CHAPTER ONE
MEANING OF COMMUNICATION STUDY SKILLS
INTRODUCTION
Communication is a vital part of our daily routines. It involves at least two people: the sender and
the receiver. Communication generally means the exchange of messages with others but it can also
be with one’s own self where the self is the sender and receiver of messages.
Communication has also been defined as a scientific study which involves the art of communication
so that skilled communication can be produced. Briefly, it is the process of sending or receiving
information. Thus, in our daily lives, we constantly give out information or receive it. It is universal
to all human being. Communication is not a static act but a dynamic process, which is continuous in
nature and vital for teaching and learning. It involves the usage of a channel. This channel could be
signs, symbols and verbal/written language. For communication to be complete and effective it has
to achieve the desired objectives as intended by the communicator. For example, in a classroom
situation, the teacher has to make special efforts to convey the message to the learners. This
message has to be conveyed with the help of appropriate oral and written signs, symbols and body
language. Only when the meaning has been understood by the learners as it is intended by the
addressee that one can say that the communication has been successful.
Functions of Communication
Sharing of Information: Any form of giving a part or whole of information to somebody
else to use or consume is termed information sharing. Communication plays a vital role in
information dissemination related to any form of human activity, such as social, political,
economic, educational and developmental. Regular exposure to information generates awareness on
a given issue, problem or matter of concern.
Socialization: the act of interacting with others is termed socialization. For the wellbeing of
the society, nation and culture it is crucial that we are exposed to different viewpoints so that we
recognize and appreciate the need for multitude of ideas and diversity of views. Communication
fosters the feeling of oneness, which aid to interact with many people.
Education and Training: Education and training is any form of issuing or receiving
systematic coaching to/from a person. This is best done through communication which results in
sharing of information. Communication plays an important role in orientation and training of
teachers and learners and other skilful occupation. This helps prepare individuals for political,
economic, religion as well as socio-moral development.
Entertainment: Any activity design to give pleasure, enjoyment or relaxation to audience
or listener can’t be completed without communication. To breaks the monotony of human life, we
need to be exposed to comedy, art, literature, music, films, dance, drama, sports and other modes of
entertainment. Hence any form of making fun of oneself or other person(s) can’t be successful
without either form of communication.
Motivation: Motivation is what explains why people or animals begin or continue certain
behaviour at a particular stretch. A motivated individual plays a useful and active role in a society.
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It is only communication that can be used to motivate and persuade individuals to meet their goals.
It will be difficult to motivate oneself or others without uttering a word or an action.
Persuasion: Yet another important function of communication is to persuade. This may be
to influence someone towards a new idea, technique or a product and also to persuade us to buy
these products. Different communication forms are used including mass communication media for
this bidden.
Preservation of culture: Culture is any social behaviour, institutions and norms found in
any human society including their knowledge, laws, custom and costume and habits of the
individuals in these groups. Communication helps to reserve the culture and heritage for current
and generation unborn. Through communication, stories such as folktales, songs (work, lullaby,
rest, motivation, appellations, dirges or chaunt) are shared with the younger generation. These
transmissions of values from one generation to another happen orally as well as through written
texts, over the ages.
Classification of Communication
A.
Verbal Communication
B.
Non-Verbal Communication
A.
Verbal Communication: Verbal communication means communication through words.
Words can be oral or written. When messages are sent through oral words (utterance), it’s known as
oral communication and when they are sent through written words, it is known as written
communication. This type of communication may be meaningless unless the receiver comprehends
the meaning as in intended by the sender. Verbal communication can be classified into four types
namely;
a. Intrapersonal communication
b. Interpersonal communication
c. Group communication
d. Mass communication.
a.
Intrapersonal Communication
The word 'intra' means 'within'. When we communicate within ourselves, it is intrapersonal
communication. This means, you are the sender and receiver of the same information. This can take
the form of thinking, analyzing, day dreaming or introspecting.
b.
Interpersonal Communication
When two persons communicate with each other, the communication is interpersonal. Our
everyday exchanges, formal or informal, which may take place anywhere, come under this type of
communication. In interpersonal communication, the roles of the sender and receiver become
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interchangeable (turn taking). Interpersonal communication has been analysed from two
perspectives: contextual and developmental. The contextual view does not take into account the
relationship between those who interact whereas the developmental one defines it as
communication that occurs between persons who have known each other for some time.
c.
Group/Public Communication
As the name suggests, when people communicate in group situations, this is known as group
communication. This is an extension of interpersonal communication where more than two
individuals are involved in the process of communication. Group communication is useful in taking
collective decision on a problem, an issue or a matter of common interest. Depending on the quality
of group members and leaders, effective decisions can be made incorporating divergent point of
views.
d.
Mass Communication
In mass communication, the communicator is separated from the audience in terms of time and
place. Communication takes place simultaneously with the help of an electronic device, in which an
institution is involved. These electronic devices are known as mass media such as print, radio,
television, the Internet, etc. The audience is 'mass' i.e. it has a diverse profile, are unknown to each
other and located in widespread locations.
B. Non-verbal communication:
This type of communication takes place without the use of words or aural activity. It conveys
messages through body movements and audio-visual signals. It helps to understand the mental and
emotional state of the sender and receiver. It is a less deliberate and conscious form of
communication. Non-verbal communication can take the following forms: body language(kinesics),
para-language, sign language, and space language, time language and surroundings
Communication Process
These are elements found during an exchange of idea, these elements make it a continuous process
and to get their messages across clearly or unambiguously such as sender, message, channel,
receiver, and feedback.
•
Source/Sender/Addresser: The source of communication is the ones who have a message
to impart or communicate. The sender has to decide how to communicate a message, which channel
is to be selected for the message and what type of strategies should be planned so that the message
makes the desired response. The sender provides verbal or non-verbal clues that can be received,
interpreted and responded to by the receiver.
•
Message/Information: Message is a set of signs and symbols which are given by the source
or sender to create meanings for the receiver. It’s shared between participants in the process. To
make the message effective, the sender has to understand the nature and profile of the receiver of
the message, his/her needs and expectations and possible response to the message.
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•
Channel: Channel is the medium or media used to communicate a message from the sender
to receiver. The channel could be spoken word, printed word (Newspaper), electronic media (radio
or TV) or even nonverbal cues such as signs, gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc.
•
Receiver/Destination/Addressee: Communication cannot take place without a receiver for
whom the message is meant. We receive a message, interpret it and derive meaning from it.
Feedback/Feedback: The response given by the receiver to the message of the sender is known as
feedback. Communication being a two-way process, without the element of feedback any
discussion on the process of communication is incomplete. The feedback is given by the receiver,
but when the receiver is giving the feedback, he/she becomes the sender and the sender becomes the
receiver. That is why it is also known as the reverse flow of communication or cyclical order.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Anything that prevents the message by the sender to get to the receiver to provide appropriate
feedback is called barrier to communication. The following are examples of barriers to
communication.
Environmental (physical) barrier
Nature of the environment like noise (physical) noise- outside noise, psychological noiseinattentiveness, written noise- bad hand writing, visual noise-late arrival of students), poor lighting,
poor ventilation.
Personal barrier
This involves an individual’s communication competence-disability, lack of interest, discomfort wit
the topic. Usually some people find it difficult to express their emotion and some topics may be
completely off-limit or taboo.
Cultural Barriers: In communication process, the culture of the people sometimes influence the
way one speaks. For instance, in Ghana, some parents may not like to discuss issues related to sex
with their children.
Syntactic and Semantic Barrier: This is an embodiment of substance (audition or graphic form),
form (structure: grammar and lexis), and context (study of meaning, form and situation). During
communication process, faulty expressions, poor translation, use of jargon, and ambiguous words
Technological Barriers: A situation where messages of the sender and feedback of the receiver
are not delivered due to technical failure like internet failure or equipment failure.
Information Load: The size or quantity of every information determine the way you community.
At times, too much information is imparted which an addressee may not able to comprehend and
assimilate, thus creating a barrier in communication.
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TRIAL EXERCISE
DATE OF SUBMISSION………………………………
INDEX NUMBER………………………………………
COURSE TITTLE/CODE …………………………………………………………………………………
1.
Explain any three (3) strategies you will use to overcome communication barriers between
you and your patient.
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2. State the two main classification of communication and give two examples of each type
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3. Briefly explain 3 functions of communication
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CHAPTER TWO
NOTE MAKING AND NOTE TAKING
There is no major difference between them. Some people say that when you are listening to or
watching TV program at the same time putting down points is called NOTE TAKING whiles
NOTE MAKING is a process of reviewing, connecting and synthesizing ideas from your lectures
or reading.
Differences between note –taking and not-making
o Note taking is a passive process where as note making is an active process and focus
activity
o Not-taking involves writing or recording what you hear but notes made after reading a
material such as magazine, newspaper, article etc is term as note making
o Not-taking involves taking note from one source but note-making is taking points from
different sources
o Note taking has less improvement in studying skills while note making improves the skills
in studying.
o Minor changes are required during note while major or easier to change in making note
Notes is therefore defined as a record of the vital information acquired and which can help us to get
back to that information at a time when we need or require it or want to make use of it. This does
not mean photocopying, mindless scribbling or just underling/ highlighting words without
understanding.
PRINCIPLES/ VALUES/ IMPORTANCE OF NOTE MAKING
When you are making notes, you are reorganizing what you read or heard. That is why you have to
write the notes in your own words (paraphrasing) for easy identification and understanding. Reorganize the facts in a way that makes sense and meaning to you as a reader. Notes making are
done only by understanding.
What are the principles of NOTE MAKING/ TAKING?
Compare your answers to what I have here
For understanding
For concentration
Notes serve as your ‘knowledge bank’
Notes are the condensed version of important ideas you put together from different sources on
different subjects and topics. They therefore give you easy access to a wider range of information.
For future use
Going back to search for information in you notes serves future purpose. It will be worthless
exercise if you did not need the notes for future.
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For Progress. This helps you to find out
a)
How much you have studied
b)
Number of topics you have covered.
c)
How many sources you have collected your information
d)
How much you have left to cover
e)
The notes will also serve as motivation for you to continue to study.
f)
It will also tell you whether you are making progress or not.
g)
It serves as a storage tank/bank for knowledge
h)
As a reference point.
i)
Training in research and essay writing
j)
Can your notes help you in the future?
Quick remembrance of what you read or heard.
Notes serve as summary of previous studies
Note making prepares you to be an active listener or reader. Whether listening to a lecture or
reading you are more inclined to listen attentively so that you can jot down the salient point
CLASSIFICATIONS OF NOTES
There are two main classifications or methods of notes making or taking. These are
1. UNDIAGRAMMATIC/ SPREAD and
2. DIAGRAMMATIC/ PATTENED
A. UNDIAGRAMMATIC OR SPREAD NOTES
From its name, the various parts are not arranged in any particular way or put into any form of
sketches, drawings or designing. It’s a simple form of writing as we do when we are writing an
essay or composition. Examples are:
The Cornell method
This involves dividing a piece of paper into three sections: a space on the left for writing the main
topics, a larger space on the right to write your notes, and a space at the bottom to summarize your
notes. Review and clarify notes of the page, and finally study your notes.
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Summary
A summary is a reduce form of a piece of writing. If you are using this method, you will have to
read the text and pick out the important details. Only the relevant materials, facts or observation of
an original text is written. In this case you reduce the text to one-half, one-second, one-third etc.
Some of the features include:
o
It is devoid of examples, adverbs, embellishments and so on.
o
It’s usually maintains technical words
o
Summary is in a writer’s own words.
One disadvantage of this form is that, it is difficult to form if you do not understand.
Quotation
A quotation is the exact words, spoken by a person and reproduce by another person in a script
HOW DO WE QUOTE? What you quote must not cover many lines but as short as possible. For
example, Mr. Baba is the president of GMSA. At a durbar in Yendi he said among other things
“Chief Imam will ensure that religious tolerant is adhered to.
Note that the speech in the quotation marks “
words used by Mr. Baba.
” is the quotation. It means these are the exact
Headline technique/headline summary
In this method of note making all details are taking out leaving the skeleton, just like news
headlines or banner on newspaper. Examples are:
‘Unmask cleans gutters’
‘Voltarians drown’
‘UTAG again’
‘Loud cry, Palestine’
‘Jack Baths in air’
Can you tell what each of the above headlines mean? Let’s look at the first example;
“Unmask cleans gutters”. The security services at various checkpoints punished all road users
including drivers who do not wear nose mask since the hikes of the second wave of COVID-19.
Paraphrase
A sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence is known as the paraphrase of
that sentence. Examples are:
A.
Isaiah sold that car to Mary.
B.
Mary bought that car from Isaiah.
A.
Nlangiri gave birth to Jagri.
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B.
Jagri is the son of Nlangiri .
A.
Abdulai compiled this book.
B.
This book was compiled by Abdulai.
In these three pairs of sentences, A is the paraphrase of B just as B is the paraphrase of A
B. PATTERNED OR DIGRAMMATIC
What comes into your mind as you read this heading?
It is also referred to as formulaic notes.
Diagram and pattern? Good!
This way of writing is an artistic way of presenting notes
Pattern notes is best used when one is in hurry
Some of These Notes Are:
The outline: This method refers to how you can present your facts in an orderly manner.
So, in this type of notes the facts are put in a certain order. Example roman and numerals
(numbering)notes. This method has a lay down rule that is why it is termed as formal. You will
have main points from each topic or course and then write bullet points underneath each with the
individual information
I
II
III
IV
V
A
B
C
D
E
1
2
3
4
5
a
b
c
d
e
i
ii
iii
iv
v
major headings or points
minor headings or sub-headings
It is important to note that the same label is used for the points of the same significance.
a. Advantages to Outlining
i. It is well-organized ii. It records relationships and content iii. It reduces editing and is easy to
review by turning the main points into questions
b. Disadvantages to outlining i. It requires more thought during class for accurate organization. ii.
It does not always show relationships by sequence. iv. It doesn’t work well if the lecture is moving
at a quick pace.
The Spider-Gram or Nuclear Note
Have you ever seen a spider? What about the spider’s web?
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In this method you put the main heading in the centre and make similar headings to form branches
just like a tree and it’s branches. You do this until all the main points under the heading have been
treated. The Spidergram is good because it is easy to see all your points when are revising for
examinations. Let’s see how the Spidergram looks like.
Semantic Mapping: this is similar to spider-gram but semantic mapping has wider scope than
spider-gram. It may contain more than two spider-gram form technique.
Notes during Lecture
How will you make notes from a lecture?
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Listen carefully before you start to write down anything. WHY?
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Do not copy every word the lecturer says. WHY?
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Write verbatim only quotations, figures, definitions and apt for useful phrases
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Select only the main points
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However, a quotation or a definition given by the lecturer could be recorded as it is or some
phrases could be retained as have been said by the lecturer.
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Identify lecture notes by
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Course tittles
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Course code
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Name and date.
How to Determine Main Points from Lecture
In the course of the lecture, you need to take note of key items that are both extra-linguistics and
linguistics.
Extra- linguistic items: These are paralinguistic items. They include the lecturer’s cues like tone or
voice, body language or pantomimes or gestures etc. For instance, the lecturer may raise his voice
to emphasis a point.
Linguistic items: Many lecturers give hints of main ideas by using what is called ‘verbal signposts’
What do you think verbal signposts could be?
These words and phrases are also known as linking or transitional words(written) which include
Conjunctive:
1) addition-furthermore, moreover, besides
2) Contrast- however, nonetheless, nevertheless
3) Alternative-instead, otherwise
4) Results-consequently, thus
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Cause/reason-as, because, since
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Others are
First, firstly, second, secondly, for example/instance, in addition, let’s now turn to, another
view is that, what all this means is that, let me emphasize that, to sum up, we shall examine, we
shall look into etc.
The use of frames: These are statements that show the beginning and ending of topics and subFoci: Foci are statements that highlight and emphasis vital points. They bring a point into a focus or
is essential to note that…
When a lecturer uses foci during lectures, you ought to know that what is said demands attention or
carries some importance for the lecturer.
FEATURES OF GOOD NOTES
i.
Reliable
ii.
Authentic
iii.
Well organize
iv.
Easy to interpret
v.
Original
vi.
Comprehensible
A good note requires to present information that reflect exactly what can be found at the source that
is from book or lecture. A note is said to be irrelevant or unreliable if it does not feature the source.
Also, it must be readable, understandable, well-structured or can be interpreted.
Points to Remember for Note Making







Avoid using log sentences as heading
Never lose the main idea of the passage
Ignore less important point
Be brief, clear, and specific
Leave no space to avoid confusion
Use abbreviation
Add colours, drawings, and symbols
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CHAPTER THREE
SHORTENING CONSTRUCTIONS
ABBREVIATIONS
An abbreviation is the short form of a word or phrase. When we abbreviate a word or phrase, we
shorten it. Abbreviations can be formed from the first letters of the word or phrase. Examples: SHS,
JHS, KNUST, United Nation= UN., Circuit Supervisor= C.S. T Z etc
Remove articles, verbal debris, prepositions and cut out main verbs.
SIGNS AND SYMBOLS
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=means equal to, >means greater than, <means less than, // parallel to, : means is to, is
expected to, ≠ means the same as, not equal to, × multiply, multiples, ℅ symbolize care of, %
means percent, +2 means in addition to, ff means following, & represent and, @ is approximately,
roughly equal, almost the same, at
There are other symbols which express changes in the state of object
A.
˚a ……… member of a group/ class
B.
← ……… comes from, due to arises from, results from, is obtain by, produce by
C.
↑………. to increase, to rise, promoted, progress, become better
D.
→ ……… turns to, change to, leads to results in, produces
E.
↓ ………..decrease, become weak, demoted
SHORT FORMS & ABBREVIATIONS
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Assist. =
Assistant,
edu. = Education, bk = book, Bn or b/w =Between, et al =
and others, ie = that is, P./pp = page/pages, pop = population, dvpt = development, Cont’d =
continue, mt = mountain, snr. =Senior, gov’t=government, others are:
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MOH…………
Ministry of Health
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GAF …………
Ghana Armed Force
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GP ………….
Ghana Police
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GES ………..
Ghana Education Service
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UEW ………
University of Education Winneba
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UDS ……….
University for Development Studies
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UCC ………
University of Cape Coast
Abbreviations for Courtesy Titles and Academic Degrees
In American English, title abbreviations are followed by a period; in British English, the period is
omitted. Examples are: AME Mr. = Mister Mrs. = Mistress (pronounced “missus”) Ms. =
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(pronounced “miss” or “miz”) Sr. = Senior Jr. = Junior Dr. = Doctor. The most common academic
degree abbreviations include: B.Sc. = Bachelor of science B.A. = Bachelor of Arts M.A. = Master
of Arts M.B.A. = Master of Business Administration. Ph.D. = Doctor of Philosophy.
•
Latin Abbreviations
e.g.: exempli gratia meaning “for example.”
i.e.: meaning “that is.” when we want to provide more specific information about something you
mentioned.
•
Times Days and dates: a.m. (ante meridiem) = before noon p.m. (post meridiem) =
afternoon Example: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, Jun., Jul., Aug., Sep., Oct., Nov., Dec. Example:
Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri., Sat, Sun.
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Units of Measurement: in. (inches) ft. (feet) lbs. (pounds); mm. (millimeters) cm.
(centimeters) m. (meters); mg. (milligram) g. (gram) kg. (kilogram)
ACRONYMS
These are abbreviations which can be pronounce as word(s). Naturally, acronyms and initialisms
are all written in capital letters but they have distinguishable element in them from ordinary words.
An acronym is pronounced as a single word, rather than as a series of letters:
•
UNESCO – United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization
•
WHO – World Health Organization
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GNAT – Ghana National Association of Teachers
•
WASSCE – West African Senior School Certificate Examination
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NAGRAT- National Association of Graduate Teachers
•
GMSA- Ghana Muslim Students’ Association
•
HIPC – Highly Indebted Poor Country
INITIALISMS
These are similar to acronyms in that they are also formed using the first letter of each word in a
longer phrase. Unlike acronyms, however, initialisms are pronounced as a series of letters.
Examples are: VRA, CPP, PNC, NDC, E C, NPP, MP, PM, UK, USA, CCT, NGO etc
MNEMONICS. What are Mnemonics? They are called remembering aids.
One of the methods used to remember a point, an idea or phrase using pattern of numbers, letters or
any relatable group during reading. Even though, there are many types of mnemonics (expression
mnemonic, spelling, outline, music, image… ) I will limit the discussion to mnemonic as a whole.
Mnemonics is a technique of reading for remembering a lot of points in a few minutes. For
example, if you are learning a topic for examination, you need to remember the points you would
use during the exams hence you will abbreviate points for easy remembrance of the points. This is
possible too when making or taking notes. Examples:
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FANBOY;
•
F: meaning FOR
•
A: meaning AND
•
N: meaning NOR
•
B: meaning BUT
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O: meaning OR
•
Y: meaning YET
•
S: meaning SO
ROY, G. BIV;
•
ROY for Red, Orange, Yellow
•
G for Green
•
BIV for Blue, Indigo, Violet
FRIEND: Faruk Rushed In Eating Nine Doughnut
SAID: Snakes And Insects Dance
RHYTHM: Rhythm Helps Your Two Hips Move
Making Notes from Books
One importance of making note from books is that the student gets enough time to select exactly
the items he or she needs. Your notes must be brief and concise.
Select the relevant chapter or section from which you need the information
Glance through the passage and identify the information or points you need
Decide the method to use- Diagrammatic or Un-Diagrammatic
Try to understand each point by reading the text carefully.
Recall the main points without referring to the text
Re-read the text and check it again
Use your own words except where you have to quote
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SUMMARY
Does and Dont’s of Summary.
Strip away the redundant and extraneous examples • focus on the heart of the matter • seek
key words and phrases that manage to capture the gist • save the main ideas and crucial details that
support them.
Remove all examples which are meant for clarification
Remove figures meant for support
Remove all parenthetical examples
Avoid rhetorical questions
Do not include ideas not stated in the passage you are supposed to summarize.
Avoid embellishments
Summarizing a Phrase or a Clause/ Levels of Summary Writing
There are generally three levels of summary writing: Sentence level summary; paragraph level, and
a multiple paragraph writing.
Summarizing Sentences
A sentence is defined as a group of words, usually containing a verb that expresses a complete
thought. The essential parts of any sentence are the subject and the finite verb which constitute the
subject and the predicate. To summarize a sentence, qualifying words like adjectives and adverbs as
well as phrases may be omitted unless they constitute the meaning of the sentence. Also, the
following questions may guide you to summarize a sentence. Example:
The strong energetic young female constable who shot and killed the young boy early Thursday
morning was reportedly interdicted the following morning at 9: 45 am
Question: what is the sentence about?
Answer: it’s about constable (word)
Question: What is said about the constable? (word turn into a question)
Answer: the constable was interdicted (full sentence serving as your summary)
Summarizing the Paragraph
A paragraph is a group of sentences that tells about one subject. These bunch of sentences discus a
single idea. To summarize the content of a paragraph, you need to identify the topic sentence of the
paragraph. Your summary is completed if you are able to identify the topic sentence and express it
in a single sentence. The table below will guide you to simple and easiest way of summary.
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Levels of summary writing
Level of
summary
Read& ask Answer
a Question
Question
Answer
Read the
sentence
and
ask:
“What is
the
sentence
about”
The
answer
should be a
word
or
phrase
Turn
the
answer
(word
or
phrase) into
a question.
e.g. What is
said
about
the
word/phrase
Your
answer
should be a
full
sentence:
i.e. Your
summary
or
main
idea.
Paragraph Read the
paragraph
Level
and ask: “
What is the
paragraph
about”
The
answer
should be a
word
or
phrase
Turn
the
answer
(word
or
phrase) into
a
question
e.g. what is
said
about
the
word/phrase
A multiple Read each
paragraph paragraph
and
ask:
level
“What is
each
paragraph
about?”
The
answer
should be a
word
or
phrase
Turn
the
answer
(word
or
phrase) into
a question.
e.g. what is
said
about
the
word/phrase?
Sentence
level
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Question
Answer
Your
answer
should be a
full
sentence:
i.e. Your
summary
or
main
idea.
Turn the
full
sentence
into
a
question
Select
point from
the
paragraph
to support
the point.
Your
answer
should be a
full
sentence:
i.e. Your
summary
or
main
idea.
Turn the
full
sentence
into
a
question
for
each
paragraph
Select
point from
the
paragraph
to support
the point.
EXAMPLE 1
SENTENCE LEVEL
The brave energetic, young girl who drank pesticide early hours of Friday was sensitively reported
dead the next morning at exactly 7: 20 am.
Question: what is the sentence about?
Answer: It is about a girl
Question: What is said about the girl? (Word turn into a question)
Answer: The girl died. (Complete sentence serving as your summary)
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CHAPTER FOUR
READING SKILLS
Reading involves looking (recognizing) and making meaning out of written or printed symbols
(comprehension) or a process of trying to understand a written or printed language. It is therefore
important for us, as students, to always read for knowledge. In doing that, we either get meaning of
text without any lip movement (silent reading) or saying words and sentences aloud as you read.
Readers typically make use of background knowledge, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge,
experience with text and other strategies to help them understand written text.
Reading aloud and
Reading comprehension
PURPOSES OF READING
We can have several reasons for reading. We may read for instance, to;
Seek deep understanding of a point
Learn new things
Get new ideas in to old knowledge
Amuse ourselves
Your purpose of reading suggests the reading method or technique to use.
READING TECHNIQUES OR TYPES OF READING
We shall discuss four techniques for reading or types of reading. They are scanning, skimming
close reading and the SQ3R technique.
A. SCANNING/ GENERAL READING
Before we start let us examine the following situations
a) A Muslim who is looking for a quotation in the Quran. Quran Chap 40: 70 of Surat Yaasin
b)
A Christian who is looking for this quotation: James 4: 1-4
In all these situations, the type of reading will not be what we are used to in the classroom. This
reading technique explains how quickly a reader read through a book, a chapter, a page or a
paragraph to locate specific information called scanning. Generally, scanning is a technique that is
helpful when you are looking for the answer to a known question.
When we are scanning, we do not read everything. We put aside all information until we reach what
we have set to find. We do it in the following areas:
a)
When we are finding words in the dictionary.
b)
When we are locating a book title from a list of books
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c)
When we are locating words, expressions figures or tables of expression from a book.
d)
the information you are looking for must be a short one. Examples: figures, words,
expressions, date etc.
Type of reading
Strategy
A. Scanning
Importance
1. know exactly the It helps to locate specific
information you want information
2. refer to table of It helps identify short idea or
content
information
3. move quickly and
I t helps in fast eye
aggressively
movement
B. SKIMMING
Skimming is quickly reading through a passage to see what the passage is about. When we skim,
we are not looking for specific information like a word, an expression or date. We want to get the
summary of the passage contains. We do skim in the following situation:
i.
ii.
When we have something to read and there is not much time we quickly read through as
we do when we are preparing for our exams.
When we want to see whether the article or reading material is good for what we are
looking for.
IMPORTANCE OF SKIMMING
The usefulness of skimming is:
a)
Time saving and makes revision easy.
b)
It helps us state the main points in a passage and
c)
When we skim a passage, which will be read later, the next reading becomes more
enjoyable.
d)
It helps you reconstruct the text
e)
It increases anxiety to read
Effective way to scan and skim a material
•
•
•
•
Concentrate seriously
Be time conscious
Limit your purpose
Practice daily
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C. CLOSE READING
Unlike skimming and scanning, close reading is when we aim at the full meaning of what we read,
reading for complete understanding. In close reading every aspect of the passage is important. We
are interested in individual words, punctuation, the tense, paragraphs and diction of the passage.
The reader takes into consideration, all aspect of the text including spelling. Do you use close
reading when we are studying? You need all the detailed information like names and details of
various activities. Close reading takes two forms. These are Intensive and Extensive Reading.
Extensive Reading refers to the form of reading that is meant for “enjoyment” or “pleasure” and
“information”. The main purpose of Extensive Reading is the cultivation of taste for reading. One
distinctive feature of Extensive Reading is, it does not involve much concentration as one will do
when reading his or her notes for the purpose of examination. It’s sometimes done in a more serious
manner than skimming and scanning.
Intensive Reading
Readers take a text, study it line by line, and refer at every moment to the dictionary about the
grammar of the text itself. In intensive reading, the emphasis is on details that support the main
points picked out at the skimming level. Intensive reading requires more concentration than
Extensive Reading
PROCEDURES FOR INTENSIVE READING
1. Overview: surveying or skimming 2. Planning purposes: Thinking about the purpose of reading
before beginning 3. Questions: Asking or making questions about the reading (who, how, why,
what..) 4. Reading: Line-by-line reading, Careful/thoughtful reading 5. Summarizing: Reflection,
summary, main idea. 6. Testing: Fill-in-the-blanks, Self-test, after paragraph 7. Understanding:
Reviewing and Checking understanding
USEFULNESS/ IMPORTANCE OF CLOSE READING
Close reading helps the student to
a)
Acquire general vocabulary
b)
Offer training in how to write well (develop the imagination). example how to start, develop
and conclude an essay).
c)
Function well in today’s world. Examples include; filling forms, reading road signs and the
use of mobile phones.
d)
Find a good job.
e)
Develop the mind
f)
Teach children about the world
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D. THE SQ3R READING TECHNIQUE
This reading technique involves five steps of reading a book or any reading materials. SQ3R stands
for the words Survey, Question, Read, Recall and Review. This method of reading helps you to
have easy and better understanding of what you read. It helps get closer to what you read. This will
enable you to remember what you read for a longer period of time.
Other reading techniques include reading and sectioning, critical reading, reading for inferences and
studying and organization.
FASTER READING
Faster reading is not easy to define. This is because the speed at which you read any literal material
often depends on:
1.
Your purpose of reading it
2.
The type of material you are reading
3.
The writers style
The speed with which you will scan a passage will be faster than what you will use to skim the
same passage.
Faster reading may imply the ability to see and comprehend a lot in a short time. We speak at
about 125-150 wpm (word per minute), a reader read twice as fast as they speak (Afolayan and
Newsum, 1983). To work out the words per minute(wpm), divide the total number of words read by
the time taken to read them. Example, Mariam Banda reads 265 words in 1⅕ minute, the reading
speed will be: 260 words ÷ 1 ⅕ = 265 = 265 = 265 x 5 = 176.6 wpm
1⅕
6/5
6
IMPROVING FAST READING
What can you do to achieve a reading speed of, say, up to 500wpm and with a high rate of
comprehension? You must see the reading task as a very useful exercise. Some of the tasks are:
MOTIVATION
The word motivation comes from a Latin word “movere” which means to move.
Motivation refers to all those phenomena, which are involved in the stimulation action toward
particular objectives where previously there was little or no movement towards these goals
(Bernard, 1972). Motivation is the first point to succeed in reading. You have to see yourself a good
reader. Once you do this you convince yourself of your ability to understand the text. Ask yourself:
“What am I reading in this passage? If you can answer this question you will organize yourself well
for the reading task.
RHYTHMIC EYE MOVEMENT
This involves the way the eye moves from stop to stop while we read. Eye movement is an integral
part of reading. In other words, it is how the eyes move from fixation to fixation. A good reader’s
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eyes move in regular and rhythmic manner from one group of words to another. It is not a good
practice to move your head here and there. Move your gaze as you read.
SEE MORE WORDS AT A TIME: The first point to consider is to train yourself to see more words
at a time when you are reading. Scientist has found out that our eyes make a series of moves and
stops along the line of print when we are reading. Each stop is called fixation. It is during these
stops or fixation that reading takes place. A good reader may be able to take in four (4) or five(5)
words in one fixation as in:
1
2
Abdulai Abubakari Banda
had a restaurant in Yendi
This reader has a long span of recognition. A slow reader might read the same line in this way:
1
2
Abdulai
Abubakari
3
Banda had
4
had a
5
restaurant
6
in Yendi
The first reader reads three times faster than the second reader.
One of the best ways to improve your reading speed is to increase your span of recognition, avoid
regression, and control other body movement. You must train your eyes to see not just two or three
words at a glance.
READING FOR COMPREHENSION
Reading comprehension is referred to as the ability to process text and understand its meaning
based on one’s prior knowledge and experience.
STRATEGIES FOR READING COMPREHENSION
A.
Contextual meaning
Vocabulary in context refers to the words or sentences or the whole paragraph surrounding an
unfamiliar word. Sometimes the meaning of the word is not known but the reader is able to
determine the meaning using their surrounding context (word environment). Any of the following
steps could help you get the meaning of the unfamiliar word without you resorting to the use of a
dictionary.
a.
use the general sense of the passage along with your existing knowledge of what is being
described to infer the meaning.
b.
search for a synonym or re-stated definition of the unfamiliar word. This can provide a clue
to meaning.
c.
look for examples in the passage that may help to determine the meaning of the unfamiliar
word.
d.
search to find out if the word in question is either compared or contrasted with a word or an
idea you are already familiar with.
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HINT:
Would you agree with us that the following words can sometimes used to refer to women?
[egg, baby, honey, sugar, chick, soul] if yes, then they are used contextually because each word has
it’s own meaning. This also means, words may have different meaning depending the context or the
word environment.
What is the meaning of the highlighted words in these sentences?
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
He danced with his woman yesterday.
Musah and his chick had a dinner yesterday
He always sleeps with his baby by his on the bed
He wept for several days for the dead of his honey
Reading Passage
One becomes so astonished about what a flash of the headlight means on any one occasion. Like
many other occurrences in life, there is no answer to this avant-garde phenomenon. It can mean,
“Be careful. I am coming through like a storm!” In this case, it is a haughty, silent threat: the
flashing means he will brook no interference in his headlong, breakneck speed. But, there is another
driver who flashes his lights and silently beckons, “Come on, friend. After you”. This second
flashing is a cordial consideration of a fellow road-user’s needs. It does not need much imagination
to predict unpleasant consequences when the two interpretations are mixed up, and the observer is
understandably muddled. A third use of a flash of the headlights is for social rapport; friendly
drivers flash their light as a greeting. Sometimes, a driver may flash his lights only because his car
is of the same make and model as the one coming towards him from the opposite lane. In yet other
instances, professional drivers flash their headlights to presage each other that there is a group of
unscrupulous policemen or soldiers around the corner collecting bribes for trifling omissions in
one’s set of documents. The Highway Code seems blissfully unconscious of these various, and
often contradictory, uses of headlight-flashing.
i.
Astonished………………..amazed/surprised/flabbergasted
iii.
haughty ……………………………………………………….arrogant/proud/pompous
iv.
brook……………………………………………………tolerate/allow
v.
beckons………………………………………………………signals/indicates
vi.
muddled…………………………………………………….disarrayed/mixed up
vii.
rapport ……………………………………………………… communication
ix.
unscrupulous ……………………………………………. corrupt/ unprincipled
x.
trifling ……………………………………………………….trivial/petty/unimportant
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B.
Getting Meaning from Affixes
Affixes are classified according to those that can effect change of word group (derivational) and
those that only indicate grammatical distinction such as number (inflection). Affixes are those
forms of bound morphemes that must be attached to a root or combination of roots. The affixes that
are attached to the left of roots are prefixes; those at the right of root word are suffixes. The third
type of affixes is infixes which is not common in English Language. Again, these are morphemes
that are inserted into a root. However, in Dagare language for example, the root word ‘gaa’ (go) has
infix /r/ inserted into it to become ‘gara’ (going). This and other examples establish that /r/ is a
morpheme (infix) which gives the {-ing} meaning in Dagare (Korangteng 2012)
PREFIXES
Prefixes are morphemes we add to words initially. We place a prefix before the root or main word.
Examples are un-, mis-, in- as in unimportant, mismanage, ineffective, disadvantage. For instance,
the word unlucky consist of a prefix “un-“[which means “not”] combined with the root or stem
‘lucky’ so the word unlucky means “not lucky”. More on prefixes are illustrated on the table below:
Anti
Dis
In
Co
(Against)
(Opposite of)
(Not)
(With)
Antisocial
Dislike
Incorrect
Co-worker
Antigravity
Dishonest
Inaccurate
Copilot
Antibiotic
Distant
Inadequate
Cooperation
Antifreeze
Disagree
Inability
Coexist
Disappear
Incomplete
Cosign
Fore
Extra
Mis
Mono
(Before)
(more than)
(wrongly)
(Singular/Single)
Foresee
Extracurricular
Misinterpret
Monotone
Forehead
Extraordinary
Misfire
Monopoly
Foremost
Extraterrestrial
Mistake
Monolingual
Misconduct
Monobrow
Forecast
Misunderstand
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SUFFIXES
Suffixes are morphemes (particles) we add to the end of a main/root word. Examples are -ed, -ied, ly, -ful, -ness as in prayed, hurried, sincerely, beautiful and happiness.
The following are a list of the most frequently used suffixes in printed English.
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-ed/en
past-tense verbs
hopped/beaten
-ing
verb form/present participle
running
-ly
characteristic of
quickly
-s. es
more than one
books, boxes
-able, -ble
able to be
manageable, defensible
-ful
full of
Wishful
-hood
state, condition
childhood, neighborhood
-ous
Full of fulfillment
Famous, pious
-ment
State of being
Improvement,
-some
Tending to,
Troublesome, lonesome
-ward
Direction, course
Backward, eastward
ETYMOLOGY OF WORDS: Etymology deals with the origin and development of a particular
word.
Word Meaning
Etymology/ Origin
Example
Pan
All
Ancient Greek Pan(all)+phobia
Pan phobia: fear of everything (all)
Pan
All
Ancient Greek Pan(all)+demon
Pandemonium: chaos, confusion
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Full word and meaning
CHAPTER FIVE
READING FAULTS
VOCALIZATION/SUB-VOCALIZATION
One of the commonest reading habits that affect reading speed and comprehension is vocalization
and sub-vocalization. Vocalization is the practice of pronouncing words while reading. Please note
that vocalization is not reading aloud, but the act whispering or saying the words to yourselves as
you read constitutes vocalization. With the practice of sub-vocalization, the speed at which we read
reduces. This is because both the eye and mind move at the same speed. Vocalization / subvocalization slows down our ability to focus on what we are reading. This affects our ability to
understand what we read.
REGRESSION
Regression refers to going back and re-reading words and sentences that one has already read. It’s
often results from lack of concentration. It occurs as a result of wrong pronunciation of unfamiliar
word, divided mind, psychological stress etc.
NARROW READING (ONE WORD AT A TIME)
It involves reading one word at a time and not maximizing the span of your reading gaze or
fixation. Refer to faster reading.
TRIAL EXERCISE
DATE OF SUBMISSION…………………………………………………………..
INDEX NUMBER………………………………………………………………….
COURSE TITTLE ………………………………………………………………..
COURSE CODE…………………………………………………………………………
1. Mention any four types/ techniques of reading and explain one
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. State any three reading defaults you know and briefly explain one of them
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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CHAPTER SIX
LANGUAGE USAGE (CONVENTIONS OF USAGE)
BASIC SENTENCE PATTERN
In English, our sentence usually operates using a similar pattern: subject, verb then object. It lets
reader easily know who is doing the action and what the outcome is.
A declarative sentence is the one that makes a statement. Example, Shirazu is a serious student. One
major function of the declarative sentence is to make a statement.
Subject Verb Type Sentence (SV)
We want to remind you that all the sentence types we are going to study are mostly declarative. We
are going to look at subject-verb type. Structurally, this of a sentence begins with a noun and is
followed by a verb. This is why such sentences are called SV type of sentence. Examples are:
1.
The woman wept.
2.
The children slept.
Let us now analyze the sentences. Surely ‘The woman,’ ’The children’ in sentences above are
nouns/noun phrase and they function as subjects. In the same way wept and slept respectively are
verbs/verb phrases and they functioning as verbs.
The Subject-Verb-Complement Type of Sentences (SVC)
The unfamiliar word in this category of sentence is a Complement (C). Generally, it is a noun, a
pronoun, an adjective that completes the subject and its verb have already initiated.
The SVC structure type of sentence is:
Noun phrase+ verb phrase + either a noun phrase or an adjective phrase. Let us look at the
following sentences: 1.Kudjo is the chairman. 2. Mariam feels good.
In analyzing sentence (1), we see that the noun phrase, Kudjo is functioning as subject (S). it is
followed by the verb phrase (is) which is functioning as the verb (V) while the noun the chairman is
functioning as the complement to the subject.
Construct three examples of SVC type of sentence below
Subject-Verb-Object-Complement Sentences (SVOC)
It has been indicated in the previous sentence type, that complement helps subject (noun or
pronoun) to complete its meaning. Examples of this sentence type include:
1.
The committee made her the chair.
(S)
(V) (O)
(C )
2. The referee whistled for Gambia the winner.
(S)
(V)
(O)
(C)
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The Subject-Verb-Object type of sentence (SVO)
Let us examine the following sentence to get a better understanding of the SVO sentence:
The cat killed a mouse
In the sentence above the cat (NP) function as the subject (S); Killed (VP) functions as verb while a
mouse (NP) functions as object. This means the mouse is suffering as a result of the Cat’s actionkilled. Simply put the object is the sufferer’s in the sentence. Other examples are as follows:
i.
Hamza Mohammed scored a goal.
ii.
The thief stole a gold watch.
iii.
We wrote two letters yesterday
Do you now see why it’s called SVO type of sentence? SVO sentences can be changed to passive
sentence. Example, the goal was scored by Hamza Mohammed. The book was compiled by
Abdulai Abubakari Banda.
Can you change SVC sentence into passive? Definitely not, this is the main difference between
SVO and SVC type of sentence.
The Subject- Verb- Object-Object Type of Sentence (SVOO)
An object of a verb is either a noun or a pronoun that receives or suffers an action directly or
indirectly from the subject. Once you know the structure of SVO sentences, it becomes very easy
for you to understand SVOO sentences. The SVOO structure looks like:
Subject + Verb + Indirect Object (02) + Direct Object (O). This means that the SVOO type of
sentences have two sufferers (Partial and active) in a sentence. let us examine the following
sentences:
1.
The man bought his wife a cloth.
2.
The old lady gave the boy some advice.
3.
The principal awarded a prize to the best M8 student
Let us proceed to analyze (1) above
The man (S)
bought (V)
his wife (02)
a cloth (0)
Can you analyze sentence (2)?
Compare your answer to what we have
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Subject (S)—The old lady
Verb (V) gave
Indirect (02)---the boy
Direct (O)—some advice
Note also that since there are two objects, the SVOO sentences can have two passive
transformations. Example:
o
The old lady gave the boy some advice
o
Some advice was given to the boy by the old lady.
Subject-Verb-Adjunct (S V A) Type of Sentence
Subject usually takes the initial position of a sentence. The verb either shows the action or state of
the subject. Once we are clear in our minds as to what subject and verbs are. Let’s now proceed to
look at the/an adjunct.
If a noun phrase functions as subject (S); verb phrase as verb (V) then adverbs and prepositional
phrase function as adjuncts. Like SVC sentences, SVA sentences cannot be changed into passive
sentences. What you should remember is that adverb and prepositional phrases function as adjunct
in sentences. Examples are:
i.
The woman (S) wept (V) seriously (A). How did the woman weep?
ii.
My father arrived at six o’clock in the morning. When did your father arrive?
iii.
The student (S) walks (V) majestically. How did the student walk?
Answers to these questions will help you realized that adverbs and prepositional phrases, modify, in
the main verb phrases in the sentences. They are therefore post-modifiers.
Subject-Verb-Object-Adjunct Type of Sentences:
We can simplify the construction above as: Subject + verb + 0bject +adjunct. Let us examine some
examples of such sentences.
a.
They found the chief in the hall.
b.
The mob beat the suspect mercilessly
c.
She wrote the letter in the night.
Let us analyze the first sentence
They—Subject
Found---verb
The chief---Object
In the hall---Adjunct
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PUNCTUATION MARKS
Many users of English look on marks of punctuation as annoying inventions of English teachers to
make the hard job of writing even harder. We employ variation in tone, gestures and facial
expressions to give and add force and meaning to what we are saying during speech, but in writing
we use punctuation marks to achieve the same purpose (Adendun, 2010). They function like traffic
light on the road. However, when incorrectly placed, they can also change the meaning of a
sentence.
Many students employ only the four main stops- the comma, the semicolon, the colon and the full
stop- in their entire writing, without realizing that there are actually 16 punctuation marks in
English. The punctuation marks in English are:
1.
Capitals: This means writing or printing any of the letters with a capital letter or an uppercase letter. Examples are A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Capitals are used to mark the end of a sentence. We also use capital to write proper nouns such as
names of people, places, days, months, rivers, countries, villages, towns, and cities. It’s used after a
question mark.
2.
The Full-stop (.): It’s used after abbreviations and at the end of sentence except questions
and exclamations.
3.
The Exclamation mark (!) it’s mainly used after exclamatory word, phrase, sentence or
interjection
4.
The Colon (:) It used to introduce a list, describe or interpret what precedes it, introduce
speech in a play and to separate chapters from verses.
5.
The Question mark (?) is used after a direct question, a word or date whose accuracy is in
doubt
6.
The Semi-colon (;)It’s used to separate two parts of sentences. E.gTo err is human; to
forgive is a divine, replace conjunctions (and, while and but).
7.
The Comma (,). It is use to separate items in a list, main clause, two or more adjectives
when a coordinator “and” is not used, after a vocative, phrase, indirect speech, to separate
introductory sentences, nouns in apposition, separate contrasting elements in a sentence, eg. It’s
spicy, not hot, Zakaria came, not Jane. It is used in letter parts (Dear Sir, Dear John). It is also to
separate a date. If the date appears in the middle of a sentence. On March 6, 2022, I won the battle.
8.
The Quotation marks (““ ) or (‘‘ ) is used to begin and end quote, indicate tittles of short
stories
9.
The Parenthesis or Round Brackets ( ) is to offer explanation to what has been said
earlier
10.
The Square Brackets [ ] is used to mark a strong, emphatic parenthesis usually to
comment rather than explain. E.g, Nama-[ the girl is a fool]- is staying here
11.
The Oblique ( / ) is used to mean either as in Jagri/Dawuni
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12.
The Asterisk ( * ) use asterisk rarely for footnotes and for incorrect construction
13.
The Dots or Ellipses ( ... ) Used three dots to show that something has been omitted. It can
be four dots if the items omitted are at the end of a sentence. The fourth dot will stand for the fullstop. It is used within a quotation.
14.
The Apostrophe ( ` ): It’s used to indicate possessive case, contraction or omission, plural
of numbers and letters e.g, write your K’s and i’s clearly. NB. Never end your letters with Your’s
15.
The Hyphen (-)It is used to form compound a word, join and separate prefix to/from a root
word, separate two similar consonant or vowel sounds, e.g pre-empt, Ross-shire. Also used at the
end of a line during writing to indicate lack of space to finish the spelling of the word. Also: the
second or third elements in a list. E.g two-tired
16.
The Dash (---): This is longer than hyphen. It is use to mark the beginning and end of an
interruption. E.g, my son---where has gone. -----would like to meet you. Also to introduce an
explanation, make a list. E.g People possess strange qualities---deception, greed, and dishonesty
17.
Space between words: It is used to indicate the beginning and end of a word, make your
writing need and clear, show amalgamation of words which make pronunciation difficult. E.g
sonofabitch (son of a bicth), closein, PololNyamekye, apostrophecomma
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EXERCISE
i.
Write an example of a sentence of the following pattern:
SVOC…………………………………………………………………………………….
SVA…………………………………………………………………………………….
SVC………………………………………………………………………………………
SVOO……………………………………………………………………………………
SVO……………………………………………………………………………………
SVOA……………………………………………………………………………………
SVOCA…………………………………………………………………………………
ii. What are the functions of these punctuations?
a. comma…………………………………………………………………………………………
b. questionmark ………………………………………………………………………………..
c. Paranthesis…………………………………………………………………………………..
d. What is the difference between SVC and SVO sentences
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
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CHAPTER SEVEN
BASIC SENTENCE ELEMENTS
A good definition of sentence should include the following:
a group of related words well organized
the group of words should have a subject and predicate
the group of words should make a complete thought. This means we understand when we
read it.
In a broader sense, anything meaningful we say or write with subject and predict is a sentence. The
subject can be a noun or pronoun. The subject usually begins the sentence and it is who or what the
sentence is about. The predicate begins with a verb, which tells what the subject does or is. Usually,
the subject and predicate make a clause. Examples:
Tiwaa
Subject
bought a car
(simple)
Predicate
Hasana and Michael
lives in Yendi.
Subject (compound)
Predicate
Bene, Lukman and Nligir
gone for further studies
(Compound subject)
Predicate
THE CLAUSE IN ENGLISH
A clause is a group of words that contains a verb and its subject. Every sentence must have at least
one clause.
Types of Clauses:
Clauses are divided into two classes, namely:
1.
Principal/Independent: This type of clause makes complete sense; independently and stand
by itself. Ex: Yendi HATS offered me mental health. He is my friend.
2.
Subordinate/Dependent: A dependent clause: It is a clause that cannot be a sentence by itself
and must be joined to an independent clause to complete its meaning. Examples are:
Dependent clause
Independent clause
If it rains,
I will not speak for a week.
Independent clause
Dependent clause
I spoke to her sister
after I met him,
SENTENCE TYPES:
Classification of sentences by their structure: The simple sentence, The compound sentence, and
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The complex sentence.
The Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is sentence which has one finite verb. It contains only one main clause and no
subordinate clauses. However, it may have compound subject. Examples are:
1.
Hamdia
wrote
that letter.
Hamdia-------(Subject)
Wrote-------- (Finite Verb)
Wrote that letter---------(Predicate)
2.
The pupils in B5 made that farm
The pupils--------Subject
Made--------- finite verb
Made that farm------- predicate
3.
Aisha and Musah play cricket for their zone.
Ayisha------------ Subject
Play------------ Finite verb
Play cricket for their zone----------Predicate
The Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is made up of two simple sentences joined by a coordinate conjunction (for,
but, and, so, yet, or, so). These two simple sentences are called main or independent clauses.
Examples are:
i.
She bought a story book but she did not use it.
They bought a story book ----Simple sentence
She did not use it -------------Simple sentence
But--------------- coordinator
ii.
He will use oranges or he will use mangoes
He will use oranges--------- Simple sentence
Or------------------------coordinator
He will use oranges----------- Simple sentence
The Complex Sentences
A complex sentence has one main or independent clause and one or more subordinate or dependent
clauses. An independent clause makes a complete thought. The words that link the two clauses
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(independent and dependent or subordinate) to form complex sentences are called subordinators.
Examples are: if, since, unless, as soon as, when, whenever, unless, that and because.
When he came to the station, the bus had left
a.
When he came to the station------------------- dependent/subordinate clause
b.
The bus had left----------------------------independent/ main clause
c.
When--------------------------- the subordinator
If I pass the exams, I will be giving a diploma certificate
a.
If I pass the exams-----------------subordinate/ dependent clause
b.
I will be giving a certificate-------------independent/ main clause
c.
If ………………………………subordinator
I cannot print the book, unless you give me the money
a.
I cannot print the book----------------------------------independent/main clause
b.
Unless-------------------------------------- subordinator
c.
Unless you give me the money
Compound- Complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence has two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
Example, while the chief guest went on his speech, the audience laughed at him and they threw
stones at him.
While the chief guest went on his speech------------------subordinate clause
The audience laughed at him----------------------------- main/independent clause
And-------------------------------------------coordinator
They threw stones at him---------------------------------------main/independent clause.
Classification of Sentences by the Use of Their Functions
A.
Declarative sentence
Declarative sentences are sentences that give information. It states a fact and also make statement.
Declarative sentence has subject and verbs that come after the subject. Examples are
i.
The cat caught the mouse
ii.
The wind broke the branch of the tree.
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B.
Interrogative Sentence
This sentence type asks for information. These are questions that start with interrogatives- what,
which, when, where, whom, who, whose, why and how. Example, how are people in Yendi called?
Who brought you here?
One way asking Yes/No question is to us the auxiliary verb (is, shall, should, can, could, may).
Example, this is my book
Is this your house?
C. Imperative Sentence:
An imperative sentence is a sentence that expresses command, request or direction. It is always
directed to the second person (singular or plural). So the subject is always you. However, this
subject is often not expressed in the sentence but is “understood” to be there. Examples:
i.
(you) leave the room.
ii.
(You) shut the door, please.
NB. Only lexical verbs are used
D. Exclamatory Sentence:
It is a sentence that expresses strong feeling, attitude or emotions of the speaker, and usually
followed by an exclamation mark. Examples are:
i.
ooh!
ii.
Aren’t these boys husband!
iii.
wonderful!
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CHAPTER EIGHT
DOCUMENTATION
When writing an essay or research paper, you have to read widely. This will help you to find a lot
of facts and opinions about the topic from different sources. You must tell your readers that you
have borrowed other people’s ideas, facts or opinions.
In other words, acknowledgement of all the sources from which you borrowed ideas, opinions,
words or facts for your write-up is called Documentation.
The following are the various things that require documentation or acknowledgement:
a direct quotation
statistics
a discussion in your own words of someone else’s word or opinions
However, in spite of all that is said about documentation, it is not every item of information that
you have to document. For instance, you do not have to document opinions that are well known to
everybody. For example, Ghana gained her independent in 1957 is common knowledge in Ghana
which need not be acknowledged or documented when you read it from a source and use it in your
essay.
PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is intentional or unintentional presentation of another source’s words, ideas, or images
as your own. Plagiarism may end a person with a low or poor low grade from the supervisor.
Another reason why you have to document is that if your supervisor discovers that you have
plagiarized, your certificate may be withheld.
Furthermore, by documenting one’s work you help interested persons or readers, who want to read
more about your subject, to find the sources of your information. It also shows that you have
researched widely on the topic. So far from being accused of plagiarism, you will actually gain
credit.
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
I am sure you can now explain why you have to acknowledge the sources of your information.
Let us now look at a few examples that will help us avoid plagiarism.
Be honest, use your own work, always put quotes, use of anti-plagiarism software, don’t use auto
paraphrase soft ware.
Original information
Communication is the process of sharing ideas, information or messages with others either through
oral or written within a specify period of time.
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FORMS OF PLAGIARISM
Frank: word by word copying without sourcing and without quotation marks.
Communication is defined as the process of sharing ideas, information or messages with others
either through oral or written within a specify period of time.
Awudu: Copied many words and phrases without acknowledgement.
Communication is best defined as the process of sharing ideas, information or messages with others
either through words of mouth or written within a specify period of time or condition.
Abigail: Used author’s ideas without acknowledging the source
Communication is sharing between two or more people: messages, information or ideas. In all these
instances, plagiarism takes place. So, if you don’t want to be accused of academic theft then bear
this in mind:
•
own.
The opinions, facts ideas or words in your report, essay or research paper should be your
•
Use quotation marks (‘—‘ ) to acknowledge a source any time you borrow the exact words,
phrases, and sentences of another person.
•
Even when you are expressing an idea that is not your own but the exact words of a
different person, inform your readers where you got it from.
•
If you replace or change some words and phrases in somebody’s work you must still
acknowledge the source of the idea otherwise you will fall foul of the law.
DOCUMENTATION STYLE
A documentation style is a form of a standardized approach to the citation of sources that the author
of a paper or essay has consulted or quoted from. It set methods for citing references within the text
(in-text citation) and also providing a list of works at the end of the paper (references).
Also, documentation styles guarantee you to give credit for secondary sources you have used in
writing your paper. Let us look at some of the in-text citations:
A.
Footnotes
When you raise a number attached to a quotation, summary or paraphrase in order to acknowledge
the source of your information in your long essay or paper it is known as footnotes. It is called a
footnote because, at the foot of the page, a detail explanation is giving with a corresponding number
(that is, the same number as the raised one). So, as the name implies, a footnote gives information
at the foot or bottom of a page of a source you have cited.
Look at this illustration of a footnote:
According to Thakur, the agent of a sentence is the animate being that causes the action described
by the verb in that sentence.¹→ the raised number after the question
¹ D. Thakur, linguistics simplified semantics (1999, p67)
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Note that if you cite two or more sources on a page you should give them consecutive numbers
(that is 1,2,3,4 and so on) and attached details about the sources at the foot of the same page on
which the numbers appear.
There is also an endnote. The structure of endnotes is the same as those of footnotes. The only
difference is that while one is placed at the foot of the page, the other is placed at the end of the
essay or paper. In fact, endnotes are what many Academias’ recommended for use in your paper.
The main problem of footnotes is the insufficient space that is left at the foot of the page.
To be able to write endnotes correctly, observe the following:
o
Leave a one-inch (or 2.5) space on top of the page.
o
Leave two spaces below the word Notes before you type the note.
o
Type or write endnotes on a separate page after the last page of your essay
o
Endnote numbers must correspond to the numbers in the essay.
o
Leave a double space between and within notes
o
Leave one space after the raised number before typing the details
B.
Reference List
At the end of your article or paper, you must provide a list of all the sources you have acknowledge
in the article. Unlike bibliography which is a listing of works for background or for further reading,
a Reference list cites work that are specifically have been cited in a particular article or book. There
are a number of referencing styles used by academic researchers. However, institutions choose their
format.
A reference list enables readers to retrieve and use the sources you have cited. For this reason, the
elements of the reference list:
•
Author
accurate.
•Year of publication •Title of the material •Publishing data must be very
Anything short of accurate referencing will stand in print as annoyance to future investigation and
monument to the writer’s carelessness (Bruner, 1942).
Reference endnotes and footnotes
Reference endnotes consist of author’s name, the title of the book or magazine the place of
publication, the publishers and any other relevant information. All the examples put to you illustrate
footnotes and endnotes are, in fact, reference footnotes and reference endnotes. For example:
Wilson Kofi and Anthony Mensah Denkyira, Writing your long essay thesis
/dissertation and journal article (Akonta publication, 1999) p41
Entry for books: The American Psychological Association (APA) style is one of the ways of
referencing research works. Others are the Modern Library Association or Modern Language
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Association of America (MLA) and the Harvard System Referencing. Let us now look at the APA
entry for books.
•
If the author is unknown or anonymous, leave out the name:
E.g Fire festival of Dagombas (1980). Yendi: Gubkatimali Press
•
The author is single:
E.g P, C Israel (2018) Modern English Grammar. Cape Coast: Oak Press.
•
The authors are two or joint authorship
E.g Mensah, k. & Alhassan, B (2007). Geography made simple.
•
Books without dates or date in question
E.gFati, I (2015?) Honesty. Gbung. Nursing Press
Osman, A. (n.d) The sheanut tree and its use. Banda: Soft Price Publishers
•
Book has been revised:
E.g Akosua, H (1997) Leadership failure. (2nd ed.).
•
A book which has been translated:
Samata, F (1976) Fighting juvenile crime. (Yaw Biligiri, Trans.) Tamale: Banda Press.
•
Books in more than one volume:
E.g Habibata, A. B (2016) The novelty COVID-19 (2019-2021) Ghana: Mofa Press.
•
The book is edited:
E.g Asia, A. B. (Ed.) (2004) Global Warning. London: Sanity press
APA entries for periodicals; journals, magazines, and newspapers.
Here are some guidelines for citing articles from periodicals using AP style of documentation.
1. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the subtitle of the article as well as any proper
names.
2.
Do not underline the article title or enclose it in quotation.
3.
Capitalise all important words of the journal title
4.
Underline journal title and volume and volume number
5.
Enclose any information needed to identify the article that is not a routine element of a
citation in brackets, for example, (Editorial) or (Letters to the editor).
6.
Journals wit continuous pagination which number all issues in a single volume. E.g if the
first issue of a volume ends with page 10, the next issue will begin page 11. In such cases, only the
volume number and page numbers are needed.
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E.g Christiana, k. (1989) Improving the writing skills of pre-school children. The journal of English
studies. 10, 11-20.
Abdulai, A. (2019) Pronunciation difficulties among students of Dagbong State Senior High
School. Unpublished thesis, University of Education, Winneba.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Some students have challenges to trace the sources of information they used in their work. The
solution to this problem lies in preparing a bibliography. There are two types of bibliographies.
These are:
a.
The working bibliography
b.
The final bibliography
The Working Bibliography
It consists of a set of cards that gives information about the books you consulted for ideas. Your
search for information to write your essay will be a walk true if you have a working bibliography.
The information is prepared on card catalogues.
This card catalogue is on which information about all the books in the library is provided. You will
find three kinds of cards on each book in every good library. These are:
•
The author card
• The title card
• The subject card
The Final Bibliography
As indicated, the final bibliography is the list of all the sources you consult when writing your long
essay. The difference between it and the list of works cited is that the bibliography may include
works that were only consulted but cited in the essay. Examples are:
Dickson, H. The Modern Researcher. New York: Harcourt Brace In.,3rd ed., 1977. British Council.
English for academic study. Accra: the British council, English-Teaching Information Center 2000.
Gibs, G. Learning to study. Kumasi: the open University,2020.
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CHAPTER NINE
CONCORD
Concord means that sentence parts match (agree). In English agreement shows the type of verb that
goes with a particular noun or singular and plural verbs. Subject must agree with verbs and
pronouns must agree with antecedents. Do you also remember count, non-count, and collective
nouns?
AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB
Standard English requires that the verb agrees with the subject in number and person.
A SINGULAR SUBJECT TAKES A SINGULAR VERB
A singular subject takes a singular verb
e.g “He is a student.”
He (the subject) is singular. It agrees with is (the verb)
A verb must agree with its subject in number and person (1st- 3rd persons). Remember that we add
–s or -es to a verb in the present tense to form a sentence with the third-person singular and with
singular nouns.
The following examples are therefore acceptable:
a.
Adamu reads a novel every week.
b.
Tina plays football.
The greatest problem with students is the use of the third person singular (He, She, It). They
wrongly believe that ‘plays and reads are plural verbs. We don’t make verb plural by adding –s or
es as we do for nouns.
A PLURAL SUBJECT TAKES A PLURAL VERB
Plural subjects agree with a plural verb
These are few examples
a)
i.
The pupils are in the classroom.
ii.They are working in the garden.
iii.
Afi, Yakubu and Jagiri sing in the festival.
b)
Indefinite pronouns: both, few, many, others, and several are always plural.
WORDS AND PHRASES BETWEEN SUBJECTS AND VERBS
Note this carefully. If words or phrases come between a singular subject and a verb, the verb must
agree with the subject. e.g The student who stole the watch arrested.
SUBJECT WHICH CAN TAKE SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERBS:
Subjects that accept
singular or plural verb are collective nouns and indefinite pronouns. Examples are: class, family,
jury, doctor.
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I.
A collective noun is used as singular if it considered as one unit. For example: the class is
meeting tomorrow. (Here the class is considered as a unit and not individual constituent).
II.
A collective noun is used as plural if it is considered to be made up of individuals. The
individuals can act on their own (a team of players).
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS WITH VERBS
Pronouns are words that can replace nouns in syntactic positions. Also, they are hidden words use
to act as subject and also receive actions of the subject
Like nouns, some pronoun subjects require singular verb while others require plural verbs. Pronoun
subjects like:
Anybody
neither Either
Everyone Everybody
They usually take singular verbs. Here are some examples:
examination.
Everybody is trying please the principal.
answerable.
Each one
Each of us hopes to pass the
Either of the questions is
The pronouns few, many, several, and some take plural verbs as can be seen in these sentences:
Some of the teachers have left.
Few of them are here
Many people don’t like cheating
Pronoun subjects like the following may take a singular or plural verb form.
•All
•Half •
Any • None •
Most
Look at how they are used in the sentences below:
o
Are any of you going to the library?
o
None of you is admitted
o Is any of you going to the library?
o None of you are admitted
SUBJECT- VERB -COMPLEMENT
A complement is a noun, a pronoun, an adjective or an adverb that completes the meaning and its
verb have already initiated. It has the following structure:
Noun phrase + verb phrase + either a noun phrase or an adjective phrase. Example
1.
James
Subject
2.
was/were the secretary.
verb
They
Subject
complement
make/makes
verb
the chair
complement
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The verb be displays concord relations for present, past, singular and plural. In this case the verb
was and make are selected on the basis of whether the subject is singular or plural. If singular, was
is selected in the 1st person. If plural, make is selected in the 3rd person.
Notional concord refers to the agreement between the verb and the subject. However, this
agreement arises not because the subject has a form that shows it is singular or plural. Rather, the
agreement is based on the speakers’ perception. In English, group or collective nouns fall into this
category. Examples are family, police, government, team etc. look at the following grammatically
accepted sentences and how the verbs were selected.
1.
The family was famous (family is treated as a whole or unit)
2.
The family were famous (individual members were the concern)
CHAPTER TEN
AMBIGUITY
A situation or a character that can be understood or interpreted in more than one way is called
AMBIGUITY. If one presented with the statement:
This is the bank.
One is likely to give way several meanings based on different uses of the word bank as
1.
a place where money is kept.
2. a place where a river stores its water.
3.
a place where blood is kept
4. a place where knowledge is kept.
SOURCES OF AMBIGUITY
Ambiguity results from so many sources that result from lexical and structural types of ambiguity.
The following are some sources of ambiguity:
a.
POLYSEMIC
Polysemic sense of words circulates around a basic sense but not all of these senses of a word
would be attended. The confusion however, is for one to determine which of the several senses of a
word is being intended. For example, in the sentence:
The dress is clean.
The word clean has several Polysemic senses therefore making the statement to have various
interpretations as:
a.
The dress has been washed since it was last worn.
b.
The dress is free from dirt c. The dress is skillfully design
d.
The dress has not been worn before therefore it is new
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These several meanings of the word “clean” bring about ambiguity in the sentence ‘the dress is
clean’.
AMBIGUITY OF MODIFIERS
Modifier is said to be words or word which attached to a noun. Those that are before the noun or
head word are pre-modifier while those that follow the noun are post-modifier. Ambiguity of
modifier occurs when a wrong modifier called DANGLING MODIFIER is attached to a head word
or noun. Example: Kofi saw a dog driving to Accra.
The ambiguity in the sentence is as a result of the confusion between the sentence meaning and the
practical meaning. The structure has the modifier ‘driving to Accra’ dangling, which make the
sentence to mean that “a dog was driving to Accra”. A rule is that a modifier must attach itself to
the noun that is closes to it. But we all know that it is bizarre for a dog to be driving.
PUNCTUATION AMBIGUITY
It is important to note that the confusion punctuation brings about ambiguity not due to the
punctuation itself but each placement of punctuation goes with corresponding syntactic roles and
relationships, which help in the interpretation of the sentence. For example, a sentence such as:
Stop men at work
This is normally displayed by the workers at a construction site, may be punctuated by the reader
as:
1.
STOP, MEN AT WORK
2.
STOP MEN AT WORK
Depending on how the reader punctuates the sentence STOP MEN AT WORK, can mean that stop
the men who are at work, or you men at work, stop, or stop for there are men at work. All these
interpretations are possible due to where the punctuation mark is placed, therefore making the
sentence ambiguous.
Other types include
•
Lexical or semantic ambiguity: this occurs when a word has more than one meaning.
Example, I went to the bank. This cell (prison/battery/phone) is too small. Radio-Accra (name of
radio station or Accra). I saw bats (a tool for baseball/nocturnal flying mammal).
•
Referential ambiguity: this occurs when two or more entities are seen as possible referents.
Example, my sister insulted my mother because she was drunk. Call me (call someone/ new name)
Baba
•
Phonological: This occurs when pronunciation of a word or set of words gives room for
multiple interpretations. Example, I scream mistaken as ice cream. I glance through a tail/tale of
two cities. I will be your fan/fun
•
Structural or grammatical: this occurs when a sentence is having two or more
interpretations. Example, I ate the food in the room. Flying airplanes can be dangerous. Fast cars
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are lovely. I saw a walking stick in the market. Visiting professors on campus can be dangerous. I
saw the man in the room
DISAMBIGUATION OF AMBIGUOUS SENTENCES
There are several methods of disambiguating ambiguous statements. Some of which are tree
diagrams, use of appropriate punctuation marks, the use of standard pronunciation (receive
pronunciation RP) etc.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
REPORT WRTING
As a student, you spend most of your time in reading and listening.
However, once you are
employed, you are bound to devote more than 70% of your time in writing or interpreting reports.
You would deal with reports that are factual accounts about significant aspects of the happenings in
the business or office.
To some organizations, writing report is an important and regular part of their work. Although
report can be conventional in organization and style, the process which go into writing a report are
similar to those used in any type of essay writing.
Sometimes reports are not written by a single individual; committees are formed for writing reports.
A report trains you as a writer in a planned and orderly manner to deal with procedures and logical
presentation of ideas and information. This help to developed writer’s power of discrimination,
organization, judgment and communication. Reports are written to convey factual information, and
therefore should be wholly factual. The following are cases that call for report writing:
1.
The report of a trip or journey you and some other people have made.
2.
The report of the activities of an association, a social club or society over a period of time.
3.
The report of the proceedings of a meeting. This is known as “Minutes writing” You may be
asked as a secretary of a club or leader on duty to write a report (minutes) on all that happened or
transpired during a meeting.
In all the above points, one must quite formal in writing. A report has the following features:
i.
A Title
ii. A body
iii. Signature iv. Name of the writer
v.
Rank (post or status of the writer)
Details on the Features of Report Writing
TITLE
The title must be written in capital letters or initial capitals and underlined. The title should portray
the subject matter of the report on the activities of the particular society /institution whose report is
being given or show what the report was about and lastly the period or duration on which the report
is covering. Example: 1.
A REPORT ON THE PSYCHIATRIC NURSING MOTHER
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2.
Report of the In-charge on the Month of April 2021,Yendi Main Hospital
MAIN TEXT
The main text comprises introduction, body that deals with discussion, description, conclusions and
recommendations if the need be.
THE BODY
i.
Introduction: The report should however, commence with an introduction which should
mention the scope and purpose or the period the report is covering. It updates the reader by
informing about previous works and highlights the new grounds covered in the present study.
ii.
The main body: A well-organized points follow the introduction in the form of sub-headings
(when it’s a report on a series of events). This is the lengthiest part of a report because it contains
the central ideas and arguments of the report with all the illustrations and tables. Avoid sub-heading
and write the whole thing in a direct paragraph when it is on one major event. Remember not to
disorganize your paragraphs.
iii.
Conclusion: This part ends with the final remarks of the writer, which actually summarize
the main idea and highlight if any recommendation. All conclusions must be supported by what has
gone before; nothing new should be added at this stage.
iv.
Name of the writer/ reporter: Write your name as used in all your official documents but in
initial capitals.
v.
Signature: Sign appropriately.
vi.
Post/statue: Write your current rank in the institution or the rank prescribe by the question
Guidelines for Report Writing
a.
Use impersonal language, that is, don’t put yourself in the report. Do not include your
impression from the general spirit of reporting. E.g do not write, “We agreed to put our head
together, even though I objected to it”. Rather write or say “it was unanimously or a greed.”
b.
Remember to make the report cover the whole activities by narrative or description of all
that transpired during the period.
c.
Since the report is on something already done, you must use the past tense forms of verbs,
generally.
d.
Paraphrase all direct speeches and change them to indirect speeches.
e.
All demonstrative adjectives should be changed from present to past to agree with the verbs
they go with. E.g. this becomes that. Now becomes then. These become those. Must become had
Conclusion: this can be in a form of a summary, or recommendation, suggestion or opinion, if
necessary.
Remember, the signature is not always important, you may omit it. In case you omit the signature,
then write your name openly and put the post in brackets.
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END OF FIRST SEMESTER QUIZ
COMMUNICATIVE AND STUDY SKILLS AND REPORT WRITING
1. Which of the following is not a reading skills
a) eyes movement
b) Close reading
c) Skim reading
d) Scan reading
2. The practice of pronunciation of words while reading is termed…
a) Sub-vocalization
b) Vocalization
c) Fixation
d) Skimming
3. A word or sentence with varied meaning or interpretation is called……
a) Sentence meaning
b) Incomplete sentence
c) Ambiguity
d) Word meaning
4. A method of making note where a paper is divided into several pieces is called….
a) Sentence method
b) Headline method
c) Cornell method
d) Spider-gram method
5. They …………….…….good time.
a) have
b) was
c) is
d) has
6. Either Faustina or Abdulai…… in the school.
a) are
b) is
c) were
d) have
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7. Which of these is not a way of creating personal abbreviation
a) The omission of all vowels in a word except when it will change the meaning of the
word
b) The use of an apostrophe to shorten long word.
c) The Removal of consonant letters
d) Shortening of words for easy recognition
8. Which of the following pair is an example of abbreviation
a) GNAT and MOFA
b) UNESCO and WHO
c) FANBOYS and GHACEM
d) UK and GBC
9. All the following names are other names for diagrammatic notes making except
a) Spread
b) Nuclear
c) Branching
d) Spider-gram
10. The use of letters to shorten words during note making is called
a) Initialism
b) Acronym
c) Shorten
d) Abbreviation
SECTION B [30 MARKS]
ANSWER THREE QUESTIONS ONLY
1. a. With the help of a diagram, explain the meaning of semantic mapping [4 Marks]
b. i. State any two forms diagramatic note
ii. State any two causes of reading default
c. In your own words, how would you determine ambiguity statement?
[2 Marks]
[2 Marks]
[2 Marks]
2. Write two examples of sentences for each of the following
a)
i.
Simple sentences
ii.
Compound sentences
[2 Marks]
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b)
c)
i. Write two examples of ambiguous sentences
[2Marks]
ii. State any two values of communication
[2 Marks]
State any two ways to avoid plagiarism
[4 Marks]
3. i. Write one difference between acronym and abbreviation and give two examples each
[5 Mark]
ii. State one difference between SVC and SVO sentences
[1 Mark]
iii. Construct two sentences each for SVO and SVC sentences.
[4 Marks]
4. a. Briefly distinguish deductive and inductive paragraphing
b. State two reasons why documentation is necessary.
[4 Marks]
[2 Marks]
c. Use the method of creating abbreviations to abbreviate these words:
i. Limited
ii. Road
iii. Private
iii. Should not
[4 Marks]
SECTION C [30 Marks]
Answer all Questions in this Section
1. As a mental health nurse, who observed a demonstration on first aid to a mental health
challenge patient, write a report outlining two challenges you have seen during the process
and provide at most three recommendations for future demonstrations. Your work must be
at most 250 words.
PLAES, DO NOT TAKE THIS PART AWAY
Underline or Circle (
) On Punctuation Error [30 marks]
2. football is a Game which pit one theme against the other. At kickoff, each is made up of
eleven player whose aim is to win the game by ensuring that they score more goals. In other
to ensure fairness, there is the referee whose duty are to insist that the rules of the game are
obeyed. on each side of the pitches, there is a goal post which is guided by a keeper who
stops the ball from entering the net. if any other touches the ball with the hand, that will be
fowl. it is even more serious If that person handles the ball in their goal area, for that will
certainly be a Penalty. There is always a reserve arena which coaches rely on for for
substitutions. No football match worth its salt is complete without spectators.
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END OF FIRST SEMESTER QUIZ
MARKING SCHEMESECTION A [10 MARKS]
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. A
6. B
7. C
8. D
9. A
10. B
SECTION B
[30 MARKS]
ANSWER THREE QUESTIONS ONLY
1. a.
[4 Marks]
Spider-gram is a form of note making where the main point is captured in the center of the
web or ring with extensions forming the supporting or explanation to the main point.
Diagram below elaborate the definition.
Lack of education
Inadequate rubbish bins
Inadequate
officers
CAUSES OF
ENVIROMENTAL
POLLUTION
Lack of funds
Lack of maintenance
b. i.
- Avoidance of vocalization and sub-vocalization
- Having wide gaze or fixation on sentences
[2 Marks]
- Reading without finger or pencil tracing
- Good positioning of reading material
- Good reading posture of the reader
ii.
-
[2 Marks]
Narrow span gaze
Reading with head movement
Poor position of reading material
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- Tracing by the use of pen, pencil, or finger
- Regression
c.
[2 Marks]
- Any type of composition that tells or describes something or gives information about
something to someone
- Report writing is a type of writing where the writer sequentially accounts for an event
or business enterprise.
-It is a factual description of events, activities or situations and may include
recommendation for further action.
- Any written that conveys factual information and wholly factual of an event or business
to someone
2.
a)
Compound and complex sentences
[2 Marks]
Compound sentence: Any sentence which involves coordinator to join two independent
sentences or clauses. Examples.
-Shiraz visited his farm but he didn’t work
- They rushed to the accident scene and they rescue the victim
- The rain increased, so the officials cancelled the game
Complex sentence: Any sentence made up of a simple sentence and a state that begin with a
dependent word or subordinator. Examples.
b)
-
While going to the shop, they were hit by strange bullet.
I will farm this year, if it rains.
i. Any sentence that has several interpretations. Example…
I saw a walking stick
Stop men at work
The woman washed, bath, dressed and feed the baby
ii.
Concentration
Measure of progress
Knowledge bank
For reference
For research purpose
c)
[2Marks]
[2 Marks]
[4 Marks]
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Quoting your source
In-text citation
Reference
replacing words of the original text but still acknowledging the source
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STUDENT ID NUMBER:………………………………………
v. differentiating between common knowledge and the information that
needs to own anybody’s ideas
vi. acknowledging source in both in-text and in the bibliography
vii. being vigilant and take notes by indicating direct quotations and
identifying the sources
viii. acknowledging paraphrased text
ix. acknowledging summarized text
x. putting quoted material into quotation marks
xi. not pretending to own anybody’s ideas
3. i.
[5 Mark]
Acronym is the art of using shorten word to pronounce as a word whiles abbreviation is any
kind of shortening word for easy recognition.
ii.
[1 Mark]
- Subject Verb Object in it active voice form can be changed to passive but Subject Verb
Complement cannot be changed to passive sentence
iii. Any two SVO and SVC sentences.
[4 Marks]
Any Subject Verb Object (SVO):
-Nunu slapped Kofi
- The snake killed the mouse
- She bought oranges
Any Subject Verb Complement (SVC):
-He is fantastic
-She is a doctor
-Derrick feels good
4. a. Briefly distinguish deductive and inductive paragraphing
[4 Marks]
-Inductive is a form of reasoning or paragraphing in which one analyzes specific fact and
generalizes the conclusion whiles deductive paragraphing analyzes the general conclusion,
facts or instances first before talking about the specifics
b.
[2 Marks]
- to avoid been punish academically
- to have an authentic or reliable document for researchers
c.
[4 Marks]
i. Limited ………….Ltd
ii. Road…………….Rd
iii. Development ………….dev’t
iii. Should not ………….. shdn’t
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SECTION C [60 Marks]
[30 Marks]
i.
ii.
iii.
i.
ii.
i.
ii.
CONTENT:
10
ORGANIZATION:
5
EXPRESSION:
10
MECHANICAL ACCURACY
5
TOTAL:
30
CONTENT
i.
The question is report writing. All the formal features of report or formal writing are
needed for the maximum score. i.e. heading, background/preamble, time, day and
date, writer’s full name and signature.
ii.
Events well-explained are needed
ORGANIZATION
A good planning of the essay necessary
Good paragraphing is very important
If a candidate writes a letter or an article, the highest score should not exceed 2 marks
EXPRESSION
The language should be formal and straightforward
Marks should be awarded to clarity of expression
MECHANICAL ACCURACY
Deduct half a mark (1/2) against each ring made i.e.
- Spelling errors
- Punctuation
- Sentence construction errors
Score zero after the five (5) marks allocated to this part are finished and then stop
deduction
PLAES, DO NOT TAKE THIS PART AWAY
[30 marks]
Underline or Put A Circle (
) On Punctuation Error and A Capital Letter ‘P’ to Indicate
A Paragraph
1. ‘You dont have to be hero to do certain things to complete. You can be just an ordinary
being; sufficiently motivated to reach challenging goals’ said by mr Edmund Hillary as he
suggests, any individual can set a goal and achieve it. P As a student, the best place to set
your goal is school. You have a lot of time on your hands. A goal is that which makes you
excited or motivated. This may come within you as a person; it may also be as a result of
what you observe about another individual.P There are a number of things that can give you
imediate pleasure. You decided to postpone it in order to have a fuller satisfaction in the
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STUDENT ID NUMBER:………………………………………
near future, because this immediate pleasure could spell doom for you if you fail to pass
your examination later. Perhaps, if you had delayed the fun, you could have had more
fulfilling pleasures after school. Here are few pieces of advice; P first, determine your
current position. “Where am I right now?” Ask yourself. This is not about where you stand,
physically Remember that there are millionaires everywhere in the world. Similarly, there
are others living in abject povaty everywhere in the world. You can open yourself up for
life of poverty too. So, work hard to prepare for the life ahead of you. P The next advice is
to ask about your strength and weaknesses. Be honest and ask yourself what you do best.
Your strengths are those that you can do with less stress. What you are not able to do well,
you can place them among your weaknesses.
SECTION A
(20 MARKS)
(Answer all questions in this section by circling the correct answer)
1. Anything that interfere in the communication between source and receiver is called
A. Communication Barrier
B. Barrier
C. Sound
D. Communicative interferer
2. Which of the following is not a type of reading?
A. Close reading
B. Narrow span reading
C. Skimming
D. Scanning
3. Communication is said to be cyclical. True/ False
4. Without feedback communication is said to be incomplete, because communication is …
A. Three ways process
B. Four ways process
C. Two ways process
D. One way process
5. A form of note that has an artistic feature is called….
A. Summary note
B. Headline note
C. Quotation note
D. Spider-gram note
6. The two main classification of note taken are …
A. Un-diagrammatic and Diagrammatic
B. Diagrammatic and spider-gram
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STUDENT ID NUMBER:………………………………………
C. Summary and diagrammatic
D. Outlining and linear
7. Which of these pairs can best describe an acronym
I.
UNESCO and WHO
II.
GCB and GBC
III.
WHO and VRA
IV.
FIFA and GHACEM
A. I and IV
B. I and II
C. III and IV
D. I and III
8. Which of these is not a way of creating personal abbreviation
A. Omit all vowels in the word
B. Shorten words at where you can recognize or identify it
C. Omit vowels except when it will affect the meaning of the word
D. Use the apostrophe to shorten word
9. The use of first letters of words to shorten them is called……………
A. Acronym
B. Initialism
C. Shortening
D. abbreviation
10. All the following are values of notes except………………………..
A. For measure of progress
B. As knowledge bank
C. For regression
D. For concentration
11. Which one of these functions of communication is design to give pleasure, enjoyment or
relaxation to a listener?
A. Motivation
B. Socialization
C. Entertainment
D. Persuasion
12. ……….. a process of sharing ideas, knowledge, attitudes, or feelings as intended by the
addresser.
A. Message
B. Information
C. Feedback
D. Communication
13. Whatever the receiver does after receiving information is called……..
A. Communication
B. Message
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STUDENT ID NUMBER:………………………………………
C. Information
D. Feedback
14. Which of the following is not among the importance of skimming?
A. Skimming saves time
B. Skimming helps state the main points
C. Skimming helps reader to enjoy the second reading
D. Skimming helps skip vital points
15. ………..is made up of two independent clause joined by a coordinator.
A. Sentence
B. Simple sentence
C. Complex sentence
D. Compound sentence
16. Which of the following sentences expresses strong feeling, or emotion of the speaker?
A. Declarative sentence
B. Exclamatory sentence
C. Interrogative sentence
D. Imperative sentence
17. The act of re-reading a word or a whole sentence as a result of wrong pronunciation,
divided mind or psychological stress is termed as……
A. Narrow reading
B. Regression
C. Vocalization
D. Sub-vocalization
18. When an addresser received a slap after greeting the addressee, it’s an example of……
A. Intentional feedback
B. Unintended feedback
C. Unintentional feedback
D. Intended feedback
19. Technical barrier of communication can occur through the following except
A. Some cultures are less vocal
B. The quality of the audio
C. Erratic power supply
D. Poor video quality
20. All the following can easily cause semantic noise except
A. Ambiguous sentence
B. Faulty pronunciation
C. Motivation
D. Misspelling
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STUDENT ID NUMBER:………………………………………
SECTION B
(55 MARKS)
(Answer Question One (1) compulsory and any other One (1) in this section in the answer
booklet provided)
1. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions on it.
Muni sat by the table, her legs stretched out and her feet out of her shoes. Once in a
while, she would unconsciously lift them up in an attempt to place them on the tablea bad habit she had acquired in the senior high school.
Four members in the committee, including her sat around the large table that stood
right in the middle of the conference room. The fifth member, the chairman, was busy
giving a long incomprehensible speech. He stood at the end of the room with a marker
in hand, facing the white board. His well-tailored black suit provided a sharp contrast
to the white blinds that covered the glass windows.
Emanuella, one of Muni’s colleagues was fanning her face not only to keep cool, but
also to lessen the odour emanating from the chair. Eventhough the foul smell was a
familiar one in the room, it was worse that day, because the heat aggravated it.
Muna had been sitting there for about thirty minutes but nothing had changed. The
chairman was still talking, and even though it was clear that he was heading nowhere,
he was on and on. “Ladies and gentlemen, the floor is now open…..”, here he was
inviting contributions on an issue that was not on the agenda, looking intently into
everybody’s face.
a. For each of the following words underlined in the passage, give another word or
phrase which is similar and can replace it in the passage.
i.
Unconsciously,
[3 Marks Each]
ii. Sharp,
iii. Familiar,
iv.
Aggravated,
v.
Clear,
vi.
Intently,
vii.
Emanating,
viii. Acquired,
b. What kind of communication do you identify in the passage? [1 Mark]
2. a. With the aid of a diagram, state the elements or factors of communication to
show that communication is cyclical.
[4 Marks]
i.
Distinguish between acronym and Initialism
[2Marks]
ii. Mention the two main classifications of note making
[4 Marks]
iii. Mention any three reading defaults.
[3 Marks]
c. Define the following terms
i.
Interpersonal communication
[4 Marks Each]
ii.
Intrapersonal communication
iii.
Mass communication
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STUDENT ID NUMBER:………………………………………
3. a. State one difference between intrapersonal and interpersonal
[2 Marks]
i.
State any four values of notes to a student
[4 Marks]
ii. Mention three barriers in communication
[3 Marks]
b. Write two examples each of the following types of sentences
i.
S. V .O
[2Marks]
ii.
S. V. C
[2Marks]
iii. S.V.O.O
[2Marks]
c. Define communication and mention three importance of communication
[6
Marks]
i.
Give one difference between skimming and scanning [2 Marks]
ii.
Write two importance of skimming
[2
Marks]
59
STUDENT ID NUMBER:………………………………………
REFERENCES
Anthony, V. A. & Peter, K. A. A (2004) Communication Study Skills. Accra:
Education
Division, Ghana Education Service.
Teacher
Abraham, K. O. (n.d) Language and Academic Writing. The Advent Press.
Dora, E. &Johnson, A. K (2013) Research Method in English. Winneba: The
Institute
for
Educational Development and Extension, University of
Education Winneba.
Edward, K. A., Koranteng, L &Yemeh, P. N (1996) Communication
Skills.
(Vols. 1-2).
Winneba The Institute for Educational Development and
Extension.
Ernest, K (n.d) The Golden Key to Business Communication. Tamale
Joseph, O etal. (2004) Principles and Methods of Teaching. Accra, Ghana.
Education
Division, Ghana Education Service.
Teacher
Joseph, K. Aetal (2005) English (with elements of literature). Accra. Ghana.
Education
Division, Ghana Education Service.
Teacher
Peace, C. I. (2018) Modern English Grammar and Advanced English Composition. Cape
Coast. Nyakod Printing and Publishing Co.Ltd.
Rashid, M. &Ampadu, F. O (2006) Trends in Education and School Management. Accra,
Ghana
Teacher Education Division, Ghana Education Service.
Sarpong, J. E. K (n.d)1st Class English. Redemption Ark Ventures. New Delhi, India
Thakur, D. (1999) Linguistics Simplified Semantics. New Delhi. Bharati Bhawan Publishers
&
Distributors.
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STUDENT ID NUMBER:………………………………………
COMMUNICATION STUDY SKILLS AND REPORT WRITING
Course Synopsis
Compiled by:
ABDULAI ABUBAKARI (BANDA)
SEPTEMBER, 2023
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