peshawar.
Moreover, in the 1962 Sino-India/China-India war the USA extended aid to India
against China without informing Pakistan. For these reasons Ayub Khan decided to
improve relations with the USSR. In 1963 Soviet Union extended a loan of 11 million
Sterling Pounds to Pakistan. In 1963, it changed its previous policy of supporting India
and adopted a neutral stance over the Kashmir issue. In April 1965 Ayub paid an
official visit to the USSR and signed a number of agreements on trade and oil
explorations.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
After the end of the 1965 war, the Soviet Union mediated between Pakistan and India
to reach a peace agreement. Accordingly, the Tashkent Accord was signed in January
1966. The Pakistani government admired the Soviet efforts in this regard. In 1968
when the Americans decided to close their airbase at Peshawar, the USSR began to
supply arms to Pakistan. Thus Pakistan became a unique country by receiving
trilateral aid from the USA, the USSR and China.
Z.A. Bhutto had communist and socialist views. He was able to improve relations with
the USSR significantly. In 1972, he visited Moscow and persuaded the Soviets to help
Pakistan build a steel mill near Karachi, the PSM (Pakistan Steel Mill). Relations
remained friendly till the fall of Z.A.Bhutto 1977.
After the Geneva Accord of 1988 the Soviet army began to leave Afghanistan. After
2-3 years, the USSR became the Russian Federation. The Russian Vice President
Mr. Rutskoy visited Islamabad in 1991 to start friendly relations with Pakistan. Russia
needed Pakistan’s help to restore peace in Afghanistan. Then in 1993 Mr. A.V.
Kozyrev, another important official visited Pakistan. In April 1999 Nawaz Sharif visited
Moscow and in return a Russian delegation visited Islamabad. In June 1999 the
Russian President Boris Yelstin appealed to India and Pakistan to end the Kargil
conflict.
However, both countries had many failures, too. In 1950, Liaqat’s decision to visit
Washington instead of Moscow, disappointed the USSR. In retaliation, the USSR
continued to support India on the Kashmir issue in the 1950’s. During the same time
period, Pakistan further displeased the Soviets by joining the US-sponsored military
blocs of the SEATO and CENTO. India as a result began to receive Soviet aid.
Pakistan rejected the Soviet offer of oil exploration in 1956. In 1959-60, the Soviets
captured the American spy plane U-2 and found out that it had been launched from
Peshawar airbase. The Soviet President issued a serious threat to Pakistan.
It was also unhappy over Pakistan’s involvement in the US-China diplomatic relations
in 1970-71. It signed an agreement with India and kept China from helping Pakistan
in the 1971 war. December 1979 onwards relations with the USSR remained strained
due to Pakistan’s direct involvement in the Afghan war. Pakistan’s ISI (Inter Services
Intelligence) was accused of training and arming the Afghan Mujahideen with the help
of the USA. Therefore, General Zia was received in a cold way when he visited
Moscow in 1984 to attend the funeral of the Russian President Andropov. Pakistan
also boycotted the Moscow Olympics 1980.
After the breakup of the USSR, there was no remarkable improvement in relations.
Russia was unhappy over Pakistan’s support for some groups of the Afghan
Mujahideen in the 1990’s. India was given several Russian-manufactured Mirage2000 aircrafts that India used during the Kargil conflict. Russia also objected to
Pakistan’s nuclear policy and the nuclear blasts of May 1998.
If viewed objectively, Pak-USSR relations have not been successful mainly due to
Pakistan’s opposition to the atheistic communist ideology and economic policy of the
Soviets. Pakistan was also opposed to the Soviet expansionist designs in sharp
contrast to a non-expansionist China.
Pakistan’s Relations with Great Britain and the Commonwealth
Q:
How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with Great Britain
and the Commonwealth between 1947 and 1999? Explain your
answer.
(14)
Note: For Q.2-5, part c, 14 marks; for Q.1 part d, 10 marks
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Ans: Pakistan maintained good relations with Great Britain and the Commonwealth. After
independence in 1947, the British provided Jinnah with help at the top levels of both
the military and the civil service. There were many senior British officers like General
Douglas Gracy in the Pakistan army to train them along modern lines. It also gave
financial and technical aid and advice to cope with the difficulties. Pakistan chose to
remain a member of the Commonwealth as it was now a British dominion (being
independent but recognizing the British Emperor as technical head of state). In a
Commonwealth meeting in 1950 in Colombo, the Colombo Plan was set up to extend
aid to Pakistan. It also provided one million Sterling Pounds for the Sui gas project.
Canada gave $ 40 million for the development of railways.
In 1954-55 Pakistan and Britain agreed to work together as members of SEATO and
CENTO. Britain played key role in ending the 1965 war. Then during the Afghanistan
crisis, Britain supported Pakistan. British PM Mrs. Margaret Thatcher was the first
Western leader to visit Pakistan in 1981 during the Afghan war. An aid of 30 million
Sterling Pounds was given to Pakistan to accommodate the Afghan refugees. Another
aid of 16 million Sterling Pounds was given to help refugees in Balochistan and KPK.
During the 1980’s Britain remained a major trading partner of Pakistan, with an
estimated 376 million Sterling Pounds worth a trade between the two countries by
1986. Benazir Bhutto rejoined the Commonwealth in 1989 as the military rule of Zia
had ended in 1988. In the 1990’s both Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif continued to
pay visits to Great Britain to strengthen mutual relations. Pakistan has been an active
participant in the Commonwealth Games. The Queen of England visited Pakistan on
14th August 1997 to attend the Golden Jubilee ceremony of the creation of Pakistan.
She was accorded very warm welcome. Presence of a sizeable Pakistani population
in England has also played an important role in improving the relations. Some of these
Pakistanis managed to get elected in the British Parliament.
However, relations between the two states have witnessed failures too. Many
Pakistani army officers were not happy with the British officers in their ranks and some
of them unsuccessfully tried a military coup in 1951. Pakistani government also had
reservations about the Radcliffe Award as some Muslim majority districts in Punjab
had been given to India. British failure to resolve the Kashmir dispute was also a
setback for the relations. In 1956, the British attack on the Suez Canal in Egypt was
criticized by Pakistan. Relations were also affected when Pakistan could not receive
any aid from SEATO and CENTO in the wars of 1965 and 1971. When Great Britain
recognized the Republic of Bangladesh, Pakistan left SEATO and the
Commonwealth.
Z.A. Bhutto’s inclination towards the communist and socialist states of the USSR and
China was not liked by Great Britain. When death sentence was awarded to Bhutto,
Britain did not pressurize Zia for an amnesty to Bhutto though Bhutto expected this
from his friend Mr. James Callaghan, the British Foreign Minister. In the 1990’s, Great
Britain, like the USA continued to express its concerns over Pakistan’s nuclear
program. When Pakistan conducted nuclear blasts in May 1998, Britain and the
Commonwealth stopped aid to Pakistan.
Looking objectively, it may be concluded that Pakistan’s relations with Great Britain
and the Commonwealth have been quite successful because of good trade relations
and British interest in investing in various development projects of Pakistan.
Pakistan-China Relations
Q:
How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with China
between 1947 and 1999?
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
(14)
0333-4257013
Note: For Q.2-5, part c, 14 marks; for Q.1 part d, 10 marks
Ans. Pakistan-China relations have been quite successful. Pakistan recognized the postrevolution communist regime under Mao Zedong in January 1950. It supported
China’s membership of the UN in 1952. In the 1950’s there was no major
breakthrough in relations but in March 1962, Pakistan and china began to settle the
border dispute on the GB-Tibet border. China made many concessions in the border
dispute in order to win Pakistan’s support to counter declining relations with India and
the USSR. The issue was fully settled by March 1963. The 1962 Sino-India/ChinaIndia war came as a blessing in disguise for Pakistan. China began to extend heavy
aid to Pakistan. In 1963, a series of trade agreements were signed and a $60 million
interest free loan was given to Pakistan. China soon became the largest importer of
raw cotton from Pakistan and promised to help Pakistan in any war with India. In
August 1963 the PIA (Pakistan International Airlines) began regular flights to China in
order to improve cultural and trade relations.
In 1964 China declared its support for Pakistan on the Kashmir issue and in return,
Pakistan supported China’s entry to the UN Security Council much to the displeasure
of the USA who was supporting Taiwan (non-communist breakaway from China) as
the legitimate ruler of China. During the 1965 Pak-India war, China applied diplomatic
pressure on India and extended moral and military aid to Pakistan including the T-59
tanks.
Though unable to help Pakistan in the 1971 war, China resumed support for Pakistan.
In February 1972, Z.A.Bhutto visited China and sought heavy military and economic
aid. Pakistan built the HMC (Heavy Mechanical Complex) in Taxila with the Chinese
assistance. During Zia’s regime the old Silk Route was remodeled as the KKH
(Karakoram Highway) in 1978. Then in 1986 Zia visited China and signed a nuclear
co-operation treaty with the Chinese government.
Pakistan offered help to China in the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989. In
November 1989, Chinese PM Peng’s visit to Pakistan further strengthened the
relations. During the first tenure of Nawaz Sharif as PM of Pakistan, he visited China
in February, 1991 and in the October 1991 Chinese President Mr. Shangkun visited
Pakistan.
In the 1990’s China provided technical and material support for the completion of the
300 MW Chashma Nuclear Power Complex and the plutonium reprocessing facility.
Both Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif paid successful visits to China and convinced
China to invest in the Gawadar development project and other similar schemes.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
However, there were some failures too. Throughout the 1950’s there was no progress
in improving relations. Pakistan was busy in solving its own problems and, therefore,
could not realize the importance of such a major neighbouring country. There was a
continuous delay in initiating the talks for the border dispute and that increased
Pakistan’s concerns. In 1959 Pakistan voted against China’s membership of the UNO
and condemned the military action in Tibet, though China did not react angrily.
China could not help Pakistan in the 1971 war because of the Agreement of Peace,
Co-operation and Friendship between India and the USSR. This agreement contained
a threat to a country helping any state against India in a war.
In the 1990’s, the Cold War had ended and the USSR had broken up into independent
states. In this changing scenario China tried to improve relations with India and other
states. However, there was little progress in India-China relations.
It may finally be concluded that Pak-China relations have been very successful
because of the growing common interests of the two countries. China’s long-term
plans to invest in various development schemes in Pakistan are the key factor in
maintaining friendly relations.
Pakistan-India Relations
Q:
What has been the importance of the Siachen Glacier to both India
and Pakistan?
(4)
Ans. Siachen Glacier is located in the northern mountains in Kashmir at the ill-defined PakIndia border. The Indian Colonel Kumar had climbed it in 1977 to establish Indian
posts there. Pakistan detected Indian presence in the region after his return in 1981.
Pakistan sent its soldiers who found 300 Indian troops already stationed there. Both
armies now established their posts, and the Pakistan army could not remove the
Indian troops despite a number of armed conflicts including the one led by Pervez
Musharraf in 1987. Benazir Bhutto visited the glacier in 1989 to reiterate Pakistan’s
claim to it. About 3,000-5,000 troops were killed during the clashes or by landslides.
Both countries held talks several times without a success.
Q:
Why did Pakistan distrust India so much between 1971 and 1988?
(7)
Ans. India was instrumental in the creation of Bangladesh. It had trained and equipped the
militant Mukti Bahini against Pakistan. After the 1971 war, more than 90,000 Pakistani
troops were taken as captives by India. Z.A. Bhutto signed the Simla agreement with
Mrs. Indira Gandhi in 1972. She agreed to release the captives on the condition of
negotiating the Kashmir issue bilaterally, without involving a third party like the UNO.
This angered Pakistan that wanted the UN intervention in the Kashmir issue.
India conducted its nuclear experiment in Rajasthan in 1974. Pakistan was shocked
as this act of India had threatened the peace and strategic balance in the South Asian
region. It raised real fears about its security after its neighbour had acquired a nuclear
capability. Bhutto retaliated by delivering an impassioned speech in which he declared
that the people of Pakistan would develop nuclear capacity even though they had to
eat grass.
In the 1980s, Indian presence in the Siachen Glacier region and the Khalistan issue
also disturbed the relations between the two states. Both wanted to capture the
Siachen Glacier but were unsuccessful. India accused Pakistan of supporting the
militant Sikhs who wanted Eastern Punjab to be an independent state, the
Khalistan. Relations became more tensed when the Indian PM Mrs. Indira Gandhi
was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguard in 1984. Her son, Rajiv Gandhi blamed
Pakistan for this tragic murder.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with India
between 1947 and
1999?
(14)
Note: For Q.2-5, part c, 14 marks; for Q.1 part d, 10 marks
Ans: Pakistan has not been very successful in its relations with India as there have been
fewer successes and several failures. In 1948, Indian Pakistan successfully drew a
border between the East Pakistan and Assam. The same year, both countries agreed
on a ceasefire on the influence of the UN after the first war on Kashmir. A temporary
borderline, the LOC (Line of Control) was accepted by both countries. In 1950 the
Minorities Agreement/the Liaqat-Nehru Pact was signed in which both countries
agreed to stop the movement of minorities across the border and encourage them to
stay back in their homelands. In the 1950’s, Jawahar Lal Nehru promised to hold a
plebiscite in the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir in order to resolve this conflict
between the two states.
In September 1960, the Indus Water Treaty was signed to resolve the issue of the
canal waters that had originated with the partition of the Punjab in 1947. Both
countries accepted the mediatory role of the USSR for a peace agreement after the
1965 war. Accordingly, the Tashkent Accord was signed in the Soviet city of Tashkent.
Z.A. Bhutto visited New Delhi and persuaded the Indian PM Mrs. Indra Gandhi to
strike a peace deal about the release of more than 90,000 POWs (Prisoners of War)
that had been in the Indian custody after the fall of East Pakistan on 16 December
1971. Both PM’s signed the Simla Agreement in July 1972 and agreed to resolve all
bilateral issues without involving a third party (the UNO etc.). All the Pakistani POWs
were released gradually.
In 1984, Gen. Zia visited India to attend the funeral ceremony of the Indian PM Mrs.
Indira Gandhi who had been shot dead by her Sikh bodyguard. After the formation of
the SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) both countries got a
common platform to work for the promotion of peace. In the late 1980’s, Gen. Zia was
able to defuse hostility between the two states by using his “Cricket Diplomacy”. Both
countries had to major conflicts in those years: the Siachen Glacier and the Khalistan
issues. Zia would pay a surprise visit to India on the pretext of watching a Pak-India
ODI (One Day International) cricket match between the two teams. He would thus
persuade the Indian PM Mr. Rajiv Gandhi to hold peace talks. This way Zia was able
to prevent a fourth Indo-Pak war.
Benazir Bhutto was enthusiastic in improving relations with India. She used the
platform of the SAARC and the Commonwealth for this. Pakistan rejoined the
Commonwealth in 1989 after India had stopped opposing Pakistan’s re-entry on the
ground of military rule in Pakistan. Rajiv Gandhi and Benazir Bhutto exchanged visits
to Islamabad and Delhi and pledged to promote peace between the two most
important South Asian countries. Both also organized the SAF (South Asian
Federation) games and the SAARC cultural exchange programs. Similarly, Nawaz
Sharif also continued the efforts of promoting peace and reducing hostility. The
Lahore Accord was signed between Mr. Sharif and the Indian PM Mr. Vajpayee in
1998 and a bus service was started between Pakistan and India.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
However, several setbacks thwarted the attempts of having peaceful relations with
India. The Indian government had not acknowledged the creation of Pakistan and
created serious difficulties for the newly created state. Millions of Muslims were forced
to migrate to Pakistan. India delayed the release of financial and military assets to
Pakistan and closed the two headworks in Indian Punjab to create serious shortage
of water for Pakistan. The issue persisted throughout the 1950’s.
Both countries had their first war on Kashmir in 1948 as a result of which the state of
Kashmir was divided into the IHK (Indian Held Kashmir) and the Azad Kashmir. India
never fulfilled the promise of holding a plebiscite/referendum in the disputed state of
Kashmir and that aggravated hostility between the two countries. The second war on
Kashmir was fought in September 1965 in which neither country was successful. Ayub
had expected a massive Kashmiri uprising but it did not happen. The Indians had
planned to occupy Lahore but that dream too was shattered.
The third Indo-Pak war was fought in December 1971 in the East Pakistan. The Indian
army had been training and equipping the militant Bengali separatists, the Mukti
Bahini (the liberation force) and therefore, the Pakistan army failed to get the local
support and lost the War. More than 90,000 Pakistani officers and soldiers became
Indian captives. Only two years after the signing of the Simla Accord, India conducted
its nuclear experimentation in the Rajasthan desert in 1974. The Pakistani PM Mr.
Z.A.Bhutto threatened to retaliate, and the relations began to deteriorate.
In the 1980’s, Pakistan detected the presence of the Indian army on the Siachin
Glacier and this led to a series of small skirmishes though the war was never declared.
Similarly, in the early 1980’s the Indian Sikhs started the Khalistan Movement
demanding the separation of the Indian Punjab as an independent state. The Indian
army was used to suppress the movement and the Zia’s government was accused of
supporting and training the Sikhs. When Mrs. Indra Gandhi was assassinated by her
Sikh bodyguard, her son Rajiv Gandhi blamed Pakistan for this, and he received Gen.
Zia without any warmth on his visit to India for attending the funeral rites of Indira
Gandhi.
A large scale uprising by the Kashmiri Muslims in 1989 once again worsened the PakIndia relations. The uprising got stronger throughout the 1990’s. In May 1998, both
countries blasted nuclear bombs and declared themselves as the nuclear states. This
took the disturbed relations to their peak. Then in April 1999 the Kashmiri Muslim
guerrillas crossed the LOC and occupied the towns of Kargil and Drass in the IHK.
Pakistan initially showed ignorance about the development but soon it mobilized its
army in the region. The Indian army launched a counter attack and finally, in June
1999 Pakistani forces began to withdraw on the pressure of the USA.
Analyzing in an unbiased way, it may be concluded that the Pak-India relations have
been a failure mainly because of the lack of sincerity shown by various governments
and the Indian dream of becoming the policeman of the South Asian region. India
never accepted the creation of Pakistan and has been delaying the resolution of the
Kashmir issue since 1947.
Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations
Q: Who was Abdul Ghaffar Khan?
[4]
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Ans. He was born in 1890, and grew up as a Pashtun/Pakhtun nationalist who used nonviolent methods in his campaign for an independent Pakhtunistan (land of the Pathans). After
August 1947, he served as a member of the Constituent Assembly but became problematic
for various governments due to his support for the cause of Pakhtunistan. He was imprisoned
several times between 1948 and 1964, and then the 1970s. On his death in Peshawar in
1988, the governments of Pakistan, India and Afghanistan declared a period of official
mourning.
Q: Describe the Pakhtunistan issue.
[4]
Ans. After the creation of Pakistan, the Afghan government refused to acknowledge the
Durand Lane, the international boundary between the two states. It laid claim to parts of the
NWFP/KPK. It argued that the Pakhtoons living in Pakistan wanted to join Afghanistan to
form a province, Pakhtunistan. This issue remained the main reason for the disturbed PakAfghan relations despite Pakistan’s best efforts of promoting friendly ties with Afghanistan.
After the 1980s, the issue gradually died in the wake of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Q)
However successful was Pakistan in its relationship with
Afghanistan between 1947 and 1999? Explain your answer.
(14)
Note: For Q.2-5, part c, 14 marks; for Q.1 part d, 10 marks
Ans. Pakistan tried to improve relations with Afghanistan right from the beginning. Mr.
Jinnah ordered the removal of troops from the old British military posts along PakAfghan border. He hoped that Afghanistan would see this as a move of friendship and
trust. He held official talks in Karachi in 1947 to discuss the Pakhtoonistan issue with
the Afghan government. In these talks, Pakistan suggested that if Afghanistan
dropped the demand for Pakhtoonistan, it might provide Afghanistan access to the
Arabian sea.
In 1956, President Iskandar Mirza visited Kabul after an attack on the Pakistan
embassy to normalize the relations. Afghanistan adopted a neutral stance in the 1965
war despite the Soviet pressure on it to favour India.
Z.A.Bhutto visited Kabul shortly after his election and convinced the Afghan
government to attend the second OIC (Organization of Islamic Conference) summit
in Lahore. He also held talks with the Afghan head Sardar Daud and granted Afghan
traders access to India through Pakistan. An agreement was also signed, called the
ATTA (Afghan Transit Trade Agreement). Pakistan also extended aid after an
earthquake in Afghanistan in 1976. The same year Bhutto and Sardar Daud
exchanged visits to Kabul and Islamabad. Several rounds of talks were held with the
help of the Shah of Iran who was sincere to promote friendly relations between the
two neighbouring states.
General Zia paid a visit to Kabul in 1977 after which Sardar Daud visited Islamabad
in March 1978 in order to strengthen ties with Pakistan. After this there was a serious
political crisis in Afghanistan as a communist government took control. In December
1979, the Soviet forces attacked Afghanistan. Pakistan, with the help of the US aid,
helped the Afghan Mujahideen. Pakistan generously accommodated about three
million Afghan refugees whose number continued to swell.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Mainly by the efforts of General Zia, a peace treaty was signed on 14 April 1988 at
Geneva (Switzerland), in a meeting attended by the USA, the USSR, Afghanistan,
Iran and Pakistan. Under this the Soviets agreed to gradually pull their forces out of
Afghanistan. Pakistan, unfortunately, became isolated after the Geneva Accord but
successive governments of Nawaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto continued to try to have
friendly relations with the post-war Afghan government. Nawaz Sharif visited Kabul
and tried to convince various factions of the Mujahideen to end the civil war in
Afghanistan. Accordingly, the six separate factions signed the Islamabad Accord in
February 1992. Afghanistan agreed to join the ECO (Economic Cooperation
Organization) alongwith the Central Asian Republics. In May 1992, the Afghan
President visited Pakistan and signed important agreements.
During Benazir’s second term as PM, there was the rise of the Taliban in 1996. She
supported them because they were successfully establishing their rule in several parts
of Afghanistan. Her government provided military and financial support to them and
even sent a small army unit to help them, though later she admitted her fatal mistake.
In May 1997, Nawaz Sharif recognized the Taliban government.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Several failures halted the efforts of peaceful relations between Pakistan and
Afghanistan. Since 1947, Afghanistan has denied the Durand line as the natural
border with Pakistan. It always claimed that Pashto speaking areas of KPK to be its
part to make a distinct area Pakhtoonistan. Afghanistan opposed Pakistan’s
membership of the UNO in September 1947. It rejected Pakistan’s offer of granting
access to the Arabian Sea if it dropped the demand of Pakhtoonistan. An angry
Afghan mob attacked Pakistan’s embassy in Kabul and ransacked it. Pakistan in
return closed its border and cut off diplomatic ties for several months.
Afghanistan signed an agreement of transit trade with the USSR much to the dismay
of Pakistan. It also rejected Iskandar Mirza’s offers of peaceful relations in 1956 and
later, refused to join the RCD in 1964. Instead of supporting the fellow Muslim country,
it adopted a neutral stance in the 1965 Indo-Pak war.
During the Afghan war the Afghan governments condemned Pakistan’s support for
the Afghan Mujahideen. The Afghan war planes bombarded many Pakistani towns in
KPK. After the Geneva Accord, various groups of Mujahideen and governments
criticized Pakistan’s involvement in the Afghan affairs. The Rabbani government
backed out the Islamabad and the Peshawar Accords and a Pakistani bus was
highjacked by an Afghan group.
On the whole the relations have not been successful because of the complex regional
politics, a lack of sincerity in various governments of Afghanistan and the Russian
influence.
Pakistan-Iran Relations
Q:
How successful have Pakistan’s relations been with Iran between
1947 and 1999?
(14)
Note: For Q.2-5, part c, 14 marks; for Q.1 part d, 10 marks
Ans. Both countries have enjoyed good relations. After the creation of Pakistan in 1947,
Iran was the first country of the world to recognize Pakistan. This laid the foundation
of friendly relations. Both countries joined the Baghdad Pact together with the UK.
They retained their membership of the Pact after Iraq left it in 1959 and it became
known as CENTO. In July 1964, largely as a result of the efforts of Ayub Khan, the
RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development) was founded that comprised Pakistan,
Iran and Turkey as its members. The RCD provided a platform to its members develop
closer trade links and help each other in industrial projects and strengthening the
cultural relations. The RCD Highway and the RCD Railway track were developed to
facilitate journey between the three states.
Iran and Turkey tried to persuade other countries to help Pakistan in the 1965 war,
but had little success. Iran sent help to the Bhutto’s government in 1973 to put down
an uprising by the tribal chiefs in Balochistan. In the 1980’s, General Zia tried to
minimize the mistrust between Pakistan and Iran. Pakistan made sincere efforts to
end the Iran-Iraq war through the platform of the OIC. Similarly, Benazir Bhutto and
Nawaz Sharif also tried to improve relations with Iran. Pakistan’s relations with Turkey
traditionally remained friendly. In 1999, a free trade agreement was signed between
the two countries. Pakistan has been a major importer of oil from Iran.
The Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979, brought Ayat Ullah Khomeini as the Iranian
head of state and the Shah of Iran had to go into exile. The Sunni views of General
Zia ul Haq were in a visible clash with the staunch Shia views of Khomeini. As a result
the relations were adversely affected and the RCD gradually became insignificant. It
was revived as the ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization) but the rapidly
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
changing regional and global scenario kept it quite ineffective. Then, the sectarian
violence in Pakistan, mainly in the form of the Shia-Sunni clashes in the 1980’s
caused further deteriorations of relations. The anti-American Khomeini strongly
objected to Pakistan receiving heavy US aid during the Afghan war.
In the 1990’s, both countries had sharp differences over the issue of the post-war
Afghanistan. Iran did not like Pakistan’s support for the extremist Taliban government
of Afghanistan. It objected to Pakistan’s continuous involvement in the Afghan affairs.
The sectarian violence in Pakistan also contributed to a state of disturbed relations
between Pakistan and Iran.
It may be concluded that the relations between Pakistan and Iran have been
successful because of a common cultural and historic background as well as a
common geographical border. Urdu language has very close association with the
Persian and several Persian speaking dynasties have ruled the Indo-Pak subcontinent for centuries.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Pak-Bangladesh Relations
Q:
How successful was Pakistan in its relations with Bangladesh
between 1971 and 1999?
(14)
Note: For Q.2-5, part c, 14 marks; for Q.1 part d, 10 marks
Ans. Bangladesh remained East Pakistan from August 1947 to December 1971. Pakistan
took some years to recognize the Democratic Republic of Bangladesh. Sheikh Mujeeb
ur Rahman, the first head of Bangladesh withdrew the bans on some pro-Pakistan
organizations that had operated before its independence. He was invited by Z.A.
Bhutto to attend the second OIC summit that was held in Lahore in February 1974.
He was accorded a warm welcome and Pakistan recognized Bangladesh the same
day. In June 1974 Bhutto visited Bangladesh and paid homage to Bangladesh’s war
memorial at Savar Upazila. He tried to reach an agreement with Sheikh Mujeeb in
1975 for the division of assets. Mujeeb asked Bhutto to agree to give Bangladesh
over half of Pakistan’s pre-1971 external reserves but Bhutto rejected this demand.
Mujeeb also inisisted that Pakistan take all non-Bengalis left scattered in Bangladesh
after the 1971 war. They were the Muslims who had migrated from India in 1947,
mainly from the neighbouring Indian province of Bihar. Bhutto also rejected it as
unreasonable. In 1975-76 both countries appointed ambassadors, and signed an
agreement to cooperate on trade, tourism and the media.
Relations began to improve in the 1980’s under the governments of Zia ur Rahman
and Hussain Muhammad Irshad in Bangladesh. General Zia ul Haq paid visits to
Bangladesh and signed a number of agreements to promote trade and culture
between the two states. In his visit to Bangladesh in 1985 and founded SAARC (South
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) with the help of his Bangladeshi
counterpart General Zia ur Rahman. He also visited the war memorial and said, “Your
heroes are our heroes.” By 1986, trade between the two countries had reached a
value of $40 million. In 1985 and 1988 Pakistan was the first country to have sent aid
to Bangladesh after it was hit by worst kind of floods.
When Benazir Bhutto came to power in 1988, she too used the SAARC platform to
promote friendly relations with Bangladesh. Many SAARC cultural exchange
programs were organized alongwith the SAF (South Asian Federation) Games.
Similarly, Nawaz Sharif also held meetings with the Bangladeshi Prime Ministers in
the SAARC conferences. The Chief Minister of Punjab, Ghulam Hyder Wayen,
accommodated some of the non-Bengali/Bihari refugees in Pakistan. In 1998, PM
Sheikh Hasina Wajid paid a goodwill visit to Pakistan.
As for failures, relations remained strained in the beginning as Pakistan considered
Bangladesh a traitor who had sought the Indian aid for its liberation. So, it was
reluctant to recognize Bangladesh. For the same reason, Pakistan left the
Commonwealth and SEATO when Great Britain recognized it. Pakistan also refused
to accommodate the pro-Pakistan non-Bengali, mainly Biharis who had migrated from
India after independence, they were shifted to special camps by the Bangladeshi
government and forced to live a sub-human life in these camps. Both countries failed
to reach a mutually acceptable agreement for the reallocation of the assets left in the
two countries. Various governments of Pakistan have also refused to extend an
apology for what the Bangladeshi government declares as war crimes. Pakistan army
was accused of committing excesses against the Bengali population and Bangladesh
has been asking Pakistan to apologize for it.
On the whole, relations have been successful because with the passage of time the
wounds inflicted on the Bengali people during the 1971 war have started healing. The
platforms like the Commonwealth and the SAARC have also played their role to bring
the two countries closer to each other.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
Why did Pakistan support the Palestinian cause between 1947 and
1999?
(7)
Ans.
Pakistan had brotherly feelings for the Palestinian Muslims. In 1948, the
Quaid-i-Azam warned the USA of the consequences of partition of Palestine and the
creation of Israel. However, the state of Israel was created by displacing a huge
number of Palestinian Muslims, and this laid the foundation of Palestine-Israel conflict.
Since then both the Pakistani people and governments have strongly supported the
Palestine cause. Pakistan always condemned illegal occupation of other states
throughout the world in line with the UN objective of promoting international peace.
In1967, an extremist Israeli tried to burn the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.
Following this, the Muslim countries held a summit conference in Rabat, Morocco, in
1969. On Pakistan’s suggestion the OIC (Organization of Islamic Conference) was
set up, and its objective was to protect the rights of the Muslim world, and especially
the Palestininan Muslims. Pakistan, being an active member of the OIC, considered
the Israeli occupation of Palestine as totally unjustified. It wanted the Palestinian
Muslims to live in an independent state without any fear of aggression by the other
states.
After the Arab-Israel war in October 1973, Pakistan’s PM Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
convened the second summit of the OIC in Ferburary 1974 in Lahore. Yasser Arafat,
head of the PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) attended it along with the other
35 heads of the Muslim states. They reaffirmed their opposition to Israel’s occupation
of Palestinian lands, and tried to draw the attention of the world powers towards a
peaceful settlement of this conflict. The summit demonstrated the unity of the Muslim
world for a common cause, and importance of Pakistan as a strong supporter of the
Palestine cause.
Pakistan as the Member of World Organizations
Q:
Why did Pakistan joined the UNO in 1947?
(7)
Ans.
Pakistan needed to be recognised as an important country. It was a newly
created country and needed recognition as a member seeking international peace.
On September 30, 1947, it joined the UNO to achieve the objective. Many countries
were struggling for independence during the early years of the Cold War (1945-1990)
and Pakistan took upon itself to be the spokesman of these countries. For example,
it spoke up against the occupation of Indonesia by Holland, and supported the
freedom movement of Morocco and Algiers. It also took the Palestinian issue to the
UN while condemning the illegal occupation of Palestine by Israel.
India had created many difficulties for Pakistan soon after independence. It
had taken the Kashmir issue to the UN, in 1947, and persuaded India and Pakistan
for a ceasefire after the 1948 war. Pakistan wanted the UN to play its due role in a
permanent settlement of the Kashmir issue.
In order to deal with its economic difficulties, Pakistan needed the help of such
international monetary bodies as the World Bank because India had been delaying
the release of Pakistan’s share of economic assets. Pakistan’s membership of the
UNO became important when it began to mediate for resolving the canal water
dispute. With the help of the World Bank, the issue was finally resolved in 1960 by the
signing of the Indus Water Treaty.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
Q:
How successful has Pakistan been as a member of world
organizations between 1947 and 1999?
(14)
Note: For Q.2-5, part c, 14 marks; for Q.1 part d, 10 marks
Ans. Pakistan played active role as a member of many world organizations. It joined the
UNO in September 1947 to seek the UN help in resolving various disputes with India
and the problems of partition. It accepted the UN-mediated peace and the LOC (Line
of Control) after the 1948 war on Kashmir. It took the Kashmir issue to the UN Security
Council for its permanent solution in the 1950’s. For example, it condemned the
occupation of Indonesia by Holland. The World Bank persuaded Pakistan and India
to accept the Indus Water Treaty in 1960. It also acted as the spokesperson for many
Asian countries that were struggling for independence in the 1950’s. It also raised the
Palestine issue on the UN platform and defended the Palestine cause. The UN also
held Pakistan and India agree on peace in the Tashkent Accord, 1966. It sent its
troops to help the UN peacekeeping forces in many countries including Somalia and
Bosnia-Herzegovina. Many UN organizations helped Pakistan in health, education
and population planning projects. They include, the WHO (World Health
Organization), the UNESCO (UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
and the UNICEF (UN International Children Emergency Fund). The WFP (World Food
Program) and the UNHCR (UN High Commission for Refugees) helped Pakistan in
its economic development and the accommodation of the Afghan refugees.
Unfortunately, the UN could not resolve the Kashmir issue mainly due to the veto
power of the five permanent members of the UNSC. Z.A.Bhutto was disappointed by
the UN role in the 1971 war as it asked Pakistan to stop fighting instead of accepting
the justice of Pakistan’s case. He, therefore, tore apart the UN resolution. He was
unhappy on the quick recognition of Bangladesh.
Pakistan joined the US-sponsored anti-communist military blocs of SEATO and
CENTO in 1954-55 alongwith Great Britain and the Muslim states of Iraq and Turkey.
This gave a sense of protection to Pakistan and improved its relations with the
member states. However, Egypt was unhappy on Pakistan joining these bodies as
the British had attacked the Suez Canal in 1956. Moreover, these blocs refused to
help Pakistan in the wars of 1965 and 1971 as the aid was linked with the attack of
any communist state on Pakistan. Pakistan left SEATO in 1972.
Pakistan became a member of the Commonwealth after independence. It is a club of
Great Britain and its former colonies. Several development projects were funded by
the Commonwealth, and Pakistan actively participated the Commonwealth Games.
However, the membership depended on the civil/democratic rule in Pakistan.
Pakistan left the Commonwealth in 1972 when Great Britain recognized Bangladesh.
Pakistan could not rejoin it in the 1980’s due to Zia’s military rule. However, it was
able to join it in 1989 after Benazir Bhutto’s civilian rule began.
Pakistan, Iran and Turkey founded the RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development)
in 1964. Several agreements were signed to promote trade and cultural ties between
the member states. The RCD Highway and the RCD Railways were started to
facilitate journey between the three states. After the Iranian Revolution of 1980, the
RCD gradually became insignificant but after some years it was reorganized as the
ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization) by adding the Central Asian states and
Afghanistan. However, Pakistan was not very successful in making the ECO a very
effective bloc mainly because of the disturbed relations between Pakistan and
Afghanistan.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013
The OIC (Organization of Islamic Conference/Countries) was founded after a failed
attempt by a lunatic Jew to burn the al-Aqsa Mosque in 1969. Pakistan became its
very active member and, Z.A.Bhutto organized its second summit in Lahore in
February 1974. Several agreements were signed and resolutions in favour of the
Palestine cause were adopted. In the 1980’s, Pakistan struggled for an end of the
Iran-Iraq war through the platform of the OIC. Generally, however, Pakistan could not
mobilize the member states to work for the collective welfare of the Muslim world
because of the rivalry between various states.
With the efforts of Pakistan and Bangladesh, the SAARC (South Asian Association
for Regional Cooperation) was founded in December 1985. Its aim was to promote
friendly relations between the seven countries of South Asia, specially Pakistan, India
and Bangladesh. SAARC cultural exchange programs and the SAF Games have
been its main features, but due to the Indo-Pak rivalry and the grievances of
Bangladesh against Pakistan have been the major stumbling blocks in making it a
successful body.
To conclude, Pakistan has been very successful as member of various world
organizations by supporting the UN objective of maintaining world peace and playing
a sincere role in making attempts to resolve various regional and global conflicts. It
has been recognized as an important Asian country that wants friendly relations with
other states.
By Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Haq
0333-4257013