THOMAS’
CALCULUS
EARLY TRANSCENDENTALS
Thirteenth Edition
Based on the original work by
George B. Thomas, Jr.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
as revised by
Maurice D. Weir
Naval Postgraduate School
Joel Hass
University of California, Davis
with the assistance of
Christopher Heil
Georgia Institute of Technology
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Weir, Maurice D.
Thomas’ calculus : early transcendentals : based on the original work by George B. Thomas, Jr., Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.—Thirteenth edition / as revised by Maurice D. Weir, Naval Postgraduate School, Joel
Hass, University of California, Davis.
pages cm
ISBN 978-0-321-88407-7 (hardcover)
I. Hass, Joel. II. Thomas, George B. (George Brinton), Jr., 1914–2006. Calculus. Based on (Work): III.
Title. IV. Title: Calculus.
QA303.2.W45 2014
515–dc23
2013023096
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ISBN-10: 0-321-88407-8
ISBN-13: 978-0-321-88407-7
Contents
Preface
1
ix
Functions
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2
1
Functions and Their Graphs 1
Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs
Trigonometric Functions 21
Graphing with Software 29
Exponential Functions 36
Inverse Functions and Logarithms 41
Questions to Guide Your Review 54
Practice Exercises 54
Additional and Advanced Exercises 57
Limits and Continuity
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
59
Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves 59
Limit of a Function and Limit Laws 66
The Precise Definition of a Limit 77
One-Sided Limits 86
Continuity 93
Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs
Questions to Guide Your Review 118
Practice Exercises 118
Additional and Advanced Exercises 120
Derivatives
14
104
123
Tangents and the Derivative at a Point 123
The Derivative as a Function 128
Differentiation Rules 136
The Derivative as a Rate of Change 146
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 156
The Chain Rule 163
Implicit Differentiation 171
Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Inverse Trigonometric Functions 187
Related Rates 193
Linearization and Differentials 202
Questions to Guide Your Review 214
Practice Exercises 215
Additional and Advanced Exercises 219
177
iii
iv
Contents
4
Applications of Derivatives
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
5
Extreme Values of Functions 223
The Mean Value Theorem 231
Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test
Concavity and Curve Sketching 244
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule 255
Applied Optimization 264
Newton’s Method 276
Antiderivatives 281
Questions to Guide Your Review 291
Practice Exercises 291
Additional and Advanced Exercises 295
Integrals
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
6
223
299
Area and Estimating with Finite Sums 299
Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums 309
The Definite Integral 316
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 328
Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method 339
Definite Integral Substitutions and the Area Between Curves 347
Questions to Guide Your Review 357
Practice Exercises 357
Additional and Advanced Exercises 361
Applications of Definite Integrals
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
7
239
365
Volumes Using Cross-Sections 365
Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells 376
Arc Length 384
Areas of Surfaces of Revolution 390
Work and Fluid Forces 395
Moments and Centers of Mass 404
Questions to Guide Your Review 415
Practice Exercises 416
Additional and Advanced Exercises 417
Integrals and Transcendental Functions
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
The Logarithm Defined as an Integral 420
Exponential Change and Separable Differential Equations
Hyperbolic Functions 439
Relative Rates of Growth 448
Questions to Guide Your Review 453
Practice Exercises 453
Additional and Advanced Exercises 455
420
430
Contents
8
Techniques of Integration
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9
456
Using Basic Integration Formulas 456
Integration by Parts 461
Trigonometric Integrals 469
Trigonometric Substitutions 475
Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions
Integral Tables and Computer Algebra Systems 489
Numerical Integration 494
Improper Integrals 504
Probability 515
Questions to Guide Your Review 528
Practice Exercises 529
Additional and Advanced Exercises 531
First-Order Differential Equations
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
11
480
536
Solutions, Slope Fields, and Euler’s Method 536
First-Order Linear Equations 544
Applications 550
Graphical Solutions of Autonomous Equations 556
Systems of Equations and Phase Planes 563
Questions to Guide Your Review 569
Practice Exercises 569
Additional and Advanced Exercises 570
Infinite Sequences and Series
572
Sequences 572
Infinite Series 584
The Integral Test 593
Comparison Tests 600
Absolute Convergence; The Ratio and Root Tests 604
Alternating Series and Conditional Convergence 610
Power Series 616
Taylor and Maclaurin Series 626
Convergence of Taylor Series 631
The Binomial Series and Applications of Taylor Series 638
Questions to Guide Your Review 647
Practice Exercises 648
Additional and Advanced Exercises 650
Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
11.1 Parametrizations of Plane Curves 653
11.2 Calculus with Parametric Curves 661
11.3 Polar Coordinates 671
653
v
vi
Contents
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
Graphing Polar Coordinate Equations 675
Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates 679
Conic Sections 683
Conics in Polar Coordinates 692
Questions to Guide Your Review 699
Practice Exercises 699
Additional and Advanced Exercises 701
Vectors and the Geometry of Space
704
Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems 704
Vectors 709
The Dot Product 718
The Cross Product 726
Lines and Planes in Space 732
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces 740
Questions to Guide Your Review 745
Practice Exercises 746
Additional and Advanced Exercises 748
Vector-Valued Functions and Motion in Space
Curves in Space and Their Tangents 751
Integrals of Vector Functions; Projectile Motion 759
Arc Length in Space 768
Curvature and Normal Vectors of a Curve 772
Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration 778
Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 784
Questions to Guide Your Review 788
Practice Exercises 788
Additional and Advanced Exercises 790
Partial Derivatives
793
Functions of Several Variables 793
Limits and Continuity in Higher Dimensions 801
Partial Derivatives 810
The Chain Rule 821
Directional Derivatives and Gradient Vectors 830
Tangent Planes and Differentials 839
Extreme Values and Saddle Points 848
Lagrange Multipliers 857
Taylor’s Formula for Two Variables 866
Partial Derivatives with Constrained Variables 870
Questions to Guide Your Review 875
Practice Exercises 876
Additional and Advanced Exercises 879
751
Contents
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
16
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
17
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
Multiple Integrals
Double and Iterated Integrals over Rectangles 882
Double Integrals over General Regions 887
Area by Double Integration 896
Double Integrals in Polar Form 900
Triple Integrals in Rectangular Coordinates 906
Moments and Centers of Mass 915
Triple Integrals in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
Substitutions in Multiple Integrals 934
Questions to Guide Your Review 944
Practice Exercises 944
Additional and Advanced Exercises 947
Integrals and Vector Fields
922
950
Line Integrals 950
Vector Fields and Line Integrals: Work, Circulation, and Flux 957
Path Independence, Conservative Fields, and Potential Functions 969
Green’s Theorem in the Plane 980
Surfaces and Area 992
Surface Integrals 1003
Stokes’ Theorem 1014
The Divergence Theorem and a Unified Theory 1027
Questions to Guide Your Review 1039
Practice Exercises 1040
Additional and Advanced Exercises 1042
Second-Order Differential Equations
online
Second-Order Linear Equations
Nonhomogeneous Linear Equations
Applications
Euler Equations
Power Series Solutions
Appendices
A.1
A.2
A.3
A.4
A.5
A.6
A.7
A.8
A.9
882
AP-1
Real Numbers and the Real Line AP-1
Mathematical Induction AP-6
Lines, Circles, and Parabolas AP-10
Proofs of Limit Theorems AP-19
Commonly Occurring Limits AP-22
Theory of the Real Numbers AP-23
Complex Numbers AP-26
The Distributive Law for Vector Cross Products AP-35
The Mixed Derivative Theorem and the Increment Theorem AP-36
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises
Index
Credits
I-1
C-1
A Brief Table of Integrals
T-1
A-1
vii
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Preface
Thomas’ Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Thirteenth Edition, provides a modern introduction to calculus that focuses on conceptual understanding in developing the essential
elements of a traditional course. This material supports a three-semester or four-quarter
calculus sequence typically taken by students in mathematics, engineering, and the natural
sciences. Precise explanations, thoughtfully chosen examples, superior figures, and timetested exercise sets are the foundation of this text. We continue to improve this text in
keeping with shifts in both the preparation and the ambitions of today’s students, and the
applications of calculus to a changing world.
Many of today’s students have been exposed to the terminology and computational
methods of calculus in high school. Despite this familiarity, their acquired algebra and
trigonometry skills sometimes limit their ability to master calculus at the college level. In
this text, we seek to balance students’ prior experience in calculus with the algebraic skill
development they may still need, without slowing their progress through calculus itself. We
have taken care to provide enough review material (in the text and appendices), detailed
solutions, and variety of examples and exercises, to support a complete understanding of
calculus for students at varying levels. We present the material in a way to encourage student thinking, going beyond memorizing formulas and routine procedures, and we show
students how to generalize key concepts once they are introduced. References are made
throughout which tie a new concept to a related one that was studied earlier, or to a generalization they will see later on. After studying calculus from Thomas, students will have
developed problem solving and reasoning abilities that will serve them well in many important aspects of their lives. Mastering this beautiful and creative subject, with its many
practical applications across so many fields of endeavor, is its own reward. But the real gift
of studying calculus is acquiring the ability to think logically and factually, and learning
how to generalize conceptually. We intend this book to encourage and support those goals.
New to this Edition
In this new edition we further blend conceptual thinking with the overall logic and structure of single and multivariable calculus. We continue to improve clarity and precision,
taking into account helpful suggestions from readers and users of our previous texts. While
keeping a careful eye on length, we have created additional examples throughout the text.
Numerous new exercises have been added at all levels of difficulty, but the focus in this
revision has been on the mid-level exercises. A number of figures have been reworked and
new ones added to improve visualization. We have written a new section on probability,
which provides an important application of integration to the life sciences.
We have maintained the basic structure of the Table of Contents, and retained improvements from the twelfth edition. In keeping with this process, we have added more
improvements throughout, which we detail here:
ix
x
Preface
•
Functions In discussing the use of software for graphing purposes, we added a brief
subsection on least squares curve fitting, which allows students to take advantage of
this widely used and available application. Prerequisite material continues to be reviewed in Appendices 1–3.
•
Continuity We clarified the continuity definitions by confining the term “endpoints” to
intervals instead of more general domains, and we moved the subsection on continuous
extension of a function to the end of the continuity section.
•
Derivatives We included a brief geometric insight justifying l’Hôpital’s Rule. We also
enhanced and clarified the meaning of differentiability for functions of several variables, and added a result on the Chain Rule for functions defined along a path.
•
Integrals We wrote a new section reviewing basic integration formulas and the Substitution Rule, using them in combination with algebraic and trigonometric identities,
before presenting other techniques of integration.
•
Probability We created a new section applying improper integrals to some commonly
used probability distributions, including the exponential and normal distributions.
Many examples and exercises apply to the life sciences.
•
Series We now present the idea of absolute convergence before giving the Ratio and
Root Tests, and then state these tests in their stronger form. Conditional convergence is
introduced later on with the Alternating Series Test.
•
Multivariable and Vector Calculus We give more geometric insight into the idea of
multiple integrals, and we enhance the meaning of the Jacobian in using substitutions
to evaluate them. The idea of surface integrals of vector fields now parallels the notion
for line integrals of vector fields. We have improved our discussion of the divergence
and curl of a vector field.
•
Exercises and Examples Strong exercise sets are traditional with Thomas’ Calculus,
and we continue to strengthen them with each new edition. Here, we have updated,
changed, and added many new exercises and examples, with particular attention to including more applications to the life science areas and to contemporary problems. For
instance, we updated an exercise on the growth of the U.S. GNP and added new exercises addressing drug concentrations and dosages, estimating the spill rate of a ruptured
oil pipeline, and predicting rising costs for college tuition.
Continuing Features
RIGOR The level of rigor is consistent with that of earlier editions. We continue to distinguish between formal and informal discussions and to point out their differences. We think
starting with a more intuitive, less formal, approach helps students understand a new or difficult concept so they can then appreciate its full mathematical precision and outcomes. We
pay attention to defining ideas carefully and to proving theorems appropriate for calculus
students, while mentioning deeper or subtler issues they would study in a more advanced
course. Our organization and distinctions between informal and formal discussions give the
instructor a degree of flexibility in the amount and depth of coverage of the various topics. For example, while we do not prove the Intermediate Value Theorem or the Extreme
Value Theorem for continuous functions on a # x # b, we do state these theorems precisely,
illustrate their meanings in numerous examples, and use them to prove other important results. Furthermore, for those instructors who desire greater depth of coverage, in Appendix
6 we discuss the reliance of the validity of these theorems on the completeness of the real
numbers.
Preface
xi
WRITING EXERCISES Writing exercises placed throughout the text ask students to explore and explain a variety of calculus concepts and applications. In addition, the end of
each chapter contains a list of questions for students to review and summarize what they
have learned. Many of these exercises make good writing assignments.
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEWS AND PROJECTS In addition to problems appearing after
each section, each chapter culminates with review questions, practice exercises covering
the entire chapter, and a series of Additional and Advanced Exercises serving to include
more challenging or synthesizing problems. Most chapters also include descriptions of
several Technology Application Projects that can be worked by individual students or
groups of students over a longer period of time. These projects require the use of a computer running Mathematica or Maple and additional material that is available over the
Internet at www.pearsonhighered.com/thomas and in MyMathLab.
WRITING AND APPLICATIONS As always, this text continues to be easy to read, conversational, and mathematically rich. Each new topic is motivated by clear, easy-to-understand
examples and is then reinforced by its application to real-world problems of immediate
interest to students. A hallmark of this book has been the application of calculus to science
and engineering. These applied problems have been updated, improved, and extended continually over the last several editions.
TECHNOLOGY In a course using the text, technology can be incorporated according to
the taste of the instructor. Each section contains exercises requiring the use of technology;
these are marked with a T if suitable for calculator or computer use, or they are labeled
Computer Explorations if a computer algebra system (CAS, such as Maple or Mathematica) is required.
Additional Resources
INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL
Single Variable Calculus (Chapters 1–11), ISBN 0-321-88408-6 | 978-0-321-88408-4
Multivariable Calculus (Chapters 10–16), ISBN 0-321-87901-5 | 978-0-321-87901-1
The Instructor’s Solutions Manual contains complete worked-out solutions to all of the
exercises in Thomas’ Calculus: Early Transcendentals.
STUDENT’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL
Single Variable Calculus (Chapters 1–11), ISBN 0-321-88410-8 | 978-0-321-88410-7
Multivariable Calculus (Chapters 10–16), ISBN 0-321-87897-3 | 978-0-321-87897-7
The Student’s Solutions Manual is designed for the student and contains carefully
worked-out solutions to all the odd-numbered exercises in Thomas’ Calculus: Early
Transcendentals.
JUST-IN-TIME ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY FOR
EARLY TRANSCENDENTALS CALCULUS, Fourth Edition
ISBN 0-321-67103-1 | 978-0-321-67103-5
Sharp algebra and trigonometry skills are critical to mastering calculus, and Just-in-Time
Algebra and Trigonometry for Early Transcendentals Calculus by Guntram Mueller and
Ronald I. Brent is designed to bolster these skills while students study calculus. As students make their way through calculus, this text is with them every step of the way, showing them the necessary algebra or trigonometry topics and pointing out potential problem
spots. The easy-to-use table of contents has algebra and trigonometry topics arranged in
the order in which students will need them as they study calculus.
xii
Preface
Technology Resource Manuals
Maple Manual by Marie Vanisko, Carroll College
Mathematica Manual by Marie Vanisko, Carroll College
TI-Graphing Calculator Manual by Elaine McDonald-Newman, Sonoma State University
These manuals cover Maple 17, Mathematica 8, and the TI-83 Plus/TI-84 Plus and TI-89,
respectively. Each manual provides detailed guidance for integrating a specific software
package or graphing calculator throughout the course, including syntax and commands.
These manuals are available to qualified instructors through the Thomas’ Calculus: Early
Transcendentals Web site, www.pearsonhighered.com/thomas, and MyMathLab.
WEB SITE www.pearsonhighered.com/thomas
The Thomas’ Calculus: Early Transcendentals Web site contains the chapter on SecondOrder Differential Equations, including odd-numbered answers, and provides the expanded historical biographies and essays referenced in the text. The Technology Resource
Manuals and the Technology Application Projects, which can be used as projects by individual students or groups of students, are also available.
MyMathLab® Online Course (access code required)
MyMathLab from Pearson is the world’s leading online resource in mathematics, integrating interactive homework, assessment, and media in a flexible, easy-to-use format.
MyMathLab delivers proven results in helping individual students succeed.
•
MyMathLab has a consistently positive impact on the quality of learning in higher
education math instruction. MyMathLab can be successfully implemented in any
environment—lab-based, hybrid, fully online, traditional—and demonstrates the quantifiable difference that integrated usage makes in regard to student retention, subsequent success, and overall achievement.
•
MyMathLab’s comprehensive online gradebook automatically tracks your students’ results on tests, quizzes, homework, and in the study plan. You can use the gradebook to
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programs, such as Microsoft Excel. You can determine which points of data you want
to export, and then analyze the results to determine success.
MyMathLab provides engaging experiences that personalize, stimulate, and measure
learning for each student.
•
“Getting Ready” chapter includes hundreds of exercises that address prerequisite
skills in algebra and trigonometry. Each student can receive remediation for just those
skills he or she needs help with.
•
Exercises: The homework and practice exercises in MyMathLab are correlated to the
exercises in the textbook, and they regenerate algorithmically to give students unlimited opportunity for practice and mastery. The software offers immediate, helpful feedback when students enter incorrect answers.
•
Multimedia Learning Aids: Exercises include guided solutions, sample problems,
animations, Java™ applets, videos, and eText access for extra help at point-of-use.
•
Expert Tutoring: Although many students describe the whole of MyMathLab as “like
having your own personal tutor,” students using MyMathLab do have access to live
tutoring from Pearson, from qualified math and statistics instructors.
Preface
xiii
And, MyMathLab comes from an experienced partner with educational expertise and an
eye on the future.
•
Knowing that you are using a Pearson product means knowing that you are using quality content. It means that our eTexts are accurate and our assessment tools work. It also
means we are committed to making MyMathLab as accessible as possible.
•
Whether you are just getting started with MyMathLab, or have a question along the
way, we’re here to help you learn about our technologies and how to incorporate them
into your course.
To learn more about how MyMathLab combines proven learning applications with powerful assessment, visit www.mymathlab.com or contact your Pearson representative.
Video Lectures with Optional Captioning
The Video Lectures with Optional Captioning feature an engaging team of mathematics instructors who present comprehensive coverage of topics in the text. The lecturers’
presentations include examples and exercises from the text and support an approach that
emphasizes visualization and problem solving. Available only through MyMathLab and
MathXL.
MathXL® Online Course (access code required)
MathXL® is the homework and assessment engine that runs MyMathLab. (MyMathLab is
MathXL plus a learning management system.)
With MathXL, instructors can:
•
Create, edit, and assign online homework and tests using algorithmically generated exercises correlated at the objective level to the textbook.
•
•
Create and assign their own online exercises and import TestGen tests for added flexibility.
Maintain records of all student work tracked in MathXL’s online gradebook.
With MathXL, students can:
•
Take chapter tests in MathXL and receive personalized study plans and/or personalized
homework assignments based on their test results.
•
Use the study plan and/or the homework to link directly to tutorial exercises for the
objectives they need to study.
•
Access supplemental animations and video clips directly from selected exercises.
MathXL is available to qualified adopters. For more information, visit our website at
www.mathxl.com, or contact your Pearson representative.
TestGen®
TestGen® (www.pearsoned.com/testgen) enables instructors to build, edit, print, and administer tests using a computerized bank of questions developed to cover all the objectives of the text. TestGen is algorithmically based, allowing instructors to create multiple
but equivalent versions of the same question or test with the click of a button. Instructors
can also modify test bank questions or add new questions. The software and test bank are
available for download from Pearson Education’s online catalog.
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides
These classroom presentation slides are geared specifically to the sequence and philosophy
of the Thomas’ Calculus series. Key graphics from the book are included to help bring the
concepts alive in the classroom.These files are available to qualified instructors through
the Pearson Instructor Resource Center, www.pearsonhighered/irc, and MyMathLab.
xiv
Preface
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our thanks to the people who made many valuable contributions
to this edition as it developed through its various stages:
Accuracy Checkers
Lisa Collette
Patricia Nelson
Tom Wegleitner
Reviewers for Recent Editions
Meighan Dillon, Southern Polytechnic State University
Anne Dougherty, University of Colorado
Said Fariabi, San Antonio College
Klaus Fischer, George Mason University
Tim Flood, Pittsburg State University
Rick Ford, California State University—Chico
Robert Gardner, East Tennessee State University
Christopher Heil, Georgia Institute of Technology
Joshua Brandon Holden, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
Alexander Hulpke, Colorado State University
Jacqueline Jensen, Sam Houston State University
Jennifer M. Johnson, Princeton University
Hideaki Kaneko, Old Dominion University
Przemo Kranz, University of Mississippi
Xin Li, University of Central Florida
Maura Mast, University of Massachusetts—Boston
Val Mohanakumar, Hillsborough Community College—Dale Mabry Campus
Aaron Montgomery, Central Washington University
Christopher M. Pavone, California State University at Chico
Cynthia Piez, University of Idaho
Brooke Quinlan, Hillsborough Community College—Dale Mabry Campus
Rebecca A. Segal, Virginia Commonwealth University
Andrew V. Sills, Georgia Southern University
Alex Smith, University of Wisconsin—Eau Claire
Mark A. Smith, Miami University
Donald Solomon, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee
John Sullivan, Black Hawk College
Maria Terrell, Cornell University
Blake Thornton, Washington University in St. Louis
David Walnut, George Mason University
Adrian Wilson, University of Montevallo
Bobby Winters, Pittsburg State University
Dennis Wortman, University of Massachusetts—Boston
1
Functions
OVERVIEW Functions are fundamental to the study of calculus. In this chapter we review
what functions are and how they are pictured as graphs, how they are combined and transformed, and ways they can be classified. We review the trigonometric functions, and we
discuss misrepresentations that can occur when using calculators and computers to obtain
a function’s graph. We also discuss inverse, exponential, and logarithmic functions. The
real number system, Cartesian coordinates, straight lines, circles, parabolas, and ellipses
are reviewed in the Appendices.
1.1 Functions and Their Graphs
Functions are a tool for describing the real world in mathematical terms. A function can be
represented by an equation, a graph, a numerical table, or a verbal description; we will use
all four representations throughout this book. This section reviews these function ideas.
Functions; Domain and Range
The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the boiling
point drops as you ascend). The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of
time the investment is held. The area of a circle depends on the radius of the circle. The distance an object travels at constant speed along a straight-line path depends on the elapsed time.
In each case, the value of one variable quantity, say y, depends on the value of another
variable quantity, which we might call x. We say that “y is a function of x” and write this
symbolically as
y = ƒ(x)
(“y equals ƒ of x”).
In this notation, the symbol ƒ represents the function, the letter x is the independent variable
representing the input value of ƒ, and y is the dependent variable or output value of ƒ at x.
DEFINITION A function ƒ from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique
(single) element ƒ(x)∊Y to each element x∊D.
The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the function. The set of
all output values of ƒ(x) as x varies throughout D is called the range of the function. The
range may not include every element in the set Y. The domain and range of a function can
be any sets of objects, but often in calculus they are sets of real numbers interpreted as
points of a coordinate line. (In Chapters 13–16, we will encounter functions for which the
elements of the sets are points in the coordinate plane or in space.)
1
2
x
Chapter 1: Functions
f
Input
(domain)
Output
(range)
f (x)
FIGURE 1.1 A diagram showing a
function as a kind of machine.
x
a
D = domain set
f (a)
f(x)
Y = set containing
the range
FIGURE 1.2 A function from a set D
to a set Y assigns a unique element of Y
to each element in D.
Often a function is given by a formula that describes how to calculate the output value
from the input variable. For instance, the equation A = pr 2 is a rule that calculates the
area A of a circle from its radius r (so r, interpreted as a length, can only be positive in this
formula). When we define a function y = ƒ(x) with a formula and the domain is not stated
explicitly or restricted by context, the domain is assumed to be the largest set of real
x-values for which the formula gives real y-values, which is called the natural domain. If
we want to restrict the domain in some way, we must say so. The domain of y = x2 is the
entire set of real numbers. To restrict the domain of the function to, say, positive values of
x, we would write “y = x2, x 7 0.”
Changing the domain to which we apply a formula usually changes the range as well.
The range of y = x2 is [0, q). The range of y = x2, x Ú 2, is the set of all numbers
obtained by squaring numbers greater than or equal to 2. In set notation (see Appendix 1),
the range is 5x2 " x Ú 26 or 5y " y Ú 46 or 3 4, q).
When the range of a function is a set of real numbers, the function is said to be realvalued. The domains and ranges of most real-valued functions of a real variable we consider are intervals or combinations of intervals. The intervals may be open, closed, or half
open, and may be finite or infinite. Sometimes the range of a function is not easy to find.
A function ƒ is like a machine that produces an output value ƒ(x) in its range whenever we
feed it an input value x from its domain (Figure 1.1). The function keys on a calculator give an
example of a function as a machine. For instance, the 2x key on a calculator gives an output
value (the square root) whenever you enter a nonnegative number x and press the 2x key.
A function can also be pictured as an arrow diagram (Figure 1.2). Each arrow associates
an element of the domain D with a unique or single element in the set Y. In Figure 1.2, the
arrows indicate that ƒ(a) is associated with a, ƒ(x) is associated with x, and so on. Notice that
a function can have the same value at two different input elements in the domain (as occurs
with ƒ(a) in Figure 1.2), but each input element x is assigned a single output value ƒ(x).
EXAMPLE 1
Let’s verify the natural domains and associated ranges of some simple
functions. The domains in each case are the values of x for which the formula makes sense.
Function
y
y
y
y
y
=
=
=
=
=
x2
1>x
2x
24 - x
21 - x2
Domain (x)
Range ( y)
(- q, q)
(- q, 0) ∪ (0, q)
3 0, q)
(- q, 44
3 -1, 14
3 0, q)
(- q, 0) ∪ (0, q)
3 0, q)
3 0, q)
3 0, 14
Solution The formula y = x2 gives a real y-value for any real number x, so the domain
is (- q, q). The range of y = x2 is 3 0, q) because the square of any real number is non2
negative and every nonnegative number y is the square of its own square root, y = 1 2y 2
for y Ú 0.
The formula y = 1>x gives a real y-value for every x except x = 0. For consistency
in the rules of arithmetic, we cannot divide any number by zero. The range of y = 1>x, the
set of reciprocals of all nonzero real numbers, is the set of all nonzero real numbers, since
y = 1>(1>y). That is, for y ≠ 0 the number x = 1>y is the input assigned to the output
value y.
The formula y = 2x gives a real y-value only if x Ú 0. The range of y = 2x is
3 0, q) because every nonnegative number is some number’s square root (namely, it is the
square root of its own square).
In y = 24 - x, the quantity 4 - x cannot be negative. That is, 4 - x Ú 0, or
x … 4. The formula gives real y-values for all x … 4. The range of 24 - x is 3 0, q),
the set of all nonnegative numbers.
3
1.1 Functions and Their Graphs
The formula y = 21 - x2 gives a real y-value for every x in the closed interval from
-1 to 1. Outside this domain, 1 - x2 is negative and its square root is not a real number.
The values of 1 - x2 vary from 0 to 1 on the given domain, and the square roots of these
values do the same. The range of 21 - x2 is 3 0, 14 .
Graphs of Functions
If ƒ is a function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian plane
whose coordinates are the input-output pairs for ƒ. In set notation, the graph is
5(x, ƒ(x)) " x∊D6 .
The graph of the function ƒ(x) = x + 2 is the set of points with coordinates (x, y) for
which y = x + 2. Its graph is the straight line sketched in Figure 1.3.
The graph of a function ƒ is a useful picture of its behavior. If (x, y) is a point on the
graph, then y = ƒ(x) is the height of the graph above (or below) the point x. The height
may be positive or negative, depending on the sign of ƒ(x) (Figure 1.4).
y
f(1)
y
f(2)
x
y=x+2
0
1
x
2
f(x)
2
(x, y)
x
y = x2
-2
-1
0
1
3
2
2
4
1
0
1
9
4
4
−2
0
FIGURE 1.3 The graph of ƒ(x) = x + 2
is the set of points (x, y) for which y has the
value x + 2.
EXAMPLE 2
FIGURE 1.4 If (x, y) lies on the graph of
ƒ, then the value y = ƒ(x) is the height of
the graph above the point x (or below x if
ƒ(x) is negative).
Graph the function y = x2 over the interval 3 -2, 24 .
Solution Make a table of xy-pairs that satisfy the equation y = x2 . Plot the points (x, y)
whose coordinates appear in the table, and draw a smooth curve (labeled with its equation)
through the plotted points (see Figure 1.5).
y
(−2, 4)
x
How do we know that the graph of y = x2 doesn’t look like one of these curves?
(2, 4)
4
y
y
y = x2
3
3 9
a2 , 4b
2
(−1, 1)
1
−2
0
−1
1
2
y = x 2?
y = x 2?
(1, 1)
x
FIGURE 1.5 Graph of the function
in Example 2.
x
x
4
Chapter 1: Functions
To find out, we could plot more points. But how would we then connect them? The basic
question still remains: How do we know for sure what the graph looks like between the
points we plot? Calculus answers this question, as we will see in Chapter 4. Meanwhile,
we will have to settle for plotting points and connecting them as best we can.
Representing a Function Numerically
We have seen how a function may be represented algebraically by a formula (the area
function) and visually by a graph (Example 2). Another way to represent a function is
numerically, through a table of values. Numerical representations are often used by engineers and experimental scientists. From an appropriate table of values, a graph of the function can be obtained using the method illustrated in Example 2, possibly with the aid of a
computer. The graph consisting of only the points in the table is called a scatterplot.
EXAMPLE 3
Musical notes are pressure waves in the air. The data associated with
Figure 1.6 give recorded pressure displacement versus time in seconds of a musical note
produced by a tuning fork. The table provides a representation of the pressure function
over time. If we first make a scatterplot and then connect approximately the data points
(t, p) from the table, we obtain the graph shown in the figure.
p (pressure)
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
0.00091
0.00108
0.00125
0.00144
0.00162
0.00180
0.00198
0.00216
0.00234
0.00253
0.00271
0.00289
0.00307
0.00325
0.00344
-0.080
0.200
0.480
0.693
0.816
0.844
0.771
0.603
0.368
0.099
-0.141
-0.309
-0.348
-0.248
-0.041
0.00362
0.00379
0.00398
0.00416
0.00435
0.00453
0.00471
0.00489
0.00507
0.00525
0.00543
0.00562
0.00579
0.00598
0.217
0.480
0.681
0.810
0.827
0.749
0.581
0.346
0.077
-0.164
-0.320
-0.354
-0.248
-0.035
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
Data
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
t (sec)
FIGURE 1.6 A smooth curve through the plotted points
gives a graph of the pressure function represented by the
accompanying tabled data (Example 3).
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
Not every curve in the coordinate plane can be the graph of a function. A function ƒ can
have only one value ƒ(x) for each x in its domain, so no vertical line can intersect the
graph of a function more than once. If a is in the domain of the function ƒ, then the vertical
line x = a will intersect the graph of ƒ at the single point (a, ƒ(a)).
A circle cannot be the graph of a function, since some vertical lines intersect the circle
twice. The circle graphed in Figure 1.7a, however, does contain the graphs of functions of
x, such as the upper semicircle defined by the function ƒ(x) = 21 - x2 and the lower
semicircle defined by the function g(x) = - 21 - x2 (Figures 1.7b and 1.7c).
5
1.1 Functions and Their Graphs
y
−1
y
0
1
x
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 1
y = 0x0
1
−3 −2 −1 0
1
2
x
3
FIGURE 1.8 The absolute value
function has domain (- q, q) and
range 30, q).
y
y = −x
−1
0
x
(c) y = −"1 − x 2
(b) y = "1 − x 2
Sometimes a function is described in pieces by using different formulas on different parts
of its domain. One example is the absolute value function
0x0 = e
x,
-x,
x Ú 0
x 6 0,
First formula
Second formula
whose graph is given in Figure 1.8. The right-hand side of the equation means that the
function equals x if x Ú 0, and equals -x if x 6 0. Piecewise-defined functions often
arise when real-world data are modeled. Here are some other examples.
y = f(x)
2
EXAMPLE 4
y=1
1
−2
1
−1
Piecewise-Defined Functions
y=x
2
1
x
FIGURE 1.7 (a) The circle is not the graph of a function; it fails the vertical line test. (b) The
upper semicircle is the graph of a function ƒ(x) = 21 - x2. (c) The lower semicircle is the graph
of a function g(x) = - 21 - x2.
y
y = −x 3
0
−1
y
0
y=x
2
1
2
x
The function
-x,
ƒ(x) = c x2,
1,
FIGURE 1.9 To graph the
function y = ƒ(x) shown here,
we apply different formulas to
different parts of its domain
(Example 4).
x 6 0
0 … x … 1
x 7 1
First formula
Second formula
Third formula
is defined on the entire real line but has values given by different formulas, depending on
the position of x. The values of ƒ are given by y = -x when x 6 0, y = x2 when
0 … x … 1, and y = 1 when x 7 1. The function, however, is just one function whose
domain is the entire set of real numbers (Figure 1.9).
y
y=x
3
2
y = :x;
1
1
−2 −1
2
3
x
−2
FIGURE 1.10 The graph of the
greatest integer function y = : x ;
lies on or below the line y = x, so
it provides an integer floor for x
(Example 5).
EXAMPLE 5
The function whose value at any number x is the greatest integer less
than or equal to x is called the greatest integer function or the integer floor function. It
is denoted : x ; . Figure 1.10 shows the graph. Observe that
: 2.4 ; = 2,
: 2 ; = 2,
: 1.9 ; = 1,
: 0.2 ; = 0,
: 0 ; = 0,
: -0.3 ; = -1,
: -1.2 ; = -2,
: -2 ; = -2.
EXAMPLE 6
The function whose value at any number x is the smallest integer
greater than or equal to x is called the least integer function or the integer ceiling function. It is denoted < x = . Figure 1.11 shows the graph. For positive values of x, this function
might represent, for example, the cost of parking x hours in a parking lot that charges $1
for each hour or part of an hour.
6
Chapter 1: Functions
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
y
If the graph of a function climbs or rises as you move from left to right, we say that the
function is increasing. If the graph descends or falls as you move from left to right, the
function is decreasing.
y=x
3
2
y = <x=
1
1
−2 −1
2
x
3
DEFINITIONS Let ƒ be a function defined on an interval I and let x1 and x2 be
any two points in I.
−1
1. If ƒ(x2) 7 ƒ(x1) whenever x1 6 x2, then ƒ is said to be increasing on I.
2. If ƒ(x2) 6 ƒ(x1) whenever x1 6 x2, then ƒ is said to be decreasing on I.
−2
FIGURE 1.11 The graph
of the least integer function
y = < x = lies on or above the line
y = x, so it provides an integer
ceiling for x (Example 6).
It is important to realize that the definitions of increasing and decreasing functions
must be satisfied for every pair of points x1 and x2 in I with x1 6 x2. Because we use the
inequality 6 to compare the function values, instead of … , it is sometimes said that ƒ is
strictly increasing or decreasing on I. The interval I may be finite (also called bounded) or
infinite (unbounded) and by definition never consists of a single point (Appendix 1).
EXAMPLE 7
The function graphed in Figure 1.9 is decreasing on (- q, 04 and increasing on 3 0, 14 . The function is neither increasing nor decreasing on the interval 3 1, q)
because of the strict inequalities used to compare the function values in the definitions.
Even Functions and Odd Functions: Symmetry
The graphs of even and odd functions have characteristic symmetry properties.
DEFINITIONS A function y = ƒ(x) is an
even function of x if ƒ(-x) = ƒ(x),
odd function of x if ƒ(-x) = -ƒ(x),
for every x in the function’s domain.
y
y = x2
(x, y)
(−x, y)
x
0
(a)
y
y = x3
0
(x, y)
x
(−x, −y)
The names even and odd come from powers of x. If y is an even power of x, as in
y = x2 or y = x4, it is an even function of x because (-x)2 = x2 and (-x)4 = x4. If y is an
odd power of x, as in y = x or y = x3, it is an odd function of x because (-x)1 = -x and
(-x)3 = -x3.
The graph of an even function is-I
symmetric about the y-axis. Since ƒ(-x) = ƒ(x), a
point (x, y) lies on the graph if and only if the point (-x, y) lies on the graph (Figure 1.12a).
A reflection across the y-axis leaves the graph unchanged.
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. Since ƒ(-x) = -ƒ(x), a
point (x, y) lies on the graph if and only if the point (-x, -y) lies on the graph (Figure 1.12b).
Equivalently, a graph is symmetric about the origin if a rotation of 180° about the origin leaves the
graph unchanged. Notice that the definitions imply that both x and -x must be in the domain of ƒ.
EXAMPLE 8
(b)
FIGURE 1.12 (a) The graph of y = x2
(an even function) is symmetric about the
y-axis. (b) The graph of y = x3 (an odd
function) is symmetric about the origin.
ƒ(x) = x
2
Here are several functions illustrating the definition.
Even function: (-x)2 = x2 for all x; symmetry about y-axis.
ƒ(x) = x2 + 1
Even function: (-x)2 + 1 = x2 + 1 for all x; symmetry about
y-axis (Figure 1.13a).
ƒ(x) = x
Odd function: (-x) = -x for all x; symmetry about the origin.
ƒ(x) = x + 1
Not odd: ƒ(-x) = -x + 1, but -ƒ(x) = -x - 1. The two are not
equal.
Not even: (-x) + 1 ≠ x + 1 for all x ≠ 0 (Figure 1.13b).
1.1 Functions and Their Graphs
y
7
y
y = x2 + 1
y=x+1
y = x2
y=x
1
1
x
0
−1
(a)
x
0
(b)
FIGURE 1.13 (a) When we add the constant term 1 to the function
y = x2, the resulting function y = x2 + 1 is still even and its graph is
still symmetric about the y-axis. (b) When we add the constant term 1 to
the function y = x, the resulting function y = x + 1 is no longer odd,
since the symmetry about the origin is lost. The function y = x + 1 is
also not even (Example 8).
Common Functions
A variety of important types of functions are frequently encountered in calculus. We identify and briefly describe them here.
Linear Functions A function of the form ƒ(x) = mx + b, for constants m and b, is called
a linear function. Figure 1.14a shows an array of lines ƒ(x) = mx where b = 0, so these
lines pass through the origin. The function ƒ(x) = x where m = 1 and b = 0 is called the
identity function. Constant functions result when the slope m = 0 (Figure 1.14b).
A linear function with positive slope whose graph passes through the origin is called a
proportionality relationship.
-
m = −3
y
m=2
y = 2x
y = −3x
m = −1
m=1
y
y=x
m=
y = −x
1
y= x
2
0
x
1
2
2
1
0
(a)
y=3
2
1
2
x
(b)
FIGURE 1.14 (a) Lines through the origin with slope m. (b) A constant function with slope m = 0.
one
DEFINITION Two variables y and x are proportional (to one another) if one
is always a constant multiple of the other; that is, if y = kx for some nonzero
constant k.
If the variable y is proportional to the reciprocal 1>x, then sometimes it is said that y is
inversely proportional to x (because 1>x is the multiplicative inverse of x).
Power Functions A function ƒ(x) = xa, where a is a constant, is called a power function.
There are several important cases to consider.
.
8
Chapter 1: Functions
(a) a = n, a positive integer.
The graphs of ƒ(x) = xn, for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are displayed in Figure 1.15. These functions are defined for all real values of x. Notice that as the power n gets larger, the curves
tend to flatten toward the x-axis on the interval (-1, 1), and to rise more steeply for
0 x 0 7 1. Each curve passes through the point (1, 1) and through the origin. The graphs of
functions with even powers are symmetric about the y-axis; those with odd powers are
symmetric about the origin. The even-powered functions are decreasing on the interval
(- q, 04 and increasing on 3 0, q); the odd-powered functions are increasing over the
entire real line (- q, q).
y
y
y=x
1
1
0
−1
y
y = x2
1
−1
FIGURE 1.15
x
−1
y
y = x3
1
0
1
x
−1
−1
0
y y = x5
y = x4
1
x
1
−1
1
0
−1
1
x
−1
−1
0
1
x
−1
Graphs of ƒ(x) = xn, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, defined for - q 6 x 6 q.
(b) a = -1 or a = -2.
The graphs of the functions ƒ(x) = x-1 = 1>x and g(x) = x-2 = 1>x2 are shown in
Figure 1.16. Both functions are defined for all x ≠ 0 (you can never divide by zero). The
graph of y = 1>x is the hyperbola xy = 1, which approaches the coordinate axes far from
the origin. The graph of y = 1>x2 also approaches the coordinate axes. The graph of the
function ƒ is symmetric about the origin; ƒ is decreasing on the intervals (- q, 0) and
(0, q). The graph of the function g is symmetric about the y-axis; g is increasing on
(- q, 0) and decreasing on (0, q).
y
y
y = 1x
y = 12
x
1
0
1
x
Domain: x ≠ 0
Range: y ≠ 0
(a)
1
0
x
1
Domain: x ≠ 0
Range: y > 0
(b)
FIGURE 1.16 Graphs of the power functions ƒ(x) = xa for part (a) a = - 1
and for part (b) a = - 2.
(c) a =
1 1 3
2
, , , and .
3
2 3 2
3
The functions ƒ(x) = x1>2 = 2x and g(x) = x1>3 = 2
x are the square root and cube
root functions, respectively. The domain of the square root function is 3 0, q), but the
cube root function is defined for all real x. Their graphs are displayed in Figure 1.17, along
with the graphs of y = x3>2 and y = x2>3. (Recall that x3>2 = (x1>2)3 and x2>3 = (x1>3)2.)
Polynomials A function p is a polynomial if
p(x) = an xn + an - 1xn - 1 + g + a1 x + a0
where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers a0, a1, a2, c, an are real constants
(called the coefficients of the polynomial). All polynomials have domain (- q, q). If the
Rese
9
1.1 Functions and Their Graphs
y
y
y
y
y=x
y = !x
y = x 2&3
3
y = !x
1
1
0
3&2
1
Domain: 0 ≤ x < ∞
Range: 0 ≤ y < ∞
FIGURE 1.17
x
0
1
1
x
1
Domain: −∞ < x < ∞
Range: −∞ < y < ∞
Graphs of the power functions ƒ(x) = xa for a =
0
x
x
0 1
Domain: −∞ < x < ∞
Range: 0 ≤ y < ∞
1
Domain: 0 ≤ x < ∞
Range: 0 ≤ y < ∞
1 1 3
2
, , , and .
2 3 2
3
leading coefficient an ≠ 0 and n 7 0, then n is called the degree of the polynomial. Linear functions with m ≠ 0 are polynomials of degree 1. Polynomials of degree 2, usually
written as p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, are called quadratic functions. Likewise, cubic functions
are polynomials p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d of degree 3. Figure 1.18 shows the graphs
of three polynomials. Techniques to graph polynomials are studied in Chapter 4.
-
3
2
y = x − x − 2x + 1
3
2
3
y
4
y
2
−4
2
−1
x
4
1
−2
−4
−6
−8
−10
−12
−2
−4
x
2
−1
0
1
x
2
−16
(a)
FIGURE 1.18
y = (x − 2)4(x + 1)3(x − 1)
16
2
0
−2
y
y = 8x 4 − 14x 3 − 9x 2 + 11x − 1
(c)
(b)
Graphs of three polynomial functions.
Rational Functions A rational function is a quotient or ratio ƒ(x) = p(x)>q(x), where
p and q are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all real x for which
q(x) ≠ 0. The graphs of several rational functions are shown in Figure 1.19.
y
y
8
2
y = 5x +2 8x − 3
3x + 2
y
4
2
2
y = 2x − 3 2
7x + 4
−4
2
−2
4
x
−5
5
0
2
10
−1
−2
−2
−4
y = 11x3 + 2
2x − 1
4
Line y = 5
3
1
6
x
−4 −2 0
−2
2
4
6
x
−4
NOT TO SCALE
−6
−8
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 1.19 Graphs of three rational functions. The straight red lines approached by the graphs are called
asymptotes and are not part of the graphs. We discuss asymptotes in Section 2.6.
-
10
Chapter 1: Functions
Algebraic Functions Any function constructed from polynomials using algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots) lies within the
class of algebraic functions. All rational functions are algebraic, but also included are
more complicated functions (such as those satisfying an equation like y3 - 9xy + x3 = 0,
studied in Section 3.7). Figure 1.20 displays the graphs of three algebraic functions.
y = x 1"3(x − 4)
y
4
3
2
1
−1
−1
−2
−3
x
4
−1
1
x
1
0
y = x(1 − x)2"5
y
y = 3 (x 2 − 1) 2"3
4
y
0
5
7
x
1
−1
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 1.20
(c)
Graphs of three algebraic functions.
Trigonometric Functions The six basic trigonometric functions are reviewed in Section 1.3.
The graphs of the sine and cosine functions are shown in Figure 1.21.
y
y
1
3p
0
−p
p
2p
x
0
−1
−1
(a) f (x) = sin x
FIGURE 1.21
1
− p2
3p
2
5p
2
x
p
2
(b) f(x) = cos x
Graphs of the sine and cosine functions.
Exponential Functions Functions of the form ƒ(x) = ax, where the base a 7 0 is a
positive constant and a ≠ 1, are called exponential functions. All exponential functions
have domain (- q, q) and range (0, q), so an exponential function never assumes the
value 0. We discuss exponential functions in Section 1.5. The graphs of some exponential
functions are shown in Figure 1.22.
y
y
12
12
10
10
8
8
6
2
FIGURE 1.22
y=
y = 3x
4
−1 −0.5
# power function
y = 10 –x
y = 10 x
0.5
1
6
4
y = 2x
0
(a)
3 –x
y = 2 –x
x
−1 −0.5
Graphs of exponential functions.
2
0
(b)
0.5
1
x
11
1.1 Functions and Their Graphs
Logarithmic Functions These are the functions ƒ(x) = loga x, where the base a ≠ 1
is a positive constant. They are the inverse functions of the exponential functions, and
we discuss these functions in Section 1.6. Figure 1.23 shows the graphs of four logarithmic functions with various bases. In each case the domain is (0, q) and the range
is (- q, q).
y
y
y = log 2 x
y = log 3 x
1
0
x
1
y = log5 x
−1
1
y = log10 x
0
−1
FIGURE 1.23 Graphs of four logarithmic
functions.
1
x
FIGURE 1.24 Graph of a catenary or
hanging cable. (The Latin word catena
means “chain.”)
Transcendental Functions These are functions that are not algebraic. They include the
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions, and many
other functions as well. A particular example of a transcendental function is a catenary.
Its graph has the shape of a cable, like a telephone line or electric cable, strung from one
support to another and hanging freely under its own weight (Figure 1.24). The function
defining the graph is discussed in Section 7.3.
-
Exercises
1.1
1. ƒ(x) = 1 + x2
4. g(x) = 2x2 - 3x
4
3 - t
6. G(t) =
2
t 2 - 16
In Exercises 7 and 8, which of the graphs are graphs of functions of x,
and which are not? Give reasons for your answers.
7. a.
y
b.
2. ƒ(x) = 1 - 2x
3. F(x) = 25x + 10
5. ƒ(t) =
y
8. a.
Functions
In Exercises 1–6, find the domain and range of each function.
x
0
x
y
b.
y
0
Finding Formulas for Functions
9. Express the area and perimeter of an equilateral triangle as a
function of the triangle’s side length x.
10. Express the side length of a square as a function of the length d of
the square’s diagonal. Then express the area as a function of the
diagonal length.
0
x
0
x
11. Express the edge length of a cube as a function of the cube’s
diagonal length d. Then express the surface area and volume of
the cube as a function of the diagonal length.
12
y
32]
Chapter 1: Functions
senyt
-
31. a.
12. A point P in the first quadrant lies on the graph of the function
ƒ(x) = 2x. Express the coordinates of P as functions of the
slope of the line joining P to the origin.
b.
y
(−1, 1) (1, 1)
1
2
13. Consider the point (x, y) lying on the graph of the line
2x + 4y = 5. Let L be the distance from the point (x, y) to the
origin (0, 0). Write L as a function of x.
1
N)ly
32. a.
=
1 ty
Functions and Graphs
Find the natural domain and graph the functions in Exercises 15–20.
16. ƒ(x) = 1 - 2x - x2
17. g(x) = 2 0 x 0
18. g(x) = 2- x
19. F(t) = t> 0 t 0
-
1
x + 3
.
2+
4 - 2x2 - 9
x2
22. Find the range of y = 2 + 2
.
==>3
;
x + 4
21. Find the domain of y =
[2 8)
.
23. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not
graphs of functions of x.
...II
E
a. 0 y 0 = x
A
b. y2 = x2
v.
a. 0 x 0 + 0 y 0 = 1
-
b. 0 x + y 0 = 1
Piecewise-Defined Functions
Graph the functions in Exercises 25–28.
25. ƒ(x) = e
26. g(x) = e
27. F(x) = e
x,
2 - x,
0 … x … 1
1 6 x … 2
1 - x,
2 - x,
0 … x … 1
1 6 x … 2
4 - x 2,
x2 + 2x,
28. G(x) = e
1>x,
x,
x 6 0
0 … x
b.
0
30. a.
x
2
0
1
2
2
3
y
5
x
2
1
−1
−1
−2
−3
1
−A
t
T 3T 2T
2
T
2
The Greatest and Least Integer Functions
33. For what values of x is
a. : x ; = 0? 10;
b. < x = = 0? ( 1; 0]
1)
34. What real numbers x satisfy the equation : x ; = < x = ?
u
+
R
35. Does < - x = = - : x ; for all real x? Give reasons for your answer.
x
b
a
36. Graph the function
ƒ(x) = e
: x ;,
<x= ,
+
x Ú 0
x 6 0.
-
-b
-
-
A
G
-
Why is ƒ(x) called the integer part of x?
1
x2
1
40. y =
0x0
38. y = -
4
x
2
(2, −1)
42. y = 2- x
44. y = - 4 2x
45. y = - x3>2
t
46. y = (- x)2>3
Even and Odd Functions
In Exercises 47–58, say whether the function is even, odd, or neither.
Give reasons for your answer.
A 0
48. ƒ(x) = x-5 set
47. ƒ(x) = 3 e
49. ƒ(x) = x2 + 1 R
50. ƒ(x) = x2 + x N
e
52. g(x) = x4 + 3x2 - 1
51. g(x) = x3 + x 0
1
e
x - 1
1
R
55. h(t) =
t - 1
57. h(t) = 2t + 1 M
53. g(x) =
3
(2, 1)
x
T
43. y = x3 >8
y
b.
y
T
2
41. y = 2 0 x 0
2
2
0
1
39. y = - x
(1, 1)
1
A
37. y = - x3
x … 1
x 7 1
y
(T, 1)
1
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Graph the functions in Exercises 37–46. What symmetries, if any, do
the graphs have? Specify the intervals over which the function is
increasing and the intervals where it is decreasing.
Find a formula for each function graphed in Exercises 29–32.
29. a.
.
y
=
24. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not
graphs of functions of x.
->
-
b.
y
0
20. G(t) = 1> 0 t 0
x
1
(1, −1) (3, −1)
(−2, −1)
-
15. ƒ(x) = 5 - 2x
x
3
14. Consider the point (x, y) lying on the graph of y = 2x - 3. Let
L be the distance between the points (x, y) and (4, 0). Write L as a
I
2
function of y. L
I
=
y
54. g(x) =
2
x
x - 1 ⑧
2
56. h(t) = # t 3 #
I
I
⑧e
58. h(t) = 2 # t # + 1 e
Theory and Examples
59. The variable s is proportional to t, and s = 25 when t = 75.
Determine t when s = 60.
S=kt
same
.
as
to
KS
1.1 Functions and Their Graphs
60. Kinetic energy The kinetic energy K of a mass is proportional
to the square of its velocity y. If K = 12,960 joules when
y = 18 m>sec, what is K when y = 10 m>sec?
66. a. y = 5x
I
g
b. y = 5x
c. y = x5
13
n
y
61. The variables r and s are inversely proportional, and r = 6 when
s = 4. Determine s when r = 10. r k/s
g
=
62. Boyle’s Law Boyle’s Law says that the volume V of a gas at
constant temperature increases whenever the pressure P decreases,
so that V and P are inversely proportional. If P = 14.7 lb>in2
when V = 1000 in3, then what is V when P = 23.4 lb>in2?
h
14
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
4
7 1 + x.
2
b. Confirm your findings in part (a) algebraically.
x
64. The accompanying figure shows a rectangle inscribed in an isosceles right triangle whose hypotenuse is 2 units long.
a. Express the y-coordinate of P in terms of x. (You might start
by writing an equation for the line AB.)
b. Express the area of the rectangle in terms of x.
y
?
=
1-x
P(x, ?)
x
x
1
In Exercises 65 and 66, match each equation with its graph. Do not
use a graphing device, and give reasons for your answer.
65. a. y = x4 R
b. y = x7
z
69. For a curve to be symmetric about the x-axis, the point (x, y) must
lie on the curve if and only if the point (x, - y) lies on the curve.
Explain why a curve that is symmetric about the x-axis is not the
graph of a function, unless the function is y = 0.
=
A
0
T 68. a. Graph the functions ƒ(x) = 3>(x - 1) and g(x) = 2>(x + 1)
together to identify the values of x for which
3
2
6
.
x - 1
x + 1
b. Confirm your findings in part (a) algebraically.
70. Three hundred books sell for $40 each, resulting in a revenue of
(300)($40) = $12,000. For each $5 increase in the price, 25
fewer books are sold. Write the revenue R as a function of the
number x of $5 increases.
(40 xx5)(300
M
71. A pen in the shape of an isosceles right triangle with legs of
length x ft and hypotenuse of length h ft is to be built. If fencing
costs $5/ft for the legs and $10/ft for the hypotenuse, write the
total cost C of construction as a function of h.
B
−1
f
T 67. a. Graph the functions ƒ(x) = x>2 and g(x) = 1 + (4>x) together to identify the values of x for which
22
x
x
0
63. A box with an open top is to be constructed from a rectangular
piece of cardboard with dimensions 14 in. by 22 in. by cutting out
equal squares of side x at each corner and then folding up the
sides as in the figure. Express the volume V of the box as a function of x.
c. y = x10
q
-
+
25a)
72. Industrial costs A power plant sits next to a river where the
river is 800 ft wide. To lay a new cable from the plant to a location in the city 2 mi downstream on the opposite side costs $180
per foot across the river and $100 per foot along the land.
2 mi
P
y
x
Q
City
g
h
800 ft
Power plant
0
f
x
NOT TO SCALE
a. Suppose that the cable goes from the plant to a point Q on the
opposite side that is x ft from the point P directly opposite the
plant. Write a function C(x) that gives the cost of laying the
cable in terms of the distance x.
b. Generate a table of values to determine if the least expensive
location for point Q is less than 2000 ft or greater than 2000 ft
from point P.
.
14
Chapter 1: Functions
1.2 Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs
In this section we look at the main ways functions are combined or transformed to form
new functions.
Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients
Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (except where
the denominator is zero) to produce new functions. If ƒ and g are functions, then for every
x that belongs to the domains of both ƒ and g (that is, for x∊D(ƒ) ¨ D(g)), we define
functions ƒ + g, ƒ - g, and ƒg by the formulas
(ƒ + g)(x) = ƒ(x) + g(x)
(ƒ - g)(x) = ƒ(x) - g(x)
(ƒg)(x) = ƒ(x)g(x).
S
Notice that the + sign on the left-hand side of the first equation represents the operation of
addition of functions, whereas the + on the right-hand side of the equation means addition
of the real numbers ƒ(x) and g(x).
At any point of D(ƒ) ¨ D(g) at which g(x) ≠ 0, we can also define the function ƒ>g
by the formula
ƒ
ƒ(x)
a g b (x) =
g(x)
(where g(x) ≠ 0).
Functions can also be multiplied by constants: If c is a real number, then the function
cƒ is defined for all x in the domain of ƒ by
(cƒ)(x) = cƒ(x).
EXAMPLE 1
The functions defined by the formulas
ƒ(x) = 2x
and
g(x) = 21 - x
have domains D(ƒ) = 3 0, q) and D(g) = (- q, 14 . The points common to these
domains are the points
3 0, q) ¨ (- q, 14 = 3 0, 14 .
The following table summarizes the formulas and domains for the various algebraic combinations of the two functions. We also write ƒ # g for the product function ƒg.
Function
ƒ + g
ƒ - g
g - ƒ
ƒ#g
ƒ>g
g>ƒ
Formula
(ƒ + g)(x) = 2x + 21 - x
(ƒ - g)(x) = 2x - 21 - x
(g - ƒ)(x) = 21 - x - 2x
(ƒ # g)(x)
= ƒ(x)g(x) = 2x(1 - x)
ƒ
ƒ(x)
g (x) = g(x) = A 1
g
g(x)
1
(x) =
=
ƒ
ƒ(x)
A
x
- x
- x
x
Domain
3 0, 14 = D(ƒ) ¨ D(g)
3 0, 14
3 0, 14
3 0, 14
3 0, 1) (x = 1 excluded)
(0, 14 (x = 0 excluded)
The graph of the function ƒ + g is obtained from the graphs of ƒ and g by adding the
corresponding y-coordinates ƒ(x) and g(x) at each point x∊D(ƒ) ¨ D(g), as in Figure 1.25.
The graphs of ƒ + g and ƒ # g from Example 1 are shown in Figure 1.26.
15
1.2 Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs
y
y
y=f+g
g(x) = "1 − x
8
6
y = g(x)
4
2
y = f (x)
f (a)
g(a)
FIGURE 1.25
functions.
1
2
f(a) + g(a)
x
a
0
f(x) = "x
1
y = ( f + g)(x)
Graphical addition of two
0
y=f•g
1
5
2
5
3
5
4
5
1
x
FIGURE 1.26 The domain of the function ƒ + g
is the intersection of the domains of ƒ and g, the
interval 30, 14 on the x-axis where these domains
overlap. This interval is also the domain of the
function ƒ # g (Example 1).
Composite Functions
Composition is another method for combining functions.
DEFINITION If ƒ and g are functions, the composite function ƒ ∘ g (“ƒ composed with g”) is defined by
(ƒ ∘ g)(x) = ƒ(g(x)).
The domain of ƒ ∘ g consists of the numbers x in the domain of g for which g(x)
lies in the domain of ƒ.
The definition implies that ƒ ∘ g can be formed when the range of g lies in the domain
of ƒ. To find (ƒ ∘ g)(x), first find g(x) and second find ƒ(g(x)). Figure 1.27 pictures ƒ ∘ g as
a machine diagram, and Figure 1.28 shows the composite as an arrow diagram.
f ∘g
f (g(x))
x
g
x
g
g(x)
f
f(g(x))
FIGURE 1.27 A composite function ƒ ∘ g uses
the output g(x) of the first function g as the input
for the second function ƒ.
f
g(x)
FIGURE 1.28 Arrow diagram for ƒ ∘ g. If x lies in the
domain of g and g(x) lies in the domain of ƒ, then the
functions ƒ and g can be composed to form (ƒ ∘ g)(x).
To evaluate the composite function g ∘ ƒ (when defined), we find ƒ(x) first and then
g(ƒ(x)). The domain of g ∘ ƒ is the set of numbers x in the domain of ƒ such that ƒ(x) lies
in the domain of g.
The functions ƒ ∘ g and g ∘ ƒ are usually quite different.
16
Chapter 1: Functions
EXAMPLE 2
If ƒ(x) = 2x and g(x) = x + 1, find
(a) (ƒ ∘ g)(x)
(b) (g ∘ ƒ)(x)
(c) (ƒ ∘ ƒ)(x)
(d) (g ∘ g)(x).
Solution
Composite
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(ƒ ∘ g)(x)
(g ∘ ƒ)(x)
(ƒ ∘ ƒ)(x)
(g ∘ g)(x)
=
=
=
=
Domain
ƒ(g(x))
g(ƒ(x))
ƒ(ƒ(x))
g(g(x))
=
=
=
=
2g(x) = 2x + 1
ƒ(x) + 1 = 2x + 1
2ƒ(x) = 2 1x = x1>4
g(x) + 1 = (x + 1) + 1 = x + 2
3 -1, q)
3 0, q)
3 0, q)
(- q, q)
To see why the domain of ƒ ∘ g is 3 -1, q), notice that g(x) = x + 1 is defined for all real
x but belongs to the domain of ƒ only if x + 1 Ú 0, that is to say, when x Ú -1.
Notice that if ƒ(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x, then (ƒ ∘ g)(x) = 1 2x 2 = x. However, the
domain of ƒ ∘ g is 3 0, q), not (- q, q), since 2x requires x Ú 0.
2
Shifting a Graph of a Function
A common way to obtain a new function from an existing one is by adding a constant to
each output of the existing function, or to its input variable. The graph of the new function
is the graph of the original function shifted vertically or horizontally, as follows.
Shift Formulas
Vertical Shifts
y = ƒ(x) + k
y
y=
x2
+2
y=
x2
+1
y=x
2
Horizontal Shifts
y = ƒ(x + h)
y = x2 − 2
1 unit
−2
Shifts the graph of ƒ up k units if k 7 0
Shifts it down 0 k 0 units if k 6 0
Shifts the graph of ƒ left h units if h 7 0
Shifts it right 0 h 0 units if h 6 0
2
EXAMPLE 3
1
0
−1
2
x
2 units
−2
FIGURE 1.29 To shift the graph
of ƒ(x) = x2 up (or down), we add
positive (or negative) constants
to the formula for ƒ (Examples 3a
and b).
(a) Adding 1 to the right-hand side of the formula y = x2 to get y = x2 + 1 shifts the
graph up 1 unit (Figure 1.29).
(b) Adding -2 to the right-hand side of the formula y = x2 to get y = x2 - 2 shifts the
graph down 2 units (Figure 1.29).
(c) Adding 3 to x in y = x2 to get y = (x + 3)2 shifts the graph 3 units to the left, while
adding -2 shifts the graph 2 units to the right (Figure 1.30).
(d) Adding -2 to x in y = 0 x 0 , and then adding -1 to the result, gives y = 0 x - 2 0 - 1
and shifts the graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit down (Figure 1.31).
Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
To scale the graph of a function y = ƒ(x) is to stretch or compress it, vertically or horizontally. This is accomplished by multiplying the function ƒ, or the independent variable
x, by an appropriate constant c. Reflections across the coordinate axes are special cases
where c = -1.
17
1.2 Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs
Add a positive
constant to x.
Add a negative
constant to x.
y
y = (x + 3) 2
y = x2
y
y = 0 x − 20 − 1
4
y = (x − 2) 2
1
1
−4
1
0
−3
−2
x
2
FIGURE 1.30 To shift the graph of y = x2 to
the left, we add a positive constant to x (Example
3c). To shift the graph to the right, we add a negative constant to x.
2
−1
4
6
x
FIGURE 1.31 The graph of y = 0 x 0
shifted 2 units to the right and 1 unit
down (Example 3d).
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Reflecting Formulas
For c + 1, the graph is scaled:
y = cƒ(x)
Stretches the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
1
y = c ƒ(x)
Compresses the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
y = ƒ(cx)
y = ƒ(x>c)
Compresses the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
Stretches the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
For c = −1, the graph is reflected:
y = -ƒ(x)
Reflects the graph of ƒ across the x-axis.
y = ƒ(-x)
Reflects the graph of ƒ across the y-axis.
EXAMPLE 4
Here we scale and reflect the graph of y = 2x.
(a) Vertical: Multiplying the right-hand side of y = 2x by 3 to get y = 3 2x stretches
the graph vertically by a factor of 3, whereas multiplying by 1>3 compresses the
graph by a factor of 3 (Figure 1.32).
(b) Horizontal: The graph of y = 23x is a horizontal compression of the graph of
y = 2x by a factor of 3, and y = 2x>3 is a horizontal stretching by a factor of 3
(Figure 1.33). Note that y = 23x = 23 2x so a horizontal compression may correspond to a vertical stretching by a different scaling factor. Likewise, a horizontal
stretching may correspond to a vertical compression by a different scaling factor.
(c) Reflection: The graph of y = - 2x is a reflection of y = 2x across the x-axis, and
y = 2-x is a reflection across the y-axis (Figure 1.34).
y
y
y = 3"x
5
4
4
stretch
y = "x
2
compress
0
1
2
3
y = 3"x
4
compress
2
1
1
−1
y = " 3x
3
3
x
FIGURE 1.32 Vertically stretching
and compressing the graph y = 1x by a
factor of 3 (Example 4a).
stretch
1
−1
0
y
y = " −x
1
2
3
4
y = "x
y = "x"3
x
FIGURE 1.33 Horizontally stretching and
compressing the graph y = 1x by a factor of
3 (Example 4b).
y = "x
1
1
−3 −2 −1
−1
2
3
x
y = −" x
FIGURE 1.34 Reflections of the graph
y = 1x across the coordinate axes
(Example 4c).
18
Chapter 1: Functions
EXAMPLE 5
Given the function ƒ(x) = x4 - 4x3 + 10 (Figure 1.35a), find formulas to
(a) compress the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection across the
y-axis (Figure 1.35b).
(b) compress the graph vertically by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection across the
x-axis (Figure 1.35c).
y
20
0
−10
1
20
10
−1
y
y = 16x 4 + 32x 3 + 10 y
f (x) = x 4 − 4x 3 + 10
10
10
1
2
3
4
x
−2
−20
−1
0
−10
1
x
−1
0
y = − 2 x 4 + 2x 3 − 5
1
3
4
x
−10
−20
(b)
(a)
2
(c)
FIGURE 1.35 (a) The original graph of f. (b) The horizontal compression of y = ƒ(x) in part (a) by a factor of 2, followed by
a reflection across the y-axis. (c) The vertical compression of y = ƒ(x) in part (a) by a factor of 2, followed by a reflection across
the x-axis (Example 5).
Solution
(a) We multiply x by 2 to get the horizontal compression, and by -1 to give reflection
across the y-axis. The formula is obtained by substituting -2x for x in the right-hand
side of the equation for ƒ:
y = ƒ(-2x) = (-2x)4 - 4(-2x)3 + 10
= 16x4 + 32x3 + 10.
(b) The formula is
1
1
y = - ƒ(x) = - x4 + 2x3 - 5.
2
2
Exercises
1.2
Algebraic Combinations
In Exercises 1 and 2, find the domains and ranges of ƒ, g, ƒ + g, and
ƒ # g.
1. ƒ(x) = x, g(x) = 2x - 1
2. ƒ(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 2x - 1
In Exercises 3 and 4, find the domains and ranges of ƒ, g, ƒ>g, and
g>ƒ.
3. ƒ(x) = 2, g(x) = x2 + 1
e. ƒ(ƒ(- 5))
f. g(g(2))
g. ƒ(ƒ(x))
h. g(g(x))
6. If ƒ(x) = x - 1 and g(x) = 1>(x + 1), find the following.
a. ƒ(g(1>2))
b. g(ƒ(1>2))
c. ƒ(g(x))
d. g(ƒ(x))
e. ƒ(ƒ(2))
f. g(g(2))
g. ƒ(ƒ(x))
h. g(g(x))
In Exercises 7–10, write a formula for ƒ ∘ g ∘ h.
4. ƒ(x) = 1, g(x) = 1 + 2x
Composites of Functions
5. If ƒ(x) = x + 5 and g(x) = x2 - 3, find the following.
a. ƒ(g(0))
b. g(ƒ(0))
c. ƒ(g(x))
d. g(ƒ(x))
7. ƒ(x) = x + 1,
g(x) = 3x,
h(x) = 4 - x
g(x) = 2x - 1, h(x) = x2
1
1
, h(x) = x
9. ƒ(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) =
x + 4
x + 2
x2
10. ƒ(x) =
, g(x) = 2
, h(x) = 22 - x
3 - x
x + 1
8. ƒ(x) = 3x + 4,
1.2 Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs
Let ƒ(x) = x - 3, g(x) = 2x, h(x) = x3, and j(x) = 2x. Express
each of the functions in Exercises 11 and 12 as a composite involving
one or more of ƒ, g, h, and j.
11. a. y = 2x - 3
b. y = 2 2x
c. y = x1>4
d. y = 4x
e. y = 2(x - 3)
3
f. y = (2x - 6)3
b. y = x3>2
12. a. y = 2x - 3
c. y = x9
d. y = x - 6
e. y = 2 2x - 3
f. y = 2x3 - 3
13. Copy and complete the following table.
ƒ(x)
(ƒ ∘ g) (x)
2x
?
3x
?
2x - 5
2x2 - 5
e. ?
1
1 + x
x
1
f. x
?
x
g(x)
a. x - 7
b. x + 2
c. ?
d.
x
x - 1
x
x - 1
x
. Find a function y = g(x) so that
x - 2
(ƒ ∘ g)(x) = x.
19. Let ƒ(x) =
20. Let ƒ(x) = 2x3 - 4. Find a function y = g(x) so that
(ƒ ∘ g)(x) = x + 2.
Shifting Graphs
21. The accompanying figure shows the graph of y = - x2 shifted to
two new positions. Write equations for the new graphs.
y
0
−7
y = −x 2
Position (a)
1
a.
x - 1
Position (b)
?
22. The accompanying figure shows the graph of y = x2 shifted to
two new positions. Write equations for the new graphs.
y
Position (a)
ƒ(x)
(ƒ ∘ g) (x)
0x0
?
x - 1
x
b. ?
c. ?
y = x2
3
x
x + 1
0x0
2x
d. 2x
x
4
14. Copy and complete the following table.
g(x)
19
0x0
?
x
0
Position (b)
15. Evaluate each expression using the given table of values:
-2
-1
0
1
2
ƒ(x)
1
0
-2
1
2
g(x)
2
1
0
-1
0
x
−5
23. Match the equations listed in parts (a)–(d) to the graphs in the
accompanying figure.
a. y = (x - 1)2 - 4
b. y = (x - 2)2 + 2
2
a. ƒ(g(-1))
b. g(ƒ(0))
c. ƒ(ƒ(- 1))
d. g(g(2))
e. g(ƒ(-2))
f. ƒ(g(1))
d. y = (x + 3)2 - 2
c. y = (x + 2) + 2
y
16. Evaluate each expression using the functions
ƒ(x) = 2 - x, g(x) = b
- x,
x - 1,
-2 … x 6 0
0 … x … 2.
a. ƒ(g(0))
b. g(ƒ(3))
c. g(g(- 1))
d. ƒ(ƒ(2))
e. g(ƒ(0))
f. ƒ(g(1>2))
In Exercises 17 and 18, (a) write formulas for ƒ ∘ g and g ∘ ƒ and find
the (b) domain and (c) range of each.
1
17. ƒ(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = x
18. ƒ(x) = x2, g(x) = 1 - 2x
Position 2
Position 1
3
(−2, 2)
Position 3
2
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0
(2, 2)
1 2 3
Position 4
(−3, −2)
(1, −4)
x
20
Chapter 1: Functions
24. The accompanying figure shows the graph of y = - x2 shifted to
four new positions. Write an equation for each new graph.
y
55. The accompanying figure shows the graph of a function ƒ(x) with
domain 30, 24 and range 30, 14. Find the domains and ranges of
the following functions, and sketch their graphs.
y
(1, 4)
(−2, 3)
(b)
(a)
(2, 0)
(d)
Exercises 25–34 tell how many units and in what directions the graphs
of the given equations are to be shifted. Give an equation for the
shifted graph. Then sketch the original and shifted graphs together,
labeling each graph with its equation.
0
2
a. ƒ(x) + 2
b. ƒ(x) - 1
c. 2ƒ(x)
d. - ƒ(x)
e. ƒ(x + 2)
f. ƒ(x - 1)
h. - ƒ(x + 1) + 1
56. The accompanying figure shows the graph of a function g(t) with
domain 3- 4, 04 and range 3-3, 04. Find the domains and
ranges of the following functions, and sketch their graphs.
y
−4
2
26. x + y = 25 Up 3, left 4
27. y = x3 Left 1, down 1
0
−2
t
y = g(t)
28. y = x2>3 Right 1, down 1
−3
29. y = 2x Left 0.81
a. g(- t)
b. - g(t)
31. y = 2x - 7 Up 7
c. g(t) + 3
d. 1 - g(t)
30. y = - 2x Right 3
32. y =
x
g. ƒ(- x)
25. x2 + y2 = 49 Down 3, left 2
2
y = f(x)
x
(−4, −1)
(c)
1
1
(x + 1) + 5 Down 5, right 1
2
33. y = 1>x Up 1, right 1
e. g(- t + 2)
f. g(t - 2)
g. g(1 - t)
h. - g(t - 4)
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling
Exercises 57–66 tell by what factor and direction the graphs of the
given functions are to be stretched or compressed. Give an equation
for the stretched or compressed graph.
34. y = 1>x2 Left 2, down 1
Graph the functions in Exercises 35–54.
35. y = 2x + 4
57. y = x2 - 1, stretched vertically by a factor of 3
37. y = # x - 2 #
36. y = 29 - x
38. y = # 1 - x # - 1
58. y = x2 - 1, compressed horizontally by a factor of 2
39. y = 1 + 2x - 1
40. y = 1 - 2x
42. y = (x - 8)2>3
59. y = 1 +
43. y = 1 - x2>3
44. y + 4 = x2>3
3
45. y = 2
x - 1 - 1
46. y = (x + 2)3>2 + 1
41. y = (x + 1)
47. y =
2>3
1
x - 2
1
48. y = x - 2
1
x + 2
1
49. y = x + 2
50. y =
1
(x - 1)2
1
53. y = 2 + 1
x
1
- 1
x2
1
54. y =
(x + 1)2
51. y =
52. y =
1
, compressed vertically by a factor of 2
x2
1
60. y = 1 + 2 , stretched horizontally by a factor of 3
x
61. y = 2x + 1, compressed horizontally by a factor of 4
62. y = 2x + 1, stretched vertically by a factor of 3
63. y = 24 - x2, stretched horizontally by a factor of 2
64. y = 24 - x2, compressed vertically by a factor of 3
65. y = 1 - x3, compressed horizontally by a factor of 3
66. y = 1 - x3, stretched horizontally by a factor of 2
21
1.3 Trigonometric Functions
Graphing
In Exercises 67–74, graph each function, not by plotting points, but by
starting with the graph of one of the standard functions presented in
Figures 1.14–1.17 and applying an appropriate transformation.
68. y =
69. y = (x - 1) + 2
70. y = (1 - x) + 2
1
71. y =
- 1
2x
2
72. y = 2 + 1
x
3
3
73. y = - 2
x
1 -
x
2
67. y = - 22x + 1
A
Combining Functions
77. Assume that ƒ is an even function, g is an odd function, and both
ƒ and g are defined on the entire real line (- q, q). Which of the
following (where defined) are even? odd?
3
a. ƒg
b. ƒ>g
c. g>ƒ
d. ƒ2 = ƒƒ
e. g2 = gg
f. ƒ ∘ g
g. g ∘ ƒ
h. ƒ ∘ ƒ
i. g ∘ g
78. Can a function be both even and odd? Give reasons for your
answer.
T 79. (Continuation of Example 1.) Graph the functions ƒ(x) = 2x
and g(x) = 21 - x together with their (a) sum, (b) product,
(c) two differences, (d) two quotients.
74. y = (- 2x)2>3
75. Graph the function y = 0 x - 1 0 .
2
76. Graph the function y = 2 0 x 0 .
T 80. Let ƒ(x) = x - 7 and g(x) = x2. Graph ƒ and g together with
ƒ ∘ g and g ∘ ƒ.
1.3 Trigonometric Functions
This section reviews radian measure and the basic trigonometric functions.
Angles
B′
Angles are measured in degrees or radians. The number of radians in the central angle
A′CB′ within a circle of radius r is defined as the number of “radius units” contained in
the arc s subtended by that central angle. If we denote this central angle by u when measured in radians, this means that u = s>r (Figure 1.36), or
s
B
u
1
A
C
r
Un
l
c
it c ir
e
A′
C ir
cle of ra diu
s = ru
sr
FIGURE 1.36 The radian measure
of the central angle A′CB′ is the number u = s>r. For a unit circle of radius
r = 1, u is the length of arc AB that
central angle ACB cuts from the unit
circle.
(u in radians).
(1)
If the circle is a unit circle having radius r = 1, then from Figure 1.36 and Equation (1),
we see that the central angle u measured in radians is just the length of the arc that the
angle cuts from the unit circle. Since one complete revolution of the unit circle is 360° or
2p radians, we have
p radians = 180°
(2)
and
180
1 radian = p (≈57.3) degrees
1 degree =
or
p
(≈0.017) radians.
180
Table 1.1 shows the equivalence between degree and radian measures for some basic
angles.
TABLE 1.1 Angles measured in degrees and radians
Degrees
−180
−135
−90
−45
0
30
45
60
90
120
135
150
180
270
360
U (radians)
−P
−3P
4
−P
2
−P
4
0
P
6
P
4
P
3
P
2
2P
3
3P
4
5P
6
P
3P
2
2P
22
Chapter 1: Functions
An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at the origin and its initial ray lies along the positive x-axis (Figure 1.37). Angles measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis are assigned positive measures; angles measured clockwise are assigned negative measures.
y
y
Terminal ray
Initial ray
x
Positive
measure
FIGURE 1.37
Initial ray
Negative
measure
Terminal
ray
x
Angles in standard position in the xy-plane.
Angles describing counterclockwise rotations can go arbitrarily far beyond 2p radians or 360°. Similarly, angles describing clockwise rotations can have negative measures
of all sizes (Figure 1.38).
y
y
y
y
5p
−
2
3p
x
x
9p
4
FIGURE 1.38
hypotenuse
hyp
opp
hyp
sec u =
adj
adj
cot u =
opp
csc u =
The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions
FIGURE 1.39 Trigonometric
ratios of an acute angle.
y
u
x
O
You are probably familiar with defining the trigonometric functions of an acute angle in
terms of the sides of a right triangle (Figure 1.39). We extend this definition to obtuse and
negative angles by first placing the angle in standard position in a circle of radius r. We
then define the trigonometric functions in terms of the coordinates of the point P(x, y)
where the angle’s terminal ray intersects the circle (Figure 1.40).
y
sin u = r
x
cosine: cos u = r
y
tangent: tan u = x
sine:
y
r
Nonzero radian measures can be positive or negative and can go beyond 2p.
Angle Convention: Use Radians From now on, in this book it is assumed that all angles
are measured in radians unless degrees or some other unit is stated explicitly. When we talk
about the angle p>3, we mean p>3 radians (which is 60°), not p>3 degrees. We use radians
because it simplifies many of the operations in calculus, and some results we will obtain
involving the trigonometric functions are not true when angles are measured in degrees.
adjacent
P(x, y)
x
opposite
u
opp
sin u =
hyp
adj
cos u =
hyp
opp
tan u =
adj
x
3p
−
4
r
x
cosecant:
r
csc u = y
r
sec u = x
x
cotangent: cot u = y
secant:
These extended definitions agree with the right-triangle definitions when the angle is acute.
Notice also that whenever the quotients are defined,
FIGURE 1.40 The trigonometric
functions of a general angle u are
defined in terms of x, y, and r.
sin u
cos u
1
sec u =
cos u
tan u =
1
tan u
1
csc u =
sin u
cot u =
23
1.3 Trigonometric Functions
p
4
"2
p
4
As you can see, tan u and sec u are not defined if x = cos u = 0. This means they are not
defined if u is {p>2, {3p>2, c. Similarly, cot u and csc u are not defined for values
of u for which y = 0, namely u = 0, {p, {2p, c.
The exact values of these trigonometric ratios for some angles can be read from the
triangles in Figure 1.41. For instance,
p
6
2
1
"3
p
3
p
2
1
p
2
p
1
=
4
22
p
1
cos =
4
22
p
tan = 1
4
sin
1
FIGURE 1.41 Radian angles and side
lengths of two common triangles.
sin
p 1
=
2
6
sin
23
p
=
3
2
cos
23
p
=
2
6
cos
p 1
=
3
2
tan
p
= 23
3
tan
p
1
=
6
23
The CAST rule (Figure 1.42) is useful for remembering when the basic trigonometric functions are positive or negative. For instance, from the triangle in Figure 1.43, we see that
y
S
sin pos
sin
23
2p
=
,
3
2
2p
1
= - ,
3
2
tan
A
all pos
2p
= - 23.
3
3
acos 2p , sin 2pb = a− 1 , " b
2 2
3
3
y
x
T
tan pos
cos
C
cos pos
P
1
"3
2
FIGURE 1.42 The CAST rule,
remembered by the statement
“Calculus Activates Student Thinking,”
tells which trigonometric functions
are positive in each quadrant.
2p
3
x
1
2
FIGURE 1.43 The triangle for
calculating the sine and cosine of 2p>3
radians. The side lengths come from the
geometry of right triangles.
Using a similar method we determined the values of sin u, cos u, and tan u shown in Table 1.2.
TABLE 1.2 Values of sin u, cos u, and tan u for selected values of u
Degrees
−180
−135
−90
−45
0
30
45
60
90
120
135
150
180 270
360
U (radians)
−P
−3P
4
−P
2
−P
4
0
P
6
P
4
P
3
P
2
2P
3
3P
4
5P
6
P
3P
2
2P
sin U
0
- 22
2
-1
- 22
2
0
1
2
22
2
23
1
23
22
1
2
0
-1
0
cos U
-1
- 22
2
0
22
1
23
22
1
2
0
-
- 22
2
-1
0
1
tan U
0
-1
0
23
1
23
- 23
2
- 23
3
1
2
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
- 23
2
-1
0
0
24
Chapter 1: Functions
Periodicity and Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions
When an angle of measure u and an angle of measure u + 2p are in standard position,
their terminal rays coincide. The two angles therefore have the same trigonometric function values: sin (u + 2p) = sin u, tan (u + 2p) = tan u, and so on. Similarly,
cos (u - 2p) = cos u, sin (u - 2p) = sin u, and so on. We describe this repeating behavior by saying that the six basic trigonometric functions are periodic.
Periods of Trigonometric Functions
Period P:
tan (x + p) = tan x
cot (x + p) = cot x
sin (x + 2p) = sin x
cos (x + 2p) = cos x
sec (x + 2p) = sec x
csc (x + 2p) = csc x
Period 2P:
DEFINITION A function ƒ(x) is periodic if there is a positive number p such that
ƒ(x + p) = ƒ(x) for every value of x. The smallest such value of p is the period of ƒ.
When we graph trigonometric functions in the coordinate plane, we usually denote the
independent variable by x instead of u. Figure 1.44 shows that the tangent and cotangent
functions have period p = p, and the other four functions have period 2p. Also, the symmetries in these graphs reveal that the cosine and secant functions are even and the other
four functions are odd (although this does not prove those results).
y
y
Even
y
y = cos x
cos (-x) = cos x
sec (-x) = sec x
−p
=
=
=
=
0
p
2
p
y = sin x
3p 2p
2
x
Domain: −∞ < x < ∞
Range: −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
Period: 2p
(a)
Odd
sin (-x)
tan (-x)
csc (-x)
cot (-x)
p
−
2
-sin x
-tan x
-csc x
-cot x
y
−p
p
−
2
0
p p 3p
2
2
p
p
2
3p 2p
2
x
y
x
Domain: x ≠±p , ± 3p , . . .
2
2
Range: y ≤ −1 or y ≥ 1
Period: 2p
(d)
3p −p p
−
2
2
p
2
p 3p 2p
2
0 p p 3p
2
2
y
y = csc x
1
−p p 0
−
2
−
x
Domain: x ≠±p , ± 3p , . . .
2
2
Range: −∞ < y < ∞
Period: p
(c)
Domain: −∞ < x < ∞
Range: −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
Period: 2p
(b)
y = sec x
1
−3p −p−p 0
2
2
y = tan x
x
Domain: x ≠ 0, ±p, ±2p, . . .
Range: y ≤ −1 or y ≥ 1
Period: 2p
y = cot x
1
−p p 0
−
2
p
2
p 3p 2p
2
x
Domain: x ≠ 0, ±p, ±2p, . . .
Range: −∞ < y < ∞
Period: p
(f)
(e)
FIGURE 1.44 Graphs of the six basic trigonometric functions using radian measure. The shading
for each trigonometric function indicates its periodicity.
y
P(cos u, sin u)
0 sin u 0
Trigonometric Identities
x 2 + y2 = 1
The coordinates of any point P(x, y) in the plane can be expressed in terms of the point’s
distance r from the origin and the angle u that ray OP makes with the positive x-axis (Figure 1.40). Since x>r = cos u and y>r = sin u, we have
u
0 cos u 0 O
1
x
x = r cos u,
y = r sin u.
When r = 1 we can apply the Pythagorean theorem to the reference right triangle in
Figure 1.45 and obtain the equation
FIGURE 1.45 The reference
triangle for a general angle u.
cos2 u + sin2 u = 1.
(3)
25
1.3 Trigonometric Functions
This equation, true for all values of u, is the most frequently used identity in trigonometry.
Dividing this identity in turn by cos2 u and sin2 u gives
1 + tan2 u = sec2 u
1 + cot2 u = csc2 u
The following formulas hold for all angles A and B (Exercise 58).
Most
important
cos
Addition Formulas
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(4)
+
sin(A
+
cos
(A B)
+
(5)
Additional formulas come from combining the equations
cos2 u - sin2 u = cos 2u.
We add the two equations to get 2 cos2 u = 1 + cos 2u and subtract the second from the
first to get 2 sin2 u = 1 - cos 2u. This results in the following identities, which are useful
in integral calculus.
Half-Angle Formulas
1 + cos 2u
2
(6)
1 - cos 2u
sin u =
2
(7)
cos2 u =
2
The Law of Cosines
If a, b, and c are sides of a triangle ABC and if u is the angle opposite c, then
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos u.
This equation is called the law of cosines.
(8)
=
1
=
+
sinBcosA
=
cosAcosB-sinAsinB
Double-Angle Formulas
cos2 u + sin2 u = 1,
B)
sinAcos B
There are similar formulas for cos (A - B) and sin (A - B) (Exercises 35 and 36).
All the trigonometric identities needed in this book derive from Equations (3) and (4). For
example, substituting u for both A and B in the addition formulas gives
cos 2u = cos2 u - sin2 u
sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u
Sinc
:
ro
26
Chapter 1: Functions
We can see why the law holds if we introduce coordinate axes with the origin at C and
the positive x-axis along one side of the triangle, as in Figure 1.46. The coordinates of A
are (b, 0); the coordinates of B are (a cos u, a sin u). The square of the distance between A
and B is therefore
y
B(a cos u, a sin u)
c2 = (a cos u - b)2 + (a sin u)2
= a2 (cos2 u + sin2 u) + b2 - 2ab cos u
(++)++*
1
2
2
= a + b - 2ab cos u.
c
a
u
C
A(b, 0)
b
x
FIGURE 1.46 The square of the distance
between A and B gives the law of cosines.
The law of cosines generalizes the Pythagorean theorem. If u = p>2, then cos u = 0
and c2 = a2 + b2.
Two Special Inequalities
For any angle u measured in radians, the sine and cosine functions satisfy
- 0 u 0 … sin u … 0 u 0
To establish these inequalities, we picture u as a nonzero angle in standard position
(Figure 1.47). The circle in the figure is a unit circle, so 0 u 0 equals the length of the circular
arc AP. The length of line segment AP is therefore less than 0 u 0 .
Triangle APQ is a right triangle with sides of length
y
P
u
O
cos u
sin u
1
Q
S
- 0 u 0 … 1 - cos u … 0 u 0 .
and
u
A(1, 0)
1 − cos u
x
QP = 0 sin u 0 ,
AQ = 1 - cos u.
From the Pythagorean theorem and the fact that AP 6 0 u 0 , we get
sin2 u + (1 - cos u)2 = (AP)2 … u 2.
(9)
The terms on the left-hand side of Equation (9) are both positive, so each is smaller than
their sum and hence is less than or equal to u 2 :
FIGURE 1.47 From the
geometry of this figure, drawn
for u 7 0, we get the inequality
sin2 u + (1 - cos u)2 … u 2.
sin2 u … u 2
and
(1 - cos u)2 … u 2.
m
By taking square roots, this is equivalent to saying that
so
0 sin u 0 … 0 u 0
and
- 0 u 0 … sin u … 0 u 0
and
0 1 - cos u 0 … 0 u 0 ,
- 0 u 0 … 1 - cos u … 0 u 0 .
These inequalities will be useful in the next chapter.
Transformations of Trigonometric Graphs
The rules for shifting, stretching, compressing, and reflecting the graph of a function summarized in the following diagram apply to the trigonometric functions we have discussed
in this section.
Vertical stretch or compression;
reflection about y = d if negative
Vertical shift
y = aƒ(b(x + c)) + d
Horizontal stretch or compression;
reflection about x = - c if negative
Horizontal shift
27
1.3 Trigonometric Functions
The transformation rules applied to the sine function give the general sine function
or sinusoid formula
ƒ(x) = A sin a
2p
(x - C )b + D,
B
where 0 A 0 is the amplitude, 0 B 0 is the period, C is the horizontal shift, and D is the vertical
shift. A graphical interpretation of the various terms is given below.
y
y = A sin a2p (x − C)b + D
B
D+A
Horizontal
shift (C)
Amplitude (A)
D
D−A
This axis is the
line y = D.
Vertical
shift (D)
This distance is
the period (B).
x
0
Exercises
1.3
Radians and Degrees
1. On a circle of radius 10 m, how long is an arc that subtends a central angle of (a) 4p>5 radians? (b) 110°?
2. A central angle in a circle of radius 8 is subtended by an arc of
length 10p. Find the angle’s radian and degree measures.
3. You want to make an 80° angle by marking an arc on the perimeter of a 12-in.-diameter disk and drawing lines from the ends of
the arc to the disk’s center. To the nearest tenth of an inch, how
long should the arc be?
4. If you roll a 1-m-diameter wheel forward 30 cm over level
ground, through what angle will the wheel turn? Answer in radians (to the nearest tenth) and degrees (to the nearest degree).
Evaluating Trigonometric Functions
5. Copy and complete the following table of function values. If the
function is undefined at a given angle, enter “UND.” Do not use a
calculator or tables.
- 3P , 2
U
−P
−2P , 3
0
P,2
3P , 4
sin u
cos u
tan u
cot u
sec u
csc u
P,4
5P , 6
In Exercises 7–12, one of sin x, cos x, and tan x is given. Find the
other two if x lies in the specified interval.
7. sin x =
9. cos x =
p
3
, x∊ c , p d
2
5
p
1
, x∊ c - , 0 d
3
2
3p
1
, x∊ c p,
d
2
2
8. tan x = 2, x∊ c 0,
10. cos x = -
p
d
2
5
p
, x∊ c , p d
13
2
3p
1
12. sin x = - , x∊ c p,
d
2
2
Graphing Trigonometric Functions
Graph the functions in Exercises 13–22. What is the period of each
function?
13. sin 2x
14. sin (x>2)
15. cos px
16. cos
17. - sin
6. Copy and complete the following table of function values. If the
function is undefined at a given angle, enter “UND.” Do not use a
calculator or tables.
−P , 6
sin u
cos u
tan u
cot u
sec u
csc u
11. tan x =
U
−P , 3
px
3
19. cos ax -
px
2
18. - cos 2px
p
b
2
20. sin ax +
p
b
6
28
Chapter 1: Functions
21. sin ax -
p
b + 1
4
22. cos ax +
2p
b - 2
3
Graph the functions in Exercises 23–26 in the ts-plane (t-axis horizontal, s-axis vertical). What is the period of each function? What symmetries do the graphs have?
23. s = cot 2t
25. s = sec a
53. sin 2u - cos u = 0
54. cos 2u + cos u = 0
Theory and Examples
55. The tangent sum formula The standard formula for the tangent of the sum of two angles is
24. s = - tan pt
pt
b
2
Solving Trigonometric Equations
For Exercises 51–54, solve for the angle u, where 0 … u … 2p.
3
52. sin2 u = cos2 u
51. sin2 u =
4
t
26. s = csc a b
2
T 27. a. Graph y = cos x and y = sec x together for - 3p>2 … x
… 3p>2. Comment on the behavior of sec x in relation to the
signs and values of cos x.
b. Graph y = sin x and y = csc x together for - p … x … 2p.
Comment on the behavior of csc x in relation to the signs and
values of sin x.
T 28. Graph y = tan x and y = cot x together for - 7 … x … 7. Comment on the behavior of cot x in relation to the signs and values of
tan x.
tan(A + B) =
Derive the formula.
56. (Continuation of Exercise 55.) Derive a formula for tan (A - B).
57. Apply the law of cosines to the triangle in the accompanying figure to derive the formula for cos (A - B).
y
1
29. Graph y = sin x and y = : sin x ; together. What are the domain
and range of : sin x ; ?
30. Graph y = sin x and y = < sin x = together. What are the domain
and range of < sin x = ?
A
33. sin ax +
p
b = sin x
2
p
b = cos x
2
32. cos ax +
34. sin ax -
p
b = - cos x
2
36. sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
37. What happens if you take B = A in the trigonometric identity
cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B? Does the result agree
with something you already know?
38. What happens if you take B = 2p in the addition formulas? Do
the results agree with something you already know?
In Exercises 39–42, express the given quantity in terms of sin x and cos x.
41. sin a
40. sin (2p - x)
3p
- xb
2
43. Evaluate sin
44. Evaluate cos
45. Evaluate cos
42. cos a
11p
p 2p
as cos a +
b.
12
4
3
46. Evaluate sin
Using the Half-Angle Formulas
Find the function values in Exercises 47–50.
p
47. cos2
8
5p
48. cos2
12
p
49. sin2
12
3p
50. sin2
8
x
1
58. a. Apply the formula for cos (A - B) to the identity sin u =
cos a
p
- ub to obtain the addition formula for sin (A + B).
2
b. Derive the formula for cos (A + B) by substituting -B for B
in the formula for cos (A - B) from Exercise 35.
59. A triangle has sides a = 2 and b = 3 and angle C = 60°. Find
the length of side c.
60. A triangle has sides a = 2 and b = 3 and angle C = 40°. Find
the length of side c.
61. The law of sines The law of sines says that if a, b, and c are the
sides opposite the angles A, B, and C in a triangle, then
3p
+ xb
2
p p
7p
as sin a + b.
12
4
3
p
.
12
0
p
b = - sin x
2
35. cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (Exercise 57 provides a
different derivation.)
39. cos (p + x)
B
1
Using the Addition Formulas
Use the addition formulas to derive the identities in Exercises 31–36.
31. cos ax -
tan A + tan B
.
1 - tan A tan B
sin C
sin A
sin B
a = b = c .
Use the accompanying figures and the identity sin(p - u) =
sin u, if required, to derive the law.
A
5p
.
12
c
B
h
a
A
c
b
C
B
a
b
h
C
62. A triangle has sides a = 2 and b = 3 and angle C = 60° (as in
Exercise 59). Find the sine of angle B using the law of sines.
1.4 Graphing with Software
63. A triangle has side c = 2 and angles A = p>4 and B = p>3.
Find the length a of the side opposite A.
T 64. The approximation sin x ? x It is often useful to know that,
when x is measured in radians, sin x ≈ x for numerically small values of x. In Section 3.11, we will see why the approximation holds.
The approximation error is less than 1 in 5000 if 0 x 0 6 0.1.
a. With your grapher in radian mode, graph y = sin x and
y = x together in a viewing window about the origin. What
do you see happening as x nears the origin?
b. With your grapher in degree mode, graph y = sin x and
y = x together about the origin again. How is the picture different from the one obtained with radian mode?
General Sine Curves
For
ƒ(x) = A sin a
2p
(x - C)b + D,
B
identify A, B, C, and D for the sine functions in Exercises 65–68 and
sketch their graphs.
1
1
65. y = 2 sin (x + p) - 1
66. y = sin (px - p) +
2
2
p
2
1
67. y = - p sin a tb + p
2
2pt
L
sin
68. y =
, L 7 0
L
2p
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
In Exercises 69–72, you will explore graphically the general sine
function
ƒ(x) = A sina
29
69. The period B Set the constants A = 3, C = D = 0.
a. Plot ƒ(x) for the values B = 1, 3, 2p, 5p over the interval
- 4p … x … 4p. Describe what happens to the graph of the
general sine function as the period increases.
b. What happens to the graph for negative values of B? Try it
with B = -3 and B = - 2p.
70. The horizontal shift C
Set the constants A = 3, B = 6, D = 0.
a. Plot ƒ(x) for the values C = 0, 1, and 2 over the interval
- 4p … x … 4p. Describe what happens to the graph of the
general sine function as C increases through positive values.
b. What happens to the graph for negative values of C?
c. What smallest positive value should be assigned to C so the
graph exhibits no horizontal shift? Confirm your answer with
a plot.
71. The vertical shift D Set the constants A = 3, B = 6, C = 0.
a. Plot ƒ(x) for the values D = 0, 1, and 3 over the interval
- 4p … x … 4p. Describe what happens to the graph of the
general sine function as D increases through positive values.
b. What happens to the graph for negative values of D?
72. The amplitude A
Set the constants B = 6, C = D = 0.
a. Describe what happens to the graph of the general sine function as A increases through positive values. Confirm your
answer by plotting ƒ(x) for the values A = 1, 5, and 9.
b. What happens to the graph for negative values of A?
2p
(x - C)b + D
B
as you change the values of the constants A, B, C, and D. Use a CAS
or computer grapher to perform the steps in the exercises.
1.4 Graphing with Software
Today a number of hardware devices, including computers, calculators, and smartphones,
have graphing applications based on software that enables us to graph very complicated
functions with high precision. Many of these functions could not otherwise be easily
graphed. However, some care must be taken when using such graphing software, and in
this section we address some of the issues that may be involved. In Chapter 4 we will see
how calculus helps us determine that we are accurately viewing all the important features
of a function’s graph.
Graphing Windows
When using software for graphing, a portion of the graph is displayed in a display or viewing
window. Depending on the software, the default window may give an incomplete or misleading picture of the graph. We use the term square window when the units or scales used on both
axes are the same. This term does not mean that the display window itself is square (usually it
is rectangular), but instead it means that the x-unit is the same length as the y-unit.
When a graph is displayed in the default mode, the x-unit may differ from the y-unit of
scaling in order to capture essential features of the graph. This difference in scaling can
cause visual distortions that may lead to erroneous interpretations of the function’s behavior.
30
Chapter 1: Functions
Some graphing software allows us to set the viewing window by specifying one or both of
the intervals, a … x … b and c … y … d, and it may allow for equalizing the scales used
for the axes as well. The software selects equally spaced x-values in 3 a, b4 and then plots
the points (x, ƒ(x)). A point is plotted if and only if x lies in the domain of the function and
ƒ(x) lies within the interval 3 c, d4 . A short line segment is then drawn between each plotted
point and its next neighboring point. We now give illustrative examples of some common
problems that may occur with this procedure.
EXAMPLE 1
Graph the function ƒ(x) = x3 - 7x2 + 28 in each of the following
display or viewing windows:
(a) 3 -10, 104 by 3 -10, 104
(b) 3 -4, 44 by 3 -50, 104
(c) 3 -4, 104 by 3 -60, 604
Solution
(a) We select a = -10, b = 10, c = -10, and d = 10 to specify the interval of x-values
and the range of y-values for the window. The resulting graph is shown in Figure 1.48a.
It appears that the window is cutting off the bottom part of the graph and that the
interval of x-values is too large. Let’s try the next window.
10
10
4
−4
10
−10
60
10
−4
−10
−50
(a)
(b)
−60
(c)
FIGURE 1.48 The graph of ƒ(x) = x3 - 7x2 + 28 in different viewing windows. Selecting a window that gives a clear
picture of a graph is often a trial-and-error process (Example 1). The default window used by the software may automatically
display the graph in (c).
(b) We see some new features of the graph (Figure 1.48b), but the top is missing and we
need to view more to the right of x = 4 as well. The next window should help.
(c) Figure 1.48c shows the graph in this new viewing window. Observe that we get a
more complete picture of the graph in this window, and it is a reasonable graph of a
third-degree polynomial.
EXAMPLE 2
When a graph is displayed, the x-unit may differ from the y-unit, as in
the graphs shown in Figures 1.48b and 1.48c. The result is distortion in the picture, which
may be misleading. The display window can be made square by compressing or stretching
the units on one axis to match the scale on the other, giving the true graph. Many software
systems have built-in options to make the window “square.” If yours does not, you may
have to bring to your viewing some foreknowledge of the true picture.
Figure 1.49a shows the graphs of the perpendicular lines y = x and y = -x + 3 22,
together with the semicircle y = 29 - x2, in a nonsquare 3 -4, 44 by 3 -6, 84 display
window. Notice the distortion. The lines do not appear to be perpendicular, and the semicircle appears to be elliptical in shape.
Figure 1.49b shows the graphs of the same functions in a square window in which the
x-units are scaled to be the same as the y-units. Notice that the scaling on the x-axis for
Figure 1.49a has been compressed in Figure 1.49b to make the window square. Figure 1.49c
gives an enlarged view of Figure 1.49b with a square 3 -3, 34 by 3 0, 44 window.
1.4 Graphing with Software
8
4
4
4
−4
31
6
−6
3
−3
−6
(a)
0
(c)
−4
(b)
FIGURE 1.49 Graphs of the perpendicular lines y = x and y = - x + 3 22 and of the semicircle
y = 29 - x2 appear distorted (a) in a nonsquare window, but clear (b) and (c) in square windows (Example 2).
Some software may not provide options for the views in (b) or (c).
If the denominator of a rational function is zero at some x-value within the viewing
window, graphing software may produce a steep near-vertical line segment from the top to
the bottom of the window. Example 3 illustrates steep line segments.
Sometimes the graph of a trigonometric function oscillates very rapidly. When graphing software plots the points of the graph and connects them, many of the maximum and
minimum points are actually missed. The resulting graph is then very misleading.
EXAMPLE 3
Graph the function ƒ(x) = sin 100x.
Solution Figure 1.50a shows the graph of ƒ in the viewing window 3 -12, 124 by
3 -1, 14 . We see that the graph looks very strange because the sine curve should oscillate
periodically between -1 and 1. This behavior is not exhibited in Figure 1.50a. We might
experiment with a smaller viewing window, say 3 -6, 64 by 3 -1, 14 , but the graph is not
better (Figure 1.50b). The difficulty is that the period of the trigonometric function
y = sin 100x is very small (2p>100 ≈ 0.063). If we choose the much smaller viewing
window 3 -0.1, 0.14 by 3 -1, 14 we get the graph shown in Figure 1.50c. This graph
reveals the expected oscillations of a sine curve.
1
1
12
−12
−1
(a)
1
6
−6
0.1
−0.1
−1
(b)
−1
(c)
FIGURE 1.50 Graphs of the function y = sin 100x in three viewing windows. Because the period is 2p>100 ≈ 0.063,
the smaller window in (c) best displays the true aspects of this rapidly oscillating function (Example 3).
EXAMPLE 4
Graph the function y = cos x +
1
sin 200x.
200
Solution In the viewing window 3 -6, 64 by 3 -1, 14 the graph appears much like the
cosine function with some very small sharp wiggles on it (Figure 1.51a). We get a better
look when we significantly reduce the window to 3 -0.2, 0.24 by 3 0.97, 1.014 , obtaining
the graph in Figure 1.51b. We now see the small but rapid oscillations of the second term,
(1>200) sin 200x, added to the comparatively larger values of the cosine curve.
32
Chapter 1: Functions
1.01
1
6
−6
0.2
−0.2
0.97
(b)
−1
(a)
FIGURE 1.51 In (b) we see a close-up view of the function
1
sin 200x graphed in (a). The term cos x clearly dominates
y = cos x +
200
1
the second term,
sin 200x, which produces the rapid oscillations along the
200
cosine curve. Both views are needed for a clear idea of the graph (Example 4).
Obtaining a Complete Graph
Some graphing software will not display the portion of a graph for ƒ(x) when x 6 0. Usually that happens because of the algorithm the software is using to calculate the function
values. Sometimes we can obtain the complete graph by defining the formula for the function in a different way, as illustrated in the next example.
EXAMPLE 5
Graph the function y = x1>3.
Solution Some graphing software displays the graph shown in Figure 1.52a. When we
3
compare it with the graph of y = x1>3 = 2
x in Figure 1.17, we see that the left branch for
x 6 0 is missing. The reason the graphs differ is that the software algorithm calculates
x1>3 as e(1>3)ln x. Since the logarithmic function is not defined for negative values of x, the
software can produce only the right branch, where x 7 0. (Logarithmic and exponential
functions are introduced in the next two sections.)
2
2
3
−3
3
−3
−2
(a)
−2
(b)
FIGURE 1.52 The graph of y = x1>3 is missing the left branch in (a). In (b) we
x # 1>3
0 x 0 , obtaining both branches. (See Example 5.)
graph the function ƒ(x) =
0x0
To obtain the full picture showing both branches, we can graph the function
ƒ(x) =
x # 1>3
0x0 .
0x0
This function equals x1>3 except at x = 0 (where ƒ is undefined, although 01>3 = 0). A
graph of ƒ is displayed in Figure 1.52b.
Capturing the Trend of Collected Data
We have pointed out that applied scientists and analysts often collect data to study a particular issue or phenomenon of interest. If there is no known principle or physical law
1.4 Graphing with Software
33
relating the independent and dependent variables, the data can be plotted in a scatterplot to
help find a curve that captures the overall trend of the data points. This process is called
regression analysis, and the curve is called a regression curve.
Many graphing utilities have software that finds the regression curve for a particular
type of curve (such as a straight line, a quadratic or other polynomial, or a power curve) and
then superimposes the graph of the found curve over the scatterplot. This procedure results
in a useful graphical visualization, and often the formula produced for the regression curve
can be used to make reasonable estimates or to help explain the issue of interest.
One common method, known as least squares, finds the desired regression curve by
minimizing the sum of the squares of the vertical distances between the data points and the
curve. The least squares method is an optimization problem. (In Section 14.7 exercises, we
discuss how the regression curve is calculated when fitting a straight line to the data.) Here
we present a few examples illustrating the technique by using available software to find
the curve. Keep in mind that different software packages may have different ways of entering the data points, and different output features as well.
EXAMPLE 6
Table 1.3 shows the annual cost of tuition and fees for a full-time student attending the University of California for the years 1990–2011. The data in the list
cite the beginning of the academic year when the corresponding cost was in effect. Use the
table to find a regression line capturing the trend of the data points, and use the line to
estimate the cost for academic year 2018–19.
TABLE 1.3 Tuition and fees at
the University of California
Year, x
Cost, y
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2011
1,820
4,166
3,964
6,802
11,287
13,218
Solution We use regression software that allows for fitting a straight line, and we enter
the data from the table to obtain the formula
y = 506.25x - 1.0066 # 106,
where x represents the year and y the cost that took effect that year. Figure 1.53 displays
the scatterplot of the data together with the graph of this regression line. From the equation
of the line, we find that for x = 2018,
y = 506.25(2018) - 1.0066 # 106 = 15,013
is the estimated cost (rounded to the nearest dollar) for the academic year 2018–19. The
last two data points rise above the trend line in the figure, so this estimate may turn out to
be low.
y
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
x
FIGURE 1.53 Scatterplot and regression
line for the University of California tuition
and fees from Table 1.3 (Example 6).
EXAMPLE 7
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recorded the deaths
from tuberculosis in the United States for 1970–2006. We list the data in Table 1.4 for
5-year intervals. Find linear and quadratic regression curves capturing the trend of the data
points. Which curve might be the better predictor?
34
Chapter 1: Functions
Solution Using regression software that allows us to fit a straight line as well as a quadratic curve, we enter the data to obtain the formulas
TABLE 1.4 U.S. deaths from
y = 2.2279 # 105 - 111.04x,
tuberculosis
Year, x
Deaths, y
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
5,217
3,333
1,978
1,752
1,810
1,336
776
648
line fit
and
y =
464,757,147
1451 2 3,483,953
x x +
,
210
28
350
quadratic fit
where x represents the year and y represents the number of deaths that occurred. A scatterplot of the data, together with the two trend curves, is displayed in Figure 1.54. In looking at the figure, it would appear that the quadratic curve most closely captures the trend
of the data, except for the years 1990 and 1995, and would make the better predictor. However, the quadratic seems to have a minimum value near the year 2000, rising upward
thereafter, so it would probably not be a useful tool for making good estimates in the years
beyond 2010. This example illustrates the danger of using a regression curve to predict
values beyond the range of the data used to construct the curve.
y
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
x
FIGURE 1.54 Scatterplot with the
regression line and quadratic curves for
tuberculosis deaths in the United States,
based on Table 1.4 (Example 7).
Exercises
1.4
Choosing a Viewing Window
T In Exercises 1–4, use graphing software to determine which of the
given viewing windows displays the most appropriate graph of the
specified function.
1. ƒ(x) = x4 - 7x2 + 6x
a. 3-1, 14 by 3-1, 14
c. 3-10, 104 by 3-10, 104
2. ƒ(x) = x3 - 4x2 - 4x + 16
a. 3-1, 14 by 3-5, 54
b. 3-2, 24 by 3-5, 54
d. 3-5, 54 by 3- 25, 154
b. 3-3, 34 by 3-10, 104
should give a picture of the overall behavior of the function. There is
more than one choice, but incorrect choices can miss important
aspects of the function.
x2
x3
5. ƒ(x) = x4 - 4x3 + 15
- 2x + 1
6. ƒ(x) =
3
2
7. ƒ(x) = x5 - 5x4 + 10
9. ƒ(x) = x 29 - x
2
11. y = 2x - 3x2>3
13. y = 5x
2>5
- 2x
8. ƒ(x) = 4x3 - x4
10. ƒ(x) = x2(6 - x3)
12. y = x1>3(x2 - 8)
14. y = x2>3(5 - x)
c. 3-5, 54 by 3-10, 204
d. 3- 20, 204 by 3-100, 1004
15. y = 0 x2 - 1 0
x + 3
17. y =
x + 2
c. 3-4, 44 by 3-20, 204
d. 3- 4, 54 by 3- 15, 254
19. ƒ(x) =
x2 + 2
x2 + 1
20. ƒ(x) =
x2 - 1
x2 + 1
21. ƒ(x) =
22. ƒ(x) =
c. 3-3, 74 by 30, 104
d. 3- 10, 104 by 3-10, 104
x - 1
x2 - x - 6
8
x2 - 9
23. ƒ(x) =
6x2 - 15x + 6
4x2 - 10x
24. ƒ(x) =
x2 - 3
x - 2
3. ƒ(x) = 5 + 12x - x3
a. 3- 1, 14 by 3-1, 14
4. ƒ(x) = 25 + 4x - x2
a. 3- 2, 24 by 3-2, 24
b. 3-5, 54 by 3-10, 104
b. 3-2, 64 by 3-1, 44
Finding a Viewing Window
T In Exercises 5–30, find an appropriate graphing software viewing window for the given function and use it to display its graph. The window
25. y = sin 250x
16. y = 0 x2 - x 0
1
18. y = 1 x + 3
26. y = 3 cos 60x
1.4 Graphing with Software
27. y = cos a
29. y = x +
x
b
50
28. y =
1
sin 30x
10
x
1
sin a b
10
10
30. y = x2 +
1
cos 100x
50
Use graphing software to graph the functions specified in Exercises 31–36.
Select a viewing window that reveals the key features of the function.
31. Graph the lower half of the circle defined by the equation
x2 + 2x = 4 + 4y - y2.
32. Graph the upper branch of the hyperbola y2 - 16x2 = 1.
33. Graph four periods of the function ƒ(x) = - tan 2x.
x
34. Graph two periods of the function ƒ(x) = 3 cot + 1.
2
35. Graph the function ƒ(x) = sin 2x + cos 3x.
36. Graph the function ƒ(x) = sin3 x.
Regression Lines or Quadratic Curve Fits
T Use a graphing utility to find the regression curves specified in Exercises 37–42.
37. Weight of males The table shows the average weight for men
of medium frame based on height as reported by the Metropolitan
Life Insurance Company (1983).
Height (in.)
Weight (lb)
Height (in.)
Weight (lb)
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
136
138
141
141.5
145
148
151
154
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
157
160
163.5
167
171
174.5
179
a. Make a scatterplot of the data.
b. Find and plot a regression line, and superimpose the line on
the scatterplot.
c. Does the regression line reasonably capture the trend of the
data? What weight would you predict for a male of height 6′7″?
38. Federal minimum wage The federal minimum hourly wage
rates have increased over the years. The table shows the rates at
the year in which they first took effect, as reported by the U.S.
Department of Labor.
Year
Wage ($)
Year
Wage ($)
1978
1979
1980
1981
1990
1991
2.65
2.90
3.10
3.35
3.80
4.25
1996
1997
2007
2008
2009
4.75
5.15
5.85
6.55
7.25
a. Make a scatterplot of the data.
b. Find and plot a regression line, and superimpose the line on
the scatterplot.
c. What do you estimate as the minimum wage for the year 2018?
35
39. Median home price The median price of single-family homes
in the United States increased quite consistently during the years
1976–2000. Then a housing “bubble” occurred for the years
2001–2010, in which prices first rose dramatically for 6 years and
then dropped in a steep “crash” over the next 4 years, causing
considerable turmoil in the U.S. economy. The table shows some
of the data as reported by the National Association of Realtors.
Year
Price ($)
Year
Price ($)
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
37400
56250
66500
87500
95800
104200
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
122600
150000
187500
247500
183300
162500
a. Make a scatterplot of the data.
b. Find and plot the regression line for the years 1976–2002,
and superimpose the line on the scatterplot in part (a).
c. How would you interpret the meaning of a data point in the
housing “bubble”?
40. Average energy prices The table shows the average residential
and transportation prices for energy consumption in the United
States for the years 2000–2008, as reported by the U.S. Department of Energy. The prices are given as dollars paid for one million BTU (British thermal units) of consumption.
Year
Residential ($)
Transportation ($)
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
15
16
15
16
18
19
21
21
23
10
10
9
11
13
16
19
20
25
a. Make a scatterplot of the data sets.
b. Find and plot a regression line for each set of data points, and
superimpose the lines on their scatterplots.
c. What do you estimate as the average energy price for residential and transportation use for a million BTU in year
2017?
d. In looking at the trend lines, what do you conclude about the
rising costs of energy across the two sectors of usage?
41. Global annual mean surface air temperature A NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies report gives the annual global
mean land-ocean temperature index for the years 1880 to the
present. The index number is the difference between the mean
temperature over the base years 1951–1980 and the actual temperature for the year recorded. For the recorded year, a positive
index is the number of degrees Celsius above the base; a negative
index is the number below the base. The table lists the index for
the years 1940–2010 in 5-year intervals, reported in the NASA
data set.
36
Chapter 1: Functions
Year
Index (°C)
Year
Index (°C)
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
0.04
0.06
- 0.16
- 0.11
- 0.01
- 0.12
0.03
- 0.04
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
0.20
0.05
0.36
0.39
0.35
0.62
0.63
42. Growth of yeast cells The table shows the amount of yeast
cells (measured as biomass) growing over a 7-hour period in a
nutrient, as recorded by R. Pearl (1927) during a well-known biological experiment.
Hour
0
1
Biomass 9.6 18.3
2
3
4
5
6
7
29.0 47.2 71.1 119.1 174.6 257.3
a. Make a scatterplot of the data.
b. Find and plot a regression quadratic, and superimpose the
quadratic curve on the scatterplot.
a. Make a scatterplot of the data.
c. What do you estimate as the biomass of yeast in the nutrient
after 11 hours?
b. Find and plot a regression line, and superimpose the line on
the scatterplot.
d. Do you think the quadratic curve would provide a good estimate
of the biomass after 18 hours? Give reasons for your answer.
c. Find and plot a quadratic curve that captures the trend of the
data, and superimpose the curve on the scatterplot.
1.5 Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are among the most important in mathematics and occur in a wide
variety of applications, including interest rates, radioactive decay, population growth, the
spread of a disease, consumption of natural resources, the earth’s atmospheric pressure, temperature change of a heated object placed in a cooler environment, and the dating of fossils.
In this section we introduce these functions informally, using an intuitive approach. We give
a rigorous development of them in Chapter 7, based on important calculus ideas and results.
Exponential Behavior
When a positive quantity P doubles, it increases by a factor of 2 and the quantity becomes
2P. If it doubles again, it becomes 2(2P) = 22P, and a third doubling gives 2(22P) = 23P.
Continuing to double in this fashion leads us to consider the function ƒ(x) = 2x. We call
this an exponential function because the variable x appears in the exponent of 2x. Functions such as g(x) = 10 x and h(x) = (1>2)x are other examples of exponential functions.
In general, if a ≠ 1 is a positive constant, the function
Don’t confuse the exponential 2x with
the power function x2 . In the exponential, the variable x is in the exponent,
whereas the variable x is the base in the
power function.
ƒ(x) = ax, a > 0
is the exponential function with base a.
EXAMPLE 1
In 2014, $100 is invested in a savings account, where it grows by
accruing interest that is compounded annually (once a year) at an interest rate of 5.5%.
Assuming no additional funds are deposited to the account and no money is withdrawn,
give a formula for a function describing the amount A in the account after x years have
elapsed.
Solution If P = 100, at the end of the first year the amount in the account is the original
amount plus the interest accrued, or
P + a
5.5
b P = (1 + 0.055)P = (1.055)P.
100
At the end of the second year the account earns interest again and grows to
(1 + 0.055) # (1.055P) = (1.055)2P = 100 # (1.055)2.
P = 100
1.5 Exponential Functions
37
Continuing this process, after x years the value of the account is
A = 100 # (1.055)x.
This is a multiple of the exponential function with base 1.055. Table 1.5 shows the
amounts accrued over the first four years. Notice that the amount in the account each year
is always 1.055 times its value in the previous year.
TABLE 1.5 Savings account growth
Year
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
Amount (dollars)
100
100(1.055)
100(1.055)2
100(1.055)3
100(1.055)4
=
=
=
=
Increase (dollars)
105.50
111.30
117.42
123.88
5.50
5.80
6.12
6.46
In general, the amount after x years is given by P(1 + r)x, where r is the interest rate
(expressed as a decimal).
For integer and rational exponents, the value of an exponential function ƒ(x) = ax is
obtained arithmetically as follows. If x = n is a positive integer, the number an is given by
multiplying a by itself n times:
an = (++)++*
a # a # g # a.
n factors
y
y = 10 x
If x = 0, then a0 = 1, and if x = -n for some positive integer n, then
12
8
If x = 1>n for some positive integer n, then
6
y=
4
2
n
a1>n = 2a,
3x
which is the positive number that when multiplied by itself n times gives a. If x = p>q is
any rational number, then
y = 2x
−1 −0.5
0
0.5
1
(a) y = 2 x, y = 3 x, y = 10 x
x
q
ap>q = 2ap =
y
y = 10 –x
12
10
8
y=
3 –x
6
4
y = 2 –x
2
−1 −0.5
0
0.5
1
(b) y = 2 –x, y = 3 –x, y = 10 –x
FIGURE 1.55
functions.
1
1 n
n = aab .
a
a-n =
10
x
Graphs of exponential
q
p
12
a2 .
If x is irrational, the meaning of ax is not so clear, but its value can be defined by considering values for rational numbers that get closer and closer to x. This informal approach
is based on the graph of the exponential function, as we are about to describe. In Chapter 7
we define the meaning in a rigorous way.
We displayed the graphs of several exponential functions in Section 1.1, and show
them again in Figure 1.55. These graphs indicate the values of the exponential functions
for all real inputs x. The value at an irrational number x is chosen so that the graph of ax
has no “holes” or “jumps.” Of course, these words are not mathematical terms, but they do
convey the informal idea. We mean that the value of ax , when x is irrational, is chosen so
that the function ƒ(x) = ax is continuous, a notion that will be carefully explored in the
next chapter. This choice ensures the graph retains its increasing behavior when a 7 1, or
decreasing behavior when 0 6 a 6 1 (see Figure 1.55).
Arithmetically, the graphical idea can be described in the following way, using the
exponential function ƒ(x) = 2x as an illustration. Any particular irrational number, say
x = 23, has a decimal expansion
23 = 1.732050808 c.
38
Chapter 1: Functions
TABLE 1.6 Values of 2 for
rational r closer and closer to 23
23
r
r
2
1.0
1.7
1.73
1.732
1.7320
1.73205
1.732050
1.7320508
1.73205080
1.732050808
2.000000000
3.249009585
3.317278183
3.321880096
3.321880096
3.321995226
3.321995226
3.321997068
3.321997068
3.321997086
We then consider the list of numbers, given as follows in the order of taking more and
more digits in the decimal expansion,
21, 21.7, 21.73, 21.732, 21.7320, 21.73205, c.
(1)
We know the meaning of each number in list (1) because the successive decimal approximations to 23 given by 1, 1.7, 1.73, 1.732, and so on, are all rational numbers. As these
decimal approximations get closer and closer to 23, it seems reasonable that the list of
numbers in (1) gets closer and closer to some fixed number, which we specify to be 223 .
Table 1.6 illustrates how taking better approximations to 23 gives better approximations to the number 223 ≈ 3.321997086. It is the completeness property of the real numbers (discussed briefly in Appendix 7) which guarantees that this procedure gives a single
number we define to be 223 (although it is beyond the scope of this text to give a proof). In
a similar way, we can identify the number 2x (or ax, a 7 0) for any irrational x. By identifying the number ax for both rational and irrational x, we eliminate any “holes” or “gaps” in
the graph of ax . In practice you can use a calculator to find the number ax for irrational x by
taking successive decimal approximations to x and creating a table similar to Table 1.6.
Exponential functions obey the familiar rules of exponents listed below. It is easy to
check these rules using algebra when the exponents are integers or rational numbers. We
prove them for all real exponents in Chapters 4 and 7.
Rules for Exponents
If a 7 0 and b 7 0, the following rules hold true for all real numbers x and y.
1. ax # ay = ax + y
3. ( ax ) y
ax
5. x =
b
ax
= ax - y
ay
4. ax # bx = (ab)x
2.
= ( ay ) x = axy
a x
a b
b
EXAMPLE 2
We illustrate using the rules for exponents to simplify numerical expressions.
1. 31.1 # 30.7 = 31.1 + 0.7 = 31.8
1 210 2
Rule 1
3
2.
210
=
1 210 23 - 1
3. 1 522 222 = 522
4. 7p # 8p = (56)p
# 22
=
1 210 22
= 10
= 52 = 25
4 1>2 41>2 2
5. a b
= 1>2 =
9
3
9
Rule 2
Rule 3
Rule 4
Rule 5
The Natural Exponential Function e x
The most important exponential function used for modeling natural, physical, and economic
phenomena is the natural exponential function, whose base is the special number e.
The number e is irrational, and its value is 2.718281828 to nine decimal places. (In Section 3.8 we will see a way to calculate the value of e.) It might seem strange that we would
use this number for a base rather than a simple number like 2 or 10. The advantage in
using e as a base is that it simplifies many of the calculations in calculus.
If you look at Figure 1.55a you can see that the graphs of the exponential functions
y = ax get steeper as the base a gets larger. This idea of steepness is conveyed by the slope
of the tangent line to the graph at a point. Tangent lines to graphs of functions are defined
precisely in the next chapter, but intuitively the tangent line to the graph at a point is a line
39
1.5 Exponential Functions
y
y
y = 2x
y
y = ex
m ≈ 0.7
m ≈ 1.1
m=1
1
1
x
0
1
x
0
x
0
(c)
(b)
(a)
y = 3x
FIGURE 1.56 Among the exponential functions, the graph of y = ex has the property that the
slope m of the tangent line to the graph is exactly 1 when it crosses the y-axis. The slope is smaller
for a base less than e, such as 2x , and larger for a base greater than e, such as 3x.
that just touches the graph at the point, like a tangent to a circle. Figure 1.56 shows the
slope of the graph of y = ax as it crosses the y-axis for several values of a. Notice that the
slope is exactly equal to 1 when a equals the number e. The slope is smaller than 1 if
a 6 e, and larger than 1 if a 7 e. This is the property that makes the number e so useful
in calculus: The graph of y = ex has slope 1 when it crosses the y-axis.
Exponential Growth and Decay
The exponential functions y = ekx , where k is a nonzero constant, are frequently used for
modeling exponential growth or decay. The function y = y0 ekx is a model for exponential
growth if k 7 0 and a model for exponential decay if k 6 0. Here y0 represents a constant. An example of exponential growth occurs when computing interest compounded
continuously modeled by y = P # ert, where P is the initial monetary investment, r is the
interest rate as a decimal, and t is time in units consistent with r. An example of exponen-4
tial decay is the model y = A # e-1.2 * 10 t , which represents how the radioactive isotope
carbon-14 decays over time. Here A is the original amount of carbon-14 and t is the time in
years. Carbon-14 decay is used to date the remains of dead organisms such as shells,
seeds, and wooden artifacts. Figure 1.57 shows graphs of exponential growth and exponential decay.
y
y
20
1.4
15
1
10
y = e1.5x
y = e –1.2 x
0.6
5
0.2
−1 −0.5
0
0.5
(a)
1
1.5
2
x
−0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
x
(b)
FIGURE 1.57 Graphs of (a) exponential growth, k = 1.5 7 0, and (b) exponential decay,
k = -1.2 6 0.
EXAMPLE 3
Investment companies often use the model y = Pert in calculating the
growth of an investment. Use this model to track the growth of $100 invested in 2014 at an
annual interest rate of 5.5%.
Solution Let t = 0 represent 2014, t = 1 represent 2015, and so on. Then the exponential growth model is y(t) = Pert , where P = 100 (the initial investment), r = 0.055 (the
40
Chapter 1: Functions
annual interest rate expressed as a decimal), and t is time in years. To predict the amount in
the account in 2018, after four years have elapsed, we take t = 4 and calculate
y(4) = 100e0.055(4)
= 100e0.22
= 124.61.
Nearest cent using calculator
This compares with $123.88 in the account when the interest is compounded annually
from Example 1.
EXAMPLE 4
Laboratory experiments indicate that some atoms emit a part of their
mass as radiation, with the remainder of the atom re-forming to make an atom of some
new element. For example, radioactive carbon-14 decays into nitrogen; radium eventually
decays into lead. If y0 is the number of radioactive nuclei present at time zero, the number
still present at any later time t will be
y = y0 e-rt,
r 7 0.
The number r is called the decay rate of the radioactive substance. (We will see how this
formula is obtained in Section 7.2.) For carbon-14, the decay rate has been determined
experimentally to be about r = 1.2 * 10-4 when t is measured in years. Predict the percent of carbon-14 present after 866 years have elapsed.
Solution If we start with an amount y0 of carbon-14 nuclei, after 866 years we are left
with the amount
-4
y(866) = y0 e(-1.2 * 10
≈ (0.901)y0.
) (866)
Calculator evaluation
That is, after 866 years, we are left with about 90% of the original amount of carbon-14,
so about 10% of the original nuclei have decayed. In Example 7 in the next section, you
will see how to find the number of years required for half of the radioactive nuclei present
in a sample to decay (called the half-life of the substance).
You may wonder why we use the family of functions y = ekx for different values of the
constant k instead of the general exponential functions y = ax. In the next section, we show
that the exponential function ax is equal to ekx for an appropriate value of k. So the formula
y = ekx covers the entire range of possibilities, and we will see that it is easier to use.
1.5
Exercises
Sketching Exponential Curves
In Exercises 1–6, sketch the given curves together in the appropriate
coordinate plane and label each curve with its equation.
1. y = 2x, y = 4x, y = 3-x, y = (1>5)x
2. y = 3x, y = 8x, y = 2-x, y = (1>4)x
-t
t
-t
4. y = 3 and y = -3
x
x
6. y = - ex and y = - e-x
3. y = 2 and y = -2
5. y = e and y = 1>e
t
In each of Exercises 7–10, sketch the shifted exponential curves.
x
-x
x
-x
7. y = 2 - 1 and y = 2
8. y = 3 + 2 and y = 3
x
- 1
+ 2
-x
9. y = 1 - e and y = 1 - e
10. y = -1 - ex and y = - 1 - e-x
Applying the Laws of Exponents
Use the laws of exponents to simplify the expressions in Exercises
11–20.
11. 162 # 16-1.75
13.
15.
44.2
43.7
14.
1 251>8 24
17. 2
23
19. a
12. 91>3 # 91>6
# 7 23
2
22
b
4
16.
18.
35>3
32>3
1 1322 222>2
1 23 21>2 # 1 212 21>2
20. a
26
3
b
2
1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Composites Involving Exponential Functions
Find the domain and range for each of the functions in Exercises
21–24.
1
21. ƒ(x) =
22. g(t) = cos (e-t)
2 + ex
23. g(t) = 21 + 3-t
3
24. ƒ(x) =
1 - e2x
Applications
T In Exercises 25–28, use graphs to find approximate solutions.
26. ex = 4
25. 2x = 5
27. 3x - 0.5 = 0
28. 3 - 2-x = 0
41
31. Radioactive decay The half-life of phosphorus-32 is about
14 days. There are 6.6 grams present initially.
a. Express the amount of phosphorus-32 remaining as a function of time t.
b. When will there be 1 gram remaining?
32. If Jean invests $2300 in a retirement account with a 6% interest rate
compounded annually, how long will it take until Jean’s account
has a balance of $4150?
33. Doubling your money Determine how much time is required
for an investment to double in value if interest is earned at the rate
of 6.25% compounded annually.
T In Exercises 29–36, use an exponential model and a graphing calculator to estimate the answer in each problem.
34. Tripling your money Determine how much time is required
for an investment to triple in value if interest is earned at the rate
of 5.75% compounded continuously.
29. Population growth The population of Knoxville is 500,000
and is increasing at the rate of 3.75% each year. Approximately
when will the population reach 1 million?
35. Cholera bacteria Suppose that a colony of bacteria starts with
1 bacterium and doubles in number every half hour. How many
bacteria will the colony contain at the end of 24 hr?
30. Population growth The population of Silver Run in the year
1890 was 6250. Assume the population increased at a rate of
2.75% per year.
36. Eliminating a disease Suppose that in any given year the number of cases of a disease is reduced by 20%. If there are 10,000
cases today, how many years will it take
a. Estimate the population in 1915 and 1940.
a. to reduce the number of cases to 1000?
b. Approximately when did the population reach 50,000?
b. to eliminate the disease; that is, to reduce the number of cases
to less than 1?
1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
A function that undoes, or inverts, the effect of a function ƒ is called the inverse of ƒ.
Many common functions, though not all, are paired with an inverse. In this section we
present the natural logarithmic function y = ln x as the inverse of the exponential function
y = ex , and we also give examples of several inverse trigonometric functions.
One-to-One Functions
A function is a rule that assigns a value from its range to each element in its domain. Some
functions assign the same range value to more than one element in the domain. The function ƒ(x) = x2 assigns the same value, 1, to both of the numbers -1 and +1; the sines of
p>3 and 2p>3 are both 23>2. Other functions assume each value in their range no more
than once. The square roots and cubes of different numbers are always different. A function that has distinct values at distinct elements in its domain is called one-to-one. These
functions take on any one value in their range exactly once.
DEFINITION A function ƒ(x) is one-to-one on a domain D if ƒ(x1) ≠ ƒ(x2)
whenever x1 ≠ x2 in D.
EXAMPLE 1
Some functions are one-to-one on their entire natural domain. Other
functions are not one-to-one on their entire domain, but by restricting the function to a
smaller domain we can create a function that is one-to-one. The original and restricted
functions are not the same functions, because they have different domains. However, the
42
Chapter 1: Functions
y
y
y=
x
0
two functions have the same values on the smaller domain, so the original function is an
extension of the restricted function from its smaller domain to the larger domain.
y = "x
x3
x
0
(a) One-to-one: Graph meets each
horizontal line at most once.
y
y = x2
Same y-value
y
Same y-value
1
−1
0
0.5
1
x
p
6
5p
6
y = sin x
(b) Not one-to-one: Graph meets one or
more horizontal lines more than once.
FIGURE 1.58 (a) y = x3 and y = 1x
are one-to-one on their domains (- q, q)
and 30, q). (b) y = x2 and y = sin x are
not one-to-one on their domains (- q, q).
x
(a) ƒ(x) = 2x is one-to-one on any domain of nonnegative numbers because 2x1 ≠
2x2 whenever x1 ≠ x2.
(b) g(x) = sin x is not one-to-one on the interval 3 0, p4 because sin (p>6) = sin (5p>6).
In fact, for each element x1 in the subinterval 3 0, p>2) there is a corresponding element x2 in the subinterval (p>2, p] satisfying sin x1 = sin x2, so distinct elements in
the domain are assigned to the same value in the range. The sine function is one-toone on 3 0, p>24 , however, because it is an increasing function on 3 0, p>24 giving
distinct outputs for distinct inputs.
The graph of a one-to-one function y = ƒ(x) can intersect a given horizontal line at
most once. If the function intersects the line more than once, it assumes the same y-value
for at least two different x-values and is therefore not one-to-one (Figure 1.58).
The Horizontal Line Test for One-to-One Functions
A function y = ƒ(x) is one-to-one if and only if its graph intersects each horizontal line at most once.
Inverse Functions
Since each output of a one-to-one function comes from just one input, the effect of the
function can be inverted to send an output back to the input from which it came.
DEFINITION Suppose that ƒ is a one-to-one function on a domain D with range
R. The inverse function ƒ -1 is defined by
ƒ -1(b) = a if ƒ(a) = b.
The domain of ƒ -1 is R and the range of ƒ -1 is D.
Caution Do not confuse the inverse
function ƒ -1 with the reciprocal
function 1>ƒ.
The symbol ƒ -1 for the inverse of ƒ is read “ƒ inverse.” The “-1” in ƒ -1 is not an
exponent; ƒ -1(x) does not mean 1>ƒ(x). Notice that the domains and ranges of ƒ and ƒ -1
are interchanged.
EXAMPLE 2
Suppose a one-to-one function y = ƒ(x) is given by a table of values
x
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
ƒ(x)
3
4.5
7
10.5
15
20.5
27
34.5
A table for the values of x = ƒ -1(y) can then be obtained by simply interchanging the values in the columns (or rows) of the table for ƒ:
y
3
4.5
7
10.5
15
20.5
27
34.5
ƒ −1( y)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
If we apply ƒ to send an input x to the output ƒ(x) and follow by applying ƒ -1 to ƒ(x),
we get right back to x, just where we started. Similarly, if we take some number y in the
range of ƒ, apply ƒ -1 to it, and then apply ƒ to the resulting value ƒ -1(y), we get back the
43
1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
value y with which we began. Composing a function and its inverse has the same effect as
doing nothing.
(ƒ -1 ∘ ƒ) (x) = x,
(ƒ ∘ ƒ -1)(y) = y,
for all x in the domain of ƒ
for all y in the domain of ƒ -1 (or range of ƒ)
Only a one-to-one function can have an inverse. The reason is that if ƒ(x1) = y and
ƒ(x2) = y for two distinct inputs x1 and x2, then there is no way to assign a value to ƒ -1(y)
that satisfies both ƒ -1(ƒ(x1)) = x1 and ƒ -1(ƒ(x2)) = x2.
A function that is increasing on an interval satisfies the inequality ƒ(x2) 7 ƒ(x1) when
x2 7 x1 , so it is one-to-one and has an inverse. Decreasing functions also have an inverse.
Functions that are neither increasing nor decreasing may still be one-to-one and have an
inverse, as with the function ƒ(x) = 1>x for x ≠ 0 and ƒ(0) = 0, defined on (- q, q)
and passing the horizontal line test.
Finding Inverses
The graphs of a function and its inverse are closely related. To read the value of a function from
its graph, we start at a point x on the x-axis, go vertically to the graph, and then move horizontally to the y-axis to read the value of y. The inverse function can be read from the graph by
reversing this process. Start with a point y on the y-axis, go horizontally to the graph of
y = ƒ(x), and then move vertically to the x-axis to read the value of x = ƒ -1(y) (Figure 1.59).
y
DOMAIN OF
y = f(x)
f
RANGE OF
f –1
y
y
0
x
x
DOMAIN OF
x = f –1(y)
y
0
f
f –1
(b) The graph of f –1 is the graph of f, but
with x and y interchanged. To find the x that
gave y, we start at y and go over to the curve
and down to the x-axis. The domain of f –1 is the
range of f. The range of f –1 is the domain of f.
(a) To find the value of f at x, we start at x,
go up to the curve, and then over to the y-axis.
y
f –1
x
y=x
x = f –1(y)
(b, a)
0
y
DOMAIN OF
(c) To draw the graph of f –1 in the
more usual way, we reflect the
system across the line y = x.
f
–1
y = f –1(x)
f –1
(a, b)
RANGE OF
RANGE OF
x
x
RANGE OF
x
0
DOMAIN OF
f
–1
(d) Then we interchange the letters x and y.
We now have a normal-looking graph of f –1
as a function of x.
FIGURE 1.59 The graph of y = ƒ -1(x) is obtained by reflecting the graph of y = ƒ(x)
about the line y = x.
44
Chapter 1: Functions
We want to set up the graph of ƒ -1 so that its input values lie along the x-axis, as is
usually done for functions, rather than on the y-axis. To achieve this we interchange the xand y-axes by reflecting across the 45° line y = x. After this reflection we have a new
graph that represents ƒ -1. The value of ƒ -1(x) can now be read from the graph in the usual
way, by starting with a point x on the x-axis, going vertically to the graph, and then horizontally to the y-axis to get the value of ƒ -1(x). Figure 1.59 indicates the relationship between
the graphs of ƒ and ƒ -1. The graphs are interchanged by reflection through the line y = x.
The process of passing from ƒ to ƒ -1 can be summarized as a two-step procedure.
1.
2.
y
y = 2x − 2
Solve the equation y = ƒ(x) for x. This gives a formula x = ƒ -1(y) where x is
expressed as a function of y.
Interchange x and y, obtaining a formula y = ƒ -1(x) where ƒ -1 is expressed in the
conventional format with x as the independent variable and y as the dependent variable.
EXAMPLE 3
y=x
Find the inverse of y =
Solution
1.
Solve for x in terms of y:
y= 1x+1
2
x
1
y =
1
x + 1
2
2.
Interchange x and y:
y = 2x - 2.
The inverse of the function ƒ(x) = (1>2)x + 1 is the function ƒ -1(x) = 2x - 2. (See
Figure 1.60.) To check, we verify that both composites give the identity function:
−2
1
ƒ -1(ƒ(x)) = 2a x + 1b - 2 = x + 2 - 2 = x
2
1
ƒ(ƒ -1(x)) = (2x - 2) + 1 = x - 1 + 1 = x.
2
FIGURE 1.60 Graphing
ƒ(x) = (1>2)x + 1 and ƒ -1(x) = 2x - 2
together shows the graphs’ symmetry with
respect to the line y = x (Example 3).
EXAMPLE 4
y
of x.
Find the inverse of the function y = x2, x Ú 0, expressed as a function
Solution For x Ú 0, the graph satisfies the horizontal line test, so the function is one-toone and has an inverse. To find the inverse, we first solve for x in terms of y:
y = x 2, x ≥ 0
y=x
y = x2
2y = 2x2 = 0 x 0 = x
y = "x
We then interchange x and y, obtaining
0
The graph is a straight line satisfying the
horizontal line test (Fig. 1.60).
2y = x + 2
x = 2y - 2.
1
−2
1
x + 1, expressed as a function of x.
2
x
FIGURE 1.61 The functions y = 1x
and y = x2, x Ú 0, are inverses of one
another (Example 4).
2
0 x 0 = x because x Ú 0
y = 2x.
The inverse of the function y = x , x Ú 0, is the function y = 1x (Figure 1.61).
Notice that the function y = x2, x Ú 0, with domain restricted to the nonnegative real
numbers, is one-to-one (Figure 1.61) and has an inverse. On the other hand, the function y = x2,
with no domain restrictions, is not one-to-one (Figure 1.58b) and therefore has no inverse.
Logarithmic Functions
If a is any positive real number other than 1, the base a exponential function ƒ(x) = ax is oneto-one. It therefore has an inverse. Its inverse is called the logarithm function with base a.
DEFINITION The logarithm function with base a, y = loga x, is the inverse of
the base a exponential function y = ax (a 7 0, a ≠ 1).
1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
y
y = 2x
y=x
2
1
y = log 2 x
0
x
1 2
45
The domain of loga x is (0, q), the range of ax. The range of loga x is (- q, q), the
domain of ax.
Figure 1.23 in Section 1.1 shows the graphs of four logarithmic functions with a 7 1.
Figure 1.62a shows the graph of y = log2 x. The graph of y = ax, a 7 1, increases rapidly for x 7 0, so its inverse, y = loga x, increases slowly for x 7 1.
Because we have no technique yet for solving the equation y = ax for x in terms of y,
we do not have an explicit formula for computing the logarithm at a given value of x. Nevertheless, we can obtain the graph of y = loga x by reflecting the graph of the exponential
y = ax across the line y = x. Figure 1.62 shows the graphs for a = 2 and a = e.
Logarithms with base 2 are commonly used in computer science. Logarithms with
base e and base 10 are so important in applications that many calculators have special keys
for them. They also have their own special notation and names:
(a)
loge x is written as ln x.
y
log10 x is written as log x.
8
y = ex
The function y = ln x is called the natural logarithm function, and y = log x is
often called the common logarithm function. For the natural logarithm,
7
6
ln x = y 3 ey = x.
5
4
In particular, if we set x = e, we obtain
e
(1, e)
2
y = ln x
ln e = 1
1
−2 −1
0
1
2
e
4
x
because e1 = e.
Properties of Logarithms
(b)
FIGURE 1.62 (a) The graph of 2x and
its inverse, log2 x. (b) The graph of ex
and its inverse, ln x.
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY*
John Napier
(1550–1617)
Logarithms, invented by John Napier, were the single most important improvement in
arithmetic calculation before the modern electronic computer. What made them so useful
is that the properties of logarithms reduce multiplication of positive numbers to addition of
their logarithms, division of positive numbers to subtraction of their logarithms, and exponentiation of a number to multiplying its logarithm by the exponent.
We summarize these properties for the natural logarithm as a series of rules that we
prove in Chapter 3. Although here we state the Power Rule for all real powers r, the case
when r is an irrational number cannot be dealt with properly until Chapter 4. We also
establish the validity of the rules for logarithmic functions with any base a in Chapter 7.
THEOREM 1—Algebraic Properties of the Natural Logarithm For any numbers b 7 0 and x 7 0, the natural logarithm satisfies the following rules:
1. Product Rule:
ln bx = ln b + ln x
2. Quotient Rule:
b
ln x = ln b - ln x
3. Reciprocal Rule:
1
ln x = -ln x
4. Power Rule:
Rule 2 with b = 1
r
ln x = r ln x
*To learn more about the historical figures mentioned in the text and the development of many major
elements and topics of calculus, visit www.aw.com/thomas.
46
Chapter 1: Functions
EXAMPLE 5
Here we use the properties in Theorem 1 to simplify three expressions.
(a) ln 4 + ln sin x = ln (4 sin x)
x + 1
= ln (x + 1) - ln (2x - 3)
(b) ln
2x - 3
1
(c) ln = -ln 8
8
= -ln 23 = -3 ln 2
Product Rule
Quotient Rule
Reciprocal Rule
Power Rule
Because ax and loga x are inverses, composing them in either order gives the identity function.
Inverse Properties for ax and loga x
1. Base a: aloga x = x,
loga ax = x,
ln ex = x,
2. Base e: eln x = x,
a 7 0, a ≠ 1, x 7 0
x 7 0
Substituting ax for x in the equation x = eln x enables us to rewrite ax as a power of e:
x
ax = eln (a )
= ex ln a
= e(ln a)x.
Substitute ax for x in x = eln x.
Power Rule for logs
Exponent rearranged
x
Thus, the exponential function a is the same as ekx for k = ln a.
Every exponential function is a power of the natural exponential function.
ax = ex ln a
That is, ax is the same as ex raised to the power ln a: ax = ekx for k = ln a.
For example,
2x = e(ln 2)x = ex ln 2,
and
5 - 3x = e(ln 5) ( - 3x) = e - 3x ln 5.
Returning once more to the properties of ax and loga x, we have
ln x = ln (aloga x)
= (loga x) (ln a).
Inverse Property for ax and log a x
Power Rule for logarithms, with r = loga x
Rewriting this equation as loga x = (ln x)>(ln a) shows that every logarithmic function is a
constant multiple of the natural logarithm ln x. This allows us to extend the algebraic
properties for ln x to loga x. For instance, loga bx = loga b + loga x.
Change of Base Formula
Every logarithmic function is a constant multiple of the natural logarithm.
loga x =
ln x
ln a
(a 7 0, a ≠ 1)
Applications
In Section 1.5 we looked at examples of exponential growth and decay problems. Here we
use properties of logarithms to answer more questions concerning such problems.
EXAMPLE 6
If $1000 is invested in an account that earns 5.25% interest compounded
annually, how long will it take the account to reach $2500?
1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
47
Solution From Example 1, Section 1.5, with P = 1000 and r = 0.0525, the amount in
the account at any time t in years is 1000(1.0525)t, so to find the time t when the account
reaches $2500 we need to solve the equation
1000(1.0525)t = 2500.
Thus we have
(1.0525)t = 2.5
ln (1.0525)t = ln 2.5
t ln 1.0525 = ln 2.5
t =
Divide by 1000.
Take logarithms of both sides.
Power Rule
ln 2.5
≈ 17.9
ln 1.0525
Values obtained by calculator
The amount in the account will reach $2500 in 18 years, when the annual interest payment
is deposited for that year.
EXAMPLE 7
The half-life of a radioactive element is the time required for half of the
radioactive nuclei present in a sample to decay. It is a notable fact that the half-life is a
constant that does not depend on the number of radioactive nuclei initially present in the
sample, but only on the radioactive substance.
To see why, let y0 be the number of radioactive nuclei initially present in the sample.
Then the number y present at any later time t will be y = y0 e-kt. We seek the value of t at
which the number of radioactive nuclei present equals half the original number:
1
y
2 0
1
e-kt =
2
1
-kt = ln = -ln 2
2
ln 2
t =
.
k
y0 e-kt =
(1)
This value of t is the half-life of the element. It depends only on the value of k; the number
y0 does not have any effect.
The effective radioactive lifetime of polonium-210 is so short that we measure it in
days rather than years. The number of radioactive atoms remaining after t days in a sample
that starts with y0 radioactive atoms is
Amount
present
y0
y = y0 e–5×10
Reciprocal Rule for logarithms
–3t
-3
y = y0 e-5 * 10 t.
1y
2 0
1y
4 0
The element’s half-life is
0
139
278
t (days)
ln 2
k
ln 2
=
5 * 10-3
≈ 139 days.
Half@life =
Half-life
FIGURE 1.63 Amount of polonium-210 present at time t, where y0
represents the number of radioactive
atoms initially present (Example 7).
Eq. (1)
The k from polonium’s decay equation
This means that after 139 days, 1>2 of y0 radioactive atoms remain; after another
139 days (or 278 days altogether) half of those remain, or 1>4 of y0 radioactive atoms
remain, and so on (see Figure 1.63).
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The six basic trigonometric functions of a general radian angle x were reviewed in Section 1.3.
These functions are not one-to-one (their values repeat periodically). However, we can
restrict their domains to intervals on which they are one-to-one. The sine function
48
Chapter 1: Functions
y
x = sin y
y = sin –1x
Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
Range: −p"2 ≤ y ≤ p"2
p
2
−
Domain restrictions that make the trigonometric functions one-to-one
sin x
−
p
2
p
2
1
1
0
−1
The graph of y = sin-1 x.
FIGURE 1.64
y
y
y
x
1
−1
increases from -1 at x = -p>2 to +1 at x = p>2. By restricting its domain to the interval 3 -p>2, p>2] we make it one-to-one, so that it has an inverse sin-1 x (Figure 1.64).
Similar domain restrictions can be applied to all six trigonometric functions.
p
2
x
0
−1
y = sin x
Domain: 3- p>2, p>24
Range: 3- 1, 14
y
cos x
p
2
x
p
−
p
2
0
p
2
x
y = tan x
Domain: (- p>2, p>2)
Range: (- q, q)
y = cos x
Domain: 30, p4
Range: 3- 1, 14
y
tan x
y
sec x
csc x
cot x
1
0
p
p
y y = sin x, − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
Domain: [−p"2, p"2]
Range: [−1, 1]
1
−p
2
x
p
2
0
−1
y
x = sin y
y = sin –1x
Domain: [−1, 1]
Range: [−p"2, p"2]
0
−1
−
1
p
y = cot x
Domain: (0, p)
Range: (- q, q)
x
x
p
2
(b)
FIGURE 1.65 The graphs of
(a) y = sin x, - p>2 … x … p>2, and
(b) its inverse, y = sin-1 x. The graph
of sin-1 x, obtained by reflection across
the line y = x, is a portion of the curve
x = sin y.
p
2
0
−1
p
−
y = sec x
Domain: 30, p>2) ∪ (p>2, p4
Range: (- q, - 14 ∪ 31, q)
p
2
0
−1
p
2
x
y = csc x
Domain: 3- p>2, 0) ∪ (0, p>24
Range: (- q, - 14 ∪ 31, q)
Since these restricted functions are now one-to-one, they have inverses, which we
denote by
sin-1 x
cos-1 x
tan-1 x
cot-1 x
or
or
or
or
y
y
y
y
y = sec-1 x
y = csc-1 x
or
or
y = arcsec x
y = arccsc x
y
y
y
y
(a)
p
2
p
2
1
x
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
arcsin x
arccos x
arctan x
arccot x
These equations are read “y equals the arcsine of x” or “y equals arcsin x” and so on.
Caution The -1 in the expressions for the inverse means “inverse.” It does not mean
reciprocal. For example, the reciprocal of sin x is (sin x)-1 = 1>sin x = csc x.
The graphs of the six inverse trigonometric functions are obtained by reflecting the
graphs of the restricted trigonometric functions through the line y = x. Figure 1.65b
shows the graph of y = sin-1 x and Figure 1.66 shows the graphs of all six functions. We
now take a closer look at two of these functions.
The Arcsine and Arccosine Functions
We define the arcsine and arccosine as functions whose values are angles (measured in
radians) that belong to restricted domains of the sine and cosine functions.
49
1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
Range: −p ≤ y ≤ p
2
2
y
p
2
Domain: −∞ < x < ∞
Range: −p < y < p
2
2
y
Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
0≤y≤p
Range:
y
p
y = sin –1x
x
1
−1
−
p
2
y = cos –1x
p
2
p
2
−2 −1
−
x
1
−1
(b)
(a)
p
2
p
p
2
y = sec –1x
1
2
Domain: −∞ < x < ∞
0< y<p
Range:
1
−
x
(d)
y
p
y = csc–1x
−2 −1
−2 −1
p
2
(c)
Domain: x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1
Range: −p ≤ y ≤ p , y ≠ 0
2
2
y
Domain: x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1
p
Range: 0 ≤ y ≤ p, y ≠
2
y
y = tan –1x
x
1
2
y = cot –1x
p
2
x
2
p
2
1
−2 −1
2
x
(f )
(e)
FIGURE 1.66 Graphs of the six basic inverse trigonometric functions.
DEFINITION
y = sin−1 x is the number in 3 -p>2, p>24 for which sin y = x.
y = cos−1 x is the number in 3 0, p4 for which cos y = x.
The “Arc” in Arcsine and Arccosine
For a unit circle and radian angles, the
arc length equation s = ru becomes
s = u, so central angles and the arcs
they subtend have the same measure.
If x = sin y, then, in addition to being
the angle whose sine is x, y is also the
length of arc on the unit circle that
subtends an angle whose sine is x. So
we call y “the arc whose sine is x.”
The graph of y = sin-1 x (Figure 1.65b) is symmetric about the origin (it lies along the
graph of x = sin y). The arcsine is therefore an odd function:
sin-1(-x) = -sin-1 x.
The graph of y = cos x (Figure 1.67b) has no such symmetry.
EXAMPLE 8
y
x2 + y2 = 1
Solution
(a) We see that
Arc whose sine is x
Arc whose
cosine is x
Angle whose
sine is x
0
x
Angle whose
cosine is x
1
(2)
-1
x
Evaluate
(a) sin-1 a
23
2
sin-1 a
b
23
2
and
b =
1
(b) cos-1 a- b .
2
p
3
because sin (p>3) = 23>2 and p>3 belongs to the range 3 -p>2, p>24 of the arcsine function. See Figure 1.68a.
(b) We have
2p
1
cos-1 a- b =
3
2
because cos (2p>3) = -1>2 and 2p>3 belongs to the range 3 0, p4 of the arccosine
function. See Figure 1.68b.
50
Chapter 1: Functions
y
Using the same procedure illustrated in Example 8, we can create the following table of
common values for the arcsine and arccosine functions.
y = cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ p
Domain: [0, p]
Range: [−1, 1]
1
p
2
0
−1
x
x
p
23>2
22>2
(a)
1>2
-1>2
y
x = cos y
p
- 22>2
- 23>2
y = cos –1 x
Domain: [−1, 1]
Range: [0, p]
p
2
−1 0
y
x
1
FIGURE 1.67 The graphs of (a) y = cos x,
0 … x … p, and (b) its inverse, y = cos-1 x.
The graph of cos-1 x, obtained by reflection
across the line y = x, is a portion of the curve
x = cos y.
Chicago
179
180
61
62
b
St. Louis
12
Plane position
a
c
cos-1 x
p>3
p>4
p>6
-p>6
p>6
p>4
p>3
2p>3
-p>4
3p>4
-p>3
5p>6
y
sin –1" 3 = p
2
3
2 p
3
0 1
(b)
sin-1 x
cos–1a− 1b = 2 p
3
2
2
"3
x
2p
3
"3
sin p = " 3
2
3
(a)
x
−1 0
cos a2 pb = – 1
3
2
(b)
FIGURE 1.68 Values of the arcsine and arccosine functions
(Example 8).
EXAMPLE 9
During a 240 mi airplane flight from Chicago to St. Louis, after flying
180 mi the navigator determines that the plane is 12 mi off course, as shown in Figure
1.69. Find the angle a for a course parallel to the original correct course, the angle b, and
the drift correction angle c = a + b.
Solution From the Pythagorean theorem and given information, we compute an approximate hypothetical flight distance of 179 mi, had the plane been flying along the original
correct course (see Figure 1.69). Knowing the flight distance from Chicago to St. Louis, we
next calculate the remaining leg of the original course to be 61 mi. Applying the Pythagorean
theorem again then gives an approximate distance of 62 mi from the position of the plane to
St. Louis. Finally, from Figure 1.69, we see that 180 sin a = 12 and 62 sin b = 12, so
FIGURE 1.69 Diagram for drift correction (Example 9), with distances surrounded
to the nearest mile (drawing not to scale).
12
≈ 0.067 radian ≈ 3.8°
180
12
b = sin-1
≈ 0.195 radian ≈ 11.2°
62
c = a + b ≈ 15°.
a = sin-1
y
Identities Involving Arcsine and Arccosine
cos–1(−x)
cos–1x
−1 −x
0
x
1
As we can see from Figure 1.70, the arccosine of x satisfies the identity
x
FIGURE 1.70 cos-1 x and cos-1(- x) are
supplementary angles (so their sum is p).
cos-1 x + cos-1(-x) = p,
(3)
cos-1 (-x) = p - cos-1 x.
(4)
or
Also, we can see from the triangle in Figure 1.71 that for x 7 0,
sin-1 x + cos-1 x = p>2.
(5)
51
1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
cos–1x
1
x
sin–1x
FIGURE 1.71 sin-1 x and cos-1 x are
complementary angles (so their sum is p>2).
Equation (5) holds for the other values of x in 3 -1, 1] as well, but we cannot conclude this
from the triangle in Figure 1.71. It is, however, a consequence of Equations (2) and (4)
(Exercise 76).
The arctangent, arccotangent, arcsecant, and arccosecant functions are defined in Section 3.9. There we develop additional properties of the inverse trigonometric functions in a
calculus setting using the identities discussed here.
1.6
Exercises
Identifying One-to-One Functions Graphically
Which of the functions graphed in Exercises 1–6 are one-to-one, and
which are not?
y
1.
2.
y
y = −3x 3
Graphing Inverse Functions
Each of Exercises 11–16 shows the graph of a function y = ƒ(x).
Copy the graph and draw in the line y = x. Then use symmetry with
respect to the line y = x to add the graph of ƒ -1 to your sketch. (It is
not necessary to find a formula for ƒ -1.) Identify the domain and
range of ƒ -1.
11.
x
0
−1
0
1
y = x4 − x2
x
12.
y
y
1 ,x≥0
x2 + 1
y = f (x) =
1
3.
4.
y
1
0
y = f (x) = 1 − 1x , x > 0
x
1
y
y = int x
0
x
1
y = 20 x 0
13.
x
y
5.
y = f (x) = tan x,
p
p
− <x<
2
2
y
y = x1"3
−
p
2
p
2
0
−1
x
x
0
y
y = f (x) = sin x,
p 1
p
− ≤x≤
2
2
6.
y = 1x
14.
y
15.
x
−
8. ƒ(x) = e
9. ƒ(x) = d
10. ƒ(x) = e
3 - x,
3,
2x + 6,
x + 4,
x 6 0
x Ú 0
x … -3
x 7 -3
x
,
2
x … 0
x
,
x + 2
x 7 0
2 - x 2,
x 2,
x … 1
x 7 1
1 -
f (x) =
f (x) = 6 − 2x,
0≤ x ≤3
0
x
y
6
7. ƒ(x) = e
p
2
0
16.
y
In Exercises 7–10, determine from its graph if the function is one-toone.
p
2
3
x
1
−1 0
x + 1, −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
−2 + 2 x, 0 < x < 3
3
3
x
−2
17. a. Graph the function ƒ(x) = 21 - x2, 0 … x … 1. What symmetry does the graph have?
b. Show that ƒ is its own inverse. (Remember that 2x2 = x if
x Ú 0.)
18. a. Graph the function ƒ(x) = 1>x. What symmetry does the
graph have?
b. Show that ƒ is its own inverse.
52
Chapter 1: Functions
Formulas for Inverse Functions
Each of Exercises 19–24 gives a formula for a function y = ƒ(x) and
shows the graphs of ƒ and ƒ -1. Find a formula for ƒ -1 in each case.
19. ƒ(x) = x2 + 1, x Ú 0
20. ƒ(x) = x2, x … 0
y
b. What can you conclude about the inverse of a function
y = ƒ(x) whose graph is a line through the origin with a nonzero slope m?
y
y = f (x)
38. Show that the graph of the inverse of ƒ(x) = mx + b, where m
and b are constants and m ≠ 0, is a line with slope 1>m and
y-intercept - b>m.
y = f (x)
1
y=f
0
1
–1(x)
0
x
1
21. ƒ(x) = x3 - 1
x
1
22. ƒ(x) = x2 - 2x + 1, x Ú 1
y
y = f (x)
b. Find the inverse of ƒ(x) = - x + b (b constant). What angle
does the line y = - x + b make with the line y = x?
1
x
1
−1
−1
y = f (x)
1
0
x
1
y
y = f (x)
−1
0
1
−1
x
1
Each of Exercises 25–36 gives a formula for a function y = ƒ(x). In
each case, find ƒ -1(x) and identify the domain and range of ƒ -1. As a
check, show that ƒ(ƒ -1(x)) = ƒ -1(ƒ(x)) = x.
25. ƒ(x) = x5
26. ƒ(x) = x4, x Ú 0
27. ƒ(x) = x3 + 1
28. ƒ(x) = (1>2)x - 7>2
29. ƒ(x) = 1>x2, x 7 0
30. ƒ(x) = 1>x3, x ≠ 0
x + 3
31. ƒ(x) =
x - 2
32. ƒ(x) =
2x
2x - 3
34. ƒ(x) = (2x3 + 1)1>5
33. ƒ(x) = x2 - 2x, x … 1
(Hint: Complete the square.)
35. ƒ(x) =
x + b
, b 7 - 2 and constant
x - 2
36. ƒ(x) = x2 - 2bx, b 7 0 and constant, x … b
c. ln (1>2)
3
d. ln 2
9
f. ln 213.5
a. ln (1>125)
b. ln 9.8
c. ln 7 27
d. ln 1225
f. (ln 35 + ln (1>7))>(ln 25)
e. ln 0.056
1
0
b. ln (4>9)
42. Express the following logarithms in terms of ln 5 and ln 7.
y = f (x)
x
a. ln 0.75
e. ln 3 22
y = f –1(x)
y = f –1(x)
1
c. What can you conclude about the inverses of functions whose
graphs are lines perpendicular to the line y = x?
Logarithms and Exponentials
41. Express the following logarithms in terms of ln 2 and ln 3.
23. ƒ(x) = (x + 1)2, x Ú -1 24. ƒ(x) = x2>3, x Ú 0
y
c. What can you conclude about the inverses of functions whose
graphs are lines parallel to the line y = x?
40. a. Find the inverse of ƒ(x) = - x + 1. Graph the line
y = - x + 1 together with the line y = x. At what angle do
the lines intersect?
y = f –1(x)
y = f –1(x)
39. a. Find the inverse of ƒ(x) = x + 1. Graph ƒ and its inverse
together. Add the line y = x to your sketch, drawing it with
dashes or dots for contrast.
b. Find the inverse of ƒ(x) = x + b (b constant). How is the
graph of ƒ -1 related to the graph of ƒ?
y = f –1(x)
y
Inverses of Lines
37. a. Find the inverse of the function ƒ(x) = mx, where m is a constant different from zero.
Use the properties of logarithms to write the expressions in Exercises
43 and 44 as a single term.
sin u
1
43. a. ln sin u - ln a
b
b. ln (3x2 - 9x) + ln a b
3x
5
c.
1
ln (4t 4) - ln b
2
44. a. ln sec u + ln cos u
b. ln (8x + 4) - 2 ln c
3 2
c. 3 ln 2t - 1 - ln (t + 1)
Find simpler expressions for the quantities in Exercises 45–48.
45. a. eln 7.2
ln (x2 + y2)
2
b. e-ln x
c. eln x - ln y
46. a. e
b. e
c. eln px - ln 2
47. a. 2 ln 2e
b. ln (ln ee)
c. ln (e-x
48. a. ln (esec u)
-ln 0.3
x
b. ln (e(e ))
2
- y2
c. ln (e2 ln x)
In Exercises 49–54, solve for y in terms of t or x, as appropriate.
49. ln y = 2t + 4
50. ln y = -t + 5
51. ln (y - b) = 5t
52. ln (c - 2y) = t
53. ln (y - 1) - ln 2 = x + ln x
54. ln (y2 - 1) - ln (y + 1) = ln (sin x)
)
1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
74. If a composite ƒ ∘ g is one-to-one, must g be one-to-one? Give
reasons for your answer.
In Exercises 55 and 56, solve for k.
55. a. e2k = 4
56. a. e5k =
1
4
b. 100e10k = 200
c. ek>1000 = a
b. 80ek = 1
c. e(ln 0.8)k = 0.8
57. a. e-0.3t = 27
b. ekt =
1
2
c. e(ln 0.2)t = 0.4
58. a. e-0.01t = 1000
b. ekt =
1
10
c. e(ln 2)t =
1
2
2
60. e(x )e(2x + 1) = et
d. log4 16
62. a. 2log2 3
b. 8log822
c. 1.3log1.3 75
e. log3 23
1
f. log4 a b
4
b. 10log10 (1>2)
d. log11 121
63. a. 2log4 x
64. a. 25
d. shifting down 4, right 2 units.
e. reflecting about the y-axis.
ex sin x
b. loge (e )
c. log4 (2
)
Express the ratios in Exercises 65 and 66 as ratios of natural logarithms and simplify.
log2 x
65. a.
log3 x
log2 x
b.
log8 x
logx a
c.
logx2 a
log9 x
66. a.
log3 x
log 210 x
b.
log 22 x
loga b
c.
logb a
-1
b
2
1
68. a. cos-1 a b
2
69. a. arccos (-1)
70. a. arcsin (- 1)
b. sin-1 a
b. cos-1 a
1
22
c. sin-1 a
b
-1
b
22
b. arcsin a-
1
22
a. vertical stretching by a factor of 2.
b. horizontal stretching by a factor of 3.
d. horizontal compression by a factor of 2.
T 79. The equation x2 = 2x has three solutions: x = 2, x = 4, and one
other. Estimate the third solution as accurately as you can by
graphing.
- 23
b
2
c. cos-1 a
b. arccos (0)
f. reflecting about the line y = x.
78. Start with the graph of y = ln x. Find an equation of the graph
that results from
c. vertical compression by a factor of 4.
Arcsine and Arccosine
In Exercises 67–70, find the exact value of each expression.
67. a. sin-1 a
76. The identity sin-1 x + cos-1 x = P>2 Figure 1.71 establishes
the identity for 0 6 x 6 1. To establish it for the rest of 3-1, 1],
verify by direct calculation that it holds for x = 1, 0, and - 1.
Then, for values of x in (-1, 0), let x = -a, a 7 0, and apply
Eqs. (3) and (5) to the sum sin-1 (- a) + cos-1 (- a).
c. shifting left 1, up 3 units.
c. log2 (e(ln 2)(sin x))
x
50
1 + 1.1-x
b. shifting right 1 unit.
1
f. log3 a b
9
b. 9log3 x
log5 (3x2)
b. ƒ(x) =
a. shifting down 3 units.
c. plogp 7
e. log121 11
100
1 + 2-x
77. Start with the graph of y = ln x. Find an equation of the graph
that results from
Simplify the expressions in Exercises 61–64.
61. a. 5log5 7
75. Find a formula for the inverse function ƒ -1 and verify that
(ƒ ∘ ƒ -1)(x) = (ƒ -1 ∘ ƒ)(x) = x.
a. ƒ(x) =
In Exercises 57–60, solve for t.
59. e2t = x2
53
23
2
b
b
Theory and Examples
71. If ƒ(x) is one-to-one, can anything be said about g(x) = -ƒ(x)? Is
it also one-to-one? Give reasons for your answer.
72. If ƒ(x) is one-to-one and ƒ(x) is never zero, can anything be said
about h(x) = 1>ƒ(x)? Is it also one-to-one? Give reasons for your
answer.
73. Suppose that the range of g lies in the domain of ƒ so that the
composite ƒ ∘ g is defined. If ƒ and g are one-to-one, can anything be said about ƒ ∘ g? Give reasons for your answer.
T 80. Could xln 2 possibly be the same as 2ln x for x 7 0? Graph the
two functions and explain what you see.
81. Radioactive decay The half-life of a certain radioactive substance is 12 hours. There are 8 grams present initially.
a. Express the amount of substance remaining as a function of
time t.
b. When will there be 1 gram remaining?
82. Doubling your money Determine how much time is required
for a $500 investment to double in value if interest is earned at the
rate of 4.75% compounded annually.
83. Population growth The population of Glenbrook is 375,000
and is increasing at the rate of 2.25% per year. Predict when the
population will be 1 million.
84. Radon-222 The decay equation for radon-222 gas is known to
be y = y0 e-0.18t, with t in days. About how long will it take the
radon in a sealed sample of air to fall to 90% of its original value?
54
Chapter 1: Functions
Chapter
1
Questions to Guide Your Review
1. What is a function? What is its domain? Its range? What is an
arrow diagram for a function? Give examples.
2. What is the graph of a real-valued function of a real variable?
What is the vertical line test?
3. What is a piecewise-defined function? Give examples.
4. What are the important types of functions frequently encountered
in calculus? Give an example of each type.
5. What is meant by an increasing function? A decreasing function?
Give an example of each.
6. What is an even function? An odd function? What symmetry
properties do the graphs of such functions have? What advantage
can we take of this? Give an example of a function that is neither
even nor odd.
7. If ƒ and g are real-valued functions, how are the domains of
ƒ + g, ƒ - g, ƒg, and ƒ>g related to the domains of ƒ and g?
Give examples.
8. When is it possible to compose one function with another? Give
examples of composites and their values at various points. Does
the order in which functions are composed ever matter?
9. How do you change the equation y = ƒ(x) to shift its graph vertically up or down by # k # units? Horizontally to the left or right?
Give examples.
10. How do you change the equation y = ƒ(x) to compress or stretch
the graph by a factor c 7 1? Reflect the graph across a coordinate axis? Give examples.
11. What is radian measure? How do you convert from radians to
degrees? Degrees to radians?
12. Graph the six basic trigonometric functions. What symmetries do
the graphs have?
13. What is a periodic function? Give examples. What are the periods
of the six basic trigonometric functions?
15. How does the formula for the general sine function ƒ(x) =
A sin ((2p>B)(x - C)) + D relate to the shifting, stretching,
compressing, and reflection of its graph? Give examples.
Graph the general sine curve and identify the constants A, B,
C, and D.
16. Name three issues that arise when functions are graphed using a
calculator or computer with graphing software. Give examples.
17. What is an exponential function? Give examples. What laws of
exponents does it obey? How does it differ from a simple power
function like ƒ(x) = xn ? What kind of real-world phenomena are
modeled by exponential functions?
18. What is the number e, and how is it defined? What are the domain
and range of ƒ(x) = ex ? What does its graph look like? How do
the values of ex relate to x2, x3, and so on?
19. What functions have inverses? How do you know if two functions ƒ and g are inverses of one another? Give examples of functions that are (are not) inverses of one another.
20. How are the domains, ranges, and graphs of functions and their
inverses related? Give an example.
21. What procedure can you sometimes use to express the inverse of
a function of x as a function of x?
22. What is a logarithmic function? What properties does it satisfy?
What is the natural logarithm function? What are the domain and
range of y = ln x? What does its graph look like?
23. How is the graph of loga x related to the graph of ln x? What truth
is in the statement that there is really only one exponential function and one logarithmic function?
24. How are the inverse trigonometric functions defined? How can
you sometimes use right triangles to find values of these functions? Give examples.
14. Starting with the identity sin2 u + cos2 u = 1 and the formulas
for cos (A + B) and sin (A + B), show how a variety of other
trigonometric identities may be derived.
Chapter
1
Practice Exercises
Functions and Graphs
1. Express the area and circumference of a circle as functions of the
circle’s radius. Then express the area as a function of the
circumference.
4. A hot-air balloon rising straight up from a level field is tracked by
a range finder located 500 ft from the point of liftoff. Express the
balloon’s height as a function of the angle the line from the range
finder to the balloon makes with the ground.
2. Express the radius of a sphere as a function of the sphere’s surface area. Then express the surface area as a function of the
volume.
In Exercises 5–8, determine whether the graph of the function is symmetric about the y-axis, the origin, or neither.
3. A point P in the first quadrant lies on the parabola y = x2.
Express the coordinates of P as functions of the angle of inclination of the line joining P to the origin.
5. y = x1>5
6. y = x2>5
7. y = x2 - 2x - 1
8. y = e-x
2
Chapter 1 Practice Exercises
In Exercises 9–16, determine whether the function is even, odd, or
neither.
9. y = x2 + 1
10. y = x5 - x3 - x
11. y = 1 - cos x
x + 1
13. y = 3
x - 2x
14. y = x - sin x
15. y = x + cos x
16. y = x cos x
3
g(x) = 2
x + 1
37. ƒ(x) = 2 - x2,
38. ƒ(x) = 2x,
For Exercises 39 and 40, sketch the graphs of ƒ and ƒ ∘ ƒ.
18. If ƒ(a - x) = ƒ(a + x), show that g(x) = ƒ(x + a) is an even
function.
In Exercises 19–28, find the (a) domain and (b) range.
40. ƒ(x) = b
c. ƒ(sin x)
19. y = # x # - 2
23. y = 2e
e. 0 g 0
20. y = - 2 + 21 - x
- 3
24. y = tan (2x - p)
25. y = 2 sin (3x + p) - 1
26. y = x2>5
27. y = ln (x - 3) + 1
3
28. y = - 1 + 2
2 - x
ƒ1(x)
29. State whether each function is increasing, decreasing, or neither.
a. Volume of a sphere as a function of its radius
c. Height above Earth’s sea level as a function of atmospheric
pressure (assumed nonzero)
d. Kinetic energy as a function of a particle’s velocity
30. Find the largest interval on which the given function is increasing.
c. g(x) = (3x - 1)
1>3
2- x,
2x,
d. R(x) = 22x - 1
34.
0
1
2
ƒ2(x)
0x0
0x02
0 x3 0
0 x2 + x 0
0 4 - x2 0
1
0x0
20x0
sin 0 x 0
1
unit, right 3
2
b. Down 2 units, left
2
3
c. Reflect about the y-axis
d. Reflect about the x-axis
y
5
1
1
46. x
a. Up
In Exercises 33 and 34, write a piecewise formula for the function.
33.
-2 … x 6 0
0 … x … 2
Shifting and Scaling Graphs
49. Suppose the graph of g is given. Write equations for the graphs
that are obtained from the graph of g by shifting, scaling, or
reflecting, as indicated.
-2 … x … -1
-1 6 x … 1
1 6 x … 2
y
45. 4 - x2
48. sin x
-4 … x … 0
0 6 x … 4
-x - 2,
32. y = c x,
-x + 2,
44. x2 + x
47. 2x
b. ƒ(x) = (x + 1)4
Piecewise-Defined Functions
In Exercises 31 and 32, find the (a) domain and (b) range.
31. y = e
41. x
42. x2
43. x3
b. Greatest integer function
a. ƒ(x) = 0 x - 2 0 + 1
x + 1,
x - 1,
-4 … x … -1
-1 6 x … 1
1 6 x … 2
Composition with absolute values In Exercises 41–48, graph ƒ1
and ƒ2 together. Then describe how applying the absolute value function in ƒ2 affects the graph of ƒ1 .
22. y = 32 - x + 1
21. y = 216 - x2
-x
d. g(sec x)
g(x) = 2x + 2
g(x) = 21 - x
- x - 2,
39. ƒ(x) = c - 1,
x - 2,
b. ƒ3
2x + 2
In Exercises 37 and 38, (a) write formulas for ƒ ∘ g and g ∘ ƒ and find
the (b) domain and (c) range of each.
17. Suppose that ƒ and g are both odd functions defined on the entire
real line. Which of the following (where defined) are even? odd?
a. ƒg
1
g(x) =
36. ƒ(x) = 2 - x,
12. y = sec x tan x
4
1
35. ƒ(x) = x,
55
e. Stretch vertically by a factor of 5
(2, 5)
f. Compress horizontally by a factor of 5
50. Describe how each graph is obtained from the graph of y = ƒ(x).
x
0
Composition of Functions
In Exercises 35 and 36, find
a. (ƒ ∘ g) (- 1).
b. (g ∘ ƒ) (2).
c. (ƒ ∘ ƒ) (x).
d. (g ∘ g) (x).
4
x
a. y = ƒ(x - 5)
b. y = ƒ(4x)
c. y = ƒ(-3x)
d. y = ƒ(2x + 1)
x
e. y = ƒa b - 4
3
f. y = - 3ƒ(x) +
1
4
56
Chapter 1: Functions
In Exercises 51–54, graph each function, not by plotting points, but by
starting with the graph of one of the standard functions presented in
Figures 1.15–1.17, and applying an appropriate transformation.
51. y = 53. y =
A
1 +
1
+ 1
2x2
x
2
52. y = 1 -
x
3
54. y = (- 5x)1>3
Trigonometry
In Exercises 55–58, sketch the graph of the given function. What is
the period of the function?
x
55. y = cos 2x
56. y = sin
2
57. y = sin px
58. y = cos
px
2
p
59. Sketch the graph y = 2 cos ax - b .
3
60. Sketch the graph y = 1 + sin ax +
p
b.
4
In Exercises 61–64, ABC is a right triangle with the right angle at C.
The sides opposite angles A, B, and C are a, b, and c, respectively.
61. a. Find a and b if c = 2, B = p>3.
b. Find a and c if b = 2, B = p>3.
62. a. Express a in terms of A and c.
b. Express a in terms of A and b.
63. a. Express a in terms of B and b.
b. Express c in terms of A and a.
64. a. Express sin A in terms of a and c.
b. Express sin A in terms of b and c.
65. Height of a pole Two wires stretch from the top T of a vertical
pole to points B and C on the ground, where C is 10 m closer to
the base of the pole than is B. If wire BT makes an angle of 35°
with the horizontal and wire CT makes an angle of 50° with the
horizontal, how high is the pole?
66. Height of a weather balloon Observers at positions A and B
2 km apart simultaneously measure the angle of elevation of a
weather balloon to be 40° and 70°, respectively. If the balloon is
directly above a point on the line segment between A and B, find
the height of the balloon.
T 67. a. Graph the function ƒ(x) = sin x + cos(x>2).
b. What appears to be the period of this function?
c. Confirm your finding in part (b) algebraically.
T 68. a. Graph ƒ(x) = sin (1>x).
b. What are the domain and range of ƒ?
c. Is ƒ periodic? Give reasons for your answer.
Transcendental Functions
In Exercises 69–72, find the domain of each function.
69. a. ƒ(x) = 1 + e-sin x
2
70. a. ƒ(x) = e1>x
x
71. a. h(x) = sin-1 a b
3
72. a. h(x) = ln (cos-1 x)
b. g(x) = ex + ln 2x
b. g(x) = ln 0 4 - x2 0
b. ƒ(x) = cos-1 ( 2x - 1)
b. ƒ(x) = 2p - sin-1x
73. If ƒ(x) = ln x and g(x) = 4 - x2, find
ƒ ∘ g, g ∘ ƒ, ƒ ∘ ƒ, g ∘ g, and their domains.
the
functions
74. Determine whether ƒ is even, odd, or neither.
2
a. ƒ(x) = e-x
b. ƒ(x) = 1 + sin-1(- x)
c. ƒ(x) = 0 ex 0
d. ƒ(x) = eln #x# + 1
T 75. Graph ln x, ln 2x, ln 4x, ln 8x, and ln 16x (as many as you can)
together for 0 6 x … 10. What is going on? Explain.
T 76. Graph y = ln (x2 + c) for c = - 4, - 2, 0, 3, and 5. How does the
graph change when c changes?
T 77. Graph y = ln # sin x # in the window 0 … x … 22, - 2 … y … 0.
Explain what you see. How could you change the formula to turn
the arches upside down?
T 78. Graph the three functions y = xa, y = ax, and y = loga x together on the same screen for a = 2, 10, and 20. For large values
of x, which of these functions has the largest values and which
has the smallest values?
Theory and Examples
In Exercises 79 and 80, find the domain and range of each composite
function. Then graph the composites on separate screens. Do the
graphs make sense in each case? Give reasons for your answers and
comment on any differences you see.
79. a. y = sin-1(sin x)
b. y = sin (sin-1 x)
80. a. y = cos-1(cos x)
b. y = cos (cos-1 x)
81. Use a graph to decide whether ƒ is one-to-one.
a. ƒ(x) = x3 -
x
2
b. ƒ(x) = x3 +
x
2
T 82. Use a graph to find to 3 decimal places the values of x for which
ex 7 10,000,000.
3
83. a. Show that ƒ(x) = x3 and g(x) = 2x are inverses of one
another.
T b. Graph ƒ and g over an x-interval large enough to show the
graphs intersecting at (1, 1) and (- 1, - 1). Be sure the picture
shows the required symmetry in the line y = x.
84. a. Show that h(x) = x3 >4 and k(x) = (4x)1>3 are inverses of one
another.
T b. Graph h and k over an x-interval large enough to show the
graphs intersecting at (2, 2) and (- 2, - 2). Be sure the picture
shows the required symmetry in the line y = x.
Chapter 1 Additional and Advanced Exercises
Chapter
1
Additional and Advanced Exercises
Functions and Graphs
1. Are there two functions ƒ and g such that ƒ ∘ g = g ∘ ƒ? Give
reasons for your answer.
2. Are there two functions ƒ and g with the following property? The
graphs of ƒ and g are not straight lines but the graph of ƒ ∘ g is a
straight line. Give reasons for your answer.
3. If ƒ(x) is odd, can anything be said of g(x) = ƒ(x) - 2? What if ƒ
is even instead? Give reasons for your answer.
4. If g(x) is an odd function defined for all values of x, can anything
be said about g(0)? Give reasons for your answer.
5. Graph the equation 0 x 0 + 0 y 0 = 1 + x.
Derivations and Proofs
7. Prove the following identities.
1 - cos x
sin x
=
1 + cos x
sin x
b. Uniqueness Show that there is only one way to write ƒ as
the sum of an even and an odd function. (Hint: One way is
given in part (a). If also ƒ(x) = E1(x) + O1(x) where E1 is
even and O1 is odd, show that E - E1 = O1 - O. Then use
Exercise 11 to show that E = E1 and O = O1.)
Effects of Parameters on Graphs
T 13. What happens to the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c as
a. a changes while b and c remain fixed?
b. b changes (a and c fixed, a ≠ 0)?
c. c changes (a and b fixed, a ≠ 0)?
T 14. What happens to the graph of y = a(x + b)3 + c as
a. a changes while b and c remain fixed?
6. Graph the equation y + # y # = x + # x #.
a.
57
b. b changes (a and c fixed, a ≠ 0)?
x
1 - cos x
= tan2
1 + cos x
2
b.
8. Explain the following “proof without words” of the law of cosines.
(Source: Kung, Sidney H., “Proof Without Words: The Law of
Cosines,” Mathematics Magazine, Vol. 63, no. 5, Dec. 1990, p. 342.)
2a cos u − b
a−c
c
a
a
b
u
c. c changes (a and b fixed, a ≠ 0)?
Geometry
15. An object’s center of mass moves at a constant velocity y along a
straight line past the origin. The accompanying figure shows the
coordinate system and the line of motion. The dots show positions that are 1 sec apart. Why are the areas A1, A2, c, A5 in the
figure all equal? As in Kepler’s equal area law (see Section 13.6),
the line that joins the object’s center of mass to the origin sweeps
out equal areas in equal times.
y
a
t=6
10
9. Show that the area of triangle ABC is given by
(1>2)ab sin C = (1>2)bc sin A = (1>2)ca sin B.
C
Kilometers
t=5
A5
yΔt
A4
5
A3
yΔt
t=2
A2
t=1
A1
b
a
0
A
c
B
10. Show that the area of triangle ABC is given by
2s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c) where s = (a + b + c)>2 is the
semiperimeter of the triangle.
11. Show that if ƒ is both even and odd, then ƒ(x) = 0 for every x in
the domain of ƒ.
5
where E is an even function and O is an odd function. (Hint:
Let E(x) = (ƒ(x) + ƒ(-x))>2. Show that E(- x) = E(x), so
that E is even. Then show that O(x) = ƒ(x) - E(x) is odd.)
15
x
16. a. Find the slope of the line from the origin to the midpoint P of
side AB in the triangle in the accompanying figure (a, b 7 0).
y
B(0, b)
12. a. Even-odd decompositions Let ƒ be a function whose
domain is symmetric about the origin, that is, - x belongs to
the domain whenever x does. Show that ƒ is the sum of an
even function and an odd function:
ƒ(x) = E(x) + O(x),
10
Kilometers
P
O
b. When is OP perpendicular to AB?
A(a, 0)
x
58
Chapter 1: Functions
17. Consider the quarter-circle of radius 1 and right triangles ABE
and ACD given in the accompanying figure. Use standard area
formulas to conclude that
u
1 sin u
1
.
sin u cos u 6 6
2
2
2 cos u
c. Draw the graph of ƒ.
23. Finding investment time If Juanita invests $1500 in a retirement account that earns 8% compounded annually, how long will
it take this single payment to grow to $5000?
1
u
E
A
D
(1, 0)
x
18. Let ƒ(x) = ax + b and g(x) = cx + d. What condition must be
satisfied by the constants a, b, c, d in order that (ƒ ∘ g)(x) =
(g ∘ ƒ)(x) for every value of x?
Theory and Examples
19. Domain and range Suppose that a ≠ 0, b ≠ 1, and b 7 0.
Determine the domain and range of the function.
c-x
) + d
b. y = a logb(x - c) + d
Let
ax + b
,
cx + d
c ≠ 0,
ad - bc ≠ 0.
a. Give a convincing argument that ƒ is one-to-one.
b. Find a formula for the inverse of ƒ.
21. Depreciation Smith Hauling purchased an 18-wheel truck for
$100,000. The truck depreciates at the constant rate of $10,000
per year for 10 years.
a. Write an expression that gives the value y after x years.
b. When is the value of the truck $55,000?
Chapter
1
0 … t … 4
b. How much is present after 2 hours?
C
B
ƒ(x) =
ƒ(t) = 90 - 52 ln (1 + t),
a. What was the initial number of units of the drug administered?
(0, 1)
a. y = a(b
A drug is administered intravenously for
gives the number of units of the drug remaining in the body after t
hours.
y
20. Inverse functions
22. Drug absorption
pain. The function
24. The rule of 70 If you use the approximation ln 2 ≈ 0.70 (in
place of 0.69314 c), you can derive a rule of thumb that says,
“To estimate how many years it will take an amount of money to
double when invested at r percent compounded continuously,
divide r into 70.” For instance, an amount of money invested at
5% will double in about 70>5 = 14 years. If you want it to double in 10 years instead, you have to invest it at 70>10 = 7%.
Show how the rule of 70 is derived. (A similar “rule of 72” uses
72 instead of 70, because 72 has more integer factors.)
x
25. For what x 7 0 does x(x ) = (xx)x ? Give reasons for your answer.
T 26. a. If (ln x)>x = (ln 2)>2, must x = 2?
b. If (ln x)>x = - 2 ln 2, must x = 1>2?
Give reasons for your answers.
27. The quotient (log4 x)>(log2 x) has a constant value. What value?
Give reasons for your answer.
T 28. logx (2) vs. log2 (x) How does ƒ(x) = logx (2) compare with
g(x) = log2 (x)? Here is one way to find out.
a. Use the equation loga b = (ln b)>(ln a) to express ƒ(x) and
g(x) in terms of natural logarithms.
b. Graph ƒ and g together. Comment on the behavior of ƒ in
relation to the signs and values of g.
Technology Application Projects
An Overview of Mathematica
An overview of Mathematica sufficient to complete the Mathematica modules appearing on the Web site.
Mathematica/Maple Module:
Modeling Change: Springs, Driving Safety, Radioactivity, Trees, Fish, and Mammals
Construct and interpret mathematical models, analyze and improve them, and make predictions using them.
2
Limits and Continuity
OVERVIEW Mathematicians of the seventeenth century were keenly interested in the
study of motion for objects on or near the earth and the motion of planets and stars. This
study involved both the speed of the object and its direction of motion at any instant, and
they knew the direction at a given instant was along a line tangent to the path of motion.
The concept of a limit is fundamental to finding the velocity of a moving object and the
tangent to a curve. In this chapter we develop the limit, first intuitively and then formally.
We use limits to describe the way a function varies. Some functions vary continuously;
small changes in x produce only small changes in ƒ(x). Other functions can have values
that jump, vary erratically, or tend to increase or decrease without bound. The notion of
limit gives a precise way to distinguish between these behaviors.
2.1 Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves
Calculus is a tool that helps us understand how a change in one quantity is related to a
change in another. How does the speed of a falling object change as a function of time?
How does the level of water in a barrel change as a function of the amount of liquid poured
into it? We see change occurring in nearly everything we observe in the world and universe,
and powerful modern instruments help us see more and more. In this section we introduce
the ideas of average and instantaneous rates of change, and show that they are closely
related to the slope of a curve at a point P on the curve. We give precise developments of
these important concepts in the next chapter, but for now we use an informal approach so
you will see how they lead naturally to the main idea of this chapter, the limit. The idea of
a limit plays a foundational role throughout calculus.
Average and Instantaneous Speed
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY*
Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642)
In the late sixteenth century, Galileo discovered that a solid object dropped from rest (not
moving) near the surface of the earth and allowed to fall freely will fall a distance proportional
to the square of the time it has been falling. This type of motion is called free fall. It assumes
negligible air resistance to slow the object down, and that gravity is the only force acting on
the falling object. If y denotes the distance fallen in feet after t seconds, then Galileo’s law is
y = 16t 2,
where 16 is the (approximate) constant of proportionality. (If y is measured in meters, the
constant is 4.9.)
A moving object’s average speed during an interval of time is found by dividing the
distance covered by the time elapsed. The unit of measure is length per unit time: kilometers per hour, feet (or meters) per second, or whatever is appropriate to the problem at hand.
*To learn more about the historical figures mentioned in the text and the development of many major
elements and topics of calculus, visit www.aw.com/thomas.
59
60
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
EXAMPLE 1
A rock breaks loose from the top of a tall cliff. What is its average speed
(a) during the first 2 sec of fall?
(b) during the 1-sec interval between second 1 and second 2?
Solution The average speed of the rock during a given time interval is the change in
distance, ∆y, divided by the length of the time interval, ∆t. (Increments like ∆y and ∆t
are reviewed in Appendix 3, and pronounced “delta y” and “delta t.”) Measuring distance
in feet and time in seconds, we have the following calculations:
(a) For the first 2 sec:
(b) From sec 1 to sec 2:
∆y 16(2)2 =
2 ∆t
∆y 16(2)2 =
2 ∆t
16(0)2
ft
= 32 sec
0
16(1)2
ft
= 48 sec
1
We want a way to determine the speed of a falling object at a single instant t0, instead of
using its average speed over an interval of time. To do this, we examine what happens
when we calculate the average speed over shorter and shorter time intervals starting at t0 .
The next example illustrates this process. Our discussion is informal here, but it will be
made precise in Chapter 3.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the speed of the falling rock in Example 1 at t = 1 and t = 2 sec.
Solution We can calculate the average speed of the rock over a time interval 3 t0, t0 + h4 ,
having length ∆t = h, as
∆y 16(t0 + h)2 - 16t0 2
=
.
h
∆t
(1)
We cannot use this formula to calculate the “instantaneous” speed at the exact moment t0
by simply substituting h = 0, because we cannot divide by zero. But we can use it to calculate average speeds over increasingly short time intervals starting at t0 = 1 and t0 = 2.
When we do so, by taking smaller and smaller values of h, we see a pattern (Table 2.1).
TABLE 2.1 Average speeds over short time intervals 3 t0, t0 + h4
Average speed:
∆y 16(t0 + h)2 - 16t0 2
=
h
∆t
Length of
time interval
h
Average speed over
interval of length h
starting at t0 = 1
Average speed over
interval of length h
starting at t0 = 2
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
48
33.6
32.16
32.016
32.0016
80
65.6
64.16
64.016
64.0016
The average speed on intervals starting at t0 = 1 seems to approach a limiting value
of 32 as the length of the interval decreases. This suggests that the rock is falling at a speed
of 32 ft > sec at t0 = 1 sec. Let’s confirm this algebraically.
2.1 Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves
that
61
If we set t0 = 1 and then expand the numerator in Equation (1) and simplify, we find
∆y 16(1 + h)2 - 16(1)2 16(1 + 2h + h2) - 16
=
=
h
h
∆t
=
32h + 16h2
= 32 + 16h.
h
For values of h different from 0, the expressions on the right and left are equivalent and the
average speed is 32 + 16h ft>sec. We can now see why the average speed has the limiting
value 32 + 16(0) = 32 ft>sec as h approaches 0.
Similarly, setting t0 = 2 in Equation (1), the procedure yields
∆y
= 64 + 16h
∆t
for values of h different from 0. As h gets closer and closer to 0, the average speed has the
limiting value 64 ft > sec when t0 = 2 sec, as suggested by Table 2.1.
The average speed of a falling object is an example of a more general idea which we
discuss next.
Average Rates of Change and Secant Lines
Given any function y = ƒ(x), we calculate the average rate of change of y with respect to
x over the interval [x1, x2] by dividing the change in the value of y, ∆y = ƒ(x2) - ƒ(x1),
by the length ∆x = x2 - x1 = h of the interval over which the change occurs. (We use
the symbol h for ∆x to simplify the notation here and later on.)
y
y = f (x)
Q(x 2, f (x 2 ))
Secant
DEFINITION The average rate of change of y = ƒ(x) with respect to x over the
Δy
P(x1, f (x1))
interval [x1, x2] is
Δx = h
x2
x1
0
x
FIGURE 2.1 A secant to the graph
y = ƒ(x). Its slope is ∆y> ∆x, the
average rate of change of ƒ over the
interval [x1, x2].
∆y ƒ(x2) - ƒ(x1) ƒ(x1 + h) - ƒ(x1)
=
=
,
x2 - x1
h
∆x
h ≠ 0.
Geometrically, the rate of change of ƒ over [x1, x2] is the slope of the line through the
points P(x1, ƒ(x1)) and Q(x2, ƒ(x2)) (Figure 2.1). In geometry, a line joining two points of a
curve is a secant to the curve. Thus, the average rate of change of ƒ from x1 to x2 is identical with the slope of secant PQ. Let’s consider what happens as the point Q approaches the
point P along the curve, so the length h of the interval over which the change occurs
approaches zero. We will see that this procedure leads to defining the slope of a curve at a
point.
Defining the Slope of a Curve
P
L
O
FIGURE 2.2 L is tangent to the
circle at P if it passes through P
perpendicular to radius OP.
We know what is meant by the slope of a straight line, which tells us the rate at which it
rises or falls—its rate of change as a linear function. But what is meant by the slope of a
curve at a point P on the curve? If there is a tangent line to the curve at P—a line that just
touches the curve like the tangent to a circle—it would be reasonable to identify the slope
of the tangent as the slope of the curve at P. So we need a precise meaning for the tangent
at a point on a curve.
For circles, tangency is straightforward. A line L is tangent to a circle at a point P if L
passes through P perpendicular to the radius at P (Figure 2.2). Such a line just touches the
circle. But what does it mean to say that a line L is tangent to some other curve C at a point P?
62
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
To define tangency for general curves, we need an approach that takes into account
the behavior of the secants through P and nearby points Q as Q moves toward P along the
curve (Figure 2.3). Here is the idea:
1.
2.
3.
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Pierre de Fermat
(1601–1665)
Start with what we can calculate, namely the slope of the secant PQ.
Investigate the limiting value of the secant slope as Q approaches P along the curve.
(We clarify the limit idea in the next section.)
If the limit exists, take it to be the slope of the curve at P and define the tangent to the
curve at P to be the line through P with this slope.
This procedure is what we were doing in the falling-rock problem discussed in Example 2.
The next example illustrates the geometric idea for the tangent to a curve.
Secants
Tangent
P
P
Q
Tangent
Secants
Q
FIGURE 2.3 The tangent to the curve at P is the line through P whose slope is the limit of
the secant slopes as Q S P from either side.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the slope of the parabola y = x2 at the point P(2, 4). Write an
equation for the tangent to the parabola at this point.
Solution We begin with a secant line through P(2, 4) and Q(2 + h, (2 + h)2) nearby.
We then write an expression for the slope of the secant PQ and investigate what happens to
the slope as Q approaches P along the curve:
Secant slope =
∆y (2 + h)2 - 22 h2 + 4h + 4 - 4
=
=
h
h
∆x
h2 + 4h
= h + 4.
h
=
If h 7 0, then Q lies above and to the right of P, as in Figure 2.4. If h 6 0, then Q lies to the
left of P (not shown). In either case, as Q approaches P along the curve, h approaches zero
and the secant slope h + 4 approaches 4. We take 4 to be the parabola’s slope at P.
y
y = x2
Secant slope is
(2 + h) 2 − 4
= h + 4.
h
Q(2 + h, (2 + h) 2)
Tangent slope = 4
Δy = (2 + h)2 − 4
P(2, 4)
Δx = h
0
2
2+h
x
NOT TO SCALE
FIGURE 2.4 Finding the slope of the parabola y = x2 at the point P(2, 4) as
the limit of secant slopes (Example 3).
2.1 Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves
63
The tangent to the parabola at P is the line through P with slope 4:
y = 4 + 4(x - 2)
Point-slope equation
y = 4x - 4.
Instantaneous Rates of Change and Tangent Lines
The rates at which the rock in Example 2 was falling at the instants t = 1 and t = 2 are
called instantaneous rates of change. Instantaneous rates and slopes of tangent lines are
closely connected, as we see in the following examples.
EXAMPLE 4
Figure 2.5 shows how a population p of fruit flies (Drosophila) grew
in a 50-day experiment. The number of flies was counted at regular intervals, the counted
values plotted with respect to time t, and the points joined by a smooth curve (colored blue
in Figure 2.5). Find the average growth rate from day 23 to day 45.
Solution There were 150 flies on day 23 and 340 flies on day 45. Thus the number of
flies increased by 340 - 150 = 190 in 45 - 23 = 22 days. The average rate of change
of the population from day 23 to day 45 was
Average rate of change:
∆p 340 - 150 190
=
=
≈ 8.6 flies>day.
22
45 - 23
∆t
p
Number of flies
350
Q(45, 340)
300
Δp = 190
250
200
P(23, 150)
150
Δp
≈ 8.6 flies"day
Δt
Δt = 22
100
50
0
10
20
30
Time (days)
40
50
t
FIGURE 2.5 Growth of a fruit fly population in a controlled
experiment. The average rate of change over 22 days is the slope
∆p> ∆t of the secant line (Example 4).
This average is the slope of the secant through the points P and Q on the graph in
Figure 2.5.
The average rate of change from day 23 to day 45 calculated in Example 4 does not
tell us how fast the population was changing on day 23 itself. For that we need to examine
time intervals closer to the day in question.
EXAMPLE 5
How fast was the number of flies in the population of Example 4 grow-
ing on day 23?
Solution To answer this question, we examine the average rates of change over increasingly short time intervals starting at day 23. In geometric terms, we find these rates by
calculating the slopes of secants from P to Q, for a sequence of points Q approaching P
along the curve (Figure 2.6).
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
Q
Slope of PQ = 𝚫p , 𝚫t
(flies , day)
(45, 340)
340 - 150
≈ 8.6
45 - 23
(40, 330)
330 - 150
≈ 10.6
40 - 23
(35, 310)
310 - 150
≈ 13.3
35 - 23
(30, 265)
265 - 150
≈ 16.4
30 - 23
FIGURE 2.6
p
B(35, 350)
350
Q(45, 340)
300
Number of flies
64
250
200
P(23, 150)
150
100
50
0
10
20
30
A(14, 0) Time (days)
40
50
t
The positions and slopes of four secants through the point P on the fruit fly graph (Example 5).
The values in the table show that the secant slopes rise from 8.6 to 16.4 as the t-coordinate
of Q decreases from 45 to 30, and we would expect the slopes to rise slightly higher as t
continued on toward 23. Geometrically, the secants rotate counterclockwise about P and
seem to approach the red tangent line in the figure. Since the line appears to pass through
the points (14, 0) and (35, 350), it has slope
350 - 0
= 16.7 flies>day (approximately).
35 - 14
On day 23 the population was increasing at a rate of about 16.7 flies > day.
The instantaneous rates in Example 2 were found to be the values of the average
speeds, or average rates of change, as the time interval of length h approached 0. That is,
the instantaneous rate is the value the average rate approaches as the length h of the interval over which the change occurs approaches zero. The average rate of change corresponds to the slope of a secant line; the instantaneous rate corresponds to the slope of the
tangent line as the independent variable approaches a fixed value. In Example 2, the independent variable t approached the values t = 1 and t = 2. In Example 3, the independent
variable x approached the value x = 2. So we see that instantaneous rates and slopes of
tangent lines are closely connected. We investigate this connection thoroughly in the next
chapter, but to do so we need the concept of a limit.
Exercises
2.1
Average Rates of Change
In Exercises 1–6, find the average rate of change of the function over
the given interval or intervals.
1. ƒ(x) = x3 + 1
a. 32, 34
2. g(x) = x2 - 2x
a. 31, 34
3. h(t) = cot t
a. 3p>4, 3p>44
4. g(t) = 2 + cos t
a. 30, p4
b. 3-1, 14
b. 3-2, 44
b. 3p>6, p>24
b. 3- p, p4
5. R(u) = 24u + 1;
3
2
30, 24
6. P(u) = u - 4u + 5u;
31, 24
Slope of a Curve at a Point
In Exercises 7–14, use the method in Example 3 to find (a) the slope
of the curve at the given point P, and (b) an equation of the tangent
line at P.
7. y = x2 - 5, P(2, - 1)
8. y = 7 - x2, P(2, 3)
9. y = x2 - 2x - 3, P(2, - 3)
10. y = x2 - 4x, P(1, - 3)
11. y = x3, P(2, 8)
65
2.1 Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves
b. What is the average rate of increase of the profits between
2012 and 2014?
12. y = 2 - x3, P(1, 1)
3
13. y = x - 12x, P(1, - 11)
c. Use your graph to estimate the rate at which the profits were
changing in 2012.
14. y = x3 - 3x2 + 4, P(2, 0)
Instantaneous Rates of Change
15. Speed of a car The accompanying figure shows the time-todistance graph for a sports car accelerating from a standstill.
a. Find the average rate of change of F(x) over the intervals
31, x4 for each x ≠ 1 in your table.
s
P
650
600
400
T 19. Let g(x) = 2x for x Ú 0.
Q2
a. Find the average rate of change of g(x) with respect to x over
the intervals 31, 24, 31, 1.54 and 31, 1 + h4.
300
Q1
200
b. Make a table of values of the average rate of change of g with
respect to x over the interval 31, 1 + h4 for some values of h
approaching zero, say h = 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, 0.00001,
and 0.000001.
100
0
5
10
15
20
Elapsed time (sec)
t
c. What does your table indicate is the rate of change of g(x)
with respect to x at x = 1?
a. Estimate the slopes of secants PQ1, PQ2, PQ3, and PQ4,
arranging them in order in a table like the one in Figure 2.6.
What are the appropriate units for these slopes?
b. Then estimate the car’s speed at time t = 20 sec.
16. The accompanying figure shows the plot of distance fallen versus
time for an object that fell from the lunar landing module a distance 80 m to the surface of the moon.
a. Estimate the slopes of the secants PQ1, PQ2, PQ3, and PQ4,
arranging them in a table like the one in Figure 2.6.
b. About how fast was the object going when it hit the surface?
y
Distance fallen (m)
80
Q3
60
b. Make a table of values of the average rate of change of ƒ with
respect to t over the interval 32, T4 , for some values of T
approaching 2, say T = 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001,
and 2.000001.
c. What does your table indicate is the rate of change of ƒ with
respect to t at t = 2?
Q1
20
0
a. Find the average rate of change of ƒ with respect to t over the
intervals (i) from t = 2 to t = 3, and (ii) from t = 2 to t = T.
21. The accompanying graph shows the total distance s traveled by a
bicyclist after t hours.
Q2
40
T 20. Let ƒ(t) = 1>t for t ≠ 0.
d. Calculate the limit as T approaches 2 of the average rate of
change of ƒ with respect to t over the interval from 2 to T. You
will have to do some algebra before you can substitute T = 2.
P
Q4
d. Calculate the limit as h approaches zero of the average rate of
change of g(x) with respect to x over the interval 31, 1 + h4.
s
5
Elapsed time (sec)
10
t
T 17. The profits of a small company for each of the first five years of
its operation are given in the following table:
Year
Profit in $1000s
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
6
27
62
111
174
a. Plot points representing the profit as a function of year, and
join them by as smooth a curve as you can.
Distance traveled (mi)
Distance (m)
b. Extending the table if necessary, try to determine the rate of
change of F(x) at x = 1.
Q4
Q3
500
T 18. Make a table of values for the function F(x) = (x + 2)>(x - 2)
at the points x = 1.2, x = 11>10, x = 101>100, x = 1001>1000,
x = 10001>10000, and x = 1.
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
Elapsed time (hr)
4
t
a. Estimate the bicyclist’s average speed over the time intervals
30, 14, 31, 2.54 , and 32.5, 3.54 .
b. Estimate the bicyclist’s instantaneous speed at the times t = 12,
t = 2, and t = 3.
c. Estimate the bicyclist’s maximum speed and the specific time
at which it occurs.
66
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
22. The accompanying graph shows the total amount of gasoline A in
the gas tank of an automobile after being driven for t days.
a. Estimate the average rate of gasoline consumption over the
time intervals 30, 34, 30, 54, and 37, 104 .
b. Estimate the instantaneous rate of gasoline consumption at
the times t = 1, t = 4, and t = 8.
Remaining amount (gal)
A
16
c. Estimate the maximum rate of gasoline consumption and the
specific time at which it occurs.
12
8
4
0
1
2
3 4 5 6 7 8
Elapsed time (days)
9 10
t
2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws
In Section 2.1 we saw that limits arise when finding the instantaneous rate of change of a
function or the tangent to a curve. Here we begin with an informal definition of limit and
show how we can calculate the values of limits. A precise definition is presented in the
next section.
HISTORICAL ESSAY
Limits
Limits of Function Values
Frequently when studying a function y = ƒ(x), we find ourselves interested in the function’s behavior near a particular point c, but not at c. This might be the case, for instance,
if c is an irrational number, like p or 22, whose values can only be approximated by
“close” rational numbers at which we actually evaluate the function instead. Another situation occurs when trying to evaluate a function at c leads to division by zero, which is
undefined. We encountered this last circumstance when seeking the instantaneous rate of
change in y by considering the quotient function ∆y>h for h closer and closer to zero.
Here’s a specific example in which we explore numerically how a function behaves near a
particular point at which we cannot directly evaluate the function.
y
2
2
y = f (x) = x − 1
x− 1
1
−1
0
1
x
EXAMPLE 1
How does the function
ƒ(x) =
y
x2 - 1
x - 1
behave near x = 1?
2
Solution The given formula defines ƒ for all real numbers x except x = 1 (we cannot
divide by zero). For any x ≠ 1, we can simplify the formula by factoring the numerator
and canceling common factors:
y=x+1
1
−1
0
1
FIGURE 2.7 The graph of ƒ is
identical with the line y = x + 1
except at x = 1, where ƒ is not
defined (Example 1).
x
ƒ(x) =
(x - 1)(x + 1)
= x + 1
x - 1
for
x ≠ 1.
The graph of ƒ is the line y = x + 1 with the point (1, 2) removed. This removed point is
shown as a “hole” in Figure 2.7. Even though ƒ(1) is not defined, it is clear that we can make
the value of ƒ(x) as close as we want to 2 by choosing x close enough to 1 (Table 2.2).
2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws
TABLE 2.2 As x gets closer to
1, ƒ(x ) gets closer to 2.
ƒ(x) =
x
0.9
1.1
0.99
1.01
0.999
1.001
0.999999
1.000001
x2 −1
x−1
1.9
2.1
1.99
2.01
1.999
2.001
1.999999
2.000001
67
Generalizing the idea illustrated in Example 1, suppose ƒ(x) is defined on an open
interval about c, except possibly at c itself. If ƒ(x) is arbitrarily close to the number L (as
close to L as we like) for all x sufficiently close to c, we say that ƒ approaches the limit L
as x approaches c, and write
lim ƒ(x) = L,
xSc
which is read “the limit of ƒ(x) as x approaches c is L.” For instance, in Example 1 we
would say that ƒ(x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1, and write
lim ƒ(x) = 2,
x2 - 1
= 2.
xS1 x - 1
or
xS1
lim
Essentially, the definition says that the values of ƒ(x) are close to the number L whenever x
is close to c (on either side of c).
Our definition here is “informal” because phrases like arbitrarily close and sufficiently close
are imprecise; their meaning depends on the context. (To a machinist manufacturing a piston,
close may mean within a few thousandths of an inch. To an astronomer studying distant galaxies,
close may mean within a few thousand light-years.) Nevertheless, the definition is clear enough to
enable us to recognize and evaluate limits of many specific functions. We will need the precise
definition given in Section 2.3, however, when we set out to prove theorems about limits or study
complicated functions. Here are several more examples exploring the idea of limits.
EXAMPLE 2
The limit value of a function does not depend on how the function
is defined at the point being approached. Consider the three functions in Figure 2.8. The
function ƒ has limit 2 as x S 1 even though ƒ is not defined at x = 1. The function g has
limit 2 as x S 1 even though 2 ≠ g(1). The function h is the only one of the three
functions in Figure 2.8 whose limit as x S 1 equals its value at x = 1. For h, we have
limx S 1 h(x) = h(1). This equality of limit and function value is of special importance, and
we return to it in Section 2.5.
y
y
y
y
2
2
2
1
1
1
y=x
c
−1
0
1
x
0
−1
x
c
2
(a) f(x) = x − 1
x− 1
(b) g(x) =
(a) Identity function
1
x
x2 − 1 , x ≠ 1
x− 1
1,
−1
0
1
x
(c) h(x) = x + 1
x=1
FIGURE 2.8 The limits of ƒ(x), g(x), and h(x) all equal 2 as x approaches 1. However, only h(x)
has the same function value as its limit at x = 1 (Example 2).
y
y=k
k
EXAMPLE 3
(a) If ƒ is the identity function ƒ(x) = x, then for any value of c (Figure 2.9a),
0
c
lim ƒ(x) = lim x = c.
x
(b) Constant function
FIGURE 2.9 The functions in
Example 3 have limits at all points c.
xSc
xSc
(b) If ƒ is the constant function ƒ(x) = k (function with the constant value k), then for
any value of c (Figure 2.9b),
lim ƒ(x) = lim k = k.
xSc
xSc
68
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
For instances of each of these rules we have
lim x = 3
xS3
lim (4) = lim (4) = 4.
and
x S -7
xS2
We prove these rules in Example 3 in Section 2.3.
A function may not have a limit at a particular point. Some ways that limits can fail to
exist are illustrated in Figure 2.10 and described in the next example.
y
y
y=
0, x < 0
y
y=
1, x ≥ 0
1
0, x = 0
1
0
1, x≠0
x
x
x
0
x
0
y=
0,
x≤0
sin 1x , x > 0
–1
(a) Unit step function U(x)
(b) g(x)
(c) f(x)
FIGURE 2.10 None of these functions has a limit as x approaches 0 (Example 4).
EXAMPLE 4
Discuss the behavior of the following functions, explaining why they
have no limit as x S 0.
0,
1,
x 6 0
x Ú 0
1
x,
(b) g(x) = •
0,
x≠0
0,
x … 0
1
sin x ,
x 7 0
(a) U(x) = e
(c) ƒ(x) = c
x = 0
Solution
(a) It jumps: The unit step function U(x) has no limit as x S 0 because its values jump
at x = 0. For negative values of x arbitrarily close to zero, U(x) = 0. For positive
values of x arbitrarily close to zero, U(x) = 1. There is no single value L approached
by U(x) as x S 0 (Figure 2.10a).
(b) It grows too “large” to have a limit: g(x) has no limit as x S 0 because the values of
g grow arbitrarily large in absolute value as x S 0 and do not stay close to any fixed
real number (Figure 2.10b). We say the function is not bounded.
(c) It oscillates too much to have a limit: ƒ(x) has no limit as x S 0 because the function’s values oscillate between +1 and -1 in every open interval containing 0. The
values do not stay close to any one number as x S 0 (Figure 2.10c).
2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws
69
The Limit Laws
To calculate limits of functions that are arithmetic combinations of functions having
known limits, we can use several fundamental rules.
THEOREM 1—Limit Laws If L, M, c, and k are real numbers and
lim ƒ(x) = L
xSc
1. Sum Rule:
2. Difference Rule:
3. Constant Multiple Rule:
4. Product Rule:
5. Quotient Rule:
6. Power Rule:
7. Root Rule:
lim g(x) = M, then
and
xSc
lim (ƒ(x) + g(x)) = L + M
xSc
lim (ƒ(x) - g(x)) = L - M
xSc
lim (k # ƒ(x)) = k # L
xSc
lim (ƒ(x) # g(x)) = L # M
xSc
ƒ(x)
L
= , M ≠ 0
M
x S c g(x)
lim
lim 3 ƒ(x)4 n = L n, n a positive integer
xSc
n
n
lim 2ƒ(x) = 2L = L 1>n, n a positive integer
xSc
(If n is even, we assume that lim ƒ(x) = L 7 0.)
xSc
In words, the Sum Rule says that the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits. Similarly, the
next rules say that the limit of a difference is the difference of the limits; the limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the function; the limit of a product
is the product of the limits; the limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits (provided
that the limit of the denominator is not 0); the limit of a positive integer power (or root) of
a function is the integer power (or root) of the limit (provided that the root of the limit is a
real number).
It is reasonable that the properties in Theorem 1 are true (although these intuitive
arguments do not constitute proofs). If x is sufficiently close to c, then ƒ(x) is close to L
and g(x) is close to M, from our informal definition of a limit. It is then reasonable that
ƒ(x) + g(x) is close to L + M; ƒ(x) - g(x) is close to L - M; kƒ(x) is close to kL;
ƒ(x)g(x) is close to LM; and ƒ(x)>g(x) is close to L>M if M is not zero. We prove the Sum
Rule in Section 2.3, based on a precise definition of limit. Rules 2–5 are proved in Appendix 4. Rule 6 is obtained by applying Rule 4 repeatedly. Rule 7 is proved in more advanced
texts. The Sum, Difference, and Product Rules can be extended to any number of functions, not just two.
EXAMPLE 5
Use the observations limx S c k = k and limx S c x = c (Example 3) and
the fundamental rules of limits to find the following limits.
(a) lim ( x3 + 4x2 - 3 )
xSc
x4 + x2 - 1
xSc
x2 + 5
(b) lim
(c)
lim 24x2 - 3
x S -2
70
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
Solution
(a) lim ( x3 + 4x2 - 3 ) = lim x3 + lim 4x2 - lim 3
xSc
xSc
xSc
xSc
= c3 + 4c2 - 3
xSc
=
xSc
Quotient Rule
lim ( x2 + 5 )
xSc
lim x4 + lim x2 - lim 1
xSc
xSc
lim x2 + lim 5
xSc
(c)
Power and Multiple Rules
lim ( x4 + x2 - 1 )
x4 + x2 - 1
=
(b) lim
S
x c
x2 + 5
=
4
Sum and Difference Rules
xSc
2
c + c - 1
c2 + 5
Power or Product Rule
lim 24x2 - 3 = 2 lim ( 4x2 - 3 )
x S -2
Sum and Difference Rules
x S -2
= 2 lim 4x2 - lim 3
x S -2
x S -2
= 24(-2)2 - 3
Root Rule with n = 2
Difference Rule
Product and Multiple Rules
= 216 - 3
= 213
Theorem 1 simplifies the task of calculating limits of polynomials and rational functions.
To evaluate the limit of a polynomial function as x approaches c, merely substitute c for x
in the formula for the function. To evaluate the limit of a rational function as x approaches
a point c at which the denominator is not zero, substitute c for x in the formula for the
function. (See Examples 5a and 5b.) We state these results formally as theorems.
THEOREM 2—Limits of Polynomials
If P(x) = an xn + an - 1 xn - 1 + g + a0, then
lim P(x) = P(c) = an cn + an - 1 cn - 1 + g + a0.
xSc
THEOREM 3—Limits of Rational Functions
If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(c) ≠ 0, then
P(x)
P(c)
=
.
Q(c)
x S c Q(x)
lim
EXAMPLE 6
The following calculation illustrates Theorems 2 and 3:
3
2
x3 + 4x2 - 3 (-1) + 4(-1) - 3 0
=
= = 0
6
x S -1
x2 + 5
(-1)2 + 5
lim
Identifying Common Factors
It can be shown that if Q(x) is a polynomial and Q(c) = 0, then (x - c) is
a factor of Q(x). Thus, if the numerator
and denominator of a rational function
of x are both zero at x = c, they have
(x - c) as a common factor.
Eliminating Common Factors from Zero Denominators
Theorem 3 applies only if the denominator of the rational function is not zero at the limit
point c. If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the numerator and
denominator may reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero at c. If
this happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the simplified fraction.
2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws
EXAMPLE 7
y
2
x−2
y= x +
x2 − x
(1, 3)
3
−2
0
x2 + x - 2
.
xS1
x2 - x
Solution We cannot substitute x = 1 because it makes the denominator zero. We test
the numerator to see if it, too, is zero at x = 1. It is, so it has a factor of (x - 1) in common with the denominator. Canceling this common factor gives a simpler fraction with the
same values as the original for x ≠ 1:
(a)
x2 + x - 2 (x - 1)(x + 2) x + 2
=
= x ,
x(x - 1)
x2 - x
y
y=x+2
x
(1, 3)
3
Evaluate
lim
x
1
71
if x ≠ 1.
Using the simpler fraction, we find the limit of these values as x S 1 by Theorem 3:
x2 + x - 2
x + 2 1 + 2
= lim x =
= 3.
1
xS1
xS1
x2 - x
lim
−2
0
1
x
See Figure 2.11.
Using Calculators and Computers to Estimate Limits
(b)
FIGURE 2.11 The graph of
ƒ(x) = ( x2 + x - 2 ) > ( x2 - x ) in
part (a) is the same as the graph of
g(x) = (x + 2)>x in part (b) except
at x = 1, where ƒ is undefined. The
functions have the same limit as x S 1
(Example 7).
When we cannot use the Quotient Rule in Theorem 1 because the limit of the denominator
is zero, we can try using a calculator or computer to guess the limit numerically as x gets
closer and closer to c. We used this approach in Example 1, but calculators and computers
can sometimes give false values and misleading impressions for functions that are undefined at a point or fail to have a limit there. Usually the problem is associated with rounding errors, as we now illustrate.
EXAMPLE 8
Estimate the value of lim
xS0
2x2 + 100 - 10
x2
.
Solution Table 2.3 lists values of the function obtained on a calculator for several points
approaching x = 0. As x approaches 0 through the points {1, {0.5, {0.10, and {0.01,
the function seems to approach the number 0.05.
As we take even smaller values of x, {0.0005, {0.0001, {0.00001, and {0.000001,
the function appears to approach the number 0.
Is the answer 0.05 or 0, or some other value? We resolve this question in the next
example.
TABLE 2.3 Computed values of ƒ(x) =
2x 2 + 100 - 10
x
ƒ(x)
{1
{0.5
{0.1
{0.01
0.049876
0.049969
t approaches 0.05?
0.049999
0.050000
{0.0005
{0.0001
{0.00001
{0.000001
0.050000
0.000000
t approaches 0?
0.000000
0.000000
x2
near x = 0
72
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
Using a computer or calculator may give ambiguous results, as in the last example.
The calculator could not keep track of enough digits to avoid rounding errors in computing
the values of ƒ(x) when x is very small. We cannot substitute x = 0 in the problem, and the
numerator and denominator have no obvious common factors (as they did in Example 7).
Sometimes, however, we can create a common factor algebraically.
EXAMPLE 9
Evaluate
lim
xS0
2x2 + 100 - 10
x2
.
Solution This is the limit we considered in Example 8. We can create a common factor
by multiplying both numerator and denominator by the conjugate radical expression
2x2 + 100 + 10 (obtained by changing the sign after the square root). The preliminary
algebra rationalizes the numerator:
2x2 + 100 - 10
x2
=
=
=
=
Therefore,
lim
xS0
#
2x2 + 100 - 10 2x2 + 100 + 10
x2
2x2 + 100 + 10
x2 + 100 - 100
x ( 2x2 + 100 + 10 )
2
x2
x ( 2x + 100 + 10)
2
2
1
2x2 + 100 + 10
2x2 + 100 - 10
x2
= lim
xS0
=
=
.
Common factor x2
Cancel x2 for x ≠ 0.
1
2x2 + 100 + 10
1
202 + 100 + 10
Denominator not 0 at
x = 0; substitute.
1
= 0.05.
20
This calculation provides the correct answer, in contrast to the ambiguous computer
results in Example 8.
We cannot always algebraically resolve the problem of finding the limit of a quotient
where the denominator becomes zero. In some cases the limit might then be found with
the aid of some geometry applied to the problem (see the proof of Theorem 7 in Section 2.4),
or through methods of calculus (illustrated in Section 4.5). The next theorems give helpful
tools by using function comparisons.
y
h
f
L
The Sandwich Theorem
g
0
c
FIGURE 2.12 The graph of ƒ is sandwiched between the graphs of g and h.
x
The following theorem enables us to calculate a variety of limits. It is called the Sandwich
Theorem because it refers to a function ƒ whose values are sandwiched between the values of two other functions g and h that have the same limit L at a point c. Being trapped
between the values of two functions that approach L, the values of ƒ must also approach L
(Figure 2.12). You will find a proof in Appendix 4.
2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws
73
THEOREM 4—The Sandwich Theorem Suppose that g(x) … ƒ(x) … h(x) for
all x in some open interval containing c, except possibly at x = c itself. Suppose
also that
lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L.
xSc
xSc
Then limx S c ƒ(x) = L.
y
EXAMPLE 10
2
1 2
y=1− x
4
0
x
1
y
1
EXAMPLE 11
xS0
The Sandwich Theorem helps us establish several important limit rules:
(b) lim cos u = 1
uS0
(c) For any function ƒ, lim 0 ƒ(x) 0 = 0 implies lim ƒ(x) = 0.
xSc
u
xSc
Solution
(a) In Section 1.3 we established that - 0 u 0 … sin u … 0 u 0 for all u (see Figure 2.14a).
Since limu S 0 ( - 0 u 0 ) = limu S 0 0 u 0 = 0, we have
lim sin u = 0.
uS0
(b) From Section 1.3, 0 … 1 - cos u … 0 u 0 for all u (see Figure 2.14b), and we have
(a)
limu S 0 (1 - cos u) = 0 or
y
0
lim ( 1 + ( x2 >2 ) ) = 1,
and
the Sandwich Theorem implies that limx S 0 u(x) = 1 (Figure 2.13).
y = −0 u 0
−1
−1
Since
xS0
y = sin u
p
1
Solution
uS0
y = 0u0
for all x ≠ 0,
find limx S 0 u(x), no matter how complicated u is.
(a) lim sin u = 0
−p
2
x2
x2
… u(x) … 1 +
4
2
lim ( 1 - ( x2 >4 ) ) = 1
FIGURE 2.13 Any function u(x)
whose graph lies in the region between
y = 1 + (x2 >2) and y = 1 - (x2 >4)
has limit 1 as x S 0 (Example 10).
−2
Given that
y = u(x)
1
−1
The Sandwich Theorem is also called the Squeeze Theorem or the Pinching Theorem.
2
y=1+ x
2
lim cos u = 1.
uS0
y = 0u0
y = 1 − cos u
1
2
u
(b)
FIGURE 2.14 The Sandwich Theorem
confirms the limits in Example 11.
(c) Since - 0 ƒ(x) 0 … ƒ(x) … 0 ƒ(x) 0 and - 0 ƒ(x) 0 and 0 ƒ(x) 0 have limit 0 as x S c, it
follows that limx S c ƒ(x) = 0.
Another important property of limits is given by the next theorem. A proof is given in
the next section.
THEOREM 5 If ƒ(x) … g(x) for all x in some open interval containing c, except
possibly at x = c itself, and the limits of ƒ and g both exist as x approaches c,
then
lim ƒ(x) … lim g(x).
xSc
xSc
Caution The assertion resulting from replacing the less than or equal to (… ) inequality by
the strict less than ( 6 ) inequality in Theorem 5 is false. Figure 2.14a shows that for u ≠ 0,
- 0 u 0 6 sin u 6 0 u 0 . So limu S 0 sin u = 0 = limu S 0 0 u 0 , not limu S 0 sin u 6 limu S 0 0 u 0 .
74
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
Exercises
2.2
Limits from Graphs
1. For the function g(x) graphed here, find the following limits or
explain why they do not exist.
a. lim g(x)
xS1
b. lim g(x)
c. lim g(x)
xS2
d. lim ƒ(x) exists at every point c in (-1, 1).
xSc
e. lim ƒ(x) exists at every point c in (1, 3).
xSc
d. lim g(x)
xS3
y
x S 2.5
y
1
1
2
x
3
b. lim ƒ(t)
t S -1
c. lim ƒ(t)
d.
tS0
lim ƒ(t)
t S -0.5
−1
−2
Existence of Limits
In Exercises 5 and 6, explain why the limits do not exist.
x
1
6. lim
5. lim
xS0 0 x 0
xS1 x - 1
7. Suppose that a function ƒ(x) is defined for all real values of x
except x = c. Can anything be said about the existence of
limx S c ƒ(x)? Give reasons for your answer.
s
s = f (t)
−2
x
3
2. For the function ƒ(t) graphed here, find the following limits or
explain why they do not exist.
lim ƒ(t)
2
−1
1
t S -2
1
−1
y = g(x)
a.
y = f(x)
1
0
1
t
8. Suppose that a function ƒ(x) is defined for all x in 3- 1, 1]. Can
anything be said about the existence of limx S 0 ƒ(x)? Give reasons
for your answer.
9. If limx S 1 ƒ(x) = 5, must ƒ be defined at x = 1? If it is, must
ƒ(1) = 5? Can we conclude anything about the values of ƒ at
x = 1? Explain.
−1
3. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒ(x)
graphed here are true, and which are false?
a. lim ƒ(x) exists.
xS0
10. If ƒ(1) = 5, must limx S 1 ƒ(x) exist? If it does, then must
limx S 1 ƒ(x) = 5? Can we conclude anything about limx S 1 ƒ(x)?
Explain.
xS0
Calculating Limits
Find the limits in Exercises 11–22.
xS0
11. lim ( x2 - 13 )
12. lim ( - x2 + 5x - 2 )
e. lim ƒ(x) = 0
13. lim 8(t - 5)(t - 7)
14.
f. lim ƒ(x) exists at every point c in (-1, 1).
15. lim
b. lim ƒ(x) = 0
c. lim ƒ(x) = 1
d. lim ƒ(x) = 1
x S -3
xS1
tS6
xS1
xSc
g. lim ƒ(x) does not exist.
xS1
17.
y
1
y S -3
2
x
−1
4. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒ(x)
graphed here are true, and which are false?
a. lim ƒ(x) does not exist.
xS2
b. lim ƒ(x) = 2
xS2
c. lim ƒ(x) does not exist.
xS1
lim 4x(3x + 4)2
x S -1>2
19. lim (5 - y)4>3
y = f (x)
1
−1
2x + 5
- x3
x S 2 11
21. lim
hS0
3
23h + 1 + 1
xS2
lim ( x3 - 2x2 + 4x + 8 )
x S -2
16. lim (8 - 3s)(2s - 1)
s S 2>3
18. lim
yS2
y + 2
y2 + 5y + 6
20. lim 2z2 - 10
zS4
22. lim
hS0
25h + 4 - 2
h
Limits of quotients Find the limits in Exercises 23–42.
x - 5
x + 3
24. lim 2
23. lim 2
x S 5 x - 25
x S -3 x + 4x + 3
x2 + 3x - 10
x2 - 7x + 10
25. lim
26. lim
S
S
x - 2
x + 5
x -5
x 2
2
2
t + t - 2
t + 3t + 2
27. lim 2
28. lim 2
tS1 t - 1
t S -1 t - t - 2
5y3 + 8y2
- 2x - 4
29. lim 3
30. lim 4
2
S
S
x -2 x + 2x
y 0 3y - 16y2
2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws
x-1 - 1
xS1 x - 1
31. lim
32. lim
53. Suppose limx S c ƒ(x) = 5 and limx S c g(x) = -2. Find
a. lim ƒ(x)g(x)
b. lim 2ƒ(x)g(x)
1
x + 1
x
y3 - 8
34. lim 4
y S 2 y - 16
4x - x2
36. lim
x S 4 2 - 2x
x - 1
37. lim
x S 1 2x + 3 - 2
xS2
+
xS0
u4 - 1
33. lim 3
uS1 u - 1
2x - 3
35. lim
xS9 x - 9
39. lim
1
x - 1
38.
2x2 + 12 - 4
lim
40. lim
x - 2
44.
45. lim sec x
46.
xS0
1 + x + sin x
3 cos x
xS0
x + 1
=
lim sin2 x
x S p>4
=
lim (2ƒ(x) - g(x))
xS0
=
d. lim ƒ(x)>g(x)
xSb
xSb
56. Suppose that limx S -2 p(x) = 4, limx S -2 r(x) = 0, and
limx S -2 s(x) = -3. Find
a.
lim (p(x) + r(x) + s(x))
x S -2
lim p(x) # r(x) # s(x)
x S -2
lim (- 4p(x) + 5r(x))>s(x)
x S -2
Limits of Average Rates of Change
Because of their connection with secant lines, tangents, and instantaneous rates, limits of the form
lim 2ƒ(x) - lim g(x)
xS0
xS0
a lim ( ƒ(x) + 7 ) b
(b)
2>3
2 lim ƒ(x) - lim g(x)
xS0
xS0
a lim ƒ(x) + lim 7b
(1 + 7)2>3
=
=
2>3
(c)
lim 25h(x)
(a)
lim (p(x)(4 - r(x)))
5h(x)
4xlim
S1
(b)
a lim p(x)b a lim ( 4 - r(x) ) b
xS1
5lim h(x)
4 xS1
=
a lim p(x)b a lim 4 - lim r(x)b
xS1
=
xS1
2(5)(5)
5
=
(1)(4 - 2)
2
57. ƒ(x) = x2, x = 1
59. ƒ(x) = 3x - 4, x = 2
60. ƒ(x) = 1>x, x = - 2
62. ƒ(x) = 23x + 1, x = 0
63. If 25 - 2x2 … ƒ(x) … 25 - x2 for - 1 … x … 1, find
limx S 0 ƒ(x).
7
4
xS1
xS1
occur frequently in calculus. In Exercises 57–62, evaluate this limit
for the given value of x and function ƒ.
Using the Sandwich Theorem
xS1
=
ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x)
h
61. ƒ(x) = 2x, x = 7
xS0
(2)(1) - (-5)
lim
hS0
58. ƒ(x) = x2, x = - 2
52. Let limx S 1 h(x) = 5, limx S 1 p(x) = 1, and limx S 1 r(x) = 2.
Name the rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps
(a), (b), and (c) of the following calculation.
p(x)(4 - r(x))
c. lim 4g(x)
c.
(a)
lim (ƒ(x) + 7)2>3
xS0
xS1
b. lim ƒ(x) # g(x)
b.
lim tan x
x S p>3
xS0
25h(x)
g(x)
ƒ(x) - 1
a. lim (ƒ(x) + g(x))
xSb
xS0
=
lim
xS4
xSb
Using Limit Rules
51. Suppose limx S 0 ƒ(x) = 1 and limx S 0 g(x) = - 5. Name the
rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps (a), (b), and
(c) of the following calculation.
(ƒ(x) + 7)2>3
d. lim
55. Suppose limx S b ƒ(x) = 7 and limx S b g(x) = - 3. Find
2x2 + 5 - 3
xS0
xS0
c. lim (g(x))2
xS4
xS0
x S -p
2ƒ(x) - g(x)
b. lim xƒ(x)
xS4
49. lim 2x + 4 cos (x + p) 50. lim 27 + sec2 x
lim
ƒ(x)
ƒ(x) - g(x)
a. lim (g(x) + 3)
xS4
48. lim (x2 - 1)(2 - cos x)
47. lim
xSc
54. Suppose limx S 4 ƒ(x) = 0 and limx S 4 g(x) = - 3. Find
Limits with trigonometric functions Find the limits in Exercises
43–50.
xS0
d. lim
xSc
4 - x
42. lim
x S 4 5 - 2x 2 + 9
43. lim (2 sin x - 1)
xSc
c. lim (ƒ(x) + 3g(x))
x + 2
x S -2
2 - 2x2 - 5
41. lim
x + 3
x S -3
xSc
2x2 + 8 - 3
x S -1
75
xS1
64. If 2 - x2 … g(x) … 2 cos x for all x, find limx S 0 g(x).
65. a. It can be shown that the inequalities
1 -
x2
x sin x
6
6 1
2 - 2 cos x
6
hold for all values of x close to zero. What, if anything, does
this tell you about
lim
xS0
x sin x
?
2 - 2 cos x
Give reasons for your answer.
(c)
T b. Graph y = 1 - ( x2 >6 ) , y = (x sin x)>(2 - 2 cos x), and
y = 1 together for - 2 … x … 2. Comment on the behavior
of the graphs as x S 0.
76
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
66. a. Suppose that the inequalities
x2
1 - cos x
1
1
6
6
2 24
2
x2
hold for values of x close to zero. (They do, as you will see in
Section 9.9.) What, if anything, does this tell you about
1 - cos x
lim
?
xS0
x2
Give reasons for your answer.
T b. Graph the equations y = (1>2) - ( x2 >24 ) ,
y = (1 - cos x)>x2, and y = 1>2 together for -2 … x … 2.
Comment on the behavior of the graphs as x S 0.
Estimating Limits
T You will find a graphing calculator useful for Exercises 67–76.
2
67. Let ƒ(x) = (x - 9)>(x + 3).
a. Make a table of the values of ƒ at the points x = - 3.1,
- 3.01, -3.001, and so on as far as your calculator can go.
Then estimate limx S -3 ƒ(x). What estimate do you arrive at
if you evaluate ƒ at x = - 2.9, - 2.99, -2.999, c instead?
b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing ƒ near
c = -3 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on
the graph as x S -3.
c. Find limx S -3 ƒ(x) algebraically, as in Example 7.
68. Let g(x) = ( x2 - 2 ) >(x - 22).
a. Make a table of the values of g at the points x = 1.4, 1.41,
1.414, and so on through successive decimal approximations
of 22. Estimate limx S 22 g(x).
b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing g near
c = 22 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on
the graph as x S 22.
c. Find limx S 22 g(x) algebraically.
69. Let G(x) = (x + 6)> ( x2 + 4x - 12 ) .
a. Make a table of the values of G at x = -5.9, -5.99, -5.999,
and so on. Then estimate limx S -6 G(x). What estimate do
you arrive at if you evaluate G at x = - 6.1, - 6.01,
-6.001, cinstead?
b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing ƒ near
c = -1 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on
the graph as x S - 1.
c. Find limx S -1 ƒ(x) algebraically.
72. Let F(x) = ( x2 + 3x + 2 ) > ( 2 - 0 x 0 ) .
a. Make tables of values of F at values of x that approach
c = -2 from above and below. Then estimate limx S -2 F(x).
b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing F near
c = -2 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on
the graph as x S - 2.
c. Find limx S -2 F(x) algebraically.
73. Let g(u) = (sin u)>u.
a. Make a table of the values of g at values of u that approach
u0 = 0 from above and below. Then estimate limu S 0 g(u).
b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing g near
u0 = 0.
74. Let G(t) = (1 - cos t)>t 2.
a. Make tables of values of G at values of t that approach t0 = 0
from above and below. Then estimate limt S 0 G(t).
b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing G near
t0 = 0.
75. Let ƒ(x) = x1>(1 - x).
a. Make tables of values of ƒ at values of x that approach c = 1
from above and below. Does ƒ appear to have a limit as
x S 1? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing ƒ near c = 1.
76. Let ƒ(x) = (3x - 1)>x.
a. Make tables of values of ƒ at values of x that approach c = 0
from above and below. Does ƒ appear to have a limit as
x S 0? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing ƒ near c = 0.
Theory and Examples
77. If x4 … ƒ(x) … x2 for x in 3-1, 14 and x2 … ƒ(x) … x4 for
x 6 -1 and x 7 1, at what points c do you automatically know
limx S c ƒ(x)? What can you say about the value of the limit at
these points?
b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing G and using
Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on the graph as
x S -6.
78. Suppose that g(x) … ƒ(x) … h(x) for all x ≠ 2 and suppose that
c. Find limx S -6 G(x) algebraically.
Can we conclude anything about the values of ƒ, g, and h at
x = 2? Could ƒ(2) = 0? Could limx S 2 ƒ(x) = 0? Give reasons
for your answers.
ƒ(x) - 5
79. If lim
= 1, find lim ƒ(x).
xS4 x - 2
xS4
ƒ(x)
80. If lim 2 = 1, find
x S -2 x
ƒ(x)
b. lim x
a. lim ƒ(x)
x S -2
x S -2
70. Let h(x) = ( x2 - 2x - 3 ) > ( x2 - 4x + 3 ) .
a. Make a table of the values of h at x = 2.9, 2.99, 2.999, and
so on. Then estimate limx S 3 h(x). What estimate do you
arrive at if you evaluate h at x = 3.1, 3.01, 3.001, c
instead?
b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing h near
c = 3 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on the
graph as x S 3.
c.
Find limx S 3 h(x) algebraically.
71. Let ƒ(x) = ( x2 - 1 ) > ( 0 x 0 - 1 ) .
a. Make tables of the values of ƒ at values of x that approach
c = -1 from above and below. Then estimate limx S -1 ƒ(x).
lim g(x) = lim h(x) = -5.
xS2
xS2
ƒ(x) - 5
= 3, find lim ƒ(x).
x - 2
xS2
ƒ(x) - 5
b. If lim
= 4, find lim ƒ(x).
xS2 x - 2
xS2
81. a. If lim
xS2
2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit
ƒ(x)
= 1, find
x S 0 x2
77
x4 - 16
xS2 x - 2
85. lim
82. If lim
a. lim ƒ(x)
86. lim
xS0
x S -1
ƒ(x)
b. lim x
xS0
x3 - x2 - 5x - 3
(x + 1)2
3
T 83. a. Graph g(x) = x sin (1>x) to estimate limx S 0 g(x), zooming in
on the origin as necessary.
b. Confirm your estimate in part (a) with a proof.
T 84. a. Graph h(x) = x2 cos (1>x3) to estimate limx S 0 h(x), zooming
in on the origin as necessary.
b. Confirm your estimate in part (a) with a proof.
87. lim
xS0
88. lim
xS3
21 + x - 1
x
2
x - 9
2x2 + 7 - 4
89. lim
1 - cos x
x sin x
90. lim
2x2
3 - 3 cos x
xS0
xS0
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
Graphical Estimates of Limits
In Exercises 85–90, use a CAS to perform the following steps:
a. Plot the function near the point c being approached.
b. From your plot guess the value of the limit.
2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit
We now turn our attention to the precise definition of a limit. We replace vague phrases
like “gets arbitrarily close to” in the informal definition with specific conditions that can
be applied to any particular example. With a precise definition, we can avoid misunderstandings, prove the limit properties given in the preceding section, and establish many
important limits.
To show that the limit of ƒ(x) as x S c equals the number L, we need to show that the
gap between ƒ(x) and L can be made “as small as we choose” if x is kept “close enough”
to c. Let us see what this would require if we specified the size of the gap between ƒ(x)
and L.
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the function y = 2x - 1 near x = 4. Intuitively it appears
that y is close to 7 when x is close to 4, so limx S 4 (2x - 1) = 7. However, how close to
x = 4 does x have to be so that y = 2x - 1 differs from 7 by, say, less than 2 units?
y
y = 2x − 1
Upper bound:
y=9
9
To satisfy
this
7
5
0
Lower bound:
y=5
3 4 5
x
Restrict
to this
FIGURE 2.15 Keeping x within 1 unit
of x = 4 will keep y within 2 units of
y = 7 (Example 1).
Solution We are asked: For what values of x is 0 y - 7 0 6 2? To find the answer we
first express 0 y - 7 0 in terms of x:
0 y - 7 0 = 0 (2x - 1) - 7 0 = 0 2x - 8 0 .
The question then becomes: what values of x satisfy the inequality 0 2x - 8 0 6 2? To find
out, we solve the inequality:
0 2x - 8 0 6 2
-2
6
3
-1
6
6
6
6
2x - 8 6 2
2x 6 10
x 6 5
x - 4 6 1.
Solve for x.
Solve for x - 4.
Keeping x within 1 unit of x = 4 will keep y within 2 units of y = 7 (Figure 2.15).
78
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
In the previous example we determined how close x must be to a particular value c to
ensure that the outputs ƒ(x) of some function lie within a prescribed interval about a limit
value L. To show that the limit of ƒ(x) as x S c actually equals L, we must be able to show
that the gap between ƒ(x) and L can be made less than any prescribed error, no matter how
small, by holding x close enough to c.
y
L+
1
10
f (x)
L
L−
f (x) lies
in here
Definition of Limit
1
10
for all x ≠ c
in here
d
0
d
x
c
c−d
x
c+d
FIGURE 2.16 How should we define
d 7 0 so that keeping x within the interval
(c - d, c + d) will keep ƒ(x) within the
interval aL -
1
1
,L +
b?
10
10
Suppose we are watching the values of a function ƒ(x) as x approaches c (without taking
on the value of c itself). Certainly we want to be able to say that ƒ(x) stays within onetenth of a unit from L as soon as x stays within some distance d of c (Figure 2.16). But that
in itself is not enough, because as x continues on its course toward c, what is to prevent
ƒ(x) from jittering about within the interval from L - (1>10) to L + (1>10) without
tending toward L?
We can be told that the error can be no more than 1>100 or 1>1000 or 1>100,000.
Each time, we find a new d@interval about c so that keeping x within that interval satisfies
the new error tolerance. And each time the possibility exists that ƒ(x) jitters away from L
at some stage.
The figures on the next page illustrate the problem. You can think of this as a quarrel
between a skeptic and a scholar. The skeptic presents P@challenges to prove that the limit
does not exist or, more precisely, that there is room for doubt. The scholar answers every
challenge with a d@interval around c that keeps the function values within P of L.
How do we stop this seemingly endless series of challenges and responses? We can
do so by proving that for every error tolerance P that the challenger can produce, we can
present a matching distance d that keeps x “close enough” to c to keep ƒ(x) within that
P@tolerance of L (Figure 2.17). This leads us to the precise definition of a limit.
y
DEFINITION Let ƒ(x) be defined on an open interval about c, except possibly at c
itself. We say that the limit of ƒ(x) as x approaches c is the number L, and write
L+P
L
f (x)
lim ƒ(x) = L,
f (x) lies
in here
xSc
if, for every number P 7 0, there exists a corresponding number d 7 0 such
that for all x,
L−P
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
for all x ≠ c
in here
d
x
0
c−d
d
x
c
c+d
FIGURE 2.17 The relation of d and P
in the definition of limit.
1
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
One way to think about the definition is to suppose we are machining a generator
shaft to a close tolerance. We may try for diameter L, but since nothing is perfect, we must
be satisfied with a diameter ƒ(x) somewhere between L - P and L + P. The d is the measure of how accurate our control setting for x must be to guarantee this degree of accuracy
in the diameter of the shaft. Notice that as the tolerance for error becomes stricter, we may
have to adjust d. That is, the value of d, how tight our control setting must be, depends on
the value of P, the error tolerance.
Examples: Testing the Definition
The formal definition of limit does not tell how to find the limit of a function, but it
enables us to verify that a conjectured limit value is correct. The following examples show
how the definition can be used to verify limit statements for specific functions. However,
the real purpose of the definition is not to do calculations like this, but rather to prove general theorems so that the calculation of specific limits can be simplified, such as the theorems stated in the previous section.
2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit
y
L+
y = f(x)
1
10
L−
L+
x
c
c − d1/10
c + d1/10
Response:
0 x − c 0 < d1/10 (a number)
L+
y
y = f (x)
y = f(x)
1
L+
1000
L+
1
1000
L
L
1
1000
L−
1
1000
x
c
0
Response:
0 x − c 0 < d1/1000
y
y
y = f (x)
1
L+
100,000
L
L
1
100,000
L−
c
New challenge:
1
P =
100,000
y
y = f(x)
1
L+
100,000
0
x
c
0
New challenge:
P = 1
1000
L−
0
New challenge:
Make 0 f(x) − L 0 < P = 1
100
y
L−
x
c
c + d1/100
c − d1/100
Response:
0 x − c 0 < d1/100
x
c
0
0
The challenge:
Make 0 f (x) − L 0 < P = 1
10
1
100
L
1
L−
100
1
100
L
1
L−
100
1
10
x
c
0
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
L
1
10
y
y = f (x)
1
L+
10
L
L−
y
y
79
x
y = f(x)
L+P
L
L−P
1
100,000
0
c
x
Response:
0 x − c 0 < d1/100,000
EXAMPLE 2
c
0
x
New challenge:
P = ...
Show that
lim (5x - 3) = 2.
xS1
Solution Set c = 1, ƒ(x) = 5x - 3, and L = 2 in the definition of limit. For any given
P 7 0, we have to find a suitable d 7 0 so that if x ≠ 1 and x is within distance d of
c = 1, that is, whenever
0 6 0 x - 1 0 6 d,
it is true that ƒ(x) is within distance P of L = 2, so
0 ƒ(x) - 2 0 6 P.
80
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
y
We find d by working backward from the P@inequality:
y = 5x − 3
0 (5x - 3) - 2 0 = 0 5x - 5 0 6 P
50x - 10 6 P
0 x - 1 0 6 P>5.
2+P
2
2−P
x
1−P 1 1+P
5
5
0
Thus, we can take d = P>5 (Figure 2.18). If 0 6 0 x - 1 0 6 d = P>5, then
0 (5x - 3) - 2 0 = 0 5x - 5 0 = 5 0 x - 1 0 6 5(P>5) = P,
which proves that limx S 1(5x - 3) = 2.
The value of d = P>5 is not the only value that will make 0 6 0 x - 1 0 6 d imply
0 5x - 5 0 6 P. Any smaller positive d will do as well. The definition does not ask for a
“best” positive d, just one that will work.
EXAMPLE 3
−3
Prove the following results presented graphically in Section 2.2.
(a) lim x = c
NOT TO SCALE
xSc
FIGURE 2.18 If ƒ(x) = 5x - 3, then
0 6 0 x - 1 0 6 P>5 guarantees that
0 ƒ(x) - 2 0 6 P (Example 2).
(b) lim k = k
xSc
(k constant)
Solution
(a) Let P 7 0 be given. We must find d 7 0 such that for all x
y
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
implies
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
implies
0 x - c 0 6 P.
The implication will hold if d equals P or any smaller positive number (Figure 2.19).
This proves that limx S c x = c.
(b) Let P 7 0 be given. We must find d 7 0 such that for all x
y=x
c+P
c+d
c
c−d
0 k - k 0 6 P.
Since k - k = 0, we can use any positive number for d and the implication will hold
(Figure 2.20). This proves that limx S c k = k.
c−P
0
c−d c c+d
x
Finding Deltas Algebraically for Given Epsilons
In Examples 2 and 3, the interval of values about c for which 0 ƒ(x) - L 0 was less than P
was symmetric about c and we could take d to be half the length of that interval. When
such symmetry is absent, as it usually is, we can take d to be the distance from c to the
interval’s nearer endpoint.
FIGURE 2.19 For the function
ƒ(x) = x, we find that 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d
will guarantee 0 ƒ(x) - c 0 6 P whenever
d … P (Example 3a).
EXAMPLE 4
For the limit limx S 5 2x - 1 = 2, find a d 7 0 that works for P = 1.
That is, find a d 7 0 such that for all x
y
y=k
k+P
k
k−P
0
Solution
0 6 0x - 50 6 d
1
We organize the search into two steps.
0 2x - 1 - 2 0 6 1.
1. Solve the inequality 0 2x - 1 - 2 0 6 1 to find an interval containing x = 5 on
which the inequality holds for all x ≠ 5.
c−d
c
c+d
FIGURE 2.20 For the function
ƒ(x) = k, we find that 0 ƒ(x) - k 0 6 P
for any positive d (Example 3b).
x
0 2x - 1 - 2 0 6 1
-1 6 2x - 1 - 2 6 1
1 6 2x - 1 6 3
1 6 x - 1 6 9
2 6 x 6 10
2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit
(
3
3
2
5
)
x
10
8
FIGURE 2.21 An open interval of radius 3 about x = 5 will lie inside the open
interval (2, 10).
y = "x − 1
3
0 2x - 1 - 2 0 6 1.
1
How to Find Algebraically a D for a Given ƒ, L, c, and E + 0
The process of finding a d 7 0 such that for all x
2
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
1
can be accomplished in two steps.
1
3
0
The inequality holds for all x in the open interval (2, 10), so it holds for all x ≠ 5 in
this interval as well.
2. Find a value of d 7 0 to place the centered interval 5 - d 6 x 6 5 + d (centered
at x = 5) inside the interval (2, 10). The distance from 5 to the nearer endpoint of
(2, 10) is 3 (Figure 2.21). If we take d = 3 or any smaller positive number, then the
inequality 0 6 0 x - 5 0 6 d will automatically place x between 2 and 10 to make
0 2x - 1 - 2 0 6 1 (Figure 2.22):
0 6 0x - 50 6 3
y
1 2
3
5
8
10
x
NOT TO SCALE
FIGURE 2.22 The function and intervals in Example 4.
Solution
y
Prove that limx S 2 ƒ(x) = 4 if
ƒ(x) = e
x2,
1,
x≠2
x = 2.
Our task is to show that given P 7 0 there exists a d 7 0 such that for all x
0 6 0x - 20 6 d
y = x2
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P
1. Solve the inequality 0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P to find an open interval (a, b) containing c on which the inequality holds for all x ≠ c.
2. Find a value of d 7 0 that places the open interval (c - d, c + d) centered
at c inside the interval (a, b). The inequality 0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P will hold for all
x ≠ c in this d@interval.
EXAMPLE 5
1
0 ƒ(x) - 4 0 6 P.
1. Solve the inequality 0 ƒ(x) - 4 0 6 P to find an open interval containing x = 2 on
which the inequality holds for all x ≠ 2.
4+P
For x ≠ c = 2, we have ƒ(x) = x2, and the inequality to solve is 0 x2 - 4 0 6 P:
(2, 4)
4
0 x2 - 4 0 6 P
4−P
(2, 1)
0
81
"4 − P
2
x
"4 + P
FIGURE 2.23 An interval containing
x = 2 so that the function in Example 5
satisfies 0 ƒ(x) - 4 0 6 P.
-P 6 x2 - 4 6 P
4 - P 6 x2 6 4 + P
24 - P 6 0 x 0 6 24 + P
24 - P 6 x 6 24 + P.
Assumes P 6 4; see below.
An open interval about x = 2
that solves the inequality
The inequality 0 ƒ(x) - 4 0 6 P holds for all x ≠ 2 in the open interval ( 24 - P,
24 + P ) (Figure 2.23).
2. Find a value of d 7 0 that places the centered interval (2 - d, 2 + d) inside the
interval ( 24 - P, 24 + P ) .
Take d to be the distance from x = 2 to the nearer endpoint of ( 24 - P, 24 + P ) .
In other words, take d = min 5 2 - 24 - P, 24 + P - 2 6 , the minimum (the
82
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
smaller) of the two numbers 2 - 24 - P and 24 + P - 2. If d has this or any
smaller positive value, the inequality 0 6 0 x - 2 0 6 d will automatically place x
between 24 - P and 24 + P to make 0 ƒ(x) - 4 0 6 P. For all x,
0 6 0x - 20 6 d
1
0 ƒ(x) - 4 0 6 P.
This completes the proof for P 6 4.
If P Ú 4, then we take d to be the distance from x = 2 to the nearer endpoint of
the interval ( 0, 24 + P ) . In other words, take d = min 5 2, 24 + P - 2 6 . (See
Figure 2.23.)
Using the Definition to Prove Theorems
We do not usually rely on the formal definition of limit to verify specific limits such as
those in the preceding examples. Rather, we appeal to general theorems about limits, in
particular the theorems of Section 2.2. The definition is used to prove these theorems
(Appendix 5). As an example, we prove part 1 of Theorem 1, the Sum Rule.
EXAMPLE 6
Given that limx S c ƒ(x) = L and limx S c g(x) = M, prove that
lim (ƒ(x) + g(x)) = L + M.
xSc
Solution
Let P 7 0 be given. We want to find a positive number d such that for all x
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
1
Regrouping terms, we get
0 ƒ(x) + g(x) - (L + M) 0 6 P.
0 ƒ(x) + g(x) - (L + M) 0 = 0 (ƒ(x) - L) + (g(x) - M) 0
… 0 ƒ(x) - L 0 + 0 g(x) - M 0 .
Triangle Inequality:
0a + b0 … 0a0 + 0b0
Since limx S c ƒ(x) = L, there exists a number d1 7 0 such that for all x
0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d1
1
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P>2.
Similarly, since limx S c g(x) = M, there exists a number d2 7 0 such that for all x
0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d2
1
0 g(x) - M 0 6 P>2.
Let d = min 5d1, d2 6 , the smaller of d1 and d2. If 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d then 0 x - c 0 6 d1,
so 0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P>2, and 0 x - c 0 6 d2, so 0 g(x) - M 0 6 P>2. Therefore
0 ƒ(x) + g(x) - (L + M) 0 6 P + P = P.
2
2
This shows that limx S c (ƒ(x) + g(x)) = L + M.
Next we prove Theorem 5 of Section 2.2.
EXAMPLE 7
Given that limx S c ƒ(x) = L and limx S c g(x) = M, and that ƒ(x) … g(x)
for all x in an open interval containing c (except possibly c itself), prove that L … M.
Solution We use the method of proof by contradiction. Suppose, on the contrary, that
L 7 M. Then by the limit of a difference property in Theorem 1,
lim (g(x) - ƒ(x)) = M - L.
xSc
83
2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit
Therefore, for any P 7 0, there exists d 7 0 such that
0 (g(x) - ƒ(x)) - (M - L) 0 6 P
whenever 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d.
Since L - M 7 0 by hypothesis, we take P = L - M in particular and we have a number d 7 0 such that
0 (g(x) - ƒ(x)) - (M - L) 0 6 L - M
whenever 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d.
Since a … 0 a 0 for any number a, we have
whenever 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d
(g(x) - ƒ(x)) - (M - L) 6 L - M
which simplifies to
whenever 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d.
g(x) 6 ƒ(x)
But this contradicts ƒ(x) … g(x). Thus the inequality L 7 M must be false. Therefore
L … M.
Exercises
2.3
Centering Intervals About a Point
In Exercises 1–6, sketch the interval (a, b) on the x-axis with the
point c inside. Then find a value of d 7 0 such that for all
x, 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d 1 a 6 x 6 b.
1. a = 1, b = 7, c = 5
2. a = 1, b = 7, c = 2
3. a = -7>2, b = -1>2, c = -3
4. a = -7>2, b = -1>2, c = -3>2
9.
y
5
4
1
3
4
10.
y
f(x) = " x
c=1
L=1
P = 1 y = "x
4
f (x) = 2" x + 1
c=3
L=4
P = 0.2
5. a = 4>9, b = 4>7, c = 1>2
6. a = 2.7591, b = 3.2391, c = 3
0
Finding Deltas Graphically
In Exercises 7–14, use the graphs to find a d 7 0 such that for all x
0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d 1 0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
7.
y = 2x − 4
6.2
6
5.8
0
f (x) = 2x − 4
c=5
L=6
P = 0.2
4.9
5
x
25
16
11.
x
y
y = x2
y
f(x) = 4 − x 2
c = −1
L=3
P = 0.25
y = 4 − x2
5
4
0
−2.9
0
NOT TO SCALE
3
2.75
5.1
−3
3.25
3
NOT TO SCALE
−3.1
x
12.
f(x) =
c=2
L=4
P=1
7.65
7.5
7.35
2.61 3 3.41
NOT TO SCALE
x2
y = −3 x + 3
2
2
−1 0
y
f (x) = − 3 x + 3
2
c = −3
L = 7.5
P = 0.15
1
9
16
8.
y
y = 2" x + 1
4.2
4
3.8
x
"3
NOT TO SCALE
2
x
"5
−
" 5 −1 " 3
−
2
2
NOT TO SCALE
0
x
84
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
13.
14.
y
y
f (x) = 2
"−x
c = −1
L=2
P = 0.5
y=
f (x) = 1x
c=1
2
L=2
P = 0.01
2.01
2
"−x
Using the Formal Definition
Each of Exercises 31–36 gives a function ƒ(x), a point c, and a positive number P. Find L = lim ƒ(x). Then find a number d 7 0 such
xSc
that for all x
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
31. ƒ(x) = 3 - 2x,
2.5
1.99
2
y = 1x
1.5
c = 3,
32. ƒ(x) = -3x - 2,
2
x2 - 4
,
x - 2
34. ƒ(x) =
x2 + 6x + 5
,
x + 5
c = 2,
35. ƒ(x) = 21 - 5x,
16
−
9
−1
−
16
25
x
0
x
1
1
1
2
2.01
1.99
0
P = 0.02
c = - 1,
33. ƒ(x) =
36. ƒ(x) = 4>x,
P = 0.05
c = - 5,
c = - 3,
c = 2,
Finding Deltas Algebraically
Each of Exercises 15–30 gives a function ƒ(x) and numbers L, c, and
P 7 0. In each case, find an open interval about c on which the inequality 0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P holds. Then give a value for d 7 0 such that for
all x satisfying 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d the inequality 0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P
holds.
L = 5,
c = 4,
16. ƒ(x) = 2x - 2,
L = -6,
17. ƒ(x) = 2x + 1,
L = 1,
18. ƒ(x) = 2x,
L = 1>2,
19. ƒ(x) = 219 - x,
20. ƒ(x) = 2x - 7,
21. ƒ(x) = 1>x,
L = 3,
L = 4,
L = 1>4,
2
L = 3,
2
L = 4,
22. ƒ(x) = x ,
23. ƒ(x) = x ,
24. ƒ(x) = 1>x,
2
25. ƒ(x) = x - 5,
P = 0.1
c = 1>4,
P = 0.1
c = 10,
P = 1
c = 23,
c = - 2,
c = - 1,
c = 4,
L = 5,
P = 0.02
c = 0,
c = 23,
L = 11,
26. ƒ(x) = 120>x,
c = - 2,
c = 4,
L = - 1,
P = 0.01
c = 24,
P = 1
P = 0.05
m 7 0,
L = 3m,
xS3
39. lim 2x - 5 = 2
40. lim 24 - x = 2
xS0
41. lim ƒ(x) = 1 if ƒ(x) = e
xS1
2
x,
2,
42. lim ƒ(x) = 4 if ƒ(x) = e
x S -2
1
43. lim x = 1
xS1
45. lim
x S -3
x ≠ 1
x = 1
x ≠ -2
x = -2
x 2,
1,
44. lim
x S 23
x2 - 9
= -6
x + 3
46. lim
xS1
47. lim ƒ(x) = 2 if ƒ(x) = e
xS1
48. lim ƒ(x) = 0 if ƒ(x) = e
xS0
4 - 2x,
6x - 4,
2x,
x>2,
x 6 1
x Ú 1
x 6 0
x Ú 0
1
49. lim x sin x = 0
xS0
y
P = 0.1
P = 1
P = 1
c = 3,
L = (m>2) + b,
30. ƒ(x) = mx + b,
P = 0.05
L = m + b,
P = c 7 0
c = 1,
−
1
−p
1
2p
y = x sin 1x
1
2p
1
p
1
1
=
3
x2
x2 - 1
= 2
x - 1
P = 0.5
29. ƒ(x) = mx + b,
m 7 0,
c = 1>2,
P = c 7 0
m 7 0,
P = 0.5
Prove the limit statements in Exercises 37–50.
37. lim (9 - x) = 5
38. lim (3x - 7) = 2
P = 0.1
27. ƒ(x) = mx, m 7 0, L = 2m, c = 2, P = 0.03
28. ƒ(x) = mx,
P = 0.05
P = 0.4
xS9
15. ƒ(x) = x + 1,
P = 0.03
xS4
NOT TO SCALE
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
1
x
2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit
85
When Is a Number L Not the Limit of ƒ(x) as x u c?
Showing L is not a limit We can prove that limx S c ƒ(x) ≠ L by
providing an P 7 0 such that no possible d 7 0 satisfies the condition
1
50. lim x2 sin x = 0
xS0
y
1
for all x, 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d
y = x2
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
1
We accomplish this for our candidate P by showing that for each
d 7 0 there exists a value of x such that
y = x 2 sin 1x
−1
0
2
−p
2
p
x
1
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 Ú P.
and
y
y = f (x)
L+P
−1
L
y = −x 2
L−P
f(x)
Theory and Examples
51. Define what it means to say that lim g(x) = k.
0
xS0
52. Prove that lim ƒ(x) = L if and only if lim ƒ(h + c) = L.
xSc
53. A wrong statement about limits Show by example that the
following statement is wrong.
Explain why the function in your example does not have the
given value of L as a limit as x S c.
54. Another wrong statement about limits
the following statement is wrong.
57. Let ƒ(x) = e
x,
x 6 1
x + 1, x 7 1.
y
Show by example that
y=x+1
The number L is the limit of ƒ(x) as x approaches c if, given any
P 7 0, there exists a value of x for which 0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
2
Explain why the function in your example does not have the
given value of L as a limit as x S c.
T 55. Grinding engine cylinders Before contracting to grind engine
cylinders to a cross-sectional area of 9 in2, you need to know how
much deviation from the ideal cylinder diameter of c = 3.385 in.
you can allow and still have the area come within 0.01 in2 of the
required 9 in2. To find out, you let A = p(x>2)2 and look for the
interval in which you must hold x to make 0 A - 9 0 … 0.01.
What interval do you find?
56. Manufacturing electrical resistors Ohm’s law for electrical
circuits like the one shown in the accompanying figure states that
V = RI. In this equation, V is a constant voltage, I is the current
in amperes, and R is the resistance in ohms. Your firm has been
asked to supply the resistors for a circuit in which V will be 120
volts and I is to be 5 { 0.1 amp. In what interval does R have to
lie for I to be within 0.1 amp of the value I0 = 5?
−
V
+
I
x
c+ d
c
a value of x for which
0 < 0 x − c 0 < d and 0 f(x) − L 0 ≥ P
hS0
The number L is the limit of ƒ(x) as x approaches c
if ƒ(x) gets closer to L as x approaches c.
c− d
R
y = f(x)
1
x
1
y=x
a. Let P = 1>2. Show that no possible d 7 0 satisfies the following condition:
For all x, 0 6 0 x - 1 0 6 d
1
0 ƒ(x) - 2 0 6 1>2.
That is, for each d 7 0 show that there is a value of x such
that
0 6 0x - 10 6 d
and
0 ƒ(x) - 2 0 Ú 1>2.
This will show that limx S 1 ƒ(x) ≠ 2.
b. Show that limx S 1 ƒ(x) ≠ 1.
c. Show that limx S 1 ƒ(x) ≠ 1.5.
86
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
60. a. For the function graphed here, show that limx S -1 g(x) ≠ 2.
x 2, x 6 2
58. Let h(x) = c 3, x = 2
2, x 7 2.
b. Does limx S -1 g(x) appear to exist? If so, what is the value of
the limit? If not, why not?
y
y
2
y = h(x)
4
y = g(x)
3
1
y=2
2
1
y = x2
0
2
x
0
−1
x
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
In Exercises 61–66, you will further explore finding deltas graphically. Use a CAS to perform the following steps:
Show that
a. lim h(x) ≠ 4
xS2
a. Plot the function y = ƒ(x) near the point c being approached.
b. lim h(x) ≠ 3
b. Guess the value of the limit L and then evaluate the limit symbolically to see if you guessed correctly.
xS2
c. lim h(x) ≠ 2
xS2
c. Using the value P = 0.2, graph the banding lines y1 = L - P
and y2 = L + P together with the function ƒ near c.
59. For the function graphed here, explain why
a. lim ƒ(x) ≠ 4
d. From your graph in part (c), estimate a d 7 0 such that for all x
xS3
b. lim ƒ(x) ≠ 4.8
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
xS3
c. lim ƒ(x) ≠ 3
1
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
Test your estimate by plotting ƒ, y1, and y2 over the interval
0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d. For your viewing window use c - 2d …
x … c + 2d and L - 2P … y … L + 2P. If any function values lie outside the interval 3L - P, L + P], your choice of d
was too large. Try again with a smaller estimate.
xS3
y
e. Repeat parts (c) and (d) successively for P = 0.1, 0.05, and 0.001.
4.8
4
y = f(x)
3
5x3 + 9x2
, c = 0
2x5 + 3x2
x(1 - cos x)
64. ƒ(x) =
, c = 0
x - sin x
61. ƒ(x) =
x4 - 81
, c = 3
x - 3
63. ƒ(x) =
sin 2x
, c = 0
3x
65. ƒ(x) =
2x - 1
66. ƒ(x) =
3x2 - (7x + 1) 2x + 5
, c = 1
x - 1
62. ƒ(x) =
3
0
3
x
x - 1
, c = 1
2.4 One-Sided Limits
In this section we extend the limit concept to one-sided limits, which are limits as x
approaches the number c from the left-hand side (where x 6 c) or the right-hand side
(x 7 c) only.
Approaching a Limit from One Side
To have a limit L as x approaches c, a function ƒ must be defined on both sides of c and its
values ƒ(x) must approach L as x approaches c from either side. That is, ƒ must be defined
in some open interval about c, but not necessarily at c. Because of this, ordinary limits are
called two-sided.
87
2.4 One-Sided Limits
y
y= x
0x0
1
x
0
−1
If ƒ fails to have a two-sided limit at c, it may still have a one-sided limit, that is, a
limit if the approach is only from one side. If the approach is from the right, the limit is a
right-hand limit. From the left, it is a left-hand limit.
The function ƒ(x) = x> 0 x 0 (Figure 2.24) has limit 1 as x approaches 0 from the right,
and limit -1 as x approaches 0 from the left. Since these one-sided limit values are not the
same, there is no single number that ƒ(x) approaches as x approaches 0. So ƒ(x) does not
have a (two-sided) limit at 0.
Intuitively, if ƒ(x) is defined on an interval (c, b), where c 6 b, and approaches arbitrarily close to L as x approaches c from within that interval, then ƒ has right-hand limit
L at c. We write
lim ƒ(x) = L.
x S c+
The symbol “x S c ” means that we consider only values of x greater than c.
Similarly, if ƒ(x) is defined on an interval (a, c), where a 6 c and approaches arbitrarily close to M as x approaches c from within that interval, then ƒ has left-hand limit M
at c. We write
+
FIGURE 2.24 Different right-hand and
left-hand limits at the origin.
lim ƒ(x) = M.
x S c-
The symbol “x S c ” means that we consider only x-values less than c.
These informal definitions of one-sided limits are illustrated in Figure 2.25. For the
function ƒ(x) = x> 0 x 0 in Figure 2.24 we have
-
lim ƒ(x) = 1
lim ƒ(x) = -1.
and
x S 0+
x S 0-
y
y
f(x)
L
0
c
M
f (x)
x
x
0
x: c
(a) lim+ f(x) = L
x
(b)
c
x
x: c
lim _ f (x) = M
FIGURE 2.25 (a) Right-hand limit as x approaches c. (b) Left-hand limit as x
approaches c.
y
EXAMPLE 1
The domain of ƒ(x) = 24 - x2 is 3 -2, 24 ; its graph is the semicircle
in Figure 2.26. We have
y = "4 − x 2
−2
0
2
lim 24 - x2 = 0
x S -2 +
x
FIGURE 2.26 The function
ƒ(x) = 24 - x2 has right-hand limit 0
at x = -2 and left-hand limit 0 at x = 2
(Example 1).
and
lim 24 - x2 = 0.
x S 2-
The function does not have a left-hand limit at x = -2 or a right-hand limit at x = 2. It
does not have a two-sided limit at either -2 or 2 because each point does not belong to an
open interval over which ƒ is defined.
One-sided limits have all the properties listed in Theorem 1 in Section 2.2. The right-hand
limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their right-hand limits, and so on. The theorems
for limits of polynomials and rational functions hold with one-sided limits, as do the Sandwich
Theorem and Theorem 5. One-sided limits are related to limits in the following way.
THEOREM 6 A function ƒ(x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it has
left-hand and right-hand limits there and these one-sided limits are equal:
lim ƒ(x) = L
xSc
3
lim ƒ(x) = L
x S c-
and
lim ƒ(x) = L.
x S c+
88
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
EXAMPLE 2
y
y = f (x)
2
At x = 0:
limx S 0+ ƒ(x) = 1,
limx S 0- ƒ(x) and limx S 0 ƒ(x) do not exist. The function is not defined to the left of x = 0.
At x = 1:
limx S 1- ƒ(x) = 0 even though ƒ(1) = 1,
limx S 1+ ƒ(x) = 1,
limx S 1 ƒ(x) does not exist. The right- and left-hand limits are not
equal.
At x = 2:
limx S 2- ƒ(x) = 1,
limx S 2+ ƒ(x) = 1,
limx S 2 ƒ(x) = 1 even though ƒ(2) = 2.
At x = 3:
limx S 3- ƒ(x) = limx S 3+ ƒ(x) = limx S 3 ƒ(x) = ƒ(3) = 2.
At x = 4:
limx S 4- ƒ(x) = 1 even though ƒ(4) ≠ 1,
limx S 4+ ƒ(x) and limx S 4 ƒ(x) do not exist. The function is not
defined to the right of x = 4.
1
0
1
2
FIGURE 2.27
in Example 2.
3
x
4
Graph of the function
y
L+P
At every other point c in 3 0, 44, ƒ(x) has limit ƒ(c).
f (x)
f (x) lies
in here
L
For the function graphed in Figure 2.27,
Precise Definitions of One-Sided Limits
The formal definition of the limit in Section 2.3 is readily modified for one-sided
limits.
L−P
for all x ≠ c
in here
DEFINITIONS We say that ƒ(x) has right-hand limit L at c, and write
d
x
0
c
c+d
x
lim ƒ(x) = L
(see Figure 2.28)
x S c+
if for every number P 7 0 there exists a corresponding number d 7 0 such that
for all x
FIGURE 2.28 Intervals associated with
the definition of right-hand limit.
c 6 x 6 c + d
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
1
We say that ƒ has left-hand limit L at c, and write
y
lim ƒ(x) = L
(see Figure 2.29)
x S c-
if for every number P 7 0 there exists a corresponding number d 7 0 such that
for all x
L+P
L
c - d 6 x 6 c
f (x)
f (x) lies
in here
EXAMPLE 3
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
Prove that
L−P
lim 2x = 0.
x S 0+
for all x ≠ c
in here
Solution Let P 7 0 be given. Here c = 0 and L = 0, so we want to find a d 7 0 such
that for all x
d
x
0
1
c−d
c
FIGURE 2.29 Intervals associated with
the definition of left-hand limit.
0 6 x 6 d
x
0 2x - 0 0 6 P,
1
or
0 6 x 6 d
1
2x 6 P.
2.4 One-Sided Limits
y
Squaring both sides of this last inequality gives
x 6 P2
f (x) = "x
P
0 6 x 6 d.
if
If we choose d = P2 we have
0 6 x 6 d = P2
f (x)
L=0
89
x
FIGURE 2.30
d = P2
x
lim 1x = 0 in Example 3.
x S 0+
1
2x 6 P,
or
0 6 x 6 P2
1
0 2x - 0 0 6 P.
According to the definition, this shows that limx S 0+ 2x = 0 (Figure 2.30).
The functions examined so far have had some kind of limit at each point of interest. In
general, that need not be the case.
EXAMPLE 4
side (Figure 2.31).
Show that y = sin (1>x) has no limit as x approaches zero from either
y
1
x
0
y = sin 1x
−1
FIGURE 2.31 The function y = sin (1>x) has neither a righthand nor a left-hand limit as x approaches zero (Example 4). The
graph here omits values very near the y-axis.
Solution As x approaches zero, its reciprocal, 1>x, grows without bound and the values
of sin (1>x) cycle repeatedly from -1 to 1. There is no single number L that the function’s
values stay increasingly close to as x approaches zero. This is true even if we restrict x to
positive values or to negative values. The function has neither a right-hand limit nor a lefthand limit at x = 0.
Limits Involving (sin U) , U
A central fact about (sin u)>u is that in radian measure its limit as u S 0 is 1. We can see
this in Figure 2.32 and confirm it algebraically using the Sandwich Theorem. You will see
the importance of this limit in Section 3.5, where instantaneous rates of change of the
trigonometric functions are studied.
y
1
−3p
−2p
y = sin u (radians)
u
−p
p
2p
3p
u
NOT TO SCALE
FIGURE 2.32 The graph of ƒ(u) = (sin u)>u suggests that the rightand left-hand limits as u approaches 0 are both 1.
90
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
y
THEOREM 7—Limit of the Ratio sin U , U as U u 0
T
lim
1
uS0
sin u
= 1
u
(u in radians)
(1)
P
tan u
1
sin u
u
cos u
Q
O
A(1, 0)
x
1
Proof
The plan is to show that the right-hand and left-hand limits are both 1. Then we
will know that the two-sided limit is 1 as well.
To show that the right-hand limit is 1, we begin with positive values of u less than
p>2 (Figure 2.33). Notice that
Area ∆OAP 6 area sector OAP 6 area ∆OAT.
We can express these areas in terms of u as follows:
FIGURE 2.33 The figure for the proof of
Theorem 7. By definition, TA>OA = tan u,
but OA = 1, so TA = tan u.
Area ∆OAP =
1
1
1
base * height = (1)(sin u) = sin u
2
2
2
Area sector OAP =
Area ∆OAT =
u
1 2
1
r u = (1)2u =
2
2
2
(2)
1
1
1
base * height = (1)(tan u) = tan u.
2
2
2
Thus,
Equation (2) is where radian measure
comes in: The area of sector OAP is u>2
only if u is measured in radians.
1
1
1
sin u 6 u 6 tan u.
2
2
2
This last inequality goes the same way if we divide all three terms by the number
(1>2) sin u, which is positive, since 0 6 u 6 p>2:
1 6
u
1
6
.
cos u
sin u
Taking reciprocals reverses the inequalities:
1 7
sin u
7 cos u.
u
Since limu S 0+ cos u = 1 (Example 11b, Section 2.2), the Sandwich Theorem gives
lim
u S 0+
sin u
= 1.
u
To consider the left-hand limit, we recall that sin u and u are both odd functions (Section 1.1). Therefore, ƒ(u) = (sin u)>u is an even function, with a graph symmetric about
the y-axis (see Figure 2.32). This symmetry implies that the left-hand limit at 0 exists and
has the same value as the right-hand limit:
lim
u S 0-
sin u
sin u
= 1 = lim+
,
u
u
uS0
so limu S 0 (sin u)>u = 1 by Theorem 6.
EXAMPLE 5
Show that (a) lim
hS0
cos h - 1
= 0
h
and
(b) lim
xS0
sin 2x 2
= .
5x
5
2.4 One-Sided Limits
91
Solution
(a) Using the half-angle formula cos h = 1 - 2 sin2 (h>2), we calculate
2 sin2 (h>2)
cos h - 1
= lim h
h
hS0
hS0
lim
= - lim
uS0
sin u
sin u
u
Let u = h>2.
Eq. (1) and Example 11a
in Section 2.2
= -(1)(0) = 0.
(b) Equation (1) does not apply to the original fraction. We need a 2x in the denominator,
not a 5x. We produce it by multiplying numerator and denominator by 2>5:
(2>5) # sin 2x
sin 2x
= lim
x S 0 5x
x S 0 (2>5) # 5x
lim
EXAMPLE 6
Solution
Find lim
tS0
sin 2x
2
lim
5 x S 0 2x
=
2
2
(1) =
5
5
Now, Eq. (1) applies
with u = 2x.
tan t sec 2t
.
3t
From the definition of tan t and sec 2t, we have
lim
tS0
Exercises
=
tan t sec 2t
1 1 sin t
1
= lim # t # cos t #
3t
cos 2t
tS0 3
=
sin t # 1 # 1
1
lim
3 t S 0 t cos t cos 2t
=
1
1
(1)(1)(1) = .
3
3
Eq. (1) and Example 11b
in Section 2.2
2.4
Finding Limits Graphically
1. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒ(x)
graphed here are true, and which are false?
y
y = f(x)
2
y
y = f (x)
1
1
−1
a.
c.
0
1
2
lim ƒ(x) = 1
b.
lim- ƒ(x) = 1
d.
x S -1+
xS0
x
lim ƒ(x) = 0
x S 0-
lim- ƒ(x) = lim+ ƒ(x)
xS0
xS0
e. lim ƒ(x) exists.
f. lim ƒ(x) = 0
g. lim ƒ(x) = 1
h. lim ƒ(x) = 1
xS0
xS0
i.
k.
lim ƒ(x) = 0
xS1
lim ƒ(x) does not exist.
x S -1-
xS0
xS1
j.
l.
0
−1
a.
lim ƒ(x) = 1
x S -1+
c. lim ƒ(x) = 2
xS2
e.
lim ƒ(x) = 1
x S 1+
1
2
3
x
b. lim ƒ(x) does not exist.
xS2
d.
lim ƒ(x) = 2
x S 1-
f. lim ƒ(x) does not exist.
xS1
g. lim+ ƒ(x) = lim- ƒ(x)
xS0
xS0
lim ƒ(x) = 2
h. lim ƒ(x) exists at every c in the open interval (-1, 1).
lim ƒ(x) = 0
i.
x S 2-
x S 2+
2. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒ(x)
graphed here are true, and which are false?
xSc
j.
lim ƒ(x) exists at every c in the open interval (1, 3).
xSc
lim ƒ(x) = 0
x S -1-
k.
lim ƒ(x) does not exist.
x S 3+
92
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
6. Let g(x) = 2x sin(1>x).
3 - x, x 6 2
3. Let ƒ(x) = c x
+ 1, x 7 2.
2
y
1
y = "x
y
y = "x sin 1x
y=3−x
3
1
2p
y= x+1
2
0
0
x
4
2
1
p
1
2
p
x
a. Find limx S 2+ ƒ(x) and limx S 2- ƒ(x).
b. Does limx S 2 ƒ(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
−1
c. Find limx S 4- ƒ(x) and limx S 4+ ƒ(x).
a. Does limx S 0+ g(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
d. Does limx S 4 ƒ(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
4. Let ƒ(x) = d
b. Does limx S 0- g(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
3 - x, x 6 2
2,
x = 2
x
,
2
c. Does limx S 0 g(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
x 3,
x≠1
0,
x = 1.
b. Find limx S 1- ƒ(x) and limx S 1+ ƒ(x).
7. a. Graph ƒ(x) = e
x 7 2.
y
c. Does limx S 1 ƒ(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
1 - x 2,
x≠1
2,
x = 1.
b. Find limx S 1+ ƒ(x) and limx S 1- ƒ(x).
y=3−x
8. a. Graph ƒ(x) = e
3
y= x
2
0
−2
y = −"x
2
c. Does limx S 1 ƒ(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
x
Graph the functions in Exercises 9 and 10. Then answer these questions.
a. Find limx S 2 ƒ(x), limx S 2 ƒ(x), and ƒ(2).
a. What are the domain and range of ƒ?
b. Does limx S 2 ƒ(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
b. At what points c, if any, does limx S c ƒ(x) exist?
c. Find limx S -1 ƒ(x) and limx S -1 ƒ(x).
c. At what points does only the left-hand limit exist?
d. Does limx S -1 ƒ(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
d. At what points does only the right-hand limit exist?
+
-
-
0,
5. Let ƒ(x) = c
+
21 - x2,
x … 0
9. ƒ(x) = c 1,
2,
1
sin x , x 7 0.
x,
10. ƒ(x) = c 1,
0,
y
1
x
0
y=
x≤0
1
sin x , x > 0
0,
−1
a. Does limx S 0+ ƒ(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
b. Does limx S 0- ƒ(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
c. Does limx S 0 ƒ(x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
0 … x 6 1
1 … x 6 2
x = 2
-1 … x 6 0, or 0 6 x … 1
x = 0
x 6 - 1 or x 7 1
Finding One-Sided Limits Algebraically
Find the limits in Exercises 11–18.
11.
13.
x + 2
+ 1
lim
12. lim+
x S -0.5- A x
lim a
x S -2+
14. lim- a
xS1
15. lim+
hS0
xS1
x
2x + 5
ba
b
x + 1 x2 + x
x + 6 3 - x
1
ba x ba
b
7
x + 1
2h2 + 4h + 5 - 25
h
x - 1
Ax + 2
2.5 Continuity
16. lim-
26 - 25h2 + 11h + 6
17. a.
lim (x + 3)
hS0
41. lim
uS0
h
x S -2+
18. a. lim+
xS1
0x + 20
b.
x + 2
22x (x - 1)
lim (x + 3)
x S -2-
b. lim-
0x - 10
xS1
0x + 20
x + 2
22x (x - 1)
0x - 10
Use the graph of the greatest integer function y = : x ; , Figure 1.10 in
Section 1.1, to help you find the limits in Exercises 19 and 20.
:u ;
:u ;
19. a. lim+
b. limuS3 u
uS3 u
20. a. lim+(t - : t ; )
tS4
b. lim-(t - : t ; )
tS4
sin U
= 1
U
Find the limits in Exercises 21–42.
Using lim
Uu 0
sin 22u
22u
sin 3y
23. lim
y S 0 4y
tan 2x
25. lim x
xS0
22. lim
21. lim
uS0
tS0
sin kt
(k constant)
t
h
h S 0 sin 3h
2t
26. lim tan t
tS0
24. lim-
x csc 2x
cos 5x
x + x cos x
lim
x S 0 sin x cos x
1 - cos u
lim
u S 0 sin 2u
sin (1 - cos t)
lim
1 - cos t
tS0
sin u
lim
u S 0 sin 2u
lim u cos u
27. lim
28. lim 6x2(cot x)(csc 2x)
29.
30. lim
xS0
31.
33.
35.
37.
xS0
32.
34.
36.
38.
uS0
39. lim
xS0
x2 - x + sin x
2x
x - x cos x
lim
xS0
sin2 3x
sin (sin h)
lim
sin h
hS0
sin 5x
lim
x S 0 sin 4x
lim sin u cot 2u
xS0
tan 3x
sin 8x
uS0
40. lim
yS0
sin 3y cot 5y
y cot 4y
tan u
u 2 cot 3u
42. lim
uS0
93
u cot 4u
sin2 u cot2 2u
Theory and Examples
43. Once you know limx S a+ ƒ(x) and limx S a- ƒ(x) at an interior point
of the domain of ƒ, do you then know limx S a ƒ(x)? Give reasons
for your answer.
44. If you know that limx S c ƒ(x) exists, can you find its value by calculating limx S c+ ƒ(x)? Give reasons for your answer.
45. Suppose that ƒ is an odd function of x. Does knowing that
limx S 0+ ƒ(x) = 3 tell you anything about limx S 0- ƒ(x)? Give reasons for your answer.
46. Suppose that ƒ is an even function of x. Does knowing that
limx S 2- ƒ(x) = 7 tell you anything about either limx S -2- ƒ(x) or
limx S -2+ ƒ(x)? Give reasons for your answer.
Formal Definitions of One-Sided Limits
47. Given P 7 0, find an interval I = (5, 5 + d), d 7 0, such that if
x lies in I, then 2x - 5 6 P. What limit is being verified and
what is its value?
48. Given P 7 0, find an interval I = (4 - d, 4), d 7 0, such that if
x lies in I, then 24 - x 6 P. What limit is being verified and
what is its value?
Use the definitions of right-hand and left-hand limits to prove the
limit statements in Exercises 49 and 50.
x
x - 2
= -1
50. lim+
= 1
49. limxS0 0 x 0
xS2 0 x - 2 0
51. Greatest integer function Find (a) limx S 400+ : x ; and (b)
limx S 400- : x ; ; then use limit definitions to verify your findings.
(c) Based on your conclusions in parts (a) and (b), can you say
anything about limx S 400 : x ; ? Give reasons for your answer.
52. One-sided limits
Let ƒ(x) = e
x2 sin (1>x), x 6 0
2x,
x 7 0.
Find (a) limx S 0+ ƒ(x) and (b) limx S 0- ƒ(x); then use limit definitions to verify your findings. (c) Based on your conclusions in
parts (a) and (b), can you say anything about limx S 0 ƒ(x)? Give
reasons for your answer.
2.5 Continuity
y
Distance fallen (m)
500
Q4
Q3
375
Q2
250
125
0
When we plot function values generated in a laboratory or collected in the field, we often
connect the plotted points with an unbroken curve to show what the function’s values are
likely to have been at the points we did not measure (Figure 2.34). In doing so, we are
assuming that we are working with a continuous function, so its outputs vary regularly and
consistently with the inputs, and do not jump abruptly from one value to another without
taking on the values in between. Intuitively, any function y = ƒ(x) whose graph can be
sketched over its domain in one unbroken motion is an example of a continuous function.
Such functions play an important role in the study of calculus and its applications.
Q1
5
Elapsed time (sec)
10
t
FIGURE 2.34 Connecting plotted points
by an unbroken curve from experimental
data Q1, Q2, Q3, c for a falling object.
Continuity at a Point
To understand continuity, it helps to consider a function like that in Figure 2.35, whose
limits we investigated in Example 2 in the last section.
94
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
EXAMPLE 1
At which numbers does the function ƒ in Figure 2.35 appear to be not
continuous? Explain why. What occurs at other numbers in the domain?
Solution First we observe that the domain of the function is the closed interval 3 0, 44,
so we will be considering the numbers x within that interval. From the figure, we notice
right away that there are breaks in the graph at the numbers x = 1, x = 2, and x = 4. The
breaks appear as jumps, which we identify later as “jump discontinuities.” These are numbers for which the function is not continuous, and we discuss each in turn.
y
y = f (x)
2
1
0
1
2
3
Numbers at which the graph of ƒ has breaks:
x
4
FIGURE 2.35 The function is not
continuous at x = 1, x = 2, and x = 4
(Example 1).
At x = 1, the function fails to have a limit. It does have both a left-hand limit,
limx S 1- ƒ(x) = 0, as well as a right-hand limit, limx S 1+ ƒ(x) = 1, but the limit values are
different, resulting in a jump in the graph. The function is not continuous at x = 1.
At x = 2, the function does have a limit, limx S 2 ƒ(x) = 1, but the value of the function is ƒ(2) = 2. The limit and function values are not the same, so there is a break in the
graph and ƒ is not continuous at x = 2.
At x = 4, the function does have a left-hand limit at this right endpoint, limx S 4- ƒ(x) = 1,
but again the value of the function ƒ(4) = 12 differs from the value of the limit. We see
again a break in the graph of the function at this endpoint and the function is not continuous from the left.
Numbers at which the graph of ƒ has no breaks:
At x = 0, the function has a right-hand limit at this left endpoint, limx S 0+ ƒ(x) = 1,
and the value of the function is the same, ƒ(0) = 1. So no break occurs in the graph of the
function at this endpoint, and the function is continuous from the right at x = 0.
At x = 3, the function has a limit, limx S 3 ƒ(x) = 2. Moreover, the limit is the same
value as the function there, ƒ(3) = 2. No break occurs in the graph and the function is
continuous at x = 3.
At all other numbers x = c in the domain, which we have not considered, the function has a limit equal to the value of the function at the point, so limx S c ƒ(x) = ƒ(c). For
example, limx S 5>2 ƒ(x) = ƒ1 52 2 = 32 . No breaks appear in the graph of the function at any
of these remaining numbers and the function is continuous at each of them.
The following definitions capture the continuity ideas we observed in Example 1.
DEFINITIONS Let c be a real number on the x-axis.
The function ƒ is continuous at c if
lim ƒ(x) = ƒ(c).
xSc
The function ƒ is right-continuous at c (or continuous from the right) if
lim ƒ(x) = ƒ(c).
x S c+
Continuity
from the right
Two-sided
continuity
The function ƒ is left-continuous at c (or continuous from the left) if
Continuity
from the left
lim ƒ(x) = ƒ(c).
x S c-
y = f (x)
a
FIGURE 2.36
and c.
c
b
x
Continuity at points a, b,
From Theorem 6, it follows immediately that a function ƒ is continuous at an interior
point c of its domain if and only if it is both right-continuous and left-continuous at c (Figure 2.36). We say that a function is continuous over a closed interval 3 a, b4 if it is rightcontinuous at a, left-continuous at b, and continuous at all interior points of the interval.
2.5 Continuity
This definition applies to the infinite closed intervals 3 a, q) and (- q, b4 as well, but only
one endpoint is involved. If a function is not continuous at an interior point c of its domain,
we say that ƒ is discontinuous at c, and that c is a point of discontinuity of ƒ. Note that a
function ƒ can be continuous, right-continuous, or left-continuous only at a point c for
which ƒ(c) is defined.
y
y = "4 −
2
x2
x
2
0
−2
95
EXAMPLE 2
The function ƒ(x) = 24 - x2 is continuous over its domain 3 -2, 24
(Figure 2.37). It is right-continuous at x = -2, and left-continuous at x = 2.
FIGURE 2.37 A function that
is continuous over its domain
(Example 2).
EXAMPLE 3
The unit step function U(x), graphed in Figure 2.38, is right-continuous
at x = 0, but is neither left-continuous nor continuous there. It has a jump discontinuity at
x = 0.
y
We summarize continuity at an interior point in the form of a test.
y = U(x)
1
Continuity Test
A function ƒ(x) is continuous at a point x = c if and only if it meets the following three conditions.
1. ƒ(c) exists
(c lies in the domain of ƒ).
2. limx S c ƒ(x) exists
(ƒ has a limit as x S c).
3. limx S c ƒ(x) = ƒ(c)
(the limit equals the function value).
x
0
FIGURE 2.38 A function
that has a jump discontinuity
at the origin (Example 3).
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an endpoint of an interval, the limits in
parts 2 and 3 of the test should be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.
The function y = : x ; introduced in Section 1.1 is graphed in Figure 2.39.
It is discontinuous at every integer because the left-hand and right-hand limits are not
equal as x S n:
EXAMPLE 4
y
4
lim : x ; = n - 1
x S n-
3
1
1
−1
2
lim : x ; = n .
x S n+
Since : n ; = n, the greatest integer function is right-continuous at every integer n (but not
left-continuous).
The greatest integer function is continuous at every real number other than the integers. For example,
y = :x;
2
and
3
4
lim : x ; = 1 = : 1.5 ; .
x
x S 1.5
In general, if n - 1 6 c 6 n, n an integer, then
−2
FIGURE 2.39 The greatest integer
function is continuous at every noninteger point. It is right-continuous, but not
left-continuous, at every integer point
(Example 4).
lim : x ; = n - 1 = : c ; .
xSc
Figure 2.40 displays several common types of discontinuities. The function in Figure
2.40a is continuous at x = 0. The function in Figure 2.40b would be continuous if it had
ƒ(0) = 1. The function in Figure 2.40c would be continuous if ƒ(0) were 1 instead of 2.
The discontinuity in Figure 2.40c is removable. The function has a limit as x S 0, and we
can remove the discontinuity by setting ƒ(0) equal to this limit.
The discontinuities in Figure 2.40d through f are more serious: limx S 0 ƒ(x) does not
exist, and there is no way to improve the situation by changing ƒ at 0. The step function in
Figure 2.40d has a jump discontinuity: The one-sided limits exist but have different values. The function ƒ(x) = 1>x2 in Figure 2.40e has an infinite discontinuity. The function
in Figure 2.40f has an oscillating discontinuity: It oscillates too much to have a limit as
x S 0.
96
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
y = f(x)
0
2
y = f(x)
1
1
x
x
1
x
0
(b)
(c)
y
y
y = f (x) = 12
x
1
−1
0
y = f(x)
1
0
(a)
y
y
y
y
y = f(x)
0
x
(d)
y = sin 1x
0
x
x
−1
(f)
(e)
FIGURE 2.40 The function in (a) is continuous at x = 0; the functions in (b) through (f ) are not.
Continuous Functions
Generally, we want to describe the continuity behavior of a function throughout its entire
domain, not only at a single point. We know how to do that if the domain is a closed interval.
In the same way, we define a continuous function as one that is continuous at every point in
its domain. This is a property of the function. A function always has a specified domain, so if
we change the domain, we change the function, and this may change its continuity property
as well. If a function is discontinuous at one or more points of its domain, we say it is a
discontinuous function.
EXAMPLE 5
(a) The function y = 1>x (Figure 2.41) is a continuous function because it is continuous
at every point of its domain. It has a point of discontinuity at x = 0, however, because
it is not defined there; that is, it is discontinuous on any interval containing x = 0.
(b) The identity function ƒ(x) = x and constant functions are continuous everywhere by
Example 3, Section 2.3.
y
y = 1x
Algebraic combinations of continuous functions are continuous wherever they are defined.
0
x
FIGURE 2.41 The function y = 1>x
is continuous over its natural domain. It
has a point of discontinuity at the origin,
so it is discontinuous on any interval
containing x = 0 (Example 5).
THEOREM 8—Properties of Continuous Functions If the functions ƒ and g are
continuous at x = c, then the following algebraic combinations are continuous
at x = c.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sums:
Differences:
Constant multiples:
Products:
Quotients:
Powers:
7. Roots:
ƒ + g
ƒ - g
k # ƒ, for any number k
ƒ#g
ƒ>g, provided g(c) ≠ 0
ƒn, n a positive integer
n
2ƒ, provided it is defined on an open interval
containing c, where n is a positive integer
2.5 Continuity
97
Most of the results in Theorem 8 follow from the limit rules in Theorem 1, Section 2.2.
For instance, to prove the sum property we have
lim (ƒ + g)(x) = lim (ƒ(x) + g(x))
xSc
xSc
= lim ƒ(x) + lim g(x)
Sum Rule, Theorem 1
= ƒ(c) + g(c)
= (ƒ + g)(c).
Continuity of ƒ, g at c
xSc
xSc
This shows that ƒ + g is continuous.
EXAMPLE 6
(a) Every polynomial P(x) = an xn + an - 1xn - 1 + g + a0 is continuous because
lim P(x) = P(c) by Theorem 2, Section 2.2.
xSc
(b) If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the rational function P(x)>Q(x) is continuous
wherever it is defined (Q(c) ≠ 0) by Theorem 3, Section 2.2.
The function ƒ(x) = 0 x 0 is continuous. If x 7 0, we have ƒ(x) = x,
a polynomial. If x 6 0, we have ƒ(x) = -x, another polynomial. Finally, at the origin,
limx S 0 0 x 0 = 0 = 0 0 0 .
EXAMPLE 7
The functions y = sin x and y = cos x are continuous at x = 0 by Example 11 of
Section 2.2. Both functions are, in fact, continuous everywhere (see Exercise 70). It follows from Theorem 8 that all six trigonometric functions are then continuous wherever
they are defined. For example, y = tan x is continuous on g ∪ (-p>2, p>2) ∪
(p>2, 3p>2) ∪ g.
Inverse Functions and Continuity
The inverse function of any function continuous on an interval is continuous over its
domain. This result is suggested by the observation that the graph of ƒ -1 , being the reflection of the graph of ƒ across the line y = x, cannot have any breaks in it when the graph of
ƒ has no breaks. A rigorous proof that ƒ -1 is continuous whenever ƒ is continuous on an
interval is given in more advanced texts. It follows that the inverse trigonometric functions
are all continuous over their domains.
We defined the exponential function y = ax in Section 1.5 informally by its graph.
Recall that the graph was obtained from the graph of y = ax for x a rational number by
“filling in the holes” at the irrational points x, so the function y = ax was defined to be
continuous over the entire real line. The inverse function y = loga x is also continuous. In
particular, the natural exponential function y = ex and the natural logarithm function
y = ln x are both continuous over their domains.
Composites
All composites of continuous functions are continuous. The idea is that if ƒ(x) is continuous
at x = c and g(x) is continuous at x = ƒ(c), then g ∘ ƒ is continuous at x = c (Figure 2.42).
In this case, the limit as x S c is g(ƒ(c)).
g f
˚
Continuous at c
c
f
g
Continuous
at c
Continuous
at f(c)
f(c)
FIGURE 2.42 Composites of continuous functions are continuous.
g( f(c))
98
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
THEOREM 9—Composite of Continuous Functions If ƒ is continuous at c and
g is continuous at ƒ(c), then the composite g ∘ ƒ is continuous at c.
Intuitively, Theorem 9 is reasonable because if x is close to c, then ƒ(x) is close to
ƒ(c), and since g is continuous at ƒ(c), it follows that g(ƒ(x)) is close to g(ƒ(c)).
The continuity of composites holds for any finite number of functions. The only
requirement is that each function be continuous where it is applied. For an outline of a
proof of Theorem 9, see Exercise 6 in Appendix 4.
EXAMPLE 8
Show that the following functions are continuous on their natural
domains.
(a) y = 2x2 - 2x - 5
(c) y = `
y
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
−2p
−p
0
p
2p
FIGURE 2.43 The graph suggests that
y = 0 (x sin x)>(x2 + 2) 0 is continuous
(Example 8d).
x
x - 2
`
x2 - 2
(b) y =
x2>3
1 + x4
(d) y = `
x sin x
`
x2 + 2
Solution
(a) The square root function is continuous on 3 0, q) because it is a root of the continuous identity function ƒ(x) = x (Part 7, Theorem 8). The given function is then the
composite of the polynomial ƒ(x) = x2 - 2x - 5 with the square root function
g(t) = 2t , and is continuous on its natural domain.
(b) The numerator is the cube root of the identity function squared; the denominator is an
everywhere-positive polynomial. Therefore, the quotient is continuous.
(c) The quotient (x - 2)>(x2 - 2) is continuous for all x ≠ { 22, and the function
is the composition of this quotient with the continuous absolute value function
(Example 7).
(d) Because the sine function is everywhere-continuous (Exercise 70), the numerator term
x sin x is the product of continuous functions, and the denominator term x2 + 2 is an
everywhere-positive polynomial. The given function is the composite of a quotient of
continuous functions with the continuous absolute value function (Figure 2.43).
Theorem 9 is actually a consequence of a more general result, which we now state
and prove.
THEOREM 10—Limits of Continuous Functions
and limx S c ƒ(x) = b, then
If g is continuous at the point b
limx S c g(ƒ(x)) = g(b) = g(limx S c ƒ(x)).
Proof
Let P 7 0 be given. Since g is continuous at b, there exists a number d1 7 0
such that
0 g(y) - g(b) 0 6 P whenever 0 6 0 y - b 0 6 d1.
Since limx S c ƒ(x) = b, there exists a d 7 0 such that
0 ƒ(x) - b 0 6 d1 whenever 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d.
If we let y = ƒ(x), we then have that
0 y - b 0 6 d1 whenever 0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d,
which implies from the first statement that 0 g(y) - g(b) 0 = 0 g(ƒ(x)) - g(b) 0 6 P whenever
0 6 0 x - c 0 6 d. From the definition of limit, this proves that limx S c g(ƒ(x)) = g(b).
2.5 Continuity
EXAMPLE 9
(a)
(b)
As an application of Theorem 10, we have the following calculations.
lim cos a2x + sin a
x S p/2
lim sin-1 a
xS1
3p
3p
+ xb b = cos a lim 2x + lim sin a
+ xb b
2
2
x S p/2
x S p/2
= cos (p + sin 2p) = cos p = -1.
1 - x
1 - x
b = sin-1 a lim
b
x S 1 1 - x2
1 - x2
= sin-1 a lim
xS1
= sin-1
We sometimes denote eu by exp u
when u is a complicated mathematical
expression.
(c)
Arcsine is continuous.
1
b
1 + x
Cancel common factor (1 - x).
1 p
=
2
6
lim 2x + 1 etan x = lim 2x + 1 # exp a lim tan xb
xS0
99
xS0
= 1 # e0 = 1
xS0
Exponential is continuous.
Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions
Functions that are continuous on intervals have properties that make them particularly useful in mathematics and its applications. One of these is the Intermediate Value Property. A
function is said to have the Intermediate Value Property if whenever it takes on two
values, it also takes on all the values in between.
THEOREM 11—The Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions If ƒ is
a continuous function on a closed interval 3 a, b4, and if y0 is any value between
ƒ(a) and ƒ(b), then y0 = ƒ(c) for some c in 3 a, b4.
y
y = f(x)
f(b)
y0
f(a)
y
0
a
c
b
x
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
x
FIGURE 2.44 The function
2x - 2, 1 … x 6 2
ƒ(x) = e
3,
2 … x … 4
does not take on all values between
ƒ(1) = 0 and ƒ(4) = 3; it misses all the
values between 2 and 3.
Theorem 11 says that continuous functions over finite closed intervals have the Intermediate Value Property. Geometrically, the Intermediate Value Theorem says that any
horizontal line y = y0 crossing the y-axis between the numbers ƒ(a) and ƒ(b) will cross
the curve y = ƒ(x) at least once over the interval 3 a, b4 .
The proof of the Intermediate Value Theorem depends on the completeness property
of the real number system (Appendix 7) and can be found in more advanced texts.
The continuity of ƒ on the interval is essential to Theorem 11. If ƒ is discontinuous at
even one point of the interval, the theorem’s conclusion may fail, as it does for the function graphed in Figure 2.44 (choose y0 as any number between 2 and 3).
A Consequence for Graphing: Connectedness Theorem 11 implies that the graph of a
function continuous on an interval cannot have any breaks over the interval. It will be
connected—a single, unbroken curve. It will not have jumps like the graph of the greatest
integer function (Figure 2.39), or separate branches like the graph of 1>x (Figure 2.41).
100
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
A Consequence for Root Finding We call a solution of the equation ƒ(x) = 0 a root of
the equation or zero of the function ƒ. The Intermediate Value Theorem tells us that if ƒ is
continuous, then any interval on which ƒ changes sign contains a zero of the function.
In practical terms, when we see the graph of a continuous function cross the horizontal axis on a computer screen, we know it is not stepping across. There really is a point
where the function’s value is zero.
EXAMPLE 10
Show that there is a root of the equation x3 - x - 1 = 0 between 1 and 2.
Solution Let ƒ(x) = x3 - x - 1. Since ƒ(1) = 1 - 1 - 1 = -1 6 0 and ƒ(2) =
23 - 2 - 1 = 5 7 0, we see that y0 = 0 is a value between ƒ(1) and ƒ(2). Since ƒ is
continuous, the Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a zero of ƒ between 1 and 2.
Figure 2.45 shows the result of zooming in to locate the root near x = 1.32.
5
1
1
1.6
2
−1
−2
−1
(a)
(b)
0.02
0.003
1.320
1.330
−0.02
1.3240
1.3248
−0.003
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 2.45 Zooming in on a zero of the function ƒ(x) = x3 - x - 1. The zero is near
x = 1.3247 (Example 10).
EXAMPLE 11
y
4
has a solution (Figure 2.46).
y = 4 − x2
Solution
3
22x + 5 = 4 - x2
We rewrite the equation as
22x + 5 + x2 = 4,
2
y = " 2x + 5 1
0
Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to prove that the equation
c
2
FIGURE 2.46 The curves
y = 22x + 5 and y = 4 - x2
have the same value at x = c where
22x + 5 = 4 - x2 (Example 11).
x
and set ƒ(x) = 22x + 5 + x2 . Now g(x) = 22x + 5 is continuous on the interval
3 -5>2, q) since it is the composite of the square root function with the nonnegative linear
function y = 2x + 5. Then ƒ is the sum of the function g and the quadratic function y = x2,
and the quadratic function is continuous for all values of x. It follows that ƒ(x) = 22x + 5
+ x2 is continuous on the interval 3 -5>2, q). By trial and error, we find the function values
ƒ(0) = 25 ≈ 2.24 and ƒ(2) = 29 + 4 = 7, and note that ƒ is also continuous on the
finite closed interval 3 0, 24 ⊂ 3 -5>2, q). Since the value y0 = 4 is between the numbers
2.24 and 7, by the Intermediate Value Theorem there is a number c∊[0, 24 such that
ƒ(c) = 4. That is, the number c solves the original equation.
101
2.5 Continuity
Continuous Extension to a Point
Sometimes the formula that describes a function ƒ does not make sense at a point x = c.
It might nevertheless be possible to extend the domain of ƒ, to include x = c, creating a
new function that is continuous at x = c. For example, the function y = ƒ(x) = (sin x)>x
is continuous at every point except x = 0, since the origin is not in its domain. Since
y = (sin x)>x has a finite limit as x S 0 (Theorem 7), we can extend the function’s
domain to include the point x = 0 in such a way that the extended function is continuous
at x = 0. We define the new function
sin x
,
F(x) = • x
1,
x ≠ 0
x = 0.
The function F(x) is continuous at x = 0 because
sin x
lim x = F(0),
xS0
so it meets the requirements for continuity (Figure 2.47).
y
y
(0, 1)
−
p
2
p 2
a− , b
2 p
(0, 1)
f (x)
p 2
a , b
2 p
0
x
p
2
−
p
2
p 2
a− , b
2 p
(a)
0
F(x)
p 2
a , b
2 p
p
2
x
(b)
FIGURE 2.47 The graph (a) of ƒ(x) = (sin x)>x for - p>2 … x … p>2 does not include
the point (0, 1) because the function is not defined at x = 0. (b) We can remove the discontinuity from the graph by defining the new function F(x) with F(0) = 1 and F(x) = ƒ(x)
everywhere else. Note that F(0) = limx S 0 ƒ(x).
More generally, a function (such as a rational function) may have a limit at a point
where it is not defined. If ƒ(c) is not defined, but limx S c ƒ(x) = L exists, we can define a
new function F(x) by the rule
y
2
y=
F(x) = e
x2 + x − 6
x2 − 4
1
−1
0
1
5
4
−1
3
4
x
Show that
ƒ(x) =
x+3
y=
x+2
x2 + x - 6
,
x2 - 4
x ≠ 2
has a continuous extension to x = 2, and find that extension.
1
0
if x is in the domain of ƒ
if x = c.
The function F is continuous at x = c. It is called the continuous extension of ƒ to
x = c. For rational functions ƒ, continuous extensions are often found by canceling common factors in the numerator and denominator.
EXAMPLE 12
(a)
y
2
2
ƒ(x),
L,
1
2
3
4
x
Solution
Although ƒ(2) is not defined, if x ≠ 2 we have
(b)
FIGURE 2.48 (a) The graph
of ƒ(x) and (b) the graph of
its continuous extension F(x)
(Example 12).
ƒ(x) =
x2 + x - 6 (x - 2)(x + 3) x + 3
=
=
.
(x - 2)(x + 2) x + 2
x2 - 4
The new function
F(x) =
x + 3
x + 2
102
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
is equal to ƒ(x) for x ≠ 2, but is continuous at x = 2, having there the value of 5>4. Thus
F is the continuous extension of ƒ to x = 2, and
x2 + x - 6
5
= lim ƒ(x) = .
4
xS2
xS2
x2 - 4
lim
The graph of ƒ is shown in Figure 2.48. The continuous extension F has the same graph
except with no hole at (2, 5>4). Effectively, F is the function ƒ with its point of discontinuity at x = 2 removed.
Exercises
2.5
Continuity from Graphs
In Exercises 1–4, say whether the function graphed is continuous on
3-1, 34. If not, where does it fail to be continuous and why?
1.
2.
y
y
−1
1
2
x
3
d. Is ƒ continuous at x = 1?
0
−1
3.
1
2
3
x
4.
y = h(x)
2
1
1
1
2
x
3
10. To what new value should ƒ(1) be changed to remove the discontinuity?
y = k(x)
1
0
−1
2
Exercises 5–10 refer to the function
3
x
Applying the Continuity Test
At which points do the functions in Exercises 11 and 12 fail to be continuous? At which points, if any, are the discontinuities removable?
Not removable? Give reasons for your answers.
11. Exercise 1, Section 2.4
2
x - 1,
2x,
ƒ(x) = e 1,
-2x + 4,
0,
-1
0
x
1
2
… x
6 x
= 1
6 x
6 x
6 0
6 1
6 2
6 3
y
13. y =
1
- 3x
x - 2
14. y =
1
+ 4
(x + 2)2
15. y =
x + 1
x2 - 4x + 3
16. y =
x + 3
x2 - 3x - 10
y = −2x + 4
18. y =
21. y = csc 2x
22. y = tan
(1, 1)
−1
y = x2 − 1
0
1
2
−1
The graph for Exercises 5–10.
3
x
x2
1
0x0 + 1 2
17. y = 0 x - 1 0 + sin x
19. y =
(1, 2)
y = 2x
12. Exercise 2, Section 2.4
At what points are the functions in Exercises 13–30 continuous?
graphed in the accompanying figure.
y = f (x)
2
b. Is ƒ continuous at x = 2?
9. What value should be assigned to ƒ(2) to make the extended
function continuous at x = 2?
y
2
0
7. a. Is ƒ defined at x = 2? (Look at the definition of ƒ.)
8. At what values of x is ƒ continuous?
y
−1
d. Is ƒ continuous at x = - 1?
c. Does limx S 1 ƒ(x) = ƒ(1)?
1
0
c. Does limx S -1+ ƒ(x) = ƒ(- 1)?
b. Does limx S 1 ƒ(x) exist?
y = g(x)
2
1
b. Does limx S -1+ ƒ(x) exist?
6. a. Does ƒ(1) exist?
y = f (x)
2
5. a. Does ƒ(- 1) exist?
23. y =
cos x
x
x tan x
x2 + 1
25. y = 22x + 3
27. y = (2x - 1)1>3
x + 2
20. y = cos x
24. y =
px
2
2x4 + 1
1 + sin2 x
4
26. y = 2
3x - 1
28. y = (2 - x)1>5
2.5 Continuity
47. For what values of a and b is
x2 - x - 6
, x ≠ 3
29. g(x) = c x - 3
5,
x = 3
x3 - 8
, x ≠ 2, x ≠ - 2
x2 - 4
30. ƒ(x) = d
3,
x = 2
4,
x = -2
Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions
Find the limits in Exercises 31–38. Are the functions continuous at the
point being approached?
p
32. lim sina cos (tan t)b
31. lim sin (x - sin x)
2
xSp
tS0
33. lim sec (y sec2 y - tan2 y - 1)
yS1
34. lim tana
xS0
p
cos ( sin x1>3 ) b
4
35. lim cos a
tS0
p
b
219 - 3 sec 2t
37. lim+ sin a
xS0
p 2x
e b
2
36.
lim 2csc2 x + 5 13 tan x
x S p/6
38. lim cos-1 1 ln 2x 2
xS1
Continuous Extensions
39. Define g(3) in a way that extends g(x) = (x2 - 9)>(x - 3) to be
continuous at x = 3.
40. Define h(2) in a way that extends h(t) = (t 2 + 3t - 10)>(t - 2)
to be continuous at t = 2.
41. Define ƒ(1) in a way that extends ƒ(s) = (s3 - 1)>(s2 - 1) to be
continuous at s = 1.
42. Define g(4) in a way that extends
g(x) = (x2 - 16)> (x2 - 3x - 4)
to be continuous at x = 4.
43. For what value of a is
x2 - 1, x 6 3
ƒ(x) = e
2ax,
x Ú 3
continuous at every x?
44. For what value of b is
x,
x 6 -2
2
bx , x Ú - 2
continuous at every x?
continuous at every x?
48. For what values of a and b is
ax + 2b,
x … 0
g(x) = c x2 + 3a - b, 0 6 x … 2
3x - 5,
x 7 2
continuous at every x?
T In Exercises 49–52, graph the function ƒ to see whether it appears to
have a continuous extension to the origin. If it does, use Trace and Zoom
to find a good candidate for the extended function’s value at x = 0. If
the function does not appear to have a continuous extension, can it be
extended to be continuous at the origin from the right or from the left? If
so, what do you think the extended function’s value(s) should be?
49. ƒ(x) =
51. ƒ(x) =
10 x - 1
x
sin x
0x0
50. ƒ(x) =
10 0 x 0 - 1
x
52. ƒ(x) = (1 + 2x)1>x
Theory and Examples
53. A continuous function y = ƒ(x) is known to be negative at
x = 0 and positive at x = 1. Why does the equation ƒ(x) = 0
have at least one solution between x = 0 and x = 1? Illustrate
with a sketch.
54. Explain why the equation cos x = x has at least one solution.
55. Roots of a cubic Show that the equation x3 - 15x + 1 = 0
has three solutions in the interval 3- 4, 4].
56. A function value Show that the function F(x) = (x - a)2 #
(x - b)2 + x takes on the value (a + b)>2 for some value of x.
57. Solving an equation If ƒ(x) = x3 - 8x + 10, show that there
are values c for which ƒ(c) equals (a) p; (b) - 23; (c) 5,000,000.
58. Explain why the following five statements ask for the same information.
b. Find the x-coordinates of the points where the curve y = x3
crosses the line y = 3x + 1.
c. Find all the values of x for which x3 - 3x = 1.
d. Find the x-coordinates of the points where the cubic curve
y = x3 - 3x crosses the line y = 1.
45. For what values of a is
a2x - 2a, x Ú 2
12,
x 6 2
continuous at every x?
46. For what value of b is
x - b
, x 6 0
g(x) = c b + 1
2
x + b, x 7 0
continuous at every x?
- 2,
x … -1
ƒ(x) = c ax - b, -1 6 x 6 1
3,
x Ú 1
a. Find the roots of ƒ(x) = x3 - 3x - 1.
g(x) = e
ƒ(x) = b
103
e. Solve the equation x3 - 3x - 1 = 0.
59. Removable discontinuity Give an example of a function ƒ(x)
that is continuous for all values of x except x = 2, where it has
a removable discontinuity. Explain how you know that ƒ is discontinuous at x = 2, and how you know the discontinuity is
removable.
60. Nonremovable discontinuity Give an example of a function
g(x) that is continuous for all values of x except x = - 1, where it
has a nonremovable discontinuity. Explain how you know that g
is discontinuous there and why the discontinuity is not removable.
104
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
61. A function discontinuous at every point
a. Use the fact that every nonempty interval of real numbers
contains both rational and irrational numbers to show that the
function
ƒ(x) = e
1, if x is rational
0, if x is irrational
68. The sign-preserving property of continuous functions Let ƒ
be defined on an interval (a, b) and suppose that ƒ(c) ≠ 0 at
some c where ƒ is continuous. Show that there is an interval
(c - d, c + d) about c where ƒ has the same sign as ƒ(c).
69. Prove that ƒ is continuous at c if and only if
lim ƒ(c + h) = ƒ(c).
hS0
70. Use Exercise 69 together with the identities
is discontinuous at every point.
b. Is ƒ right-continuous or left-continuous at any point?
sin (h + c) = sin h cos c + cos h sin c,
62. If functions ƒ(x) and g(x) are continuous for 0 … x … 1, could
ƒ(x)>g(x) possibly be discontinuous at a point of 30, 14? Give
reasons for your answer.
63. If the product function h(x) = ƒ(x) # g(x) is continuous at x = 0,
must ƒ(x) and g(x) be continuous at x = 0? Give reasons for
your answer.
64. Discontinuous composite of continuous functions Give an
example of functions ƒ and g, both continuous at x = 0, for
which the composite ƒ ∘ g is discontinuous at x = 0. Does this
contradict Theorem 9? Give reasons for your answer.
65. Never-zero continuous functions Is it true that a continuous
function that is never zero on an interval never changes sign on
that interval? Give reasons for your answer.
66. Stretching a rubber band Is it true that if you stretch a rubber
band by moving one end to the right and the other to the left,
some point of the band will end up in its original position? Give
reasons for your answer.
67. A fixed point theorem Suppose that a function ƒ is continuous
on the closed interval 30, 14 and that 0 … ƒ(x) … 1 for every x
in 30, 14 . Show that there must exist a number c in 30, 14 such
that ƒ(c) = c (c is called a fixed point of ƒ).
cos (h + c) = cos h cos c - sin h sin c
to prove that both ƒ(x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x are continuous
at every point x = c.
Solving Equations Graphically
T Use the Intermediate Value Theorem in Exercises 71–78 to prove that
each equation has a solution. Then use a graphing calculator or computer grapher to solve the equations.
71. x3 - 3x - 1 = 0
72. 2x3 - 2x2 - 2x + 1 = 0
73. x(x - 1)2 = 1 (one root)
74. xx = 2
75. 2x + 21 + x = 4
76. x3 - 15x + 1 = 0 (three roots)
77. cos x = x (one root). Make sure you are using radian mode.
78. 2 sin x = x (three roots). Make sure you are using radian
mode.
2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs
In this section we investigate the behavior of a function when the magnitude of the independent variable x becomes increasingly large, or x S { q . We further extend the concept of limit to infinite limits, which are not limits as before, but rather a new use of the
term limit. Infinite limits provide useful symbols and language for describing the behavior
of functions whose values become arbitrarily large in magnitude. We use these limit ideas
to analyze the graphs of functions having horizontal or vertical asymptotes.
y
4
3
y = 1x
2
1
−1 0
−1
1
2
3
4
FIGURE 2.49 The graph of y = 1>x
approaches 0 as x S q or x S - q .
x
Finite Limits as x u t H
The symbol for infinity (q) does not represent a real number. We use q to describe the
behavior of a function when the values in its domain or range outgrow all finite bounds.
For example, the function ƒ(x) = 1>x is defined for all x ≠ 0 (Figure 2.49). When x is
positive and becomes increasingly large, 1>x becomes increasingly small. When x is
negative and its magnitude becomes increasingly large, 1>x again becomes small. We
summarize these observations by saying that ƒ(x) = 1>x has limit 0 as x S q or
x S - q, or that 0 is a limit of ƒ(x) = 1>x at infinity and negative infinity. Here are precise definitions.
2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs
105
DEFINITIONS
1. We say that ƒ(x) has the limit L as x approaches infinity and write
lim ƒ(x) = L
xS q
if, for every number P 7 0, there exists a corresponding number M such that
for all x
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
1
x 7 M
2. We say that ƒ(x) has the limit L as x approaches minus infinity and write
lim ƒ(x) = L
xS -q
if, for every number P 7 0, there exists a corresponding number N such that
for all x
x 6 N
y
y = 1x
1
N = −P
0
y = –P
Intuitively, limx Sq ƒ(x) = L if, as x moves increasingly far from the origin in the positive
direction, ƒ(x) gets arbitrarily close to L. Similarly, limx S -q ƒ(x) = L if, as x moves
increasingly far from the origin in the negative direction, ƒ(x) gets arbitrarily close to L.
The strategy for calculating limits of functions as x S { q is similar to the one for
finite limits in Section 2.2. There we first found the limits of the constant and identity
functions y = k and y = x. We then extended these results to other functions by applying
Theorem 1 on limits of algebraic combinations. Here we do the same thing, except that the
starting functions are y = k and y = 1>x instead of y = k and y = x.
The basic facts to be verified by applying the formal definition are
1
and
lim
lim k = k
= 0.
(1)
x S {q
x S {q x
No matter what
positive number P is,
the graph enters
1
this band at x = P
and stays.
We prove the second result in Example 1, and leave the first to Exercises 87 and 88.
EXAMPLE 1
y=P
P
M = 1P
0 ƒ(x) - L 0 6 P.
1
x
–P
No matter what
positive number P is,
the graph enters
1
this band at x = − P
and stays.
FIGURE 2.50 The geometry behind the
argument in Example 1.
Show that
1
(a) lim x = 0
x Sq
(b)
1
lim x = 0.
x S -q
Solution
(a) Let P 7 0 be given. We must find a number M such that for all x
x 7 M
1
1
1
` x - 0 ` = ` x ` 6 P.
The implication will hold if M = 1>P or any larger positive number (Figure 2.50).
This proves limx Sq (1>x) = 0.
(b) Let P 7 0 be given. We must find a number N such that for all x
x 6 N
1
1
1
` x - 0 ` = ` x ` 6 P.
The implication will hold if N = -1>P or any number less than -1>P (Figure 2.50).
This proves limx S - q (1>x) = 0.
Limits at infinity have properties similar to those of finite limits.
THEOREM 12 All the Limit Laws in Theorem 1 are true when we replace
limx S c by limx S q or limx S - q . That is, the variable x may approach a finite
number c or { q.
106
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
EXAMPLE 2
The properties in Theorem 12 are used to calculate limits in the same
way as when x approaches a finite number c.
(a)
1
1
lim a5 + x b = lim 5 + lim x
xS q
xS q
xS q
= 5 + 0 = 5
(b)
lim
xS - q
Sum Rule
Known limits
p 23
1 1
= lim p 23 # x # x
xS - q
x2
1
1
= lim p 23 # lim x # lim x
xS - q
xS - q
xS - q
Product Rule
= p 23 # 0 # 0 = 0
2
−5
Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions
2
y = 5x +2 8x − 3
3x + 2
y
1
Line y = 5
3
0
5
10
To determine the limit of a rational function as x S { q, we first divide the numerator
and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator. The result then depends on
the degrees of the polynomials involved.
x
EXAMPLE 3
These examples illustrate what happens when the degree of the numerator is less than or equal to the degree of the denominator.
−1
(a)
−2
NOT TO SCALE
FIGURE 2.51 The graph of the function in Example 3a. The graph approaches
the line y = 5>3 as 0 x 0 increases.
y
8
y=
6
0
=
(b)
5 + 0 - 0 5
=
3
3 + 0
See Fig. 2.51.
(11>x2) + (2>x3)
11x + 2
= lim
3
x S - q 2x - 1
xS - q
2 - (1>x3)
Divide numerator and
denominator by x3 .
lim
=
Divide numerator and
denominator by x2 .
0 + 0
= 0
2 - 0
See Fig. 2.52.
Horizontal Asymptotes
2
−2
5 + (8>x) - (3>x2)
5x2 + 8x - 3
= lim
2
xS q
xS q
3x + 2
3 + (2>x2)
lim
Cases for which the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator are illustrated in Examples 10 and 14.
11x + 2
2x 3 − 1
4
−4
Known limits
2
4
6
x
If the distance between the graph of a function and some fixed line approaches zero as a
point on the graph moves increasingly far from the origin, we say that the graph approaches
the line asymptotically and that the line is an asymptote of the graph.
Looking at ƒ(x) = 1>x (see Figure 2.49), we observe that the x-axis is an asymptote
of the curve on the right because
−2
1
lim x = 0
xS q
−4
−6
and on the left because
1
lim x = 0.
−8
FIGURE 2.52 The graph of the
function in Example 3b. The graph
approaches the x-axis as 0 x 0 increases.
xS - q
We say that the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of ƒ(x) = 1>x.
DEFINITION A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = ƒ(x) if either
lim ƒ(x) = b
xS q
or
lim ƒ(x) = b.
xS - q
2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs
107
The graph of the function
ƒ(x) =
5x2 + 8x - 3
3x2 + 2
sketched in Figure 2.51 (Example 3a) has the line y = 5>3 as a horizontal asymptote on
both the right and the left because
lim ƒ(x) =
xS q
EXAMPLE 4
y
5
3
ƒ(x) =
y=1
x
0
f(x) =
−2
x3 − 2
0x03 + 1
Solution
For x 6 0:
1 - (2>x3)
x3 - 2
x3 - 2
=
lim
=
lim
= 1.
xS q 0 x 0 3 + 1
x S q x3 + 1
x S q 1 + (1>x 3)
lim
1 - ( 2>x3 )
x3 - 2
x3 - 2
= lim
= lim
= -1.
3
3
x S - q ( -x ) + 1
x S - q -1 + ( 1>x 3 )
xS - q 0 x 0 + 1
lim
y = ex because
The x-axis (the line y = 0) is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of
lim ex = 0.
xS - q
y = ex
To see this, we use the definition of a limit as x approaches - q . So let P 7 0 be given,
but arbitrary. We must find a constant N such that for all x,
1
x 6 N
P
N = ln P
x3 - 2
.
0x03 + 1
The horizontal asymptotes are y = -1 and y = 1. The graph is displayed in Figure
2.53. Notice that the graph crosses the horizontal asymptote y = -1 for a positive value
of x.
EXAMPLE 5
y
5
.
3
We calculate the limits as x S { q.
For x Ú 0:
FIGURE 2.53 The graph of the
function in Example 4 has two
horizontal asymptotes.
xS - q
Find the horizontal asymptotes of the graph of
2
y = −1
lim ƒ(x) =
and
x
FIGURE 2.54 The graph of y = ex
approaches the x-axis as x S - q
(Example 5).
1
0 ex - 0 0 6 P.
Now 0 ex - 0 0 = ex , so the condition that needs to be satisfied whenever x 6 N is
ex 6 P.
Let x = N be the number where ex = P. Since ex is an increasing function, if x 6 N ,
then ex 6 P. We find N by taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation
eN = P, so N = ln P (see Figure 2.54). With this value of N the condition is satisfied, and
we conclude that limx S - q ex = 0.
EXAMPLE 6
Find (a) lim sin (1>x)
xS q
and
(b) lim x sin (1>x).
x S {q
Solution
(a) We introduce the new variable t = 1>x. From Example 1, we know that t S 0+ as
x S q (see Figure 2.49). Therefore,
1
lim sin x = lim+ sin t = 0.
xS q
tS0
108
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
(b) We calculate the limits as x S q and x S - q:
y
sin t
1
lim x sin x = lim+ t = 1
1
xS q
x
1
EXAMPLE 7
−2
xS0
lim e1>x = lim et = 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
tS - q
x S 0-
The Sandwich Theorem also holds for limits as x S { q. You must be sure, though,
that the function whose limit you are trying to find stays between the bounding functions
at very large values of x in magnitude consistent with whether x S q or x S - q.
x
FIGURE 2.56 The graph of y = e1>x
for x 6 0 shows limx S 0- e1>x = 0
(Example 7).
EXAMPLE 8
Using the Sandwich Theorem, find the horizontal asymptote of the curve
y = 2 +
Solution
sin x
1
0 … ` x ` … `x`
y = 2 + sinx x
and limx S {q 0 1>x 0 = 0, we have limx S {q (sin x)>x = 0 by the Sandwich Theorem.
Hence,
2
1
0
p
2p
3p
sin x
x .
We are interested in the behavior as x S { q. Since
y
−3p −2p −p
Example 5
(Figure 2.56).
0
−1
Find lim-e1>x .
Solution We let t = 1>x. From Figure 2.49, we can see that t S - q as x S 0- . (We
make this idea more precise further on.) Therefore,
y
−3
tS0
Likewise, we can investigate the behavior of y = ƒ(1>x) as x S 0 by investigating
y = ƒ(t) as t S { q , where t = 1>x.
FIGURE 2.55 The line y = 1 is a
horizontal asymptote of the function
graphed here (Example 6b).
y = e1!x
sin t
1
lim x sin x = lim- t = 1.
xS - q
The graph is shown in Figure 2.55, and we see that the line y = 1 is a horizontal
asymptote.
1
y = x sin x
−1
and
tS0
lim a2 +
x S {q
x
FIGURE 2.57 A curve may cross one of
its asymptotes infinitely often (Example 8).
sin x
x b = 2 + 0 = 2,
and the line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote of the curve on both left and right (Figure 2.57).
This example illustrates that a curve may cross one of its horizontal asymptotes many
times.
EXAMPLE 9
Find lim 1 x - 2x2 + 16 2.
xS q
Solution Both of the terms x and 2x2 + 16 approach infinity as x S q, so what happens to the difference in the limit is unclear (we cannot subtract q from q because the
symbol does not represent a real number). In this situation we can multiply the numerator
and the denominator by the conjugate radical expression to obtain an equivalent algebraic
result:
lim 1 x - 2x2 + 16 2 = lim 1 x - 2x2 + 16 2
xS q
xS q
= lim
x2 - (x2 + 16)
xS q x
2
+ 2x + 16
x + 2x2 + 16
x + 2x2 + 16
= lim
xS q x
-16
.
+ 2x2 + 16
2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs
109
As x S q, the denominator in this last expression becomes arbitrarily large, so we see that
the limit is 0. We can also obtain this result by a direct calculation using the Limit Laws:
-16
lim
= lim
x S q x + 2x 2 + 16
xS q
Oblique Asymptotes
2
y= x −3=x+1+ 1
2x − 4 2
2x − 4
y
The vertical distance
between curve and
line goes to zero as x : ∞
6
4
3
y= x+1
2
2
3
4
ƒ(x) =
x2 - 3
2x - 4
in Figure 2.58.
1
1
Find the oblique asymptote of the graph of
Oblique
asymptote
x=2
2
−1 0
−1
If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is 1 greater than the degree of the
denominator, the graph has an oblique or slant line asymptote. We find an equation for
the asymptote by dividing numerator by denominator to express ƒ as a linear function plus
a remainder that goes to zero as x S { q.
EXAMPLE 10
5
16
- x
0
=
= 0.
1 + 21 + 0
x2 16
1 +
+ 2
x
A x2
x
x
Solution We are interested in the behavior as x S { q . We divide (2x - 4) into
(x2 - 3):
−2
x
+ 1
2
2x - 4) x2 - 3
x2 - 2x
2x - 3
2x - 4
1
−3
FIGURE 2.58 The graph of the function
in Example 10 has an oblique asymptote.
This tells us that
ƒ(x) =
x2 - 3
x
1
≤.
= ¢ + 1≤ + ¢
2x - 4
2()*
2x
- 4
(1)1*
linear g(x)
y
B
You can get as high
as you want by
taking x close enough
to 0. No matter how
high B is, the graph
goes higher.
y = 1x
x
0
You can get as low as
you want by taking
x close enough to 0.
x
x
No matter how
low −B is, the
graph goes lower.
−B
As x S { q , the remainder, whose magnitude gives the vertical distance between the
graphs of ƒ and g, goes to zero, making the slanted line
g(x) =
x
+ 1
2
an asymptote of the graph of ƒ (Figure 2.58). The line y = g(x) is an asymptote both to the
right and to the left. The next subsection will confirm that the function ƒ(x) grows arbitrarily
large in absolute value as x S 2 (where the denominator is zero), as shown in the graph.
Notice in Example 10 that if the degree of the numerator in a rational function is greater
than the degree of the denominator, then the limit as 0 x 0 becomes large is + q or - q,
depending on the signs assumed by the numerator and denominator.
Infinite Limits
FIGURE 2.59 One-sided infinite limits:
1
1
and
lim- x = - q.
lim+ x = q
xS0
remainder
xS0
Let us look again at the function ƒ(x) = 1>x. As x S 0+, the values of ƒ grow without
bound, eventually reaching and surpassing every positive real number. That is, given any
positive real number B, however large, the values of ƒ become larger still (Figure 2.59).
110
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
Thus, ƒ has no limit as x S 0+. It is nevertheless convenient to describe the behavior of ƒ
by saying that ƒ(x) approaches q as x S 0+. We write
1
lim ƒ(x) = lim+ x = q.
xS0
x S 0+
In writing this equation, we are not saying that the limit exists. Nor are we saying that there
is a real number q, for there is no such number. Rather, we are saying that limx S 0+ (1>x)
does not exist because 1>x becomes arbitrarily large and positive as x S 0+.
As x S 0 -, the values of ƒ(x) = 1>x become arbitrarily large and negative. Given
any negative real number -B, the values of ƒ eventually lie below -B. (See Figure 2.59.)
We write
1
lim ƒ(x) = lim- x = - q.
xS0
x S 0-
Again, we are not saying that the limit exists and equals the number - q. There is no real
number - q. We are describing the behavior of a function whose limit as x S 0- does not
exist because its values become arbitrarily large and negative.
y
y=
1
x−1
EXAMPLE 11
1
−1
0
1
2
3
x
Find lim+
xS1
lim
lim
x S 1-
1
.
x - 1
1
= q
x - 1
and
lim
x S 1-
1
= - q.
x - 1
Analytic Solution Think about the number x - 1 and its reciprocal. As x S 1+, we
have (x - 1) S 0+ and 1>(x - 1) S q. As x S 1-, we have (x - 1) S 0 - and
1>(x - 1) S - q.
EXAMPLE 12
Discuss the behavior of
ƒ(x) =
1
x2
as
x S 0.
Solution As x approaches zero from either side, the values of 1>x2 are positive and
become arbitrarily large (Figure 2.61). This means that
y
lim ƒ(x) = lim
No matter how
high B is, the graph
goes higher.
B
xS0
x
xS0
1
= q.
x2
The function y = 1>x shows no consistent behavior as x S 0. We have 1>x S q if
x S 0+, but 1>x S - q if x S 0-. All we can say about lim x S 0 (1>x) is that it does not
exist. The function y = 1>x2 is different. Its values approach infinity as x approaches zero
from either side, so we can say that limx S 0 (1>x2) = q.
f (x) = 12
x
x 0
and
Geometric Solution The graph of y = 1>(x - 1) is the graph of y = 1>x shifted 1
unit to the right (Figure 2.60). Therefore, y = 1>(x - 1) behaves near 1 exactly the way
y = 1>x behaves near 0:
x S 1+
FIGURE 2.60 Near x = 1, the function y = 1>(x - 1) behaves the way the
function y = 1>x behaves near x = 0. Its
graph is the graph of y = 1>x shifted
1 unit to the right (Example 11).
1
x - 1
x
FIGURE 2.61 The graph of ƒ(x) in
Example 12 approaches infinity as x S 0.
EXAMPLE 13
These examples illustrate that rational functions can behave in various
ways near zeros of the denominator.
(x - 2)2
(x - 2)2
x - 2
= lim
= lim
= 0
2
xS2 x - 4
x S 2 (x - 2)(x + 2)
xS2 x + 2
(a) lim
(b) lim
xS2
x - 2
x - 2
1
1
= lim
= lim
=
x2 - 4 x S 2 (x - 2)(x + 2) x S 2 x + 2 4
2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f )
lim
x - 3
x - 3
= lim
= -q
x2 - 4 x S 2+ (x - 2)(x + 2)
The values are negative
for x 7 2, x near 2.
lim-
x - 3
x - 3
= lim
= q
x2 - 4 x S 2- (x - 2)(x + 2)
The values are positive
for x 6 2, x near 2.
x S 2+
xS2
lim
x - 3
x - 3
= lim
does not exist.
x2 - 4 x S 2 (x - 2)(x + 2)
lim
-(x - 2)
2 - x
-1
= lim
= -q
3 = xlim
S
2 (x - 2)3
x S 2 (x - 2)2
(x - 2)
xS2
xS2
111
See parts (c) and (d).
In parts (a) and (b) the effect of the zero in the denominator at x = 2 is canceled
because the numerator is zero there also. Thus a finite limit exists. This is not true in part
(f ), where cancellation still leaves a zero factor in the denominator.
y
2x5 - 6x4 + 1
.
x S - q 3x 2 + x - 7
EXAMPLE 14
Find lim
Solution We are asked to find the limit of a rational function as x S - q , so we divide
the numerator and denominator by x2 , the highest power of x in the denominator:
y = f (x)
2x5 - 6x4 + 1
=
x S - q 3x 2 + x - 7
lim
B
2x3 - 6x2 + x-2
x S - q 3 + x -1 - 7x-2
lim
2x2 (x - 3) + x-2
x S - q 3 + x -1 - 7x-2
= - q,
x-n S 0, x - 3 S - q
= lim
0
c−d
c
x
c+d
because the numerator tends to - q while the denominator approaches 3 as x S - q .
FIGURE 2.62 For c - d 6 x 6 c + d,
the graph of ƒ(x) lies above the line y = B.
y
c−d
c
c+d
x
0
Precise Definitions of Infinite Limits
Instead of requiring ƒ(x) to lie arbitrarily close to a finite number L for all x sufficiently
close to c, the definitions of infinite limits require ƒ(x) to lie arbitrarily far from zero.
Except for this change, the language is very similar to what we have seen before. Figures 2.62
and 2.63 accompany these definitions.
DEFINITIONS
1. We say that ƒ(x) approaches infinity as x approaches c, and write
lim ƒ(x) = q,
xSc
if for every positive real number B there exists a corresponding d 7 0 such
that for all x
−B
y = f (x)
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
1
ƒ(x) 7 B.
2. We say that ƒ(x) approaches minus infinity as x approaches c, and write
lim ƒ(x) = - q,
xSc
FIGURE 2.63 For c - d 6 x 6 c + d,
the graph of ƒ(x) lies below the line
y = - B.
if for every negative real number -B there exists a corresponding d 7 0
such that for all x
0 6 0x - c0 6 d
1
ƒ(x) 6 -B.
The precise definitions of one-sided infinite limits at c are similar and are stated in the
exercises.
112
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
EXAMPLE 15
Solution
Prove that lim
xS0
1
= q.
x2
Given B 7 0, we want to find d 7 0 such that
0 6 ) x - 0 ) 6 d implies
1
7 B.
x2
1
7 B
x2
x2 6
Now,
if and only if
1
B
or, equivalently,
0x0 6 1 .
2B
Thus, choosing d = 1> 2B (or any smaller positive number), we see that
0 x 0 6 d implies
Therefore, by definition,
lim
xS0
1
1
7 2 Ú B.
x2
d
1
= q.
x2
Vertical Asymptotes
Notice that the distance between a point on the graph of ƒ(x) = 1>x and the y-axis
approaches zero as the point moves vertically along the graph and away from the origin
(Figure 2.64). The function ƒ(x) = 1>x is unbounded as x approaches 0 because
y
Vertical asymptote
Horizontal
asymptote
1
0
lim
1
Horizontal
asymptote,
y=0
1
x S 0+ x
y = 1x
x
Vertical asymptote,
x=0
and
lim
1
x S 0- x
= - q.
We say that the line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of the graph of ƒ(x) = 1>x.
Observe that the denominator is zero at x = 0 and the function is undefined there.
DEFINITION A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function
y = ƒ(x) if either
lim ƒ(x) = { q
x S a+
FIGURE 2.64 The coordinate axes are
asymptotes of both branches of the hyperbola y = 1>x.
= q
EXAMPLE 16
or
lim ƒ(x) = { q.
x S a-
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve
y =
x + 3
.
x + 2
Solution We are interested in the behavior as x S { q and the behavior as x S -2,
where the denominator is zero.
The asymptotes are quickly revealed if we recast the rational function as a polynomial
with a remainder, by dividing (x + 2) into (x + 3):
1
x + 2) x + 3
x + 2
1
2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs
This result enables us to rewrite y as:
y
Vertical
asymptote,
x = −2
6
5
y=
4
3
Horizontal
asymptote,
y=1
y = 1 +
x+3
x+2
=1+
1
x+2
1
3
2
1
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
−1
113
2
x
−2
As x S { q , the curve approaches the horizontal asymptote y = 1; as x S -2, the curve
approaches the vertical asymptote x = -2. We see that the curve in question is the graph
of ƒ(x) = 1>x shifted 1 unit up and 2 units left (Figure 2.65). The asymptotes, instead of
being the coordinate axes, are now the lines y = 1 and x = -2.
EXAMPLE 17
−3
1
.
x + 2
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of
−4
ƒ(x) = -
FIGURE 2.65 The lines y = 1 and
x = - 2 are asymptotes of the curve in
Example 16.
8
.
x - 4
2
Solution We are interested in the behavior as x S { q and as x S {2, where the
denominator is zero. Notice that ƒ is an even function of x, so its graph is symmetric with
respect to the y-axis.
(a) The behavior as x S { q. Since lim x Sq ƒ(x) = 0, the line y = 0 is a horizontal
asymptote of the graph to the right. By symmetry it is an asymptote to the left as well
(Figure 2.66). Notice that the curve approaches the x-axis from only the negative side
(or from below). Also, ƒ(0) = 2.
(b) The behavior as x S {2. Since
y
8
y=− 2
x −4
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Vertical
asymptote,
x = −2
Vertical
asymptote, x = 2
lim ƒ(x) = - q
Horizontal
asymptote, y = 0
−4−3−2−1 0
1 2 3 4
and
x S 2+
x
lim ƒ(x) = q,
x S 2-
the line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote both from the right and from the left. By symmetry, the line x = -2 is also a vertical asymptote.
There are no other asymptotes because ƒ has a finite limit at all other points.
EXAMPLE 18
FIGURE 2.66 Graph of the function
in Example 17. Notice that the curve
approaches the x-axis from only one side.
Asymptotes do not have to be two-sided.
y
The graph of the natural logarithm function has the y-axis (the line
x = 0) as a vertical asymptote. We see this from the graph sketched in Figure 2.67 (which
is the reflection of the graph of the natural exponential function across the line y = x) and
the fact that the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of y = ex (Example 5). Thus,
lim ln x = - q.
x S 0+
The same result is true for y = loga x whenever a 7 1.
EXAMPLE 19
The curves
y = ex
1
y = sec x = cos x
4
3
2
and
sin x
y = tan x = cos x
both have vertical asymptotes at odd-integer multiples of p>2, where cos x = 0 (Figure 2.68).
y = ln x
1
−1
−1
1
2
3
4
x
FIGURE 2.67 The line x = 0 is a
vertical asymptote of the natural logarithm
function (Example 18).
Dominant Terms
In Example 10 we saw that by long division we could rewrite the function
ƒ(x) =
x2 - 3
2x - 4
114
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
y
y
y = sec x
1
−
3p −p p
−
2
2
0
y = tan x
1
p
2
p
3p
2
x
−
0 p
3p −p p
− −1
2
2
2
p
3p
2
x
FIGURE 2.68 The graphs of sec x and tan x have infinitely many vertical asymptotes
(Example 19).
as a linear function plus a remainder term:
y
y
This tells us immediately that
20
500,000
ƒ(x) ≈
15
300,000
ƒ(x) ≈
10
f (x)
5
−2
−1
g(x) = 3x 4
0
1
2
x
−5
(a)
y
y
20
300,000
−2
−1
0
−5
(a)
f (x)
100,000
g(x) = 3x 4
1
2
x
−20
−10
0
1
2x - 4
For 0 x 0 large,
1
is near 0.
2x - 4
For x near 2, this term is very large in absolute value.
100,000
If we want
to know how ƒ behaves, this is the way to find out. It behaves like
y = (x>2) + 1 when |x| is large xand the contribution of 1>(2x - 4) to the total value of ƒ
−20
−10
0 It behaves
10
20 1>(2x - 4) when x is so close to 2 that 1>(2x - 4) makes
is insignificant.
like
−100,000
the dominant
contribution.
We say that (x>2) + 1 dominates when x is numerically large, and we say that
(b)
1>(2x - 4) dominates
when x is near 2. Dominant terms like these help us predict a
function’s behavior.
Let ƒ(x) = 3x4 - 2x3 + 3x2 - 5x + 6 and g(x) = 3x4. Show that
although ƒ and g are quite different for numerically small values of x, they are virtually
identical for 0 x 0 very large, in the sense that their ratios approach 1 as x S q or x S - q .
15
5
x
+ 1
2
x
1
b.
+ 1b + a
2
2x - 4
EXAMPLE 20
500,000
10
ƒ(x) = a
10
20
x
Solution The graphs of ƒ and g behave quite differently near the origin (Figure 2.69a),
but appear as virtually identical on a larger scale (Figure 2.69b).
We can test that the term 3x4 in ƒ, represented graphically by g, dominates the polynomial ƒ for numerically large values of x by examining the ratio of the two functions as
x S { q. We find that
−100,000
lim
x S {q
(b)
FIGURE 2.69 The graphs of ƒ and
g are (a) distinct for 0 x 0 small, and
(b) nearly identical for 0 x 0 large
(Example 20).
ƒ(x)
3x4 - 2x3 + 3x2 - 5x + 6
= lim
g(x) x S {q
3x4
= lim a1 x S {q
= 1,
5
2
1
2
+
+ b
3x x2 3x3 x4
which means that ƒ and g appear nearly identical when 0 x 0 is large.
Summary
In this chapter we presented several important calculus ideas that are made meaningful and
precise by the concept of the limit. These include the three ideas of the exact rate of change of
a function, the slope of the graph of a function at a point, and the continuity of a function. The
primary methods used for calculating limits of many functions are captured in the algebraic
2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs
115
Limit Laws of Theorem 1 and in the Sandwich Theorem, all of which are proved from the precise definition of the limit. We saw that these computational rules also apply to one-sided limits
and to limits at infinity. Moreover, we can sometimes apply these rules when calculating limits
of simple transcendental functions, as illustrated by our examples or in cases like the following:
lim
xS0
ex - 1
ex - 1
1
1
1
=
lim
= lim
=
= .
x
e2x - 1 x S 0 (e - 1)(ex + 1) x S 0 ex + 1 1 + 1 2
However, calculating more complicated limits involving transcendental functions such as
lim
xS0
ln x
lim
,
xS0 x
x
,
e2x - 1
and
1 x
lim a1 + x b
xS0
requires more than simple algebraic techniques. The derivative is exactly the tool we need
to calculate limits such as these (see Section 4.5), and this notion is the main subject of our
next chapter.
Exercises
2.6
Finding Limits
1. For the function ƒ whose graph is given, determine the following
limits.
a. lim ƒ(x)
b.
d.
x S -3
e. lim+ ƒ(x)
f. lim- ƒ(x)
g. lim ƒ(x)
h. lim ƒ(x)
i.
xS2
lim ƒ(x)
xS0
c.
lim ƒ(x)
x S -3 +
xS0
lim ƒ(x)
x S -3 xS0
x Sq
lim ƒ(x)
x S -q
y
2
1
2
3
4 5
6
x
2. For the function ƒ whose graph is given, determine the following
limits.
a. lim ƒ(x)
b. lim+ ƒ(x)
c. lim- ƒ(x)
xS2
g.
xS2
xS2
f.
lim + ƒ(x)
x S -3
lim ƒ(x)
x S -3 -
x S -3
h. lim+ ƒ(x)
i. lim- ƒ(x)
j. lim ƒ(x)
k. lim ƒ(x)
l.
lim ƒ(x)
xS0
xS0
- 5 + (7>x)
3 - (1>x2)
2 - t + sin t
t + cos t
lim ƒ(x)
x S -q
y
3
f
2
1
1
2x + 3
5x + 7
x + 1
15. ƒ(x) = 2
x + 3
13. ƒ(x) =
8. h(x) =
cos u
3u
r + sin r
12. lim
r Sq 2r + 7 - 5 sin r
lim
u S -q
2
3
4 5
6
x
2x3 + 7
x - x2 + x + 7
3x + 7
16. ƒ(x) = 2
x - 2
14. ƒ(x) =
3
7x3
x - 3x2 + 6x
18. h(x) =
9x4 + x
2x + 5x2 - x + 6
19. g(x) =
10x5 + x4 + 31
x6
20. g(x) =
x3 + 7x2 - 2
x2 - x + 1
21. f(x) =
3x7 + 5x2 - 1
6x3 - 7x + 3
22. h(x) =
5x8 - 2x3 + 9
3 + x - 4x5
3
4
Limits as x u H or x u − H
The process by which we determine limits of rational functions applies
equally well to ratios containing noninteger or negative powers of x:
Divide numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the
denominator and proceed from there. Find the limits in Exercises 23–36.
−2
−3
3 - (2>x)
4 + ( 22>x2)
17. h(x) =
xS0
x Sq
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1
2 + (1>x)
Limits of Rational Functions
In Exercises 13–22, find the limit of each rational function (a) as
x S q and (b) as x S - q.
−3
e.
11. lim
t S -q
−2
xS4
5. g(x) =
2
x2
1
6. g(x) =
8 - (5>x2)
4. ƒ(x) = p -
Find the limits in Exercises 9–12.
sin 2x
10.
9. lim x
x Sq
f
1
d. lim ƒ(x)
2
3. ƒ(x) = x - 3
7. h(x) =
3
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
In Exercises 3–8, find the limit of each function (a) as x S q and
(b) as x S - q. (You may wish to visualize your answer with a
graphing calculator or computer.)
23. lim
x Sq
8x2 - 3
A 2x2 + x
24.
lim ¢
x S -q
x2 + x - 1 1>3
≤
8x2 - 3
116
25.
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
lim ¢
xS - q
1 - x3 5
≤
x2 + 7x
2 2x + x-1
27. lim
q
S
3x - 7
x
3
29.
lim
xS - q
31. lim
xS q
33. lim
xS q
5
2x - 2x
3
5
2x + 2x
2x5>3 - x1>3 + 7
x8>5 + 3x + 2x
2
2x + 1
x + 1
x - 3
x S q 24x 2 + 25
35. lim
x2 - 5x
3
q
S
x
Ax + x - 2
26. lim
2 + 2x
28. lim
x S q 2 - 2x
34.
36.
lim
xS - q
2x - 5x + 3
2x + x
2>3
2
2x + 1
x + 1
4 - 3x3
x S - q 2x 6 + 9
lim
Infinite Limits
Find the limits in Exercises 37–48.
5
1
37. lim+
38. limx S 0 3x
x S 0 2x
3
1
39. lim40. lim+
xS2 x - 2
xS3 x - 3
2x
3x
41. lim +
42. lim x S -8 x + 8
x S -5 2x + 10
4
-1
43. lim
44. lim 2
x S 7 (x - 7)2
x S 0 x (x + 1)
2
x S 0 3x 1>3
2
46. a. lim+ 1>5
xS0 x
4
47. lim 2>5
xS0 x
45. a. lim+
2
x S 0 3x 1>3
2
b. lim- 1>5
xS0 x
b. lim-
48. lim
xS0
1
x2>3
lim tan x
x S (p>2)-
51. lim- (1 + csc u)
uS0
50.
lim
x S (-p>2) +
sec x
52. lim (2 - cot u)
uS0
Find the limits in Exercises 53–58.
1
53. lim 2
as
x - 4
a. x S 2+
b.
c. x S - 2+
d.
x
54. lim 2
as
x - 1
+
a. x S 1
b.
c. x S - 1+
d.
x S 2x S - 2x S 1x S - 1-
3
c. x S 22
x2 - 1
56. lim
as
2x + 4
a. x S -2+
c. x S 1+
e. What, if anything, can be said about the limit as x S 0?
Find the limits in Exercises 59–62.
3
b as
b. t S 0-
1
+ 7b as
t 3>5
a. t S 0+
b. t S 0-
59. lima2 -
t
1>3
a. t S 0+
60. lima
61. lima
1
2>3
+
x
a. x S 0+
c. x S 1+
2
b as
(x - 1)2>3
b. x S 0d. x S 1-
1
1
b as
x1>3
(x - 1)4>3
a. x S 0+
c. x S 1+
62. lima
b. x S 0d. x S 1-
1
x - 1
1
65. y =
2x + 4
x + 3
67. y =
x + 2
1
x + 1
-3
66. y =
x - 3
2x
68. y =
x + 1
63. y =
64. y =
Inventing Graphs and Functions
In Exercises 69–72, sketch the graph of a function y = ƒ(x) that satisfies the given conditions. No formulas are required—just label the
coordinate axes and sketch an appropriate graph. (The answers are not
unique, so your graphs may not be exactly like those in the answer
section.)
69. ƒ(0) = 0, ƒ(1) = 2, ƒ(- 1) = - 2, lim ƒ(x) = -1, and
x S -q
lim ƒ(x) = 1
2
x
1
55. lim a - x b as
2
a. x S 0+
- 4
b. x S - 2+
d. x S 1+
Graphing Simple Rational Functions
Graph the rational functions in Exercises 63–68. Include the graphs
and equations of the asymptotes and dominant terms.
Find the limits in Exercises 49–52.
49.
x2 - 3x + 2
as
x3 - 4x
+
a. x S 2
c. x S 0-
58. lim
3
lim
xS - q
b. x S 2+
d. x S 2
e. What, if anything, can be said about the limit as x S 0?
x-1 + x-4
q
S
x
x-2 - x-3
30. lim
32.
x2 - 3x + 2
as
x3 - 2x2
+
a. x S 0
c. x S 2-
57. lim
x Sq
b. x S 0d. x S - 1
70. ƒ(0) = 0, lim ƒ(x) = 0, lim+ ƒ(x) = 2, and
x S {q
lim ƒ(x) = -2
71. ƒ(0) = 0, lim ƒ(x) = 0, lim- ƒ(x) = lim + ƒ(x) = q,
x S {q
xS1
x S -1
lim ƒ(x) = - q, and lim ƒ(x) = - q
xS1 +
b. x S -2d. x S 0-
xS0
x S 0-
x S -1-
72. ƒ(2) = 1, ƒ(- 1) = 0, lim ƒ(x) = 0, lim+ ƒ(x) = q,
x Sq
xS0
lim ƒ(x) = - q, and lim ƒ(x) = 1
x S 0-
x S -q
2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs
In Exercises 73–76, find a function that satisfies the given conditions
and sketch its graph. (The answers here are not unique. Any function
that satisfies the conditions is acceptable. Feel free to use formulas
defined in pieces if that will help.)
73. lim ƒ(x) = 0, lim ƒ(x) = q, and lim ƒ(x) = q
74.
75.
x S {q
xS2
x S {q
xS3
xS2
-
+
lim g(x) = 0, lim- g(x) = - q, and lim+ g(x) = q
xS3
lim h(x) = -1, lim h(x) = 1, lim- h(x) = -1, and
xS - q
lim+ h(x) = 1
xS q
xS0
xS0
76.
lim k(x) = 1, lim- k(x) = q, and lim+ k(x) = - q
x S {q
xS1
xS1
77. Suppose that ƒ(x) and g(x) are polynomials in x and that
limx S q (ƒ(x)>g(x)) = 2. Can you conclude anything about
limx S - q (ƒ(x)>g(x))? Give reasons for your answer.
78. Suppose that ƒ(x) and g(x) are polynomials in x. Can the graph of
ƒ(x)>g(x) have an asymptote if g(x) is never zero? Give reasons
for your answer.
79. How many horizontal asymptotes can the graph of a given rational function have? Give reasons for your answer.
Finding Limits of Differences When x u t H
Find the limits in Exercises 80–86.
xS q
81. lim ( 2x2 + 25 - 2x2 - 1 )
xS q
82.
83.
lim
xS - q
xS -
x S c-
b. lim+ ƒ(x) = - q
xSc
c. lim- ƒ(x) = - q
xSc
Use the formal definitions from Exercise 93 to prove the limit statements in Exercises 94–98.
1
94. lim+ x = q
xS0
1
95. lim- x = - q
xS0
1
96. lim= -q
xS2 x - 2
1
97. lim+
= q
xS2 x - 2
1
98. lim= q
x S 1 1 - x2
Oblique Asymptotes
Graph the rational functions in Exercises 99–104. Include the graphs
and equations of the asymptotes.
100. y =
( 2x + 3 + x )
2
( 2x +
q
lim
Modify the definition to cover the following cases.
a. lim ƒ(x) = q
99. y =
80. lim ( 2x + 9 - 2x + 4 )
101. y =
24x2 + 3x - 2 )
102. y =
84. lim ( 29x2 - x - 3x )
xS q
85. lim ( 2x2 + 3x - 2x2 - 2x )
103. y =
xS q
86. lim ( 2x2 + x - 2x2 - x )
104. y =
xS q
Using the Formal Definitions
Use the formal definitions of limits as x S { q to establish the limits
in Exercises 87 and 88.
87. If ƒ has the constant value ƒ(x) = k, then lim ƒ(x) = k.
x Sq
88. If ƒ has the constant value ƒ(x) = k, then lim ƒ(x) = k.
x S -q
Use formal definitions to prove the limit statements in Exercises 89–92.
-1
= -q
x2
-2
= -q
91. lim
x S 3 (x - 3)2
89. lim
90. lim
xS0
xS0
92. lim
x S -5
1
0x0
= q
1
= q
(x + 5)2
93. Here is the definition of infinite right-hand limit.
We say that ƒ(x) approaches infinity as x approaches c from the
right, and write
lim ƒ(x) = q,
if, for every positive real number B, there exists a corresponding number d 7 0 such that for all x
c 6 x 6 c + d
1
x2
x - 1
x2 + 1
x - 1
x2 - 4
x - 1
x2 - 1
2x + 4
x2 - 1
x
x3 + 1
x2
Additional Graphing Exercises
T Graph the curves in Exercises 105–108. Explain the relationship
between the curve’s formula and what you see.
x
105. y =
24 - x2
-1
106. y =
24 - x2
1
107. y = x2>3 + 1>3
x
p
108. y = sin a 2
b
x + 1
T Graph the functions in Exercises 109 and 110. Then answer the following questions.
a. How does the graph behave as x S 0+?
b. How does the graph behave as x S { q?
c. How does the graph behave near x = 1 and x = -1?
x S c+
ƒ(x) 7 B.
117
Give reasons for your answers.
109. y =
3
1 2>3
ax - x b
2
110. y =
2>3
x
3
a
b
2 x - 1
118
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
Chapter
2
Questions to Guide Your Review
1. What is the average rate of change of the function g(t) over the
interval from t = a to t = b? How is it related to a secant line?
11. What conditions must be satisfied by a function if it is to be continuous at an interior point of its domain? At an endpoint?
2. What limit must be calculated to find the rate of change of a function g(t) at t = t0?
12. How can looking at the graph of a function help you tell where
the function is continuous?
3. Give an informal or intuitive definition of the limit
13. What does it mean for a function to be right-continuous at a
point? Left-continuous? How are continuity and one-sided continuity related?
lim ƒ(x) = L.
xSc
Why is the definition “informal”? Give examples.
4. Does the existence and value of the limit of a function ƒ(x) as x
approaches c ever depend on what happens at x = c? Explain
and give examples.
5. What function behaviors might occur for which the limit may fail
to exist? Give examples.
6. What theorems are available for calculating limits? Give examples of how the theorems are used.
7. How are one-sided limits related to limits? How can this relationship sometimes be used to calculate a limit or prove it does not
exist? Give examples.
8. What is the value of limu S 0 ((sin u)>u)? Does it matter whether u
is measured in degrees or radians? Explain.
9. What exactly does limx S c ƒ(x) = L mean? Give an example in
which you find a d 7 0 for a given ƒ, L, c, and P 7 0 in the precise definition of limit.
10. Give precise definitions of the following statements.
a. limx S 2- ƒ(x) = 5
c. limx S 2 ƒ(x) = q
Chapter
2
b. limx S 2+ ƒ(x) = 5
d. limx S 2 ƒ(x) = - q
14. What does it mean for a function to be continuous on an interval?
Give examples to illustrate the fact that a function that is not continuous on its entire domain may still be continuous on selected
intervals within the domain.
15. What are the basic types of discontinuity? Give an example of
each. What is a removable discontinuity? Give an example.
16. What does it mean for a function to have the Intermediate Value
Property? What conditions guarantee that a function has this
property over an interval? What are the consequences for graphing and solving the equation ƒ(x) = 0?
17. Under what circumstances can you extend a function ƒ(x) to be
continuous at a point x = c? Give an example.
18. What exactly do limx Sq ƒ(x) = L and limx S -q ƒ(x) = L mean?
Give examples.
19. What are limx S {q k (k a constant) and limx S {q (1>x)? How do
you extend these results to other functions? Give examples.
20. How do you find the limit of a rational function as x S { q?
Give examples.
21. What are horizontal and vertical asymptotes? Give examples.
Practice Exercises
Limits and Continuity
1. Graph the function
1,
-x,
ƒ(x) = e 1,
-x,
1,
x
-1
x
0
x
…
6
=
6
Ú
-1
x 6 0
0
x 6 1
1.
Then discuss, in detail, limits, one-sided limits, continuity, and
one-sided continuity of ƒ at x = - 1, 0, and 1. Are any of the
discontinuities removable? Explain.
2. Repeat the instructions of Exercise 1 for
0,
1>x,
ƒ(x) = d
0,
1,
x
0
x
x
…
6
=
7
-1
0x0 6 1
1
1.
3. Suppose that ƒ(t) and ƒ(t) are defined for all t and that limt S t0
ƒ(t) = - 7 and limt S t0 g(t) = 0. Find the limit as t S t0 of the
following functions.
a. 3ƒ(t)
b. (ƒ(t))2
c. ƒ(t) # g(t)
d.
e. cos (g(t))
g. ƒ(t) + g(t)
ƒ(t)
g(t) - 7
f. 0 ƒ(t) 0
h. 1>ƒ(t)
4. Suppose the functions ƒ(x) and g(x) are defined for all x and that
limx S 0 ƒ(x) = 1>2 and limx S 0 g(x) = 22. Find the limits as
x S 0 of the following functions.
a. -g(x)
b. g(x) # ƒ(x)
c. ƒ(x) + g(x)
d. 1>ƒ(x)
e. x + ƒ(x)
f.
ƒ(x) # cos x
x - 1
Chapter 2 Practice Exercises
c. It can be shown that the exact value of the solution in part (b) is
In Exercises 5 and 6, find the value that limx S 0 g(x) must have if the
given limit statements hold.
4 - g(x)
5. lim a
b = 1
6. lim ax lim g(x)b = 2
x
xS0
x S -4
xS0
a
b. g(x) = x3>4
c. h(x) = x-2>3
d. k(x) = x-1>6
T 34. Let ƒ(u) = u 3 - 2u + 2.
a. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that ƒ has a
zero between - 2 and 0.
8. On what intervals are the following functions continuous?
a. ƒ(x) = tan x
cos x
c. h(x) = x - p
b. g(x) = csc x
sin x
d. k(x) = x
b. Solve the equation ƒ(u) = 0 graphically with an error of
magnitude at most 10-4.
c. It can be shown that the exact value of the solution in part (b) is
Finding Limits
In Exercises 9–28, find the limit or explain why it does not exist.
x2 - 4x + 4
x + 5x2 - 14x
a. as x S 0
9. lim
1 - 2x
xS1 1 - x
(x + h)2 - x2
h
hS0
1
1
2 + x 2
15. lim
x
xS0
13. lim
x1>3 - 1
x S 1 2x - 1
tan (2x)
19. lim
x S 0 tan (px)
17. lim
x
21. lim sin a + sin xb
2
xSp
xS0
8x
3 sin x - x
25. lim+ ln (t - 3)
tS3
27. lim+ 2uecos (p>u)
uS0
b. as x S 2
b. as x S -1
x 2 - a2
x S a x 4 - a4
(x + h)2 - x2
14. lim
h
xS0
12. lim
(2 + x)3 - 8
x
xS0
16. lim
x2>3 - 16
x S 64 2x - 8
18. lim
20. lim- csc x
xSp
22. lim cos2 (x - tan x)
xSp
24. lim
xS0
cos 2x - 1
sin x
26. lim t ln ( 2 - 2t )
2
tS1
2e1>z
28. lim+ 1>z
zS0 e
+ 1
In Exercises 29–32, find the limit of g(x) as x approaches the indicated value.
1
= 2
30. lim
29. lim+ (4g(x))1>3 = 2
xS0
x S 25 x + g(x)
3x2 + 1 q
=
g(x)
xS1
31. lim
1>3
1>3
19
19
- 1b
- a
+ 1b .
A 27
A 27
Evaluate this exact answer and compare it with the value you
found in part (b).
2
11. lim
23. lim
a
3
x + x
x5 + 2x4 + x3
a. as x S 0
10. lim
269 1>3
269 1>3
1
1
+
b
+ a b .
2
18
2
18
Evaluate this exact answer and compare it with the value you
found in part (b).
7. On what intervals are the following functions continuous?
a. ƒ(x) = x1>3
119
32.
5 - x2
= 0
x S -2 2g(x)
lim
T Roots
33. Let ƒ(x) = x3 - x - 1.
a. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that ƒ has a
zero between - 1 and 2.
b. Solve the equation ƒ(x) = 0 graphically with an error of
magnitude at most 10-8.
Continuous Extension
35. Can ƒ(x) = x(x2 - 1)> 0 x2 - 1 0 be extended to be continuous at
x = 1 or - 1? Give reasons for your answers. (Graph the function—you will find the graph interesting.)
36. Explain why the function ƒ(x) = sin (1>x) has no continuous
extension to x = 0.
T In Exercises 37–40, graph the function to see whether it appears to have
a continuous extension to the given point a. If it does, use Trace and
Zoom to find a good candidate for the extended function’s value at a. If
the function does not appear to have a continuous extension, can it be
extended to be continuous from the right or left? If so, what do you
think the extended function’s value should be?
x - 1
37. ƒ(x) =
, a = 1
4
x - 2
x
5 cos u
, a = p>2
38. g(u) =
4u - 2p
39. h(t) = ( 1 + 0 t 0 ) 1>t, a = 0
x
40. k(x) =
, a = 0
1 - 20 x 0
Limits at Infinity
Find the limits in Exercises 41–54.
2x + 3
41. lim
42.
x S q 5x + 7
2x2 + 3
5x2 + 7
x2 - 4x + 8
1
43. lim
44. lim 2
xS - q
x S q x - 7x + 1
3x3
x2 - 7x
x4 + x3
45. lim
46. lim
q
q
S
S
x
+
1
x x
12x3 + 128
(If you have a grapher, try graphing the function
sin x
47. lim
xS q : x ;
for - 5 … x … 5.)
lim
xS - q
(If you have a grapher, try graphing
ƒ(x) = x (cos (1>x) - 1) near the origin to
“see” the limit at infinity.)
x + sin x + 2 2x
x2>3 + x-1
49. lim
50. lim 2>3
x + sin x
xS q
xS q x
+ cos2 x
cos u - 1
u
uS q
48. lim
1
51. lim e1>x cos x
xS q
53.
lim tan-1 x
xS - q
1
52. lim ln a1 + t b
tS q
54.
1
lim e3t sin-1 t
tS - q
120
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes
55. Use limits to determine the equations for all vertical asymptotes.
x2 + 4
a. y =
x - 3
x2 + x - 6
c. y = 2
x + 2x - 8
Chapter
T
2
x2 - x - 2
b. ƒ(x) = 2
x - 2x + 1
a. y =
1 - x2
x2 + 1
c. g(x) =
b. ƒ(x) =
2x2 + 4
x
d. y =
2x + 4
2x + 4
x2 + 9
B 9x2 + 1
Additional and Advanced Exercises
1. Assigning a value to 00 The rules of exponents tell us that
a0 = 1 if a is any number different from zero. They also tell us
that 0n = 0 if n is any positive number.
If we tried to extend these rules to include the case 00, we
would get conflicting results. The first rule would say 00 = 1,
whereas the second would say 00 = 0.
We are not dealing with a question of right or wrong here.
Neither rule applies as it stands, so there is no contradiction. We
could, in fact, define 00 to have any value we wanted as long as
we could persuade others to agree.
What value would you like 00 to have? Here is an example
that might help you to decide. (See Exercise 2 below for another
example.)
a. Calculate xx for x = 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, and so on as far as
your calculator can go. Record the values you get. What
pattern do you see?
b. Graph the function y = xx for 0 6 x … 1. Even though the
function is not defined for x … 0, the graph will approach
the y-axis from the right. Toward what y-value does it seem
to be headed? Zoom in to further support your idea.
T
56. Use limits to determine the equations for all horizontal asymptotes.
2. A reason you might want 00 to be something other than 0 or 1
As the number x increases through positive values, the numbers
1>x and 1 > (ln x) both approach zero. What happens to the number
1 1>(ln x)
ƒ(x) = a x b
as x increases? Here are two ways to find out.
a. Evaluate ƒ for x = 10, 100, 1000, and so on as far as your
calculator can reasonably go. What pattern do you see?
b. Graph ƒ in a variety of graphing windows, including windows that contain the origin. What do you see? Trace the
y-values along the graph. What do you find?
3. Lorentz contraction In relativity theory, the length of an
object, say a rocket, appears to an observer to depend on the
speed at which the object is traveling with respect to the observer.
If the observer measures the rocket’s length as L 0 at rest, then at
speed y the length will appear to be
L = L0
B
1 -
y2
.
c2
This equation is the Lorentz contraction formula. Here, c is the
speed of light in a vacuum, about 3 * 108 m>sec. What happens
to L as y increases? Find limy S c- L. Why was the left-hand limit
needed?
4. Controlling the flow from a draining tank Torricelli’s law
says that if you drain a tank like the one in the figure shown, the
rate y at which water runs out is a constant times the square root
of the water’s depth x. The constant depends on the size and
shape of the exit valve.
x
Exit rate y ft3!min
Suppose that y = 2x>2 for a certain tank. You are trying to
maintain a fairly constant exit rate by adding water to the tank
with a hose from time to time. How deep must you keep the water
if you want to maintain the exit rate
a. within 0.2 ft3 >min of the rate y0 = 1 ft3 >min?
b. within 0.1 ft3 >min of the rate y0 = 1 ft3 >min?
5. Thermal expansion in precise equipment As you may know,
most metals expand when heated and contract when cooled. The
dimensions of a piece of laboratory equipment are sometimes so
critical that the shop where the equipment is made must be held
at the same temperature as the laboratory where the equipment is
to be used. A typical aluminum bar that is 10 cm wide at 70°F
will be
y = 10 + (t - 70) * 10-4
centimeters wide at a nearby temperature t. Suppose that you are
using a bar like this in a gravity wave detector, where its width
must stay within 0.0005 cm of the ideal 10 cm. How close to
t0 = 70°F must you maintain the temperature to ensure that this
tolerance is not exceeded?
6. Stripes on a measuring cup The interior of a typical 1-L measuring cup is a right circular cylinder of radius 6 cm (see accompanying figure). The volume of water we put in the cup is therefore a function of the level h to which the cup is filled, the
formula being
V = p62h = 36ph.
How closely must we measure h to measure out 1 L of water
(1000 cm3) with an error of no more than 1% (10 cm3)?
Chapter 2 Additional and Advanced Exercises
121
17. A function continuous at only one point Let
ƒ(x) = e
x, if x is rational
0, if x is irrational.
a. Show that ƒ is continuous at x = 0.
Stripes
about
1 mm
wide
b. Use the fact that every nonempty open interval of real numbers contains both rational and irrational numbers to show
that ƒ is not continuous at any nonzero value of x.
18. The Dirichlet ruler function If x is a rational number, then x
can be written in a unique way as a quotient of integers m>n
where n 7 0 and m and n have no common factors greater than
1. (We say that such a fraction is in lowest terms. For example,
6>4 written in lowest terms is 3>2.) Let ƒ(x) be defined for all x
in the interval 30, 14 by
(a)
r = 6 cm
Liquid volume
V = 36ph
h
ƒ(x) = e
1>n, if x = m>n is a rational number in lowest terms
0,
if x is irrational.
For instance, ƒ(0) = ƒ(1) = 1, ƒ(1>2) = 1>2, ƒ(1>3) = ƒ(2>3) =
1>3, ƒ(1>4) = ƒ(3>4) = 1>4, and so on.
a. Show that ƒ is discontinuous at every rational number in 30, 14 .
A 1-L measuring cup (a), modeled as a right circular cylinder (b)
of radius r = 6 cm
b. Show that ƒ is continuous at every irrational number in 30, 14 .
(Hint: If P is a given positive number, show that there are only
finitely many rational numbers r in 30, 14 such that ƒ(r) Ú P.)
Precise Definition of Limit
In Exercises 7–10, use the formal definition of limit to prove that the
function is continuous at c.
19. Antipodal points Is there any reason to believe that there is
always a pair of antipodal (diametrically opposite) points on
Earth’s equator where the temperatures are the same? Explain.
(b)
7. ƒ(x) = x2 - 7, c = 1
9. h(x) = 22x - 3, c = 2
8. g(x) = 1>(2x), c = 1>4
10. F(x) = 29 - x, c = 5
11. Uniqueness of limits Show that a function cannot have two different limits at the same point. That is, if limx S c ƒ(x) = L 1 and
limx S c ƒ(x) = L 2, then L 1 = L 2.
12. Prove the limit Constant Multiple Rule:
lim kƒ(x) = k lim ƒ(x) for any constant k.
xSc
13. One-sided limits
find
xSc
If limx S 0+ ƒ(x) = A and limx S 0- ƒ(x) = B,
a. limx S 0+ ƒ(x3 - x)
b. limx S 0- ƒ(x3 - x)
c. limx S 0+ ƒ(x2 - x4)
d. limx S 0- ƒ(x2 - x4)
14. Limits and continuity Which of the following statements are
true, and which are false? If true, say why; if false, give a counterexample (that is, an example confirming the falsehood).
a. If limx S c ƒ(x) exists but limx S c g(x) does not exist, then
limx S c(ƒ(x) + g(x)) does not exist.
b. If neither limx S c ƒ(x) nor limx S c g(x) exists, then
limx S c (ƒ(x) + g(x)) does not exist.
c. If ƒ is continuous at x, then so is 0 ƒ 0 .
d. If 0 ƒ 0 is continuous at c, then so is ƒ.
In Exercises 15 and 16, use the formal definition of limit to prove that
the function has a continuous extension to the given value of x.
15. ƒ(x) =
x2 - 1
, x = -1
x + 1
16. g(x) =
x2 - 2x - 3
, x = 3
2x - 6
c. Sketch the graph of ƒ. Why do you think ƒ is called the
“ruler function”?
20. If limx S c (ƒ(x) + g(x)) = 3 and limx S c (ƒ(x) - g(x)) = - 1, find
limx S c ƒ(x)g(x).
21. Roots of a quadratic equation that is almost linear The equation ax2 + 2x - 1 = 0, where a is a constant, has two roots if
a 7 - 1 and a ≠ 0, one positive and one negative:
r+(a) =
- 1 + 21 + a
,
a
r-(a) =
- 1 - 21 + a
,
a
a. What happens to r+(a) as a S 0? As a S - 1+?
b. What happens to r-(a) as a S 0? As a S - 1+?
c. Support your conclusions by graphing r+(a) and r-(a) as
functions of a. Describe what you see.
d. For added support, graph ƒ(x) = ax2 + 2x - 1 simultaneously for a = 1, 0.5, 0.2, 0.1, and 0.05.
22. Root of an equation Show that the equation x + 2 cos x = 0
has at least one solution.
23. Bounded functions A real-valued function ƒ is bounded from
above on a set D if there exists a number N such that ƒ(x) … N
for all x in D. We call N, when it exists, an upper bound for ƒ on
D and say that ƒ is bounded from above by N. In a similar manner, we say that ƒ is bounded from below on D if there exists a
number M such that ƒ(x) Ú M for all x in D. We call M, when it
exists, a lower bound for ƒ on D and say that ƒ is bounded from
below by M. We say that ƒ is bounded on D if it is bounded from
both above and below.
a. Show that ƒ is bounded on D if and only if there exists a
number B such that 0 ƒ(x) 0 … B for all x in D.
122
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
b. Suppose that ƒ is bounded from above by N. Show that if
limx S c ƒ(x) = L, then L … N.
c. Suppose that ƒ is bounded from below by M. Show that if
limx S c ƒ(x) = L, then L Ú M.
24. Max 5a, b6 and min 5a, b6
a. Show that the expression
max 5a, b6 =
0a - b0
a + b
+
2
2
equals a if a Ú b and equals b if b Ú a. In other words,
max 5a, b6 gives the larger of the two numbers a and b.
b. Find a similar expression for min 5a, b6, the smaller of a
and b.
sin U
U
The formula limu S 0 (sin u)>u = 1 can be generalized. If limx S c
ƒ(x) = 0 and ƒ(x) is never zero in an open interval containing the
point x = c, except possibly c itself, then
Generalized Limits Involving
lim
xSc
sin ƒ(x)
= 1.
ƒ(x)
Here are several examples.
sin (x2 - x - 2)
sin (x2 - x - 2) #
= lim
x + 1
x S -1
x S -1 (x 2 - x - 2)
c. lim
lim
x S -1
(x2 - x - 2)
(x + 1)(x - 2)
= 1 # lim
= -3
S
x + 1
x + 1
x -1
sin 1 1 - 2x 2
sin 1 1 - 2x 2 1 - 2x
= lim
=
x - 1
x - 1
xS1
xS1
1 - 2x
d. lim
1 # lim
xS1
11
- 2x 21 1 + 2x 2
(x - 1)1 1 + 2x 2
28. lim
sin ( x2 - 4 )
x - 2
xS2
30. lim
29. lim
2x3>2 + 2x - 3
2x + 1
33. y = 2x2 + 1
2
xS9
sin 1 2x - 3 2
x - 9
Oblique Asymptotes
Find all possible oblique asymptotes in Exercises 31–34.
sin x2
sin x2
x2
= lim 2 lim x = 1 # 0 = 0
xS0 x
xS0 x
xS0
Chapter
1 - x
1
= 2
- 1)1 1 + 2x 2
sin ( x2 + x )
x
xS0
sin (sin x)
x
xS0
27. lim
31. y =
b. lim
x S 1 (x
Find the limits in Exercises 25–30.
sin (1 - cos x)
sin x
25. lim
26. lim+
x
S
x 0
x S 0 sin 2x
sin x2
= 1
x S 0 x2
a. lim
= lim
1
32. y = x + x sin x
34. y = 2x2 + 2x
Technology Application Projects
Mathematica/Maple Modules:
Take It to the Limit
Part I
Part II (Zero Raised to the Power Zero: What Does It Mean?)
Part III (One-Sided Limits)
Visualize and interpret the limit concept through graphical and numerical explorations.
Part IV (What a Difference a Power Makes)
See how sensitive limits can be with various powers of x.
Going to Infinity
Part I (Exploring Function Behavior as x u H or x u − H )
This module provides four examples to explore the behavior of a function as x S q or x S - q .
Part II (Rates of Growth)
Observe graphs that appear to be continuous, yet the function is not continuous. Several issues of continuity are explored to obtain results that you
may find surprising.
3
Derivatives
OVERVIEW In the beginning of Chapter 2, we discussed how to determine the slope of a
curve at a point and how to measure the rate at which a function changes. Now that we have
studied limits, we can define these ideas precisely and see that both are interpretations of
the derivative of a function at a point. We then extend this concept from a single point to the
derivative function, and we develop rules for finding this derivative function easily, without
having to calculate any limits directly. These rules are used to find derivatives of most of the
common functions reviewed in Chapter 1, as well as various combinations of them.
The derivative is one of the key ideas in calculus, and is used to study a wide range of
problems in mathematics, science, economics, and medicine. These problems include
finding points where a continuous function is zero, calculating the velocity and acceleration of a moving object, determining how the rate of flow of a liquid into a container
changes the level of the liquid within it, describing the path followed by a light ray going
from a point in air to a point in water, finding the number of items a manufacturing company should produce in order to maximize its profits, studying the spread of an infectious
disease within a given population, or calculating the amount of blood the heart pumps in a
minute based on how well the lungs are functioning.
3.1 Tangents and the Derivative at a Point
In this section we define the slope and tangent to a curve at a point, and the derivative of a
function at a point. The derivative gives a way to find both the slope of a graph and the
instantaneous rate of change of a function.
Finding a Tangent to the Graph of a Function
y
y = f (x)
Q(x 0 + h, f (x 0 + h))
f (x 0 + h) − f (x 0)
P(x 0, f(x 0))
DEFINITIONS The slope of the curve y = ƒ(x) at the point P(x0, ƒ(x0)) is the
number
h
0
x0
FIGURE 3.1
To find a tangent to an arbitrary curve y = ƒ(x) at a point P(x0, ƒ(x0)), we use the procedure
introduced in Section 2.1. We calculate the slope of the secant through P and a nearby point
Q(x0 + h, ƒ(x0 + h)). We then investigate the limit of the slope as h S 0 (Figure 3.1). If
the limit exists, we call it the slope of the curve at P and define the tangent at P to be the
line through P having this slope.
x0 + h
The slope of the tangent
ƒ(x0 + h) - ƒ(x0)
.
line at P is lim
h
hS0
x
m = lim
hS0
ƒ(x0 + h) - ƒ(x0)
h
(provided the limit exists).
The tangent line to the curve at P is the line through P with this slope.
123
124
Chapter 3: Derivatives
In Section 2.1, Example 3, we applied these definitions to find the slope of the parabola ƒ(x) = x2 at the point P(2, 4) and the tangent line to the parabola at P. Let’s look at
another example.
y
y = 1x
slope is −
0
1
a2
EXAMPLE 1
x
a
slope is −1
at x = −1
(a) Find the slope of the curve y = 1>x at any point x = a ≠ 0. What is the slope at the
point x = -1?
(b) Where does the slope equal -1>4?
(c) What happens to the tangent to the curve at the point (a, 1>a) as a changes?
Solution
(a) Here ƒ(x) = 1>x. The slope at (a, 1>a) is
1
1
a + h a
ƒ(a + h) - ƒ(a)
1 a - (a + h)
= lim
lim
= lim
h
hS0
hS0
h S 0 h a(a + h)
h
FIGURE 3.2 The tangent slopes, steep
near the origin, become more gradual as
the point of tangency moves away
(Example 1).
= lim
hS0
y
y = 1x
slope is −
1
4
1
a2, b
2
x
1
a−2, − 2b
1
slope is −
4
FIGURE 3.3 The two tangent lines to
y = 1>x having slope - 1>4 (Example 1).
-h
-1
1
= lim
= - 2.
ha(a + h) h S 0 a(a + h)
a
Notice how we had to keep writing “limh S 0” before each fraction until the stage
at which we could evaluate the limit by substituting h = 0. The number a may be
positive or negative, but not 0. When a = -1, the slope is -1>(-1)2 = -1
(Figure 3.2).
(b) The slope of y = 1>x at the point where x = a is -1>a2. It will be -1>4 provided
that
-
1
1
= - .
4
a2
This equation is equivalent to a2 = 4, so a = 2 or a = -2. The curve has slope
-1>4 at the two points (2, 1>2) and (-2, -1>2) (Figure 3.3).
(c) The slope -1>a2 is always negative if a ≠ 0. As a S 0+, the slope approaches - q
and the tangent becomes increasingly steep (Figure 3.2). We see this situation again as
a S 0-. As a moves away from the origin in either direction, the slope approaches 0
and the tangent levels off becoming more and more horizontal.
Rates of Change: Derivative at a Point
The expression
ƒ(x0 + h) - ƒ(x0)
, h ≠ 0
h
is called the difference quotient of ƒ at x0 with increment h. If the difference quotient
has a limit as h approaches zero, that limit is given a special name and notation.
DEFINITION The derivative of a function ƒ at a point x0 , denoted ƒ′(x0), is
The notation ƒ′(x0) is read “ƒ prime of x0.”
ƒ′(x0) = lim
hS0
provided this limit exists.
ƒ(x0 + h) - ƒ(x0)
h
3.1 Tangents and the Derivative at a Point
125
If we interpret the difference quotient as the slope of a secant line, then the derivative
gives the slope of the curve y = ƒ(x) at the point P(x0, ƒ(x0)). Exercise 33 shows that the
derivative of the linear function ƒ(x) = mx + b at any point x0 is simply the slope of the
line, so
ƒ′(x0) = m,
which is consistent with our definition of slope.
If we interpret the difference quotient as an average rate of change (Section 2.1), the
derivative gives the function’s instantaneous rate of change with respect to x at the point
x = x0. We study this interpretation in Section 3.4.
EXAMPLE 2
In Examples 1 and 2 in Section 2.1, we studied the speed of a rock falling freely from rest near the surface of the earth. We knew that the rock fell y = 16t 2 feet
during the first t sec, and we used a sequence of average rates over increasingly short intervals to estimate the rock’s speed at the instant t = 1. What was the rock’s exact speed at
this time?
Solution We let ƒ(t) = 16t 2. The average speed of the rock over the interval between
t = 1 and t = 1 + h seconds, for h 7 0, was found to be
ƒ(1 + h) - ƒ(1) 16(1 + h)2 - 16(1)2 16(h2 + 2h)
=
=
= 16(h + 2).
h
h
h
The rock’s speed at the instant t = 1 is then
ƒ′(1) = lim 16(h + 2) = 16(0 + 2) = 32 ft>sec.
hS0
Our original estimate of 32 ft>sec in Section 2.1 was right.
Summary
We have been discussing slopes of curves, lines tangent to a curve, the rate of change of a
function, and the derivative of a function at a point. All of these ideas refer to the same
limit.
The following are all interpretations for the limit of the difference quotient,
lim
hS0
ƒ(x0 + h) - ƒ(x0)
.
h
1. The slope of the graph of y = ƒ(x) at x = x0
2. The slope of the tangent to the curve y = ƒ(x) at x = x0
3. The rate of change of ƒ(x) with respect to x at x = x0
4. The derivative ƒ′(x0) at a point
In the next sections, we allow the point x0 to vary across the domain of the function ƒ.
126
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Exercises
3.1
Slopes and Tangent Lines
In Exercises 1–4, use the grid and a straight edge to make a rough
estimate of the slope of the curve (in y-units per x-unit) at the points
P1 and P2.
1.
2.
y
y
2
p
P2
2
P2
1
1
−2
0
−1
1
x
2
0
−2
3.
4.
c. The quadratic curve capturing the trend of the data points
(see Section 1.4) is given by P(t) = 6.10t 2 - 9.28t + 16.43.
Find the instantaneous rate of growth when t = 5 hours.
y
4
2
24. Effectiveness of a drug On a scale from 0 to 1, the effectiveness E of a pain-killing drug t hours after entering the bloodstream is displayed in the accompanying figure.
3
P2
2
P1
P2
E
1
0
1
2
x
−2
−1
0
1
2
x
In Exercises 5–10, find an equation for the tangent to the curve at the
given point. Then sketch the curve and tangent together.
5. y = 4 - x2, (-1, 3)
7. y = 2 2x, (1, 2)
9. y = x3, (- 2, - 8)
6. y = (x - 1)2 + 1, (1, 1)
1
8. y = 2 , (-1, 1)
x
1
10. y = 3 ,
x
1
a- 2, - b
8
In Exercises 11–18, find the slope of the function’s graph at the given
point. Then find an equation for the line tangent to the graph there.
2
2
11. ƒ(x) = x + 1, (2, 5)
12. ƒ(x) = x - 2x , (1, - 1)
x
13. g(x) =
, (3, 3)
x - 2
8
14. g(x) = 2 , (2, 2)
x
15. h(t) = t 3, (2, 8)
16. h(t) = t 3 + 3t, (1, 4)
17. ƒ(x) = 2x, (4, 2)
18. ƒ(x) = 2x + 1, (8, 3)
19. y = 5x - 3x2, x = 1
20. y = x3 - 2x + 7, x = - 2
In Exercises 19–22, find the slope of the curve at the point indicated.
21. y =
1
, x = 3
x - 1
t
b. Which is larger, P′(2) or P′(3)? Give a reason for your
answer.
y
P1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a. Explain what is meant by the derivative P′(5). What are its
units?
x
1
250
200
150
100
50
0
P1 −1
P1
1
Interpreting Derivative Values
23. Growth of yeast cells In a controlled laboratory experiment,
yeast cells are grown in an automated cell culture system that
counts the number P of cells present at hourly intervals. The number after t hours is shown in the accompanying figure.
22. y =
x - 1
, x = 0
x + 1
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
2
3
4
5
t
a. At what times does the effectiveness appear to be increasing?
What is true about the derivative at those times?
b. At what time would you estimate that the drug reaches its
maximum effectiveness? What is true about the derivative at
that time? What is true about the derivative as time increases
in the 1 hour before your estimated time?
At what points do the graphs of the functions in Exercises 25 and 26
have horizontal tangents?
25. ƒ(x) = x2 + 4x - 1
26. g(x) = x3 - 3x
27. Find equations of all lines having slope - 1 that are tangent to the
curve y = 1>(x - 1).
28. Find an equation of the straight line having slope 1>4 that is tangent to the curve y = 2x.
Rates of Change
29. Object dropped from a tower An object is dropped from the
top of a 100-m-high tower. Its height above ground after t sec is
100 - 4.9t 2 m. How fast is it falling 2 sec after it is dropped?
3.1 Tangents and the Derivative at a Point
30. Speed of a rocket At t sec after liftoff, the height of a rocket is
3t 2 ft. How fast is the rocket climbing 10 sec after liftoff?
127
does not exist, because the limit is q from the right and - q from the
left.
31. Circle’s changing area What is the rate of change of the area
of a circle ( A = pr 2 ) with respect to the radius when the radius
is r = 3?
y
y = g(x) = x 2#3
32. Ball’s changing volume What is the rate of change of the volume of a ball ( V = (4>3)pr 3 ) with respect to the radius when
the radius is r = 2?
33. Show that the line y = mx + b is its own tangent line at any
point (x0, mx0 + b).
34. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 1> 2x at the point
where x = 4.
NO VERTICAL TANGENT AT ORIGIN
37. Does the graph of
- 1, x 6 0
ƒ(x) = c 0, x = 0
1, x 7 0
Testing for Tangents
35. Does the graph of
ƒ(x) = e
x2 sin (1>x), x ≠ 0
0,
x = 0
x
0
have a vertical tangent at the origin? Give reasons for your answer.
38. Does the graph of
have a tangent at the origin? Give reasons for your answer.
U(x) = e
36. Does the graph of
g(x) = e
x sin (1>x), x ≠ 0
0,
x = 0
have a tangent at the origin? Give reasons for your answer.
Vertical Tangents
We say that a continuous curve y = ƒ(x) has a vertical tangent at the
point where x = x0 if the limit of the difference quotient is q or - q.
For example, y = x1>3 has a vertical tangent at x = 0 (see accompanying figure):
ƒ(0 + h) - ƒ(0)
h1>3 - 0
lim
= lim
h
h
hS0
hS0
1
= lim 2>3 = q.
hS0 h
y
y = f(x) =
x 1#3
0, x 6 0
1, x Ú 0
have a vertical tangent at the point (0, 1)? Give reasons for your
answer.
T Graph the curves in Exercises 39–48.
a. Where do the graphs appear to have vertical tangents?
b. Confirm your findings in part (a) with limit calculations. But
before you do, read the introduction to Exercises 37 and 38.
39. y = x2>5
40. y = x4>5
1>5
42. y = x3>5
41. y = x
43. y = 4x2>5 - 2x
45. y = x
2>3
47. y = e
44. y = x5>3 - 5x2>3
- (x - 1)
1>3
46. y = x1>3 + (x - 1)1>3
- 20x0, x … 0
2x,
x 7 0
48. y = 2 0 4 - x 0
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
Use a CAS to perform the following steps for the functions in Exercises 49–52:
a. Plot y = ƒ(x) over the interval (x0 - 1>2) … x … (x0 + 3).
x
0
b. Holding x0 fixed, the difference quotient
q(h) =
VERTICAL TANGENT AT ORIGIN
However, y = x2>3 has no vertical tangent at x = 0 (see next figure):
g(0 + h) - g(0)
h2>3 - 0
= lim
h
h
hS0
hS0
lim
1
= lim 1>3
hS0 h
ƒ(x0 + h) - ƒ(x0)
h
at x0 becomes a function of the step size h. Enter this function
into your CAS workspace.
c. Find the limit of q as h S 0.
d. Define the secant lines y = ƒ(x0) + q # (x - x0) for h = 3, 2,
and 1. Graph them together with ƒ and the tangent line over
the interval in part (a).
49. ƒ(x) = x3 + 2x, x0 = 0
5
50. ƒ(x) = x + x , x0 = 1
51. ƒ(x) = x + sin (2x), x0 = p>2
52. ƒ(x) = cos x + 4 sin (2x), x0 = p
128
Chapter 3: Derivatives
3.2 The Derivative as a Function
In the last section we defined the derivative of y = ƒ(x) at the point x = x0 to be the limit
ƒ(x0 + h) - ƒ(x0)
.
h
hS0
HISTORICAL ESSAY
ƒ′(x0) = lim
The Derivative
We now investigate the derivative as a function derived from ƒ by considering the limit at
each point x in the domain of ƒ.
DEFINITION The derivative of the function ƒ(x) with respect to the variable x is
the function ƒ′ whose value at x is
ƒ′(x) = lim
hS0
ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x)
,
h
provided the limit exists.
y = f (x)
Secant slope is
f (z) − f (x)
z−x
Q(z, f (z))
f (z) − f (x)
P(x, f (x))
h=z−x
x
z=x+h
We use the notation ƒ(x) in the definition to emphasize the independent variable x
with respect to which the derivative function ƒ′(x) is being defined. The domain of ƒ′ is
the set of points in the domain of ƒ for which the limit exists, which means that the domain
may be the same as or smaller than the domain of ƒ. If ƒ′ exists at a particular x, we say
that ƒ is differentiable (has a derivative) at x. If ƒ′ exists at every point in the domain of
ƒ, we call ƒ differentiable.
If we write z = x + h, then h = z - x and h approaches 0 if and only if z approaches
x. Therefore, an equivalent definition of the derivative is as follows (see Figure 3.4). This
formula is sometimes more convenient to use when finding a derivative function, and
focuses on the point z that approaches x.
Derivative of f at x is
f (x + h) − f(x)
f '(x) = lim
h
h:0
= lim
z :x
f (z) − f (x)
z−x
FIGURE 3.4 Two forms for the difference quotient.
Alternative Formula for the Derivative
ƒ′(x) = lim
zSx
ƒ(z) - ƒ(x)
z - x
Calculating Derivatives from the Definition
The process of calculating a derivative is called differentiation. To emphasize the idea
that differentiation is an operation performed on a function y = ƒ(x), we use the notation
d
ƒ(x)
dx
Derivative of the Reciprocal Function
d 1
1
a b = - 2, x ≠ 0
dx x
x
as another way to denote the derivative ƒ′(x). Example 1 of Section 3.1 illustrated the differentiation process for the function y = 1>x when x = a. For x representing any point in
the domain, we get the formula
d 1
1
a b = - 2.
dx x
x
Here are two more examples in which we allow x to be any point in the domain of ƒ.
3.2 The Derivative as a Function
EXAMPLE 1
Differentiate ƒ(x) =
129
x
.
x - 1
Solution We use the definition of derivative, which requires us to calculate ƒ(x + h)
and then subtract ƒ(x) to obtain the numerator in the difference quotient. We have
(x + h)
x
, so
and ƒ(x + h) =
x - 1
(x + h) - 1
ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x)
ƒ′(x) = lim
Definition
h
hS0
x + h
x
x + h - 1 x - 1
= lim
hS0
h
1 (x + h) (x - 1) - x(x + h - 1)
a
c
ad - cb
= lim #
- =
b
d
bd
(x + h - 1) (x - 1)
hS0 h
ƒ(x) =
= lim
1#
hS0 h
= lim
h S 0 (x
-h
(x + h - 1) (x - 1)
Simplify.
-1
-1
=
.
+ h - 1) (x - 1) (x - 1)2
Cancel h ≠ 0.
EXAMPLE 2
(a) Find the derivative of ƒ(x) = 2x for x 7 0.
(b) Find the tangent line to the curve y = 2x at x = 4.
Solution
(a) We use the alternative formula to calculate ƒ′:
Derivative of the Square Root
Function
d
1
2x =
, x 7 0
dx
2 2x
ƒ′(x) = lim
zSx
= lim
zSx
= lim
zSx
= lim
y
zSx
y = 1x + 1
4
(4, 2)
(b) The slope of the curve at x = 4 is
ƒ(z) - ƒ(x)
z - x
1z - 1x
z - x
1 1z
1
0
4
FIGURE 3.5 The curve y = 2x and
its tangent at (4, 2). The tangent’s slope
is found by evaluating the derivative at
x = 4 (Example 2).
x
- 1x 21 1z + 1x 2
1
1z + 1x
ƒ′(4) =
y = "x
1z - 1x
=
1
.
2 1x
1
1
= .
2 24 4
The tangent is the line through the point (4, 2) with slope 1>4 (Figure 3.5):
y = 2 +
y =
1
(x - 4)
4
1
x + 1.
4
Notations
There are many ways to denote the derivative of a function y = ƒ(x), where the independent variable is x and the dependent variable is y. Some common alternative notations for
the derivative are
ƒ′(x) = y′ =
dy dƒ
d
=
=
ƒ(x) = D(ƒ)(x) = Dx ƒ(x).
dx
dx
dx
130
Chapter 3: Derivatives
y
The symbols d>dx and D indicate the operation of differentiation. We read dy>dx as
“the derivative of y with respect to x,” and dƒ>dx and (d>dx) ƒ(x) as “the derivative of ƒ
with respect to x.” The “prime” notations y′ and ƒ′ come from notations that Newton
used for derivatives. The d>dx notations are similar to those used by Leibniz. The symbol dy>dx should not be regarded as a ratio (until we introduce the idea of “differentials” in Section 3.11).
To indicate the value of a derivative at a specified number x = a, we use the notation
Slope 0
A
10
Slope −1
B
C
Slope − 4
3 E
≈8
D
Slope 0
5
0
y = f (x)
≈ 4 x-units
10
15
5
ƒ′(a) =
x
For instance, in Example 2
(a)
ƒ′(4) =
Slope
4
A'
3
y = f '(x)
2
1
E′
−1
−2
D′
10
5
C′
dy
df
d
`
=
`
=
ƒ(x) ` .
dx x = a dx x = a dx
x=a
d
1
1
1
2x `
=
`
=
= .
dx
2 1x x = 4 2 24 4
x=4
Graphing the Derivative
15
x
B′
Vertical coordinate −1
We can often make a reasonable plot of the derivative of y = ƒ(x) by estimating the slopes
on the graph of ƒ. That is, we plot the points (x, ƒ′(x)) in the xy-plane and connect them
with a smooth curve, which represents y = ƒ′(x).
EXAMPLE 3
Graph the derivative of the function y = ƒ(x) in Figure 3.6a.
Solution We sketch the tangents to the graph of ƒ at frequent intervals and use their
slopes to estimate the values of ƒ′(x) at these points. We plot the corresponding (x, ƒ′(x))
pairs and connect them with a smooth curve as sketched in Figure 3.6b.
(b)
FIGURE 3.6 We made the graph of
y = ƒ′(x) in (b) by plotting slopes from
the graph of y = ƒ(x) in (a). The vertical
coordinate of B′ is the slope at B and so
on. The slope at E is approximately
8>4 = 2. In (b) we see that the rate of
change of ƒ is negative for x between A′
and D′; the rate of change is positive for
x to the right of D′.
What can we learn from the graph of y = ƒ′(x)? At a glance we can see
1.
2.
3.
where the rate of change of ƒ is positive, negative, or zero;
the rough size of the growth rate at any x and its size in relation to the size of ƒ(x);
where the rate of change itself is increasing or decreasing.
Differentiable on an Interval; One-Sided Derivatives
A function y = ƒ(x) is differentiable on an open interval (finite or infinite) if it has a
derivative at each point of the interval. It is differentiable on a closed interval 3 a, b4 if it
is differentiable on the interior (a, b) and if the limits
lim+
ƒ(a + h) - ƒ(a)
h
Right-hand derivative at a
lim-
ƒ(b + h) - ƒ(b)
h
Left-hand derivative at b
hS0
Slope =
f (a + h) − f (a)
lim +
h
h:0
Slope =
f (b + h) − f (b)
lim
h
h:0−
hS0
exist at the endpoints (Figure 3.7).
Right-hand and left-hand derivatives may be defined at any point of a function’s domain.
Because of Theorem 6, Section 2.4, a function has a derivative at a point if and only if it has
left-hand and right-hand derivatives there, and these one-sided derivatives are equal.
y = f (x)
EXAMPLE 4
Show that the function y = $ x $ is differentiable on (- q, 0) and (0, q)
but has no derivative at x = 0.
a
a+h
h>0
b+h
h<0
b
FIGURE 3.7 Derivatives at endpoints
of a closed interval are one-sided limits.
x
Solution From Section 3.1, the derivative of y = mx + b is the slope m. Thus, to the
right of the origin,
d
( 0 x 0 ) = d (x) = d (1 # x) = 1.
dx
dx
dx
d
(mx + b) = m, 0 x 0 = x
dx
3.2 The Derivative as a Function
To the left,
y
d
( $ x $ ) = d (-x) = d (-1 # x) = -1
dx
dx
dx
y = 0x0
y′ = 1
y′ = −1
0
131
0 x 0 = -x
(Figure 3.8). There is no derivative at the origin because the one-sided derivatives differ
there:
x
00 + h0 - 000
Right@hand derivative of 0 x 0 at zero = lim+
y′ not defined at x = 0:
right-hand derivative
≠ left-hand derivative
h
hS0
h
h
= lim+
hS0
FIGURE 3.8 The function y = 0 x 0
is not differentiable at the origin where
the graph has a “corner” (Example 4).
hS0
= limhS0
00 + h0 - 000
h
hS0
-h
h
hS0
0h0
h
0 h 0 = h when h 7 0
= lim+1 = 1
Left@hand derivative of 0 x 0 at zero = lim-
= lim+
= limhS0
0h0
h
0 h 0 = - h when h 6 0
= lim--1 = -1.
hS0
EXAMPLE 5
In Example 2 we found that for x 7 0,
d
1
1x =
.
dx
2 1x
We apply the definition to examine if the derivative exists at x = 0:
lim
h S 0+
20 + h - 20
h
= lim+
hS0
1
1h
= q.
Since the (right-hand) limit is not finite, there is no derivative at x = 0. Since the slopes of
the secant lines joining the origin to the points 1 h, 2h 2 on a graph of y = 2x approach
q, the graph has a vertical tangent at the origin. (See Figure 1.17 on page 9.)
When Does a Function Not Have a Derivative at a Point?
A function has a derivative at a point x0 if the slopes of the secant lines through P(x0, ƒ(x0))
and a nearby point Q on the graph approach a finite limit as Q approaches P. Whenever the
secants fail to take up a limiting position or become vertical as Q approaches P, the derivative does not exist. Thus differentiability is a “smoothness” condition on the graph of ƒ. A
function can fail to have a derivative at a point for many reasons, including the existence
of points where the graph has
P
P
Q−
Q−
1. a corner, where the one-sided
derivatives differ.
Q+
Q+
2. a cusp, where the slope of PQ approaches
q from one side and - q from the other.
132
Chapter 3: Derivatives
P
Q−
P
Q+
P
Q−
Q−
Q+
3. a vertical tangent,
where the slope of PQ
approaches q from both
sides or approaches - q
from both sides (here, - q ).
Q+
4. a discontinuity (two examples shown).
Another case in which the derivative may fail to exist occurs when the function’s slope is
oscillating rapidly near P, as with ƒ(x) = sin (1>x) near the origin, where it is discontinuous (see Figure 2.31).
Differentiable Functions Are Continuous
A function is continuous at every point where it has a derivative.
THEOREM 1—Differentiability Implies Continuity
x = c, then ƒ is continuous at x = c.
If ƒ has a derivative at
Proof
Given that ƒ′(c) exists, we must show that limx S c ƒ(x) = ƒ(c), or equivalently,
that limh S 0 ƒ(c + h) = ƒ(c). If h ≠ 0, then
ƒ(c + h) = ƒ(c) + (ƒ(c + h) - ƒ(c))
ƒ(c + h) - ƒ(c) #
= ƒ(c) +
h.
h
Now take limits as h S 0. By Theorem 1 of Section 2.2,
ƒ(c + h) - ƒ(c) #
lim h
h
hS0
hS0
lim ƒ(c + h) = lim ƒ(c) + lim
hS0
hS0
= ƒ(c) + ƒ′(c) # 0
= ƒ(c) + 0
= ƒ(c).
Similar arguments with one-sided limits show that if ƒ has a derivative from one side
(right or left) at x = c, then ƒ is continuous from that side at x = c.
Theorem 1 says that if a function has a discontinuity at a point (for instance, a jump
discontinuity), then it cannot be differentiable there. The greatest integer function y = : x ;
fails to be differentiable at every integer x = n (Example 4, Section 2.5).
Caution The converse of Theorem 1 is false. A function need not have a derivative at a
point where it is continuous, as we saw with the absolute value function in Example 4.
133
3.2 The Derivative as a Function
Exercises
3.2
Finding Derivative Functions and Values
Using the definition, calculate the derivatives of the functions in
Exercises 1–6. Then find the values of the derivatives as specified.
Graphs
Match the functions graphed in Exercises 27–30 with the derivatives
graphed in the accompanying figures (a)–(d).
1. ƒ(x) = 4 - x2; ƒ′(-3), ƒ′(0), ƒ′(1)
y′
y′
2
2. F(x) = (x - 1) + 1; F′(- 1), F′(0), F′(2)
3. g(t) =
1
; g′(-1), g′(2), g′1 23 2
t2
x
0
1 - z
; k′(-1), k′(1), k′1 22 2
4. k(z) =
2z
x
0
5. p(u) = 23u ; p′(1), p′(3), p′(2>3)
(a)
(b)
y′
y′
6. r (s) = 22s + 1 ; r′(0), r′(1), r′(1>2)
In Exercises 7–12, find the indicated derivatives.
7.
9.
11.
dy
if y = 2x3
dx
8.
ds
t
if s =
2t + 1
dt
10.
dp
if p = q3>2
dq
12.
dr
if r = s3 - 2s2 + 3
ds
dy
1
if y = t - t
dt
dz
1
if z =
dw
2w2 - 1
27.
1
, x = 2
14. k(x) =
2 + x
15. s = t 3 - t 2, t = -1
16. y =
In Exercises 17–18, differentiate the functions. Then find an equation
of the tangent line at the indicated point on the graph of the function.
17. y = ƒ(x) =
In Exercises 19–22, find the values of the derivatives.
dy
ds
1
`
`
if s = 1 - 3t 2 20.
if y = 1 - x
19.
dt t = -1
dx x = 23
dr
2
21.
`
if r =
du u = 0
24 - u
dw
0
22.
if w = z + 1z
dz z = 4
Using the Alternative Formula for Derivatives
Use the formula
ƒ′(x) = lim
zSx
1
x + 2
25. g(x) =
x
x - 1
24. ƒ(x) = x2 - 3x + 4
26. g(x) = 1 + 1x
y
y = f 2 (x)
x
0
x
0
29.
30.
y
y
y = f3(x)
0
y = f4(x)
x
x
0
31. a. The graph in the accompanying figure is made of line segments joined end to end. At which points of the interval
3- 4, 64 is ƒ′ not defined? Give reasons for your answer.
y
(6, 2)
(0, 2)
y = f(x)
ƒ(z) - ƒ(x)
z - x
to find the derivative of the functions in Exercises 23–26.
23. ƒ(x) =
28.
y
8
, (x, y) = (6, 4)
2x - 2
18. w = g(z) = 1 + 24 - z, (z, w) = (3, 2)
(d)
y = f1(x)
x + 3
, x = -2
1 - x
x
0
(c)
Slopes and Tangent Lines
In Exercises 13–16, differentiate the functions and find the slope of
the tangent line at the given value of the independent variable.
9
13. ƒ(x) = x + x , x = - 3
x
0
(−4, 0)
0
1
(1, −2)
6
(4, −2)
b. Graph the derivative of ƒ.
The graph should show a step function.
x
134
Chapter 3: Derivatives
32. Recovering a function from its derivative
a. Use the following information to graph the function ƒ over
the closed interval 3- 2, 54.
35. Temperature The given graph shows the temperature T in °F
at Davis, CA, on April 18, 2008, between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m.
T
i) The graph of ƒ is made of closed line segments joined
end to end.
Temperature (°F)
80
ii) The graph starts at the point (-2, 3).
iii) The derivative of ƒ is the step function in the figure
shown here.
y′
y′ = f ′(x)
0
1
3
5
60
50
40
0
6 A.M.
1
−2
70
x
3
9 A.M.
6
12 NOON
Time (hr)
9
3 P.M.
12
6 P.M.
t
a. Estimate the rate of temperature change at the times
i) 7 a.m.
−2
b. Repeat part (a), assuming that the graph starts at (-2, 0)
instead of (- 2, 3).
33. Growth in the economy The graph in the accompanying figure
shows the average annual percentage change y = ƒ(t) in the U.S.
gross national product (GNP) for the years 2005–2011. Graph
dy>dt (where defined).
7%
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
iv) 4 p.m.
36. Weight loss Jared Fogle, also known as the “Subway Sandwich
Guy,” weighed 425 lb in 1997 before losing more than 240 lb in
12 months (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Fogle). A chart
showing his possible dramatic weight loss is given in the accompanying figure.
W
500
Weight (lb)
425
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (months)
t
a. Estimate Jared’s rate of weight loss when
i) t = 1
a. Use the graphical technique of Example 3 to graph the derivative of the fruit fly population. The graph of the population
is reproduced here.
ii) t = 4
iii) t = 11
b. When does Jared lose weight most rapidly and what is this
rate of weight loss?
c. Use the graphical technique of Example 3 to graph the derivative of weight W.
p
Number of flies
iii) 2 p.m.
c. Use the graphical technique of Example 3 to graph the derivative of temperature T versus time t.
34. Fruit flies (Continuation of Example 4, Section 2.1.) Populations starting out in closed environments grow slowly at first,
when there are relatively few members, then more rapidly as the
number of reproducing individuals increases and resources are
still abundant, then slowly again as the population reaches the
carrying capacity of the environment.
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
ii) 9 a.m.
b. At what time does the temperature increase most rapidly?
Decrease most rapidly? What is the rate for each of those times?
One-Sided Derivatives
Compute the right-hand and left-hand derivatives as limits to show that
the functions in Exercises 37–40 are not differentiable at the point P.
37.
38.
y
y
y = f (x)
10
20
30
Time (days)
40
50
t
y = x2
y = 2x
y = f (x)
y=2 2
P(1, 2)
y=x
b. During what days does the population seem to be increasing
fastest? Slowest?
P(0, 0)
1
x
0
1
2
x
3.2 The Derivative as a Function
39.
40.
y
Theory and Examples
In Exercises 49–52,
y
P(1, 1)
y = "x
1
0
a. Find the derivative ƒ′(x) of the given function y = ƒ(x).
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
y = 2x − 1
P(1, 1)
1
b. Graph y = ƒ(x) and y = ƒ′(x) side by side using separate
sets of coordinate axes, and answer the following questions.
y = 1x
x
1
y=x
x
1
In Exercises 41 and 42, determine if the piecewise-defined function is
differentiable at the origin.
2x - 1,
41. ƒ(x) = e 2
x + 2x + 7,
42. g(x) = e
x2>3,
x1>3,
x Ú 0
x 6 0
x Ú 0
x 6 0
a. differentiable?
b. continuous but not differentiable?
Give reasons for your answers.
44.
2
1
1
0 1
2
x
0
−2 −1
−1
−1
−2
−2
45.
46.
y
−3 −2 −1 0
−1
2
3
47.
1
2
x = 0
0,
is differentiable at x = 0 and find ƒ′(0).
1
0
y
−3 −2 −1 0
1
x2 sin x , x ≠ 0
T 59. Graph y = 1> 1 2 2x 2 in a window that has 0 … x … 2. Then, on
the same screen, graph
2
3
x
2x + h - 2x
h
for h = 1, 0.5, 0.1. Then try h = - 1, -0.5, -0.1. Explain what
is going on.
T 60. Graph y = 3x2 in a window that has - 2 … x … 2, 0 … y … 3.
Then, on the same screen, graph
y = f (x)
D: −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
y =
(x + h)3 - x3
h
for h = 2, 1, 0.2. Then try h = -2, -1, -0.2. Explain what is
going on.
2
x
b. Show that
y =
4
1
0
3
y
48.
y
y = f (x)
D: −1 ≤ x ≤ 2
−1
2
2
−2 −1
55. Derivative of −ƒ Does knowing that a function ƒ(x) is differentiable at x = x0 tell you anything about the differentiability of
the function - ƒ at x = x0? Give reasons for your answer.
x
1
1
−2
54. Tangent to y = 2x Does any tangent to the curve y = 2x
cross the x-axis at x = -1? If so, find an equation for the line and
the point of tangency. If not, why not?
58. a. Let ƒ(x) be a function satisfying 0 ƒ(x) 0 … x2 for - 1 … x … 1.
Show that ƒ is differentiable at x = 0 and find ƒ′(0).
3
1
52. y = x4 >4
51. y = x >3
y = f (x)
D: −2 ≤ x ≤ 3
y = f (x)
D: −2 ≤ x ≤ 3
x
50. y = - 1>x
3
ƒ(x) = c
y = f (x)
D: −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
1
49. y = - x2
57. Limit of a quotient Suppose that functions g(t) and h(t) are
defined for all values of t and g(0) = h(0) = 0. Can
limt S 0 (g(t))>(h(t)) exist? If it does exist, must it equal zero?
Give reasons for your answers.
y
y = f (x)
D: −3 ≤ x ≤ 2
2
−3 −2 −1
d. Over what intervals of x-values, if any, does the function
y = ƒ(x) increase as x increases? Decrease as x increases?
How is this related to what you found in part (c)? (We will
say more about this relationship in Section 4.3.)
56. Derivative of multiples Does knowing that a function g(t) is
differentiable at t = 7 tell you anything about the differentiability of the function 3g at t = 7? Give reasons for your answer.
c. neither continuous nor differentiable?
y
c. For what values of x, if any, is ƒ′ positive? Zero? Negative?
53. Tangent to a parabola Does the parabola y = 2x2 - 13x + 5
have a tangent whose slope is -1? If so, find an equation for the
line and the point of tangency. If not, why not?
Differentiability and Continuity on an Interval
Each figure in Exercises 43–48 shows the graph of a function over a
closed interval D. At what domain points does the function appear to be
43.
135
1 2
3
x
61. Derivative of y = ∣ x ∣ Graph the derivative of ƒ(x) = 0 x 0 .
Then graph y = ( 0 x 0 - 0 ) >(x - 0) = 0 x 0 >x. What can you
conclude?
136
Chapter 3: Derivatives
T 62. Weierstrass’s nowhere differentiable continuous function
The sum of the first eight terms of the Weierstrass function
q
ƒ(x) = g n = 0 (2>3)n cos (9npx) is
e. Substitute various values for x larger and smaller than x0 into
the formula obtained in part (c). Do the numbers make sense
with your picture?
f. Graph the formula obtained in part (c). What does it mean
when its values are negative? Zero? Positive? Does this make
sense with your plot from part (a)? Give reasons for your
answer.
g(x) = cos (px) + (2>3)1 cos (9px) + (2>3)2 cos (92px)
+ (2>3) cos (9 px) + g + (2>3) cos (9 px).
3
3
7
7
Graph this sum. Zoom in several times. How wiggly and bumpy
is this graph? Specify a viewing window in which the displayed
portion of the graph is smooth.
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
Use a CAS to perform the following steps for the functions in Exercises 63–68.
a. Plot y = ƒ(x) to see that function’s global behavior.
b. Define the difference quotient q at a general point x, with
general step size h.
c. Take the limit as h S 0. What formula does this give?
63. ƒ(x) = x3 + x2 - x, x0 = 1
64. ƒ(x) = x1>3 + x2>3, x0 = 1
65. ƒ(x) =
4x
, x0 = 2
x2 + 1
66. ƒ(x) =
x - 1
, x0 = - 1
3x2 + 1
67. ƒ(x) = sin 2x, x0 = p>2
68. ƒ(x) = x2 cos x, x0 = p>4
d. Substitute the value x = x0 and plot the function y = ƒ(x)
together with its tangent line at that point.
3.3 Differentiation Rules
This section introduces several rules that allow us to differentiate constant functions,
power functions, polynomials, exponential functions, rational functions, and certain combinations of them, simply and directly, without having to take limits each time.
Powers, Multiples, Sums, and Differences
A simple rule of differentiation is that the derivative of every constant function is zero.
y
c
(x, c)
(x + h, c)
y=c
Derivative of a Constant Function
If ƒ has the constant value ƒ(x) = c, then
dƒ
d
=
(c) = 0.
dx
dx
h
0
x
x+h
FIGURE 3.9 The rule (d>dx)(c) = 0
is another way to say that the values of
constant functions never change and that
the slope of a horizontal line is zero at
every point.
x
Proof
We apply the definition of the derivative to ƒ(x) = c, the function whose outputs
have the constant value c (Figure 3.9). At every value of x, we find that
ƒ′(x) = lim
hS0
ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x)
c - c
= lim
= lim 0 = 0.
h
h
hS0
hS0
From Section 3.1, we know that
d 1
1
a b = - 2,
dx x
x
or
d -1
( x ) = -x - 2.
dx
From Example 2 of the last section we also know that
d
1 2x 2 = 1 ,
dx
2 2x
or
d 1>2
( x ) = 12 x - 1>2 .
dx
These two examples illustrate a general rule for differentiating a power xn . We first prove
the rule when n is a positive integer.
3.3 Differentiation Rules
137
Derivative of a Positive Integer Power
If n is a positive integer, then
d n
x = nxn - 1.
dx
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Richard Courant
(1888–1972)
Proof of the Positive Integer Power Rule
The formula
zn - xn = (z - x)(zn - 1 + zn - 2 x + g + zxn - 2 + xn - 1)
can be verified by multiplying out the right-hand side. Then from the alternative formula
for the definition of the derivative,
ƒ(z) - ƒ(x)
zn - x n
=
lim
z - x
zSx
zSx z - x
ƒ′(x) = lim
= lim (zn - 1 + zn - 2x + g + zxn - 2 + xn - 1)
S
z
x
n terms
= nxn - 1.
The Power Rule is actually valid for all real numbers n. We have seen examples for a
negative integer and fractional power, but n could be an irrational number as well. To
apply the Power Rule, we subtract 1 from the original exponent n and multiply the result
by n. Here we state the general version of the rule, but postpone its proof until Section 3.8.
Power Rule (General Version)
If n is any real number, then
d n
x = nxn - 1,
dx
for all x where the powers xn and xn - 1 are defined.
EXAMPLE 1
(a) x3
Applying the Power Rule
Subtract 1 from the exponent and multiply
the result by the original exponent.
Differentiate the following powers of x.
(b) x2/3
(c) x 22
(d)
1
x4
(e) x-4>3
Solution
d 3
( x ) = 3x3 - 1 = 3x2
(a)
dx
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(f) 2x2 + p
d 2>3
( x ) = 23 x(2>3) - 1 = 23 x-1>3
dx
d 22
1 x 2 = 22x 22 - 1
dx
d 1
d -4
( x ) = -4x-4 - 1 = -4x-5 = - 45
a b =
dx x4
dx
x
d -4>3
( x ) = - 43 x-(4>3) - 1 = - 43 x-7>3
dx
d
d 1 + (p>2)
1 2x2 + p 2 = dx
1x
2 = a1 + p2 b x1 + (p>2) - 1 = 21 (2 + p) 2xp
dx
The next rule says that when a differentiable function is multiplied by a constant, its
derivative is multiplied by the same constant.
138
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Derivative Constant Multiple Rule
If u is a differentiable function of x, and c is a constant, then
d
du
(cu) = c .
dx
dx
In particular, if n is any real number, then
y
y = 3x 2
d
(cxn) = cnxn - 1.
dx
Proof
3
Slope = 3(2x)
= 6x
Slope = 6(1) = 6
(1, 3)
cu(x + h) - cu(x)
d
cu = lim
dx
h
hS0
= clim
y = x2
hS0
2
1
0
= c
Slope = 2x
Slope = 2(1) = 2
(1, 1)
1
2
x
FIGURE 3.10 The graphs of y = x2
and y = 3x2. Tripling the y-coordinate
triples the slope (Example 2).
du
dx
u(x + h) - u(x)
h
Derivative definition
with ƒ(x) = cu(x)
Constant Multiple Limit Property
u is differentiable.
EXAMPLE 2
(a) The derivative formula
d
(3x2) = 3 # 2x = 6x
dx
says that if we rescale the graph of y = x2 by multiplying each y-coordinate by 3,
then we multiply the slope at each point by 3 (Figure 3.10).
(b) Negative of a function
The derivative of the negative of a differentiable function u is the negative of the function’s derivative. The Constant Multiple Rule with c = -1 gives
d
d
d
du
(-u) =
(-1 # u) = -1 # (u) = - .
dx
dx
dx
dx
Denoting Functions by u and Y
The functions we are working with when
we need a differentiation formula are
likely to be denoted by letters like ƒ and g.
We do not want to use these same letters
when stating general differentiation rules,
so instead we use letters like u and y that
are not likely to be already in use.
The next rule says that the derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions is the
sum of their derivatives.
Derivative Sum Rule
If u and y are differentiable functions of x, then their sum u + y is differentiable
at every point where u and y are both differentiable. At such points,
d
du dy
(u + y) =
+
.
dx
dx
dx
For example, if y = x4 + 12x, then y is the sum of u(x) = x4 and y(x) = 12x. We
then have
dy
d 4
( x ) + d (12x) = 4x3 + 12.
=
dx dx
dx
3.3 Differentiation Rules
Proof
139
We apply the definition of the derivative to ƒ(x) = u(x) + y(x):
3 u(x + h) + y(x + h)4 - 3 u(x) + y(x)4
d
3 u(x) + y(x) 4 = lim
dx
h
hS0
= lim c
hS0
= lim
hS0
u(x + h) - u(x) y(x + h) - y(x)
+
d
h
h
u(x + h) - u(x)
y(x + h) - y(x) du dy
+ lim
=
+
.
h
h
dx
dx
hS0
Combining the Sum Rule with the Constant Multiple Rule gives the Difference Rule,
which says that the derivative of a difference of differentiable functions is the difference of
their derivatives:
d
du
dy
du dy
d
(u - y) =
3 u + (-1)y 4 =
+ (-1)
=
.
dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
The Sum Rule also extends to finite sums of more than two functions. If u1, u2, c, un
are differentiable at x, then so is u1 + u2 + g + un , and
dun
du1 du2
d
(u + u2 + g + un) =
+
+
+
.
dx 1
dx
dx g dx
For instance, to see that the rule holds for three functions we compute
du3 du1 du2 du3
d
d
d
(u + u2 + u3) =
((u + u2) + u3) =
(u + u2) +
=
+
+
.
dx 1
dx 1
dx 1
dx
dx
dx
dx
A proof by mathematical induction for any finite number of terms is given in Appendix 2.
EXAMPLE 3
Solution
Find the derivative of the polynomial y = x3 +
dy
d 3
d
d 4 2
d
=
(5x) +
(1)
x +
a x b dx dx
dx 3
dx
dx
= 3x2 +
4 2
x - 5x + 1.
3
Sum and Difference Rules
8
4#
2x - 5 + 0 = 3x2 + x - 5
3
3
We can differentiate any polynomial term by term, the way we differentiated the polynomial in Example 3. All polynomials are differentiable at all values of x.
EXAMPLE 4
where?
y
Solution The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope dy>dx is zero. We have
y = x 4 − 2x 2 + 2
dy
d 4
=
(x - 2x2 + 2) = 4x3 - 4x.
dx dx
Now solve the equation
(0, 2)
(−1, 1)
−1
1
0
Does the curve y = x4 - 2x2 + 2 have any horizontal tangents? If so,
(1, 1)
1
x
FIGURE 3.11 The curve in Example 4
and its horizontal tangents.
dy
= 0 for x:
dx
4x3 - 4x = 0
4x(x2 - 1) = 0
x = 0, 1, -1.
The curve y = x4 - 2x2 + 2 has horizontal tangents at x = 0, 1, and -1. The corresponding points on the curve are (0, 2), (1, 1), and (-1, 1). See Figure 3.11. We will see in
Chapter 4 that finding the values of x where the derivative of a function is equal to zero is
an important and useful procedure.
140
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Derivatives of Exponential Functions
We briefly reviewed exponential functions in Section 1.5. When we apply the definition of
the derivative to ƒ(x) = ax , we get
d x
ax + h - ax
(a ) = lim
dx
h
hS0
ax # ah - ax
h
hS0
= lim
= lim ax #
ah - 1
h
= ax # lim
ah - 1
h
hS0
hS0
Derivative definition
ax + h = ax # ah
Factoring out ax
ax is constant as h S 0.
ah - 1 # x
b a.
= a lim
h
S
h 0
(1+)1+*
(1)
a fixed number L
Thus we see that the derivative of ax is a constant multiple L of ax . The constant L is a
limit unlike any we have encountered before. Note, however, that it equals the derivative
of ƒ(x) = ax at x = 0:
y
a = 3 a = e a = 2.5
a=2
L = 1.0 1.1
0.92
0.69
0
h
y = a − 1, a > 0
h
h
FIGURE 3.12 The position of the curve
y = (ah - 1)>h, a 7 0, varies continuously with a. The limit L of y as h S 0
changes with different values of a. The
number for which L = 1 as h S 0 is the
number e between a = 2 and a = 3.
ah - a0
ah - 1
= lim
= L.
h
h
hS0
hS0
ƒ′(0) = lim
The limit L is therefore the slope of the graph of ƒ(x) = ax where it crosses the y-axis. In
Chapter 7, where we carefully develop the logarithmic and exponential functions, we
prove that the limit L exists and has the value ln a. For now we investigate values of L by
graphing the function y = (ah - 1)>h and studying its behavior as h approaches 0.
Figure 3.12 shows the graphs of y = (ah - 1)>h for four different values of a. The
limit L is approximately 0.69 if a = 2, about 0.92 if a = 2.5, and about 1.1 if a = 3. It
appears that the value of L is 1 at some number a chosen between 2.5 and 3. That number
is given by a = e ≈ 2.718281828. With this choice of base we obtain the natural exponential function ƒ(x) = ex as in Section 1.5, and see that it satisfies the property
eh - 1
= 1
h
hS0
ƒ′(0) = lim
(2)
because it is the exponential function whose graph has slope 1 when it crosses the y-axis.
That the limit is 1 implies an important relationship between the natural exponential function ex and its derivative:
d x
eh - 1 # x
(e ) = lim ¢
≤ e
dx
h
hS0
= 1 # ex = ex.
Eq. (1) with a = e
Eq. (2)
Therefore the natural exponential function is its own derivative.
Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function
d x
(e ) = ex
dx
EXAMPLE 5
Find an equation for a line that is tangent to the graph of y = ex and
goes through the origin.
Solution Since the line passes through the origin, its equation is of the form y = mx,
where m is the slope. If it is tangent to the graph at the point (a, ea), the slope is
m = (ea - 0)>(a - 0). The slope of the natural exponential at x = a is ea . Because these
3.3 Differentiation Rules
y
6
slopes are the same, we then have that ea = ea >a. It follows that a = 1 and m = e, so the
equation of the tangent line is y = ex. See Figure 3.13.
y = ex
4
(a, e a )
2
−1
a
141
x
We might ask if there are functions other than the natural exponential function that
are their own derivatives. The answer is that the only functions that satisfy the property
that ƒ′(x) = ƒ(x) are functions that are constant multiples of the natural exponential function, ƒ(x) = c # ex , c any constant. We prove this fact in Section 7.2. Note from the Constant Multiple Rule that indeed
FIGURE 3.13 The line through the origin is tangent to the graph of y = ex when
a = 1 (Example 5).
d # x
d
(c e ) = c # (ex) = c # ex.
dx
dx
Products and Quotients
While the derivative of the sum of two functions is the sum of their derivatives, the derivative of the product of two functions is not the product of their derivatives. For instance,
d #
d 2
(x x) =
(x ) = 2x,
dx
dx
while
d
d
(x) # (x) = 1 # 1 = 1.
dx
dx
The derivative of a product of two functions is the sum of two products, as we now explain.
Derivative Product Rule
If u and y are differentiable at x, then so is their product uy, and
d
dy
du
(uy) = u
+ y .
dx
dx
dx
Equation (3) is equivalent to saying that
(ƒg)′ = ƒ′g + ƒg′.
This form of the Product Rule is useful
and applies to dot products and cross
products of vector-valued functions,
studied in Chapter 13.
The derivative of the product uy is u times the derivative of y plus y times the derivative of u. In prime notation, (uy)′ = uy′ + yu′. In function notation,
EXAMPLE 6
d
3 ƒ(x)g(x) 4 = ƒ(x)g′(x) + g(x)ƒ′(x).
dx
1
Find the derivative of (a) y = x 1 x2 + ex 2 ,
(3)
(b) y = e2x.
Solution
(a) We apply the Product Rule with u = 1>x and y = x2 + ex:
d 1 2
1
1
c ( x + ex ) d = x ( 2x + ex ) + ( x2 + ex ) a- 2 b
dx x
x
d
dy
du
(uy) = u
+ y , and
dx
dx
dx
d
1
1
a b = - 2
x
dx x
ex
ex
= 2 + x - 1 - 2
x
ex
= 1 + (x - 1) 2.
x
d 2x
d x# x
d
d
(b)
(e ) =
(e e ) = ex # (ex) + ex # (ex) = 2ex # ex = 2e2x
dx
dx
dx
dx
EXAMPLE 7
Find the derivative of y = (x2 + 1)(x3 + 3).
Solution
(a) From the Product Rule with u = x2 + 1 and y = x3 + 3, we find
d
3 ( x2 + 1 ) ( x3 + 3 ) 4 = ( x2 + 1 ) ( 3x2 ) + ( x3 + 3 ) (2x)
dx
= 3x4 + 3x2 + 2x4 + 6x
= 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x.
d
dy
du
(uy) = u
+ y
dx
dx
dx
142
Chapter 3: Derivatives
(b) This particular product can be differentiated as well (perhaps better) by multiplying
out the original expression for y and differentiating the resulting polynomial:
y = ( x2 + 1 ) ( x3 + 3 ) = x5 + x3 + 3x2 + 3
dy
= 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x.
dx
This is in agreement with our first calculation.
Picturing the Product Rule
Suppose u(x) and y(x) are positive and
increase when x increases, and h 7 0.
Proof of the Derivative Product Rule
u(x + h)y(x + h) - u(x)y(x)
d
(uy) = lim
dx
h
hS0
y(x + h)
Δy
To change this fraction into an equivalent one that contains difference quotients for the
derivatives of u and y, we subtract and add u(x + h)y(x) in the numerator:
u(x + h) Δy
y(x)
u(x)y(x)
0
y(x) Δu
u(x + h)y(x + h) - u(x + h)y(x) + u(x + h)y(x) - u(x)y(x)
d
(uy) = lim
dx
h
hS0
= lim c u(x + h)
hS0
Δu
u(x)
u(x + h)
Then the change in the product uy is
the difference in areas of the larger and
smaller “squares,” which is the sum of
the upper and right-hand reddish-shaded
rectangles. That is,
∆(uy) = u(x + h)y(x + h) - u(x)y(x)
= u(x + h)∆y + y(x)∆u.
Division by h gives
∆(uy)
∆u
∆y
= u(x + h)
+ y(x) .
h
h
h
The limit as h S 0 + gives the Product
Rule.
u(x + h) - u(x)
y(x + h) - y(x)
+ y(x)
d
h
h
= lim u(x + h) # lim
hS0
hS0
y(x + h) - y(x)
u(x + h) - u(x)
+ y(x) # lim
.
h
h
hS0
As h approaches zero, u(x + h) approaches u(x) because u, being differentiable at x, is continuous at x. The two fractions approach the values of dy>dx at x and du>dx at x. Therefore,
d
dy
du
(uy) = u
+ y .
dx
dx
dx
The derivative of the quotient of two functions is given by the Quotient Rule.
Derivative Quotient Rule
If u and y are differentiable at x and if y(x) ≠ 0, then the quotient u>y is differentiable at x, and
d u
a b =
dx y
y
du
dy
- u
dx
dx
y2
.
In function notation,
g(x)ƒ′(x) - ƒ(x)g′(x)
d ƒ(x)
.
c
d =
dx g(x)
g2(x)
EXAMPLE 8
Find the derivative of (a) y =
t2 - 1
,
t3 + 1
(b) y = e-x.
Solution
(a) We apply the Quotient Rule with u = t 2 - 1 and y = t 3 + 1:
dy (t 3 + 1) # 2t - (t 2 - 1) # 3t 2
=
dt
(t 3 + 1)2
2t 4 + 2t - 3t 4 + 3t 2
=
(t 3 + 1)2
4
-t + 3t 2 + 2t
=
.
(t 3 + 1)2
y(du>dt) - u(dy>dt)
d u
a b =
dt y
y2
3.3 Differentiation Rules
(b)
143
d -x
d 1
ex # 0 - 1 # ex -1
(e ) =
a xb =
= x = -e - x
e
dx
dx e
(ex)2
Proof of the Derivative Quotient Rule
d u
a b = lim
dx y
hS0
= lim
hS0
u(x)
u(x + h)
y(x + h) y(x)
h
y(x)u(x + h) - u(x)y(x + h)
hy(x + h)y(x)
To change the last fraction into an equivalent one that contains the difference quotients for
the derivatives of u and y, we subtract and add y(x)u(x) in the numerator. We then get
y(x)u(x + h) - y(x)u(x) + y(x)u(x) - u(x)y(x + h)
d u
a y b = lim
dx
hy(x + h)y(x)
hS0
y(x)
= lim
u(x + h) - u(x)
y(x + h) - y(x)
- u(x)
h
h
y(x + h)y(x)
hS0
.
Taking the limits in the numerator and denominator now gives the Quotient Rule. Exercise
74 outlines another proof.
The choice of which rules to use in solving a differentiation problem can make a difference in how much work you have to do. Here is an example.
EXAMPLE 9
Find the derivative of
(x - 1)(x2 - 2x)
.
x4
Solution Using the Quotient Rule here will result in a complicated expression with
many terms. Instead, use some algebra to simplify the expression. First expand the numerator and divide by x4:
y =
y =
(x - 1)(x2 - 2x) x3 - 3x2 + 2x
=
= x-1 - 3x-2 + 2x-3 .
x4
x4
Then use the Sum and Power Rules:
dy
= -x-2 - 3(-2)x-3 + 2(-3)x-4
dx
6
6
1
= - 2 + 3 - 4.
x
x
x
Second- and Higher-Order Derivatives
If y = ƒ(x) is a differentiable function, then its derivative ƒ′(x) is also a function. If ƒ′ is
also differentiable, then we can differentiate ƒ′ to get a new function of x denoted by ƒ″.
So ƒ″ = (ƒ′)′. The function ƒ″ is called the second derivative of ƒ because it is the derivative of the first derivative. It is written in several ways:
ƒ″(x) =
d 2y
dy′
d dy
= y″ = D2(ƒ)(x) = Dx2 ƒ(x).
=
a b =
dx dx
dx
dx2
The symbol D2 means the operation of differentiation is performed twice.
If y = x6, then y′ = 6x5 and we have
y″ =
Thus D2 ( x6 ) = 30x4.
dy′
d
=
(6x5) = 30x4.
dx
dx
144
Chapter 3: Derivatives
If y″ is differentiable, its derivative, y‴ = dy″>dx = d 3y>dx3, is the third derivative
of y with respect to x. The names continue as you imagine, with
How to Read the Symbols for
Derivatives
y′
“y prime”
y″
“y double prime”
2
dy
dx2
“d squared y dx squared”
y‴
“y triple prime”
n
d (n - 1) d y
= n = Dny
y
dx
dx
y(n) =
d ny
dxn
“d to the n of y by dx to the n”
denoting the nth derivative of y with respect to x for any positive integer n.
We can interpret the second derivative as the rate of change of the slope of the tangent
to the graph of y = ƒ(x) at each point. You will see in the next chapter that the second
derivative reveals whether the graph bends upward or downward from the tangent line as
we move off the point of tangency. In the next section, we interpret both the second and
third derivatives in terms of motion along a straight line.
Dn
“D to the n”
EXAMPLE 10
y
(n)
“y super n”
The first four derivatives of y = x3 - 3x2 + 2 are
First derivative:
Second derivative:
Third derivative:
Fourth derivative:
y′ = 3x2 - 6x
y″ = 6x - 6
y‴ = 6
y(4) = 0.
All polynomial functions have derivatives of all orders. In this example, the fifth and later
derivatives are all zero.
Exercises
3.3
Derivative Calculations
In Exercises 1–12, find the first and second derivatives.
1. y = - x2 + 3
3
3. s = 5t - 3t
5. y =
2. y = x2 + x + 8
5
4. w = 3z7 - 7z3 + 21z2
4x3
- x + 2ex
3
6. y =
1
7. w = 3z-2 - z
2
9. y = 6x - 10x - 5x
25. y =
x2
x3
+
+ e-x
3
2
8. s = - 2t -1 +
-2
5
1
11. r = 2 2s
3s
4
t2
10. y = 4 - 2x - x
-3
4
12
1
- 3 + 4
12. r =
u
u
u
In Exercises 13–16, find y′ (a) by applying the Product Rule and
(b) by multiplying the factors to produce a sum of simpler terms to
differentiate.
1 + x - 4 2x
x
26. r = 2a
1
2u
+ 2ub
28. y =
(x + 1) (x + 2)
(x - 1) (x - 2)
29. y = 2e-x + e3x
30. y =
x2 + 3ex
2ex - x
31. y = x3ex
32. w = re-r
27. y =
1
( x2 - 1 ) ( x2 + x + 1 )
33. y = x
9>4
-2x
+ e
34. y = x-3>5 + p3>2
p
1
+
z1.4
2z
35. s = 2t 3>2 + 3e2
36. w =
7 2
37. y = 2
x - xe
3 9.6
38. y = 2
x + 2e1.3
es
39. r = s
40. r = eu a
1
+ u -p>2 b
u2
13. y = ( 3 - x2 ) ( x3 - x + 1 ) 14. y = (2x + 3) ( 5x2 - 4x )
Find the derivatives of all orders of the functions in Exercises 41–44.
1
15. y = ( x2 + 1 ) ax + 5 + x b 16. y = ( 1 + x2 )( x3>4 - x-3 )
41. y =
Find the derivatives of the functions in Exercises 17–40.
2x + 5
4 - 3x
17. y =
18. z = 2
3x - 2
3x + x
19. g(x) =
x2 - 4
x + 0.5
21. y = (1 - t) ( 1 + t 2 ) -1
23. ƒ(s) =
1s - 1
1s + 1
20. ƒ(t) =
t2 - 1
t + t - 2
2
22. w = (2x - 7)-1(x + 5)
24. u =
5x + 1
2 1x
3
x4
- x2 - x
2
2
42. y =
x5
120
43. y = (x - 1) (x + 2)(x + 3) 44. y = (4x2 + 3)(2 - x) x
Find the first and second derivatives of the functions in Exercises
45–52.
x3 + 7
t 2 + 5t - 1
45. y =
46. s =
x
t2
47. r =
(u - 1)(u 2 + u + 1)
u3
49. w = a
1 + 3z
b(3 - z)
3z
48. u =
(x2 + x)(x2 - x + 1)
x4
50. p =
q2 + 3
(q - 1)3 + (q + 1)3
3.3 Differentiation Rules
51. w = 3z2e2z
52. w = ez(z - 1)(z2 + 1)
53. Suppose u and y are functions of x that are differentiable at
x = 0 and that
u(0) = 5, u′(0) = -3, y(0) = -1, y′(0) = 2.
Find the values of the following derivatives at x = 0.
a.
d
(uy)
dx
b.
d u
a b
dx y
c.
d y
a b
dx u
d.
d
(7y - 2u)
dx
61. Find all points (x, y) on the graph of ƒ(x) = 3x2 - 4x with tangent lines parallel to the line y = 8x + 5.
62. Find all points (x, y) on the graph of g(x) = 13 x3 - 32 x2 + 1 with
tangent lines parallel to the line 8x - 2y = 1.
63. Find all points (x, y) on the graph of y = x>(x - 2) with tangent
lines perpendicular to the line y = 2x + 3.
64. Find all points (x, y) on the graph of ƒ(x) = x2 with tangent lines
passing through the point (3, 8).
54. Suppose u and y are differentiable functions of x and that
y
10
u(1) = 2, u′(1) = 0, y(1) = 5, y′(1) = -1.
d
(uy)
dx
b.
d u
a b
dx y
c.
d y
a b
dx u
d.
f (x) = x 2
(3, 8)
Find the values of the following derivatives at x = 1.
a.
145
6
d
(7y - 2u)
dx
(x, y)
2
Slopes and Tangents
55. a. Normal to a curve Find an equation for the line perpendicular
to the tangent to the curve y = x3 - 4x + 1 at the point (2, 1).
2
−2
4
x
b. Smallest slope What is the smallest slope on the curve? At
what point on the curve does the curve have this slope?
c. Tangents having specified slope Find equations for the tangents to the curve at the points where the slope of the curve is 8.
65. a. Find an equation for the line that is tangent to the curve
y = x3 - x at the point (-1, 0).
56. a. Horizontal tangents Find equations for the horizontal tangents to the curve y = x3 - 3x - 2. Also find equations for
the lines that are perpendicular to these tangents at the points
of tangency.
T b. Graph the curve and tangent line together. The tangent intersects the curve at another point. Use Zoom and Trace to estimate the point’s coordinates.
b. Smallest slope What is the smallest slope on the curve? At
what point on the curve does the curve have this slope? Find
an equation for the line that is perpendicular to the curve’s
tangent at this point.
57. Find the tangents to Newton’s serpentine (graphed here) at the
origin and the point (1, 2).
y
y = 24x
x +1
2
1
0
x
1 2 3 4
58. Find the tangent to the Witch of Agnesi (graphed here) at the point
(2, 1).
y=
2
1
0
8
x2 + 4
T b. Graph the curve and tangent together. The tangent intersects
the curve at another point. Use Zoom and Trace to estimate
the point’s coordinates.
Theory and Examples
For Exercises 67 and 68 evaluate each limit by first converting each to
a derivative at a particular x-value.
67. lim
xS1
x50 - 1
x - 1
68. lim
x S -1
x
59. Quadratic tangent to identity function The curve y =
ax2 + bx + c passes through the point (1, 2) and is tangent to the
line y = x at the origin. Find a, b, and c.
60. Quadratics having a common tangent The curves y =
x2 + ax + b and y = cx - x2 have a common tangent line at
the point (1, 0). Find a, b, and c.
x2>9 - 1
x + 1
69. Find the value of a that makes the following function differentiable for all x-values.
g(x) = e
(2, 1)
1 2 3
66. a. Find an equation for the line that is tangent to the curve
y = x3 - 6x2 + 5x at the origin.
T c. Confirm your estimates of the coordinates of the second
intersection point by solving the equations for the curve and
tangent simultaneously (Solver key).
(1, 2)
y
T c. Confirm your estimates of the coordinates of the second
intersection point by solving the equations for the curve and
tangent simultaneously (Solver key).
ax,
x2 - 3x,
if x 6 0
if x Ú 0
70. Find the values of a and b that make the following function differentiable for all x-values.
ƒ(x) = e
ax + b,
bx2 - 3,
x 7 -1
x … -1
71. The general polynomial of degree n has the form
P(x) = an xn + an - 1 xn - 1 + g + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
where an ≠ 0. Find P′(x).
146
Chapter 3: Derivatives
72. The body’s reaction to medicine The reaction of the body to a
dose of medicine can sometimes be represented by an equation of
the form
C
M
R = M 2 a - b,
2
3
76. Power Rule for negative integers Use the Derivative Quotient
Rule to prove the Power Rule for negative integers, that is,
d -m
(x ) = - mx-m - 1
dx
where m is a positive integer.
where C is a positive constant and M is the amount of medicine
absorbed in the blood. If the reaction is a change in blood pressure, R is measured in millimeters of mercury. If the reaction is a
change in temperature, R is measured in degrees, and so on.
Find dR>dM. This derivative, as a function of M, is called the
sensitivity of the body to the medicine. In Section 4.5, we will see
how to find the amount of medicine to which the body is most
sensitive.
77. Cylinder pressure If gas in a cylinder is maintained at a constant temperature T, the pressure P is related to the volume V by a
formula of the form
P =
an2
nRT
- 2,
V - nb
V
in which a, b, n, and R are constants. Find dP>dV . (See accompanying figure.)
73. Suppose that the function y in the Derivative Product Rule has a
constant value c. What does the Derivative Product Rule then say?
What does this say about the Derivative Constant Multiple Rule?
74. The Reciprocal Rule
a. The Reciprocal Rule says that at any point where the function
y(x) is differentiable and different from zero,
d 1
1 dy
a b = - 2 .
dx y
y dx
Show that the Reciprocal Rule is a special case of the Derivative Quotient Rule.
b. Show that the Reciprocal Rule and the Derivative Product
Rule together imply the Derivative Quotient Rule.
75. Generalizing the Product Rule
gives the formula
The Derivative Product Rule
78. The best quantity to order One of the formulas for inventory
management says that the average weekly cost of ordering, paying for, and holding merchandise is
hq
km
A(q) = q + cm +
,
2
d
dy
du
(uy) = u
+ y
dx
dx
dx
for the derivative of the product uy of two differentiable functions of x.
a. What is the analogous formula for the derivative of the product uyw of three differentiable functions of x?
b. What is the formula for the derivative of the product u1 u2 u3 u4
of four differentiable functions of x?
where q is the quantity you order when things run low (shoes,
TVs, brooms, or whatever the item might be); k is the cost of
placing an order (the same, no matter how often you order); c is
the cost of one item (a constant); m is the number of items sold
each week (a constant); and h is the weekly holding cost per item
(a constant that takes into account things such as space, utilities,
insurance, and security). Find dA>dq and d 2A>dq2.
c. What is the formula for the derivative of a product u1 u2 u3 gun
of a finite number n of differentiable functions of x?
3.4 The Derivative as a Rate of Change
In Section 2.1 we introduced average and instantaneous rates of change. In this section we
study further applications in which derivatives model the rates at which things change. It is
natural to think of a quantity changing with respect to time, but other variables can be
treated in the same way. For example, an economist may want to study how the cost of
producing steel varies with the number of tons produced, or an engineer may want to
know how the power output of a generator varies with its temperature.
Instantaneous Rates of Change
If we interpret the difference quotient (ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x))>h as the average rate of change
in ƒ over the interval from x to x + h, we can interpret its limit as h S 0 as the rate at
which ƒ is changing at the point x.
3.4 The Derivative as a Rate of Change
147
DEFINITION The instantaneous rate of change of ƒ with respect to x at x0 is
the derivative
ƒ(x0 + h) - ƒ(x0)
,
h
hS0
ƒ′(x0) = lim
provided the limit exists.
Thus, instantaneous rates are limits of average rates.
It is conventional to use the word instantaneous even when x does not represent time.
The word is, however, frequently omitted. When we say rate of change, we mean instantaneous rate of change.
EXAMPLE 1
The area A of a circle is related to its diameter by the equation
A =
p 2
D.
4
How fast does the area change with respect to the diameter when the diameter is 10 m?
Solution The rate of change of the area with respect to the diameter is
p
pD
dA
= # 2D =
.
4
2
dD
When D = 10 m, the area is changing with respect to the diameter at the rate of
(p>2)10 = 5p m2 >m ≈ 15.71 m2 >m.
Motion Along a Line: Displacement, Velocity, Speed,
Acceleration, and Jerk
Suppose that an object (or body, considered as a whole mass) is moving along a coordinate
line (an s-axis), usually horizontal or vertical, so that we know its position s on that line as
a function of time t:
Position at time t …
s = ƒ(t).
and at time t + Δt
Δs
s = f (t)
s + Δs = f (t + Δt)
FIGURE 3.14 The positions of a body
moving along a coordinate line at time t
and shortly later at time t + ∆t. Here the
coordinate line is horizontal.
s
The displacement of the object over the time interval from t to t + ∆t (Figure 3.14) is
∆s = ƒ(t + ∆t) - ƒ(t),
and the average velocity of the object over that time interval is
yay =
displacement
∆s ƒ(t + ∆t) - ƒ(t)
=
.
=
travel time
∆t
∆t
To find the body’s velocity at the exact instant t, we take the limit of the average
velocity over the interval from t to t + ∆t as ∆t shrinks to zero. This limit is the derivative of ƒ with respect to t.
DEFINITION Velocity (instantaneous velocity) is the derivative of position with
respect to time. If a body’s position at time t is s = ƒ(t), then the body’s velocity
at time t is
y(t) =
ƒ(t + ∆t) - ƒ(t)
ds
= lim
.
dt
∆t
∆t S 0
148
Chapter 3: Derivatives
s
s = f (t)
ds > 0
dt
t
0
(a) s increasing:
positive slope so
moving upward
Besides telling how fast an object is moving along the horizontal line in Figure 3.14, its
velocity tells the direction of motion. When the object is moving forward (s increasing), the
velocity is positive; when the object is moving backward (s decreasing), the velocity is
negative. If the coordinate line is vertical, the object moves upward for positive velocity and
downward for negative velocity. The blue curves in Figure 3.15 represent position along the
line over time; they do not portray the path of motion, which lies along the vertical s-axis.
If we drive to a friend’s house and back at 30 mph, say, the speedometer will show 30
on the way over but it will not show -30 on the way back, even though our distance from
home is decreasing. The speedometer always shows speed, which is the absolute value of
velocity. Speed measures the rate of progress regardless of direction.
DEFINITION Speed is the absolute value of velocity.
s
Speed = $ y(t) $ = `
s = f (t)
ds < 0
dt
EXAMPLE 2
t
0
(b) s decreasing:
negative slope so
moving downward
FIGURE 3.15 For motion s = ƒ(t)
along a straight line (the vertical
axis), y = ds>dt is (a) positive when
s increases and (b) negative when s
decreases.
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Bernard Bolzano
(1781–1848)
ds
`
dt
Figure 3.16 shows the graph of the velocity y = ƒ′(t) of a particle moving
along a horizontal line (as opposed to showing a position function s = ƒ(t) such as in Figure
3.15). In the graph of the velocity function, it’s not the slope of the curve that tells us if the particle is moving forward or backward along the line (which is not shown in the figure), but rather
the sign of the velocity. Looking at Figure 3.16, we see that the particle moves forward for the
first 3 sec (when the velocity is positive), moves backward for the next 2 sec (the velocity is
negative), stands motionless for a full second, and then moves forward again. The particle is
speeding up when its positive velocity increases during the first second, moves at a steady
speed during the next second, and then slows down as the velocity decreases to zero during the
third second. It stops for an instant at t = 3 sec (when the velocity is zero) and reverses direction as the velocity starts to become negative. The particle is now moving backward and gaining in speed until t = 4 sec, at which time it achieves its greatest speed during its backward
motion. Continuing its backward motion at time t = 4, the particle starts to slow down again
until it finally stops at time t = 5 (when the velocity is once again zero). The particle now
remains motionless for one full second, and then moves forward again at t = 6 sec, speeding
up during the final second of the forward motion indicated in the velocity graph.
The rate at which a body’s velocity changes is the body’s acceleration. The acceleration
measures how quickly the body picks up or loses speed. In Chapter 13 we will study motion in
the plane and in space, where acceleration of an object may also lead to a change in direction.
A sudden change in acceleration is called a jerk. When a ride in a car or a bus is jerky,
it is not that the accelerations involved are necessarily large but that the changes in acceleration are abrupt.
DEFINITIONS Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time.
If a body’s position at time t is s = ƒ(t), then the body’s acceleration at time t is
a(t) =
dy
d 2s
= 2.
dt
dt
Jerk is the derivative of acceleration with respect to time:
j(t) =
da d 3s
= 3.
dt
dt
Near the surface of Earth all bodies fall with the same constant acceleration. Galileo’s
experiments with free fall (see Section 2.1) lead to the equation
s =
1 2
gt ,
2
149
3.4 The Derivative as a Rate of Change
y
MOVES FORWARD
FORWARD
AGAIN
(y > 0)
(y > 0)
Velocity y = f ′(t)
Speeds
up
Steady
(y = const)
Slows
down
Speeds
up
Stands
still
(y = 0)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
t (sec)
Greatest
speed
Speeds
up
Slows
down
MOVES BACKWARD
(y < 0)
FIGURE 3.16 The velocity graph of a particle moving along a horizontal line,
discussed in Example 2.
where s is the distance fallen and g is the acceleration due to Earth’s gravity. This equation
holds in a vacuum, where there is no air resistance, and closely models the fall of dense,
heavy objects, such as rocks or steel tools, for the first few seconds of their fall, before the
effects of air resistance are significant.
The value of g in the equation s = (1>2)gt 2 depends on the units used to measure t
and s. With t in seconds (the usual unit), the value of g determined by measurement at sea
level is approximately 32 ft>sec2 (feet per second squared) in English units, and
g = 9.8 m>sec2 (meters per second squared) in metric units. (These gravitational constants depend on the distance from Earth’s center of mass, and are slightly lower on top of
Mt. Everest, for example.)
The jerk associated with the constant acceleration of gravity (g = 32 ft>sec2) is zero:
j =
t (seconds)
t=0
s (meters)
t=1
5
0
10
15
t=2
20
25
30
35
40
t=3
45
d
(g) = 0.
dt
An object does not exhibit jerkiness during free fall.
EXAMPLE 3
Figure 3.17 shows the free fall of a heavy ball bearing released from
rest at time t = 0 sec.
(a) How many meters does the ball fall in the first 3 sec?
(b) What is its velocity, speed, and acceleration when t = 3?
Solution
(a) The metric free-fall equation is s = 4.9t 2. During the first 3 sec, the ball falls
s(3) = 4.9(3)2 = 44.1 m.
(b) At any time t, velocity is the derivative of position:
FIGURE 3.17 A ball bearing
falling from rest (Example 3).
y(t) = s′(t) =
d
( 4.9t2 ) = 9.8t.
dt
150
Chapter 3: Derivatives
At t = 3, the velocity is
y(3) = 29.4 m>sec
in the downward (increasing s) direction. The speed at t = 3 is
speed = 0 y(3) 0 = 29.4 m>sec.
The acceleration at any time t is
a(t) = y′(t) = s″(t) = 9.8 m>sec2.
At t = 3, the acceleration is 9.8 m>sec2.
EXAMPLE 4
A dynamite blast blows a heavy rock straight up with a launch velocity
of 160 ft > sec (about 109 mph) (Figure 3.18a). It reaches a height of s = 160t - 16t 2 ft
after t sec.
s
smax
y=0
Height (ft)
(a) How high does the rock go?
256
(b) What are the velocity and speed of the rock when it is 256 ft above the ground on the
way up? On the way down?
(c) What is the acceleration of the rock at any time t during its flight (after the blast)?
(d) When does the rock hit the ground again?
t=?
Solution
(a) In the coordinate system we have chosen, s measures height from the ground up, so the
velocity is positive on the way up and negative on the way down. The instant the rock is
at its highest point is the one instant during the flight when the velocity is 0. To find the
maximum height, all we need to do is to find when y = 0 and evaluate s at this time.
At any time t during the rock’s motion, its velocity is
s=0
(a)
s, y
y =
400
s = 160t − 16t 2
ds
d
= (160t - 16t 2) = 160 - 32t ft>sec.
dt
dt
The velocity is zero when
160 - 32t = 0
160
or
t = 5 sec.
The rock’s height at t = 5 sec is
0
−160
5
10
t
y = ds = 160 − 32t
dt
(b)
FIGURE 3.18 (a) The rock in Example 4.
(b) The graphs of s and y as functions of
time; s is largest when y = ds>dt = 0.
The graph of s is not the path of the rock:
It is a plot of height versus time. The slope
of the plot is the rock’s velocity, graphed
here as a straight line.
smax = s(5) = 160(5) - 16(5)2 = 800 - 400 = 400 ft.
See Figure 3.18b.
(b) To find the rock’s velocity at 256 ft on the way up and again on the way down, we first
find the two values of t for which
s(t) = 160t - 16t 2 = 256.
To solve this equation, we write
16t 2 - 160t + 256
16(t 2 - 10t + 16)
(t - 2)(t - 8)
t
=
=
=
=
0
0
0
2 sec, t = 8 sec.
The rock is 256 ft above the ground 2 sec after the explosion and again 8 sec after the
explosion. The rock’s velocities at these times are
y(2) = 160 - 32(2) = 160 - 64 = 96 ft>sec.
y(8) = 160 - 32(8) = 160 - 256 = -96 ft>sec.
3.4 The Derivative as a Rate of Change
151
At both instants, the rock’s speed is 96 ft > sec. Since y(2) 7 0, the rock is moving
upward (s is increasing) at t = 2 sec; it is moving downward (s is decreasing) at
t = 8 because y(8) 6 0.
(c) At any time during its flight following the explosion, the rock’s acceleration is a constant
a =
dy
d
= (160 - 32t) = -32 ft>sec2.
dt
dt
The acceleration is always downward and is the effect of gravity on the rock. As the
rock rises, it slows down; as it falls, it speeds up.
(d) The rock hits the ground at the positive time t for which s = 0. The equation
160t - 16t 2 = 0 factors to give 16t(10 - t) = 0, so it has solutions t = 0 and
t = 10. At t = 0, the blast occurred and the rock was thrown upward. It returned to
the ground 10 sec later.
Derivatives in Economics
Cost y (dollars)
Slope =
marginal cost
0
y = c (x)
x+h
x
Production (tons/week)
x
FIGURE 3.19 Weekly steel production:
c(x) is the cost of producing x tons per
week. The cost of producing an additional
h tons is c(x + h) - c(x).
Engineers use the terms velocity and acceleration to refer to the derivatives of functions
describing motion. Economists, too, have a specialized vocabulary for rates of change and
derivatives. They call them marginals.
In a manufacturing operation, the cost of production c(x) is a function of x, the number of units produced. The marginal cost of production is the rate of change of cost with
respect to level of production, so it is dc>dx.
Suppose that c(x) represents the dollars needed to produce x tons of steel in one week.
It costs more to produce x + h tons per week, and the cost difference, divided by h, is the
average cost of producing each additional ton:
average cost of each of the additional
c(x + h) - c(x)
= h tons of steel produced.
h
The limit of this ratio as h S 0 is the marginal cost of producing more steel per week
when the current weekly production is x tons (Figure 3.19):
c(x + h) - c(x)
dc
= lim
= marginal cost of production.
dx h S 0
h
y
y = c(x)
Δc
Sometimes the marginal cost of production is loosely defined to be the extra cost of
producing one additional unit:
∆c c(x + 1) - c(x)
,
=
1
∆x
dc
dx
which is approximated by the value of dc>dx at x. This approximation is acceptable if the
slope of the graph of c does not change quickly near x. Then the difference quotient will be
close to its limit dc>dx, which is the rise in the tangent line if ∆x = 1 (Figure 3.20). The
approximation works best for large values of x.
Economists often represent a total cost function by a cubic polynomial
Δx = 1
c(x) = ax3 + bx2 + gx + d
0
x
x+1
x
FIGURE 3.20 The marginal cost dc>dx
is approximately the extra cost ∆c of
producing ∆x = 1 more unit.
where d represents fixed costs, such as rent, heat, equipment capitalization, and management costs. The other terms represent variable costs, such as the costs of raw materials,
taxes, and labor. Fixed costs are independent of the number of units produced, whereas
variable costs depend on the quantity produced. A cubic polynomial is usually adequate to
capture the cost behavior on a realistic quantity interval.
EXAMPLE 5
Suppose that it costs
c(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 15x
152
Chapter 3: Derivatives
dollars to produce x radiators when 8 to 30 radiators are produced and that
r(x) = x3 - 3x2 + 12x
gives the dollar revenue from selling x radiators. Your shop currently produces 10 radiators
a day. About how much extra will it cost to produce one more radiator a day, and what is
your estimated increase in revenue for selling 11 radiators a day?
Solution The cost of producing one more radiator a day when 10 are produced is about
c′(10):
c′(x) =
d 3
1 x - 6x2 + 15x 2 = 3x2 - 12x + 15
dx
c′(10) = 3(100) - 12(10) + 15 = 195.
The additional cost will be about $195. The marginal revenue is
r′(x) =
d 3
(x - 3x2 + 12x) = 3x2 - 6x + 12.
dx
The marginal revenue function estimates the increase in revenue that will result from selling one additional unit. If you currently sell 10 radiators a day, you can expect your revenue to increase by about
r′(10) = 3(100) - 6(10) + 12 = +252
if you increase sales to 11 radiators a day.
EXAMPLE 6
To get some feel for the language of marginal rates, consider marginal
tax rates. If your marginal income tax rate is 28% and your income increases by $1000,
you can expect to pay an extra $280 in taxes. This does not mean that you pay 28% of your
entire income in taxes. It just means that at your current income level I, the rate of increase
of taxes T with respect to income is dT>dI = 0.28. You will pay $0.28 in taxes out of
every extra dollar you earn. Of course, if you earn a lot more, you may land in a higher tax
bracket and your marginal rate will increase.
y
1
Sensitivity to Change
y = 2p − p 2
0
1
p
(a)
When a small change in x produces a large change in the value of a function ƒ(x), we say
that the function is relatively sensitive to changes in x. The derivative ƒ′(x) is a measure of
this sensitivity.
dy#dp
EXAMPLE 7
2
The Austrian monk Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884), working with garden peas and
other plants, provided the first scientific explanation of hybridization.
His careful records showed that if p (a number between 0 and 1) is the frequency of the
gene for smooth skin in peas (dominant) and (1 - p) is the frequency of the gene for wrinkled skin in peas, then the proportion of smooth-skinned peas in the next generation will be
dy
= 2 − 2p
dp
Genetic Data and Sensitivity to Change
y = 2p(1 - p) + p2 = 2p - p2.
0
1
p
(b)
FIGURE 3.21 (a) The graph of
y = 2p - p2, describing the proportion of
smooth-skinned peas in the next generation. (b) The graph of dy>dp
(Example 7).
The graph of y versus p in Figure 3.21a suggests that the value of y is more sensitive to a
change in p when p is small than when p is large. Indeed, this fact is borne out by the
derivative graph in Figure 3.21b, which shows that dy>dp is close to 2 when p is near 0
and close to 0 when p is near 1.
The implication for genetics is that introducing a few more smooth skin genes into a
population where the frequency of wrinkled skin peas is large will have a more dramatic
effect on later generations than will a similar increase when the population has a large proportion of smooth skin peas.
3.4 The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Exercises
153
3.4
Motion Along a Coordinate Line
Exercises 1–6 give the positions s = ƒ(t) of a body moving on a coordinate line, with s in meters and t in seconds.
a. Find the body’s displacement and average velocity for the
given time interval.
b. Find the body’s speed and acceleration at the endpoints of the
interval.
c. When, if ever, during the interval does the body change direction?
1. s = t 2 - 3t + 2, 0 … t … 2
12. Speeding bullet A 45-caliber bullet shot straight up from the
surface of the moon would reach a height of s = 832t - 2.6t 2 ft
after t sec. On Earth, in the absence of air, its height would be
s = 832t - 16t 2 ft after t sec. How long will the bullet be aloft in
each case? How high will the bullet go?
13. Free fall from the Tower of Pisa Had Galileo dropped a cannonball from the Tower of Pisa, 179 ft above the ground, the
ball’s height above the ground t sec into the fall would have been
s = 179 - 16t 2.
2. s = 6t - t 2, 0 … t … 6
a. What would have been the ball’s velocity, speed, and acceleration at time t?
3. s = -t 3 + 3t 2 - 3t, 0 … t … 3
b. About how long would it have taken the ball to hit the ground?
4. s = ( t >4 ) - t + t , 0 … t … 3
c. What would have been the ball’s velocity at the moment of
impact?
4
3
2
5. s =
25 5
- t, 1 … t … 5
t2
6. s =
25
, -4 … t … 0
t + 5
7. Particle motion At time t, the position of a body moving along
the s-axis is s = t 3 - 6t 2 + 9t m.
a. Find the body’s acceleration each time the velocity is zero.
b. Find the body’s speed each time the acceleration is zero.
c. Find the total distance traveled by the body from t = 0 to t = 2.
8. Particle motion At time t Ú 0, the velocity of a body moving
along the horizontal s-axis is y = t 2 - 4t + 3.
a. Find the body’s acceleration each time the velocity is zero.
14. Galileo’s free-fall formula Galileo developed a formula for a
body’s velocity during free fall by rolling balls from rest down
increasingly steep inclined planks and looking for a limiting formula that would predict a ball’s behavior when the plank was
vertical and the ball fell freely; see part (a) of the accompanying
figure. He found that, for any given angle of the plank, the ball’s
velocity t sec into motion was a constant multiple of t. That is, the
velocity was given by a formula of the form y = kt. The value of
the constant k depended on the inclination of the plank.
In modern notation—part (b) of the figure—with distance in
meters and time in seconds, what Galileo determined by experiment was that, for any given angle u, the ball’s velocity t sec into
the roll was
y = 9.8(sin u)t m>sec.
b. When is the body moving forward? Backward?
c. When is the body’s velocity increasing? Decreasing?
Free-Fall Applications
9. Free fall on Mars and Jupiter The equations for free fall at
the surfaces of Mars and Jupiter (s in meters, t in seconds) are
s = 1.86t 2 on Mars and s = 11.44t 2 on Jupiter. How long does it
take a rock falling from rest to reach a velocity of 27.8 m > sec
(about 100 km > h) on each planet?
10. Lunar projectile motion A rock thrown vertically upward
from the surface of the moon at a velocity of 24 m > sec (about
86 km > h) reaches a height of s = 24t - 0.8t 2 m in t sec.
a. Find the rock’s velocity and acceleration at time t. (The acceleration in this case is the acceleration of gravity on the moon.)
b. How long does it take the rock to reach its highest point?
c. How high does the rock go?
d. How long does it take the rock to reach half its maximum
height?
e. How long is the rock aloft?
11. Finding g on a small airless planet Explorers on a small airless
planet used a spring gun to launch a ball bearing vertically upward
from the surface at a launch velocity of 15 m > sec. Because the acceleration of gravity at the planet’s surface was gs m>sec2, the explorers
expected the ball bearing to reach a height of s = 15t - (1>2)gs t 2 m
t sec later. The ball bearing reached its maximum height 20 sec after
being launched. What was the value of gs?
Free-fall
position
?
u
(b)
(a)
a. What is the equation for the ball’s velocity during free fall?
b. Building on your work in part (a), what constant acceleration
does a freely falling body experience near the surface of Earth?
Understanding Motion from Graphs
15. The accompanying figure shows the velocity y = ds>dt = ƒ(t)
(m > sec) of a body moving along a coordinate line.
y (m/sec)
y = f (t)
3
0
2
4
6
8 10
t (sec)
−3
a. When does the body reverse direction?
b. When (approximately) is the body moving at a constant speed?
154
Chapter 3: Derivatives
c. Graph the body’s speed for 0 … t … 10.
18. The accompanying figure shows the velocity y = ƒ(t) of a particle
moving on a horizontal coordinate line.
d. Graph the acceleration, where defined.
16. A particle P moves on the number line shown in part (a) of the
accompanying figure. Part (b) shows the position of P as a function of time t.
P
s (cm)
0
y
y = f(t)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t (sec)
(a)
s (cm)
a. When does the particle move forward? Move backward?
Speed up? Slow down?
s = f (t)
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
t (sec)
b. When is the particle’s acceleration positive? Negative? Zero?
c. When does the particle move at its greatest speed?
d. When does the particle stand still for more than an instant?
−2
(6, −4)
−4
(b)
a. When is P moving to the left? Moving to the right? Standing
still?
19. Two falling balls The multiflash photograph in the accompanying figure shows two balls falling from rest. The vertical rulers
are marked in centimeters. Use the equation s = 490t 2 (the freefall equation for s in centimeters and t in seconds) to answer the
following questions. (Source: PSSC Physics, 2nd ed., Reprinted
by permission of Education Development Center, Inc.)
b. Graph the particle’s velocity and speed (where defined).
17. Launching a rocket When a model rocket is launched, the propellant burns for a few seconds, accelerating the rocket upward.
After burnout, the rocket coasts upward for a while and then
begins to fall. A small explosive charge pops out a parachute
shortly after the rocket starts down. The parachute slows the
rocket to keep it from breaking when it lands.
The figure here shows velocity data from the flight of the
model rocket. Use the data to answer the following.
a. How fast was the rocket climbing when the engine stopped?
b. For how many seconds did the engine burn?
200
Velocity (ft#sec)
150
100
50
0
−50
−100
0
2
4
6
8
10
Time after launch (sec)
12
c. When did the rocket reach its highest point? What was its
velocity then?
d. When did the parachute pop out? How fast was the rocket
falling then?
e. How long did the rocket fall before the parachute opened?
f. When was the rocket’s acceleration greatest?
g. When was the acceleration constant? What was its value then
(to the nearest integer)?
a. How long did it take the balls to fall the first 160 cm? What
was their average velocity for the period?
b. How fast were the balls falling when they reached the 160-cm
mark? What was their acceleration then?
c. About how fast was the light flashing (flashes per second)?
3.4 The Derivative as a Rate of Change
20. A traveling truck The accompanying graph shows the position
s of a truck traveling on a highway. The truck starts at t = 0 and
returns 15 h later at t = 15.
155
Economics
23. Marginal cost Suppose that the dollar cost of producing x
washing machines is c(x) = 2000 + 100x - 0.1x2.
a. Use the technique described in Section 3.2, Example 3, to
graph the truck’s velocity y = ds>dt for 0 … t … 15. Then
repeat the process, with the velocity curve, to graph the
truck’s acceleration dy>dt.
a. Find the average cost per machine of producing the first 100
washing machines.
b. Suppose that s = 15t 2 - t 3. Graph ds>dt and d 2s>dt 2 and
compare your graphs with those in part (a).
c. Show that the marginal cost when 100 washing machines are
produced is approximately the cost of producing one more
washing machine after the first 100 have been made, by calculating the latter cost directly.
Position, s (km)
500
b. Find the marginal cost when 100 washing machines are
produced.
24. Marginal revenue Suppose that the revenue from selling x
washing machines is
400
300
dollars.
200
1
r(x) = 20,000a1 - x b
a. Find the marginal revenue when 100 machines are produced.
100
0
5
10
Elapsed time, t (hr)
15
21. The graphs in the accompanying figure show the position s,
velocity y = ds>dt, and acceleration a = d 2s>dt 2 of a body
moving along a coordinate line as functions of time t. Which
graph is which? Give reasons for your answers.
y
A
B
b. Use the function r′(x) to estimate the increase in revenue that
will result from increasing production from 100 machines a
week to 101 machines a week.
c. Find the limit of r′(x) as x S q. How would you interpret
this number?
Additional Applications
25. Bacterium population When a bactericide was added to a
nutrient broth in which bacteria were growing, the bacterium
population continued to grow for a while, but then stopped growing and began to decline. The size of the population at time t
(hours) was b = 106 + 104t - 103t 2. Find the growth rates at
a. t = 0 hours.
C
b. t = 5 hours.
c. t = 10 hours.
t
0
22. The graphs in the accompanying figure show the position s, the
velocity y = ds>dt, and the acceleration a = d 2s>dt 2 of a body
moving along a coordinate line as functions of time t. Which
graph is which? Give reasons for your answers.
y
26. Body surface area A typical male’s body surface area S in
1
square meters is often modeled by the formula S = 60
2wh,
where h is the height in cm, and w the weight in kg, of the person.
Find the rate of change of body surface area with respect to
weight for males of constant height h = 180 cm (roughly 5′9″).
Does S increase more rapidly with respect to weight at lower or
higher body weights? Explain.
T 27. Draining a tank It takes 12 hours to drain a storage tank by
opening the valve at the bottom. The depth y of fluid in the tank t
hours after the valve is opened is given by the formula
y = 6a1 -
A
t 2
b m.
12
a. Find the rate dy>dt (m > h) at which the tank is draining at
time t.
b. When is the fluid level in the tank falling fastest? Slowest?
What are the values of dy>dt at these times?
0
B
C
t
c. Graph y and dy>dt together and discuss the behavior of y in
relation to the signs and values of dy>dt.
28. Draining a tank The number of gallons of water in a tank t
minutes after the tank has started to drain is Q(t) = 200(30 - t)2.
How fast is the water running out at the end of 10 min? What is the
average rate at which the water flows out during the first 10 min?
156
Chapter 3: Derivatives
29. Vehicular stopping distance Based on data from the U.S.
Bureau of Public Roads, a model for the total stopping distance of
a moving car in terms of its speed is
vent in the crater’s floor, which at one point shot lava 1900 ft
straight into the air (a Hawaiian record). What was the lava’s exit
velocity in feet per second? In miles per hour? (Hint: If y0 is the
exit velocity of a particle of lava, its height t sec later will be
s = y0 t - 16t 2 ft. Begin by finding the time at which ds>dt = 0.
Neglect air resistance.)
s = 1.1y + 0.054y2,
where s is measured in ft and y in mph. The linear term 1.1y
models the distance the car travels during the time the driver perceives a need to stop until the brakes are applied, and the quadratic term 0.054y2 models the additional braking distance once
they are applied. Find ds>dy at y = 35 and y = 70 mph, and
interpret the meaning of the derivative.
30. Inflating a balloon The volume V = (4>3)pr 3 of a spherical
balloon changes with the radius.
Analyzing Motion Using Graphs
T Exercises 33–36 give the position function s = ƒ(t) of an object moving along the s-axis as a function of time t. Graph ƒ together with the
velocity function y(t) = ds>dt = ƒ′(t) and the acceleration function
a(t) = d 2s>dt 2 = ƒ″(t). Comment on the object’s behavior in relation
to the signs and values of y and a. Include in your commentary such
topics as the following:
a. At what rate (ft3 >ft) does the volume change with respect to
the radius when r = 2 ft?
a. When is the object momentarily at rest?
b. When does it move to the left (down) or to the right (up)?
b. By approximately how much does the volume increase when
the radius changes from 2 to 2.2 ft?
31. Airplane takeoff Suppose that the distance an aircraft travels
along a runway before takeoff is given by D = (10>9)t 2, where D is
measured in meters from the starting point and t is measured in seconds from the time the brakes are released. The aircraft will become
airborne when its speed reaches 200 km>h. How long will it take to
become airborne, and what distance will it travel in that time?
32. Volcanic lava fountains Although the November 1959 Kilauea
Iki eruption on the island of Hawaii began with a line of fountains
along the wall of the crater, activity was later confined to a single
c. When does it change direction?
d. When does it speed up and slow down?
e. When is it moving fastest (highest speed)? Slowest?
f. When is it farthest from the axis origin?
33. s = 200t - 16t 2, 0 … t … 12.5 (a heavy object fired straight
up from Earth’s surface at 200 ft > sec)
34. s = t 2 - 3t + 2, 0 … t … 5
35. s = t 3 - 6t 2 + 7t, 0 … t … 4
36. s = 4 - 7t + 6t 2 - t 3, 0 … t … 4
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Many phenomena of nature are approximately periodic (electromagnetic fields, heart rhythms,
tides, weather). The derivatives of sines and cosines play a key role in describing periodic
changes. This section shows how to differentiate the six basic trigonometric functions.
Derivative of the Sine Function
To calculate the derivative of ƒ(x) = sin x, for x measured in radians, we combine the limits
in Example 5a and Theorem 7 in Section 2.4 with the angle sum identity for the sine function:
sin (x + h) = sin x cos h + cos x sin h.
If ƒ(x) = sin x, then
ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x)
sin (x + h) - sin x
= lim
h
h
hS0
(sin x cos h + cos x sin h) - sin x
= lim
h
hS0
sin x (cos h - 1) + cos x sin h
= lim
h
hS0
ƒ′(x) = lim
hS0
= lim asin x #
hS0
Derivative definition
cos h - 1
sin h
b + lim acos x #
b
h
h
hS0
cos h - 1
sin h
+ cos x # lim
= sin x # 0 + cos x # 1 = cos x.
= sin x # lim
h
hS0
hS0 h
(++)++*
(11)11*
Example 5a and
limit 0
limit 1
Theorem 7, Section 2.4
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
157
The derivative of the sine function is the cosine function:
d
(sin x) = cos x.
dx
EXAMPLE 1
We find derivatives of the sine function involving differences, products,
and quotients.
(a) y = x2 - sin x:
dy
d
= 2x (sin x)
dx
dx
Difference Rule
(b) y = exsin x:
= 2x - cos x
dy
d x
d
= ex (sin x) +
(e ) sin x
dx
dx
dx
= ex cos x + ex sin x
Product Rule
= ex (cos x + sin x)
sin x
(c) y = x :
#d
#
dy x dx (sin x) - sin x 1
=
dx
x2
=
Quotient Rule
x cos x - sin x
x2
Derivative of the Cosine Function
With the help of the angle sum formula for the cosine function,
cos (x + h) = cos x cos h - sin x sin h,
we can compute the limit of the difference quotient:
cos (x + h) - cos x
d
(cos x) = lim
dx
h
S
h 0
(cos x cos h - sin x sin h) - cos x
h
hS0
= lim
= lim
hS0
= lim cos x #
cos h - 1
sin h
- lim sin x #
h
h
hS0
= cos x # lim
cos h - 1
sin h
- sin x # lim
h
hS0 h
hS0
y = cos x
1
−p
0
−1
p
y′
0
−1
y′ = −sin x
p
= cos x # 0 - sin x # 1
= -sin x.
Example 5a and
Theorem 7, Section 2.4
x
1
−p
Cosine angle sum
identity
cos x (cos h - 1) - sin x sin h
h
hS0
y
Derivative definition
x
FIGURE 3.22 The curve y′ = - sin x
as the graph of the slopes of the tangents to
the curve y = cos x.
The derivative of the cosine function is the negative of the sine function:
d
(cos x) = -sin x.
dx
Figure 3.22 shows a way to visualize this result in the same way we did for graphing
derivatives in Section 3.2, Figure 3.6.
158
Chapter 3: Derivatives
EXAMPLE 2
We find derivatives of the cosine function in combinations with other
functions.
(a) y = 5ex + cos x:
dy
d
( 5ex ) + d (cos x)
=
dx dx
dx
Sum Rule
= 5ex - sin x
(b) y = sin x cos x:
dy
d
d
= sin x (cos x) + cos x (sin x)
dx
dx
dx
Product Rule
= sin x (-sin x) + cos x (cos x)
= cos2 x - sin2 x
(c) y =
cos x
:
1 - sin x
d
d
dy (1 - sin x) dx (cos x) - cos x dx (1 - sin x)
=
dx
(1 - sin x)2
(1 - sin x)(-sin x) - cos x(0 - cos x)
(1 - sin x)2
1 - sin x
=
(1 - sin x)2
1
=
1 - sin x
Quotient Rule
=
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
Simple Harmonic Motion
The motion of an object or weight bobbing freely up and down with no resistance on the
end of a spring is an example of simple harmonic motion. The motion is periodic and
repeats indefinitely, so we represent it using trigonometric functions. The next example
describes a case in which there are no opposing forces such as friction to slow the motion.
EXAMPLE 3
A weight hanging from a spring (Figure 3.23) is stretched down 5 units
beyond its rest position and released at time t = 0 to bob up and down. Its position at any
later time t is
s = 5 cos t.
−5
What are its velocity and acceleration at time t?
0
Rest
position
5
Position at
t=0
Solution We have
Position:
s = 5 cos t
ds
d
Velocity:
y =
= (5 cos t) = -5 sin t
dt
dt
s
FIGURE 3.23 A weight hanging from
a vertical spring and then displaced oscillates above and below its rest position
(Example 3).
Acceleration: a =
dy
d
= (-5 sin t) = -5 cos t.
dt
dt
Notice how much we can learn from these equations:
1.
2.
As time passes, the weight moves down and up between s = -5 and s = 5 on the
s-axis. The amplitude of the motion is 5. The period of the motion is 2p, the period of
the cosine function.
The velocity y = -5 sin t attains its greatest magnitude, 5, when cos t = 0, as the
graphs show in Figure 3.24. Hence, the speed of the weight, 0 y 0 = 5 0 sin t 0 , is greatest
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
s, y
5
y = −5 sin t
s = 5 cos t
3.
0
p
2
p
3p
2
2p 5p
2
t
−5
FIGURE 3.24 The graphs of the position
and velocity of the weight in Example 3.
4.
159
when cos t = 0, that is, when s = 0 (the rest position). The speed of the weight is
zero when sin t = 0. This occurs when s = 5 cos t = {5, at the endpoints of the
interval of motion.
The weight is acted on by the spring and by gravity. When the weight is below the rest
position, the combined forces pull it up, and when it is above the rest position, they pull it
down. The weight’s acceleration is always proportional to the negative of its displacement.
This property of springs is called Hooke’s Law, and is studied further in Section 6.5.
The acceleration, a = -5 cos t, is zero only at the rest position, where cos t = 0 and
the force of gravity and the force from the spring balance each other. When the weight
is anywhere else, the two forces are unequal and acceleration is nonzero. The acceleration is greatest in magnitude at the points farthest from the rest position, where
cos t = {1.
EXAMPLE 4
The jerk associated with the simple harmonic motion in Example 3 is
j =
da
d
= (-5 cos t) = 5 sin t.
dt
dt
It has its greatest magnitude when sin t = {1, not at the extremes of the displacement
but at the rest position, where the acceleration changes direction and sign.
Derivatives of the Other Basic Trigonometric Functions
Because sin x and cos x are differentiable functions of x, the related functions
sin x
tan x = cos x ,
cot x =
cos x
,
sin x
1
sec x = cos x ,
and
csc x =
1
sin x
are differentiable at every value of x at which they are defined. Their derivatives, calculated from the Quotient Rule, are given by the following formulas. Notice the negative
signs in the derivative formulas for the cofunctions.
The derivatives of the other trigonometric functions:
d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
d
(cot x) = -csc2 x
dx
d
(csc x) = -csc x cot x
dx
To show a typical calculation, we find the derivative of the tangent function. The other
derivations are left to Exercise 60.
EXAMPLE 5
Find d(tan x)>dx.
Solution We use the Derivative Quotient Rule to calculate the derivative:
d
d sin x
(tan x) =
a
b =
dx
dx cos x
cos x
d
d
(sin x) - sin x (cos x)
dx
dx
cos2 x
=
cos x cos x - sin x (-sin x)
cos2 x
=
cos2 x + sin2 x
cos2 x
=
1
= sec2 x.
cos2 x
Quotient Rule
160
Chapter 3: Derivatives
EXAMPLE 6
Find y″ if y = sec x.
Solution Finding the second derivative involves a combination of trigonometric
derivatives.
y = sec x
y′ = sec x tan x
d
y″ =
(sec x tan x)
dx
= sec x
Derivative rule for secant function
d
d
(tan x) + tan x (sec x)
dx
dx
= sec x (sec2 x) + tan x (sec x tan x)
= sec3 x + sec x tan2 x
Derivative Product Rule
Derivative rules
The differentiability of the trigonometric functions throughout their domains gives
another proof of their continuity at every point in their domains (Theorem 1, Section 3.2).
So we can calculate limits of algebraic combinations and composites of trigonometric
functions by direct substitution.
EXAMPLE 7
We can use direct substitution in computing limits provided there is no
division by zero, which is algebraically undefined.
lim
xS0
Exercises
22 + sec x
22 + sec 0
22 + 1
23
=
=
=
= - 23
cos (p - tan x) cos (p - tan 0) cos (p - 0)
-1
3.5
In Exercises 23–26, find dr>du.
Derivatives
In Exercises 1–18, find dy>dx.
3
2. y = x + 5 sin x
1. y = -10x + 3 cos x
3. y = x2 cos x
5. y = csc x - 4 1x +
7
ex
7. ƒ(x) = sin x tan x
9. y = xe-x sec x
11. y =
cot x
1 + cot x
1
4
13. y = cos x + tan x
24. r = u sin u + cos u
25. r = sec u csc u
26. r = (1 + sec u) sin u
In Exercises 27–32, find dp>dq.
1
27. p = 5 + cot q
28. p = (1 + csc q) cos q
4. y = 2x sec x + 3
6. y = x2 cot x -
23. r = 4 - u 2 sin u
1
x2
cos x
8. g(x) =
sin2 x
10. y = (sin x + cos x) sec x
29. p =
sin q + cos q
cos q
30. p =
tan q
1 + tan q
31. p =
q sin q
q2 - 1
32. p =
3q + tan q
q sec q
12. y =
cos x
1 + sin x
33. Find y″ if
14. y =
x
cos x
x + cos x
34. Find y(4) = d 4 y>dx4 if
a. y = csc x.
a. y = - 2 sin x.
15. y = (sec x + tan x) (sec x - tan x)
b. y = sec x.
b. y = 9 cos x.
18. g(x) = (2 - x) tan x
Tangent Lines
In Exercises 35–38, graph the curves over the given intervals, together
with their tangents at the given values of x. Label each curve and tangent with its equation.
19. s = tan t - e-t
20. s = t 2 - sec t + 5et
35. y = sin x, - 3p>2 … x … 2p
1 + csc t
21. s =
1 - csc t
sin t
22. s =
1 - cos t
16. y = x2 cos x - 2x sin x - 2 cos x
3
17. ƒ(x) = x sin x cos x
2
In Exercises 19–22, find ds>dt.
x = - p, 0, 3p>2
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Theory and Examples
The equations in Exercises 55 and 56 give the position s = ƒ(t) of a
body moving on a coordinate line (s in meters, t in seconds). Find the
body’s velocity, speed, acceleration, and jerk at time t = p>4 sec.
36. y = tan x, - p>2 6 x 6 p>2
x = - p>3, 0, p>3
37. y = sec x, - p>2 6 x 6 p>2
x = - p>3, p>4
55. s = 2 - 2 sin t
38. y = 1 + cos x, -3p>2 … x … 2p
T Do the graphs of the functions in Exercises 39–42 have any horizontal
tangents in the interval 0 … x … 2p? If so, where? If not, why not?
Visualize your findings by graphing the functions with a grapher.
ƒ(x) =
sin2 3x
, x≠0
x2
c,
x = 0
continuous at x = 0? Give reasons for your answer.
39. y = x + sin x
58. Is there a value of b that will make
40. y = 2x + sin x
41. y = x - cot x
g(x) = e
42. y = x + 2 cos x
43. Find all points on the curve y = tan x, -p>2 6 x 6 p>2, where
the tangent line is parallel to the line y = 2x. Sketch the curve
and tangent(s) together, labeling each with its equation.
44. Find all points on the curve y = cot x, 0 6 x 6 p, where the
tangent line is parallel to the line y = - x. Sketch the curve and
tangent(s) together, labeling each with its equation.
In Exercises 45 and 46, find an equation for (a) the tangent to the
curve at P and (b) the horizontal tangent to the curve at Q.
45.
46.
x + b, x 6 0
cos x, x Ú 0
continuous at x = 0? Differentiable at x = 0? Give reasons for
your answers.
59. By computing the first few derivatives and looking for a pattern,
find d 999 >dx999 (cos x).
60. Derive the formula for the derivative with respect to x of
a. sec x.
b. csc x.
c. cot x.
61. A weight is attached to a spring and reaches its equilibrium position (x = 0). It is then set in motion resulting in a displacement of
x = 10 cos t,
y
Q
where x is measured in centimeters and t is measured in seconds.
See the accompanying figure.
p
P a , 2b
2
2
56. s = sin t + cos t
57. Is there a value of c that will make
x = - p>3, 3p>2
y
161
1
p
P a , 4b
4
4
−10
0
1
p 2
2
y = 4 + cot x − 2csc x
x
Q
0
p1
4
0
2
3
x
10
y = 1 + " 2 csc x + cot x
x
Trigonometric Limits
Find the limits in Exercises 47–54.
a. Find the spring’s displacement when t = 0, t = p>3, and
t = 3p>4.
1 1
47. lim sin a x - b
2
xS2
48.
49.
lim
x S - p>6
lim
u S p>6
b. Find the spring’s velocity when t = 0, t = p>3, and
t = 3p>4.
21 + cos (p csc x)
sin u u -
1
2
p
6
62. Assume that a particle’s position on the x-axis is given by
50.
lim
u S p>4
tan u - 1
u - p4
xS0
p + tan x
b
tan x - 2 sec x
53. lim tan a1 tS0
sin t
t b
54. lim cos a
uS0
x = 3 cos t + 4 sin t,
where x is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds.
a. Find the particle’s position when t = 0, t = p>2, and
t = p.
p
b - 1d
51. lim secc e + p tan a
4 sec x
xS0
x
52. lim sin a
Equilibrium
position
at x = 0
b. Find the particle’s velocity when t = 0, t = p>2, and
t = p.
pu
b
sin u
162
Chapter 3: Derivatives
T 63. Graph y = cos x for - p … x … 2p. On the same screen, graph
y =
sin (x + h) - sin x
h
for h = 1, 0.5, 0.3, and 0.1. Then, in a new window, try
h = -1, -0.5, and -0.3. What happens as h S 0+? As h S 0-?
What phenomenon is being illustrated here?
T 64. Graph y = - sin x for -p … x … 2p. On the same screen, graph
y =
cos (x + h) - cos x
h
T 65. Centered difference quotients The centered difference quotient
ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x - h)
2h
is used to approximate ƒ′(x) in numerical work because (1) its
limit as h S 0 equals ƒ′(x) when ƒ′(x) exists, and (2) it usually
gives a better approximation of ƒ′(x) for a given value of h than
the difference quotient
ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x)
.
h
See the accompanying figure.
y
Slope = f ′(x)
Slope =
B
0
f (x + h) − f(x − h)
2h
h
x
x−h
x+h
x
sin (x + h) - sin (x - h)
2h
over the interval 3- p, 2p4 for h = 1, 0.5, and 0.3. Compare the results with those obtained in Exercise 63 for the
same values of h.
b. To see how rapidly the centered difference quotient for
ƒ(x) = cos x converges to ƒ′(x) = -sin x, graph y = -sin x
together with
y =
00 + h0 - 00 - h0
2h
.
As you will see, the limit exists even though ƒ(x) = 0 x 0 has no
derivative at x = 0. Moral: Before using a centered difference
quotient, be sure the derivative exists.
T 67. Slopes on the graph of the tangent function Graph y = tan x
and its derivative together on (- p>2, p>2). Does the graph of the
tangent function appear to have a smallest slope? A largest slope?
Is the slope ever negative? Give reasons for your answers.
T 68. Slopes on the graph of the cotangent function Graph y = cot x
and its derivative together for 0 6 x 6 p. Does the graph of the
cotangent function appear to have a smallest slope? A largest
slope? Is the slope ever positive? Give reasons for your answers.
T 69. Exploring (sin kx) , x Graph y = (sin x)>x, y = (sin 2x)>x, and
y = (sin 4x)>x together over the interval -2 … x … 2. Where
does each graph appear to cross the y-axis? Do the graphs really
intersect the axis? What would you expect the graphs of
y = (sin 5x)>x and y = (sin (- 3x))>x to do as x S 0? Why?
What about the graph of y = (sin kx)>x for other values of k?
Give reasons for your answers.
ƒ(h) =
a. To see how rapidly the centered difference quotient for
ƒ(x) = sin x converges to ƒ′(x) = cos x, graph y = cos x
together with
y =
lim
a. With your graphing calculator or computer grapher in degree
mode, graph
y = f (x)
h
may have a limit as h S 0 when ƒ has no derivative at x. As a
case in point, take ƒ(x) = 0 x 0 and calculate
T 70. Radians versus degrees: degree mode derivatives What happens to the derivatives of sin x and cos x if x is measured in
degrees instead of radians? To find out, take the following steps.
f (x + h) − f (x)
h
A
Slope =
ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x - h)
2h
hS0
for h = 1, 0.5, 0.3, and 0.1. Then, in a new window, try
h = -1, -0.5, and -0.3. What happens as h S 0+? As h S 0-?
What phenomenon is being illustrated here?
C
66. A caution about centered difference quotients (Continuation
of Exercise 65.) The quotient
cos (x + h) - cos (x - h)
2h
over the interval 3- p, 2p4 for h = 1, 0.5, and 0.3. Compare
the results with those obtained in Exercise 64 for the same
values of h.
sin h
h
and estimate limh S 0 ƒ(h). Compare your estimate with
p>180. Is there any reason to believe the limit should be
p>180?
b. With your grapher still in degree mode, estimate
lim
hS0
cos h - 1
.
h
c. Now go back to the derivation of the formula for the derivative of sin x in the text and carry out the steps of the derivation using degree-mode limits. What formula do you obtain
for the derivative?
d. Work through the derivation of the formula for the derivative
of cos x using degree-mode limits. What formula do you
obtain for the derivative?
e. The disadvantages of the degree-mode formulas become
apparent as you start taking derivatives of higher order. Try
it. What are the second and third degree-mode derivatives of
sin x and cos x?
3.6 The Chain Rule
163
3.6 The Chain Rule
How do we differentiate F(x) = sin (x2 - 4)? This function is the composite ƒ ∘ g of two
functions y = ƒ(u) = sin u and u = g(x) = x2 - 4 that we know how to differentiate.
The answer, given by the Chain Rule, says that the derivative is the product of the derivatives of ƒ and g. We develop the rule in this section.
2
3
1
C: y turns B: u turns A: x turns
FIGURE 3.25 When gear A makes
x turns, gear B makes u turns and gear
C makes y turns. By comparing circumferences or counting teeth, we see
that y = u>2 (C turns one-half turn
for each B turn) and u = 3x (B turns
three times for A’s one), so y = 3x>2.
Thus, dy>dx = 3>2 = (1>2)(3) =
(dy>du)(du>dx).
Derivative of a Composite Function
The function y =
3
1
1
x = (3x) is the composite of the functions y = u and u = 3x.
2
2
2
We have
dy 3
= ,
dx 2
Since
dy
1
= ,
du 2
du
= 3.
dx
and
3 1#
3, we see in this case that
=
2 2
dy
dy du
# .
=
dx du dx
If we think of the derivative as a rate of change, our intuition allows us to see that this relationship is reasonable. If y = ƒ(u) changes half as fast as u and u = g(x) changes three
times as fast as x, then we expect y to change 3>2 times as fast as x. This effect is much
like that of a multiple gear train (Figure 3.25). Let’s look at another example.
EXAMPLE 1
The function
y = ( 3x2 + 1 ) 2
is the composite of y = ƒ(u) = u2 and u = g(x) = 3x2 + 1. Calculating derivatives, we
see that
dy du
# = 2u # 6x
du dx
= 2(3x2 + 1) # 6x
= 36x3 + 12x.
Substitute for u
Calculating the derivative from the expanded formula (3x2 + 1)2 = 9x4 + 6x2 + 1 gives
the same result:
dy
d
( 9x4 + 6x2 + 1 )
=
dx dx
= 36x3 + 12x.
The derivative of the composite function ƒ(g(x)) at x is the derivative of ƒ at g(x)
times the derivative of g at x. This is known as the Chain Rule (Figure 3.26).
Composite f ˚ g
Rate of change at
x is f ′(g(x)) · g′(x).
x
g
f
Rate of change
at x is g′(x).
Rate of change
at g(x) is f ′(g(x)).
u = g(x)
y = f (u) = f (g(x))
FIGURE 3.26 Rates of change multiply: The derivative of ƒ ∘ g at x is the
derivative of ƒ at g(x) times the derivative of g at x.
164
Chapter 3: Derivatives
THEOREM 2—The Chain Rule If ƒ(u) is differentiable at the point u = g(x)
and g(x) is differentiable at x, then the composite function (ƒ ∘ g) (x) = ƒ(g(x)) is
differentiable at x, and
(ƒ ∘ g)′(x) = ƒ′(g(x)) # g′(x).
In Leibniz’s notation, if y = ƒ(u) and u = g(x), then
dy
dy du
# ,
=
dx du dx
where dy>du is evaluated at u = g(x).
A Proof of One Case of the Chain Rule:
Let ∆u be the change in u when x changes by ∆x, so that
∆u = g(x + ∆x) - g(x).
Then the corresponding change in y is
∆y = ƒ(u + ∆u) - ƒ(u).
If ∆u ≠ 0, we can write the fraction ∆y> ∆x as the product
∆y
∆y ∆u
#
=
∆x
∆u ∆x
(1)
and take the limit as ∆x S 0:
∆y
dy
= lim
dx
∆x S 0 ∆x
= lim
∆y ∆u
#
∆x
∆x S 0 ∆u
= lim
∆y
#
lim
∆u
∆x
#
lim
∆u
∆x
∆x S 0 ∆u ∆x S 0
= lim
∆y
∆u S 0 ∆u ∆x S 0
=
(Note that ∆u S 0 as ∆x S 0
since g is continuous.)
dy du
# .
du dx
The problem with this argument is that if the function g(x) oscillates rapidly near x, then
∆u can be zero even when ∆x ≠ 0, so the cancelation of ∆u in Equation (1) would be
invalid. A complete proof requires a different approach that avoids this problem, and we
give one such proof in Section 3.11.
EXAMPLE 2
An object moves along the x-axis so that its position at any time t Ú 0
is given by x(t) = cos (t 2 + 1). Find the velocity of the object as a function of t.
Solution We know that the velocity is dx>dt. In this instance, x is a composite function:
x = cos(u) and u = t 2 + 1. We have
dx
= -sin(u)
du
x = cos(u)
du
= 2t.
dt
u = t2 + 1
3.6 The Chain Rule
165
By the Chain Rule,
dx
dx # du
=
dt
du dt
= -sin (u) # 2t
= -sin (t 2 + 1) # 2t
= -2t sin (t 2 + 1).
Ways to Write the Chain Rule
(ƒ ∘ g)′(x) = ƒ′(g(x)) # g′(x)
dy
dy du
#
=
dx du dx
“Outside-Inside” Rule
A difficulty with the Leibniz notation is that it doesn’t state specifically where the derivatives in the Chain Rule are supposed to be evaluated. So it sometimes helps to think about
the Chain Rule using functional notation. If y = ƒ(g(x)), then
dy
= ƒ′(g(x)) # g′(x).
dx
dy
= ƒ′(g(x)) # g′(x)
dx
du
d
ƒ(u) = ƒ′(u)
dx
dx
dx
evaluated at u
du
In words, differentiate the “outside” function ƒ and evaluate it at the “inside” function g(x)
left alone; then multiply by the derivative of the “inside function.”
EXAMPLE 3
Differentiate sin ( x2 + ex ) with respect to x.
Solution We apply the Chain Rule directly and find
d
sin ( x2 + ex ) = cos ( x2 + ex ) # ( 2x + ex ) .
dx
(1)1*
(1)1*
(1)1*
inside
EXAMPLE 4
inside
left alone
derivative of
the inside
Differentiate y = ecos x.
Solution Here the inside function is u = g(x) = cos x and the outside function is the
exponential function ƒ(x) = ex. Applying the Chain Rule, we get
dy
d cos x
( e ) = ecos x d (cos x) = ecos x(-sin x) = -ecos x sin x.
=
dx dx
dx
Generalizing Example 4, we see that the Chain Rule gives the formula
d u
du
e = eu .
dx
dx
For example,
d kx
d
(e ) = ekx # (kx) = kekx,
dx
dx
for any constant k
and
2
d x2
d 2
1 e 2 = ex2 # dx
(x ) = 2xex .
dx
Repeated Use of the Chain Rule
We sometimes have to use the Chain Rule two or more times to find a derivative.
166
Chapter 3: Derivatives
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Johann Bernoulli
(1667–1748)
EXAMPLE 5
Find the derivative of g(t) = tan (5 - sin 2t).
Solution Notice here that the tangent is a function of 5 - sin 2t, whereas the sine is a
function of 2t, which is itself a function of t. Therefore, by the Chain Rule,
g′(t) =
d
(tan (5 - sin 2t))
dt
= sec2 (5 - sin 2t) #
Derivative of tan u with
u = 5 - sin 2t
d
(5 - sin 2t)
dt
= sec2 (5 - sin 2t) # a0 - cos 2t #
= sec2 (5 - sin 2t) # (-cos 2t) # 2
= -2(cos 2t) sec2 (5 - sin 2t).
d
(2t)b
dt
Derivative of 5 - sin u
with u = 2t
The Chain Rule with Powers of a Function
If ƒ is a differentiable function of u and if u is a differentiable function of x, then substituting y = ƒ(u) into the Chain Rule formula
dy
dy du
#
=
dx du dx
leads to the formula
du
d
ƒ(u) = ƒ′(u) .
dx
dx
If n is any real number and ƒ is a power function, ƒ(u) = un, the Power Rule tells us
that ƒ′(u) = nun - 1. If u is a differentiable function of x, then we can use the Chain Rule to
extend this to the Power Chain Rule:
d n
du
(u ) = nun - 1 .
dx
dx
d n
(u ) = nun - 1
du
EXAMPLE 6
The Power Chain Rule simplifies computing the derivative of a power
of an expression.
Power Chain Rule with
d
( 5x3 - x4 ) 7 = 7 ( 5x3 - x4 ) 6 d ( 5x3 - x4 )
(a)
u = 5x3 - x4, n = 7
dx
dx
= 7 ( 5x3 - x4 ) 6 ( 5 # 3x2 - 4x3 )
= 7 ( 5x3 - x4 ) 6 ( 15x2 - 4x3 )
(b)
d
d
1
a
b =
(3x - 2)-1
dx 3x - 2
dx
d
(3x - 2)
dx
= -1(3x - 2)-2(3)
3
= (3x - 2)2
= -1(3x - 2)-2
Power Chain Rule with
u = 3x - 2, n = - 1
In part (b) we could also find the derivative with the Derivative Quotient Rule.
(c)
d
( sin5 x ) = 5 sin4 x # d sin x
dx
dx
= 5 sin4 x cos x
Power Chain Rule with u = sin x, n = 5,
because sinn x means (sin x)n, n ≠ - 1.
3.6 The Chain Rule
(d)
d 23x + 1
d
1e
2 = e23x + 1 # dx
1 23x + 1 2
dx
1
= e23x + 1 # (3x + 1)-1>2 # 3
2
=
167
Power Chain Rule with u = 3x + 1, n = 1>2
3
e23x + 1
2 23x + 1
In Section 3.2, we saw that the absolute value function y = 0 x 0 is not
differentiable at x = 0. However, the function is differentiable at all other real numbers,
as we now show. Since 0 x 0 = 2x2 , we can derive the following formula:
EXAMPLE 7
Derivative of the
Absolute Value Function
d
( 0 x 0 ) = d 2x2
dx
dx
d
x
(0x0) =
, x≠0
dx
0x0
= e
1
=
2
#
d 2
(x )
dx
2 2x
1 #
=
2x
20x0
1, x 7 0
- 1, x 6 0
=
EXAMPLE 8
is positive.
x
0x0
, x ≠ 0.
Power Chain Rule with
u = x2, n = 1>2, x ≠ 0
2x 2 = 0 x 0
Show that the slope of every line tangent to the curve y = 1>(1 - 2x)3
Solution We find the derivative:
dy
d
=
(1 - 2x)-3
dx dx
= -3(1 - 2x)-4 #
d
(1 - 2x)
dx
Power Chain Rule with u = (1 - 2x), n = - 3
= -3(1 - 2x)-4 # (-2)
6
=
.
(1 - 2x)4
At any point (x, y) on the curve, the coordinate x is not 1>2 and the slope of the tangent
line is
dy
6
=
,
dx (1 - 2x)4
which is the quotient of two positive numbers.
EXAMPLE 9
The formulas for the derivatives of both sin x and cos x were obtained
under the assumption that x is measured in radians, not degrees. The Chain Rule gives us
new insight into the difference between the two. Since 180° = p radians, x° = px>180
radians where x° is the size of the angle measured in degrees.
By the Chain Rule,
d
d
p
p
px
px
sin (x°) =
sin a
b =
cos a
b =
cos (x°).
180
180
180
180
dx
dx
See Figure 3.27. Similarly, the derivative of cos (x°) is -(p>180) sin (x°).
The factor p>180 would compound with repeated differentiation, showing an advantage for the use of radian measure in computations.
168
Chapter 3: Derivatives
y
y = sin(x°) = sin px
180
1
x
180
y = sin x
FIGURE 3.27 The function sin (x°) oscillates only p>180 times as often as sin x
oscillates. Its maximum slope is p>180 at x = 0 (Example 9).
Exercises
3.6
Derivative Calculations
In Exercises 1–8, given y = ƒ(u) and u = g(x), find dy>dx =
ƒ′(g(x))g′(x).
1. y = 6u - 9, u = (1>2)x4
2. y = 2u3, u = 8x - 1
3. y = sin u, u = 3x + 1
4. y = cos u, u = e-x
5. y = 2u, u = sin x
6. y = sin u, u = x - cos x
1
8. y = - sec u, u = x + 7x
7. y = tan u, u = px2
In Exercises 9–22, write the function in the form y = ƒ(u) and
u = g(x). Then find dy>dx as a function of x.
9. y = (2x + 1)5
x
b
7
11. y = a1 13. y = a
2
x
1
+ x - xb
8
12. y = a
4
2x
2
- 1b
-10
18. y = 5 cos-4 x
19. y = e-5x
20. y = e2x>3
45. r = sin (u 2) cos (2u)
47. q = sin a
t
b
2t + 1
2
25. s =
4
4
sin 3t +
cos 5t
3p
5p
27. r = (csc u + cot u)-1
32. y = (5 - 2x)-3 +
3pt
3pt
b + cos a
b
2
2
28. r = 6 (sec u - tan u)3>2
1 2
a + 1b
8 x
33. y = (4x + 3)4(x + 1)-3
3
1
46. r = sec 2u tan a b
u
sin t
48. q = cota t b
50. y = u 3e-2u cos 5u
56. y = (t -3>4 sin t)4>3
10
58. y = ( esin (t>2) ) 3
(pt - 1)
t2
b
t 3 - 4t
3
61. y = sin (cos (2t - 5))
-2
4
1 + sin 3t -1
b
3 - 2t
54. y = (1 + cot (t>2))-2
59. y = a
x
1
29. y = x sin x + x cos x
30. y = x sin-5 x - cos3 x
3
1 -1
1
(3x - 2)6 + a4 - 2 b
31. y =
18
2x
2
44. g(t) = a
53. y = (1 + cos 2t)-4
57. y = ecos
3
24. q = 2
2r - r 2
26. s = sin a
tan 3x
(x + 7)4
52. y = sec2 pt
Find the derivatives of the functions in Exercises 23–50.
23. p = 23 - t
42. g(x) =
51. y = sin2 (pt - 2)
2
2
22. y = e142x + x 2
21. y = e5 - 7x
2
sin u
b
1 + cos u
55. y = (t tan t)
1
16. y = cot ap - x b
17. y = tan3 x
43. ƒ(u) = a
1
40. k(x) = x2 sec a x b
In Exercises 51–70, find dy>dt.
14. y = 23x2 - 4x + 6
15. y = sec (tan x)
41. ƒ(x) = 27 + x sec x
49. y = cos 1 e-u 2
10. y = (4 - 3x)9
-7
39. h(x) = x tan 1 2 1x 2 + 7
4
34. y = (2x - 5)-1 ( x2 - 5x ) 6
35. y = xe-x + ex
36. y = (1 + 2x)e-2x
37. y = ( x2 - 2x + 2 ) e5x>2
38. y = (9x2 - 6x + 2)ex
3
63. y = a1 + tan4 a
3
t
bb
12
65. y = 21 + cos (t 2)
60. y = a
3t - 4 -5
b
5t + 2
t
62. y = cos a5 sin a b b
3
64. y =
1
1 1 + cos2 (7t) 23
6
66. y = 4 sin 1 21 + 1t 2
67. y = tan ( sin t )
68. y = cos4 ( sec2 3t )
69. y = 3t ( 2t 2 - 5 ) 4
70. y = 43t + 32 + 21 - t
2
3
Second Derivatives
Find y″ in Exercises 71–78.
1 3
71. y = a1 + x b
73. y =
1
cot (3x - 1)
9
75. y = x (2x + 1)4
2
77. y = ex + 5x
72. y = 1 1 - 1x 2-1
x
74. y = 9 tan a b
3
76. y = x2 ( x3 - 1 ) 5
78. y = sin ( x2ex )
3.6 The Chain Rule
Finding Derivative Values
In Exercises 79–84, find the value of (ƒ ∘ g)′ at the given value of x.
79. ƒ(u) = u5 + 1, u = g(x) = 1x, x = 1
1
1
80. ƒ(u) = 1 - u , u = g(x) =
, x = -1
1 - x
81. ƒ(u) = cot
83. ƒ(u) =
a. y = (u>5) + 7 and u = 5x - 35
1
, u = g(x) = px, x = 1>4
cos2 u
2u
, u = g(x) = 10x2 + x + 1, x = 0
u2 + 1
84. ƒ(u) = a
u - 1 2
1
b , u = g(x) = 2 - 1, x = - 1
u + 1
x
85. Assume that ƒ′(3) = -1, g′(2) = 5, g(2) = 3, and y = ƒ(g(x)).
What is y′ at x = 2?
86. If r = sin (ƒ(t)), ƒ(0) = p>3, and ƒ′(0) = 4, then what is dr>dt
at t = 0?
87. Suppose that functions ƒ and g and their derivatives with respect
to x have the following values at x = 2 and x = 3.
x
ƒ(x)
g(x)
ƒ′(x)
g′(x)
2
3
8
3
2
-4
1>3
2p
-3
5
Find the derivatives with respect to x of the following combinations at the given value of x.
a. 2ƒ(x), x = 2
c.
ƒ(x) # g(x),
b. ƒ(x) + g(x), x = 3
x = 3
e. ƒ(g(x)), x = 2
2
g. 1>g (x), x = 3
d. ƒ(x)>g(x), x = 2
f. 2ƒ(x), x = 2
h. 2ƒ2(x) + g2(x), x = 2
88. Suppose that the functions ƒ and g and their derivatives with
respect to x have the following values at x = 0 and x = 1.
b. y = 1 + (1>u) and u = 1>(x - 1).
92. Find dy>dx if y = x3>2 by using the Chain Rule with y as a composite of
a. y = u3 and u = 1x
b. y = 1u and u = x3.
93. Find the tangent to y = ((x - 1)>(x + 1))2 at x = 0.
94. Find the tangent to y = 2x2 - x + 7 at x = 2.
95. a. Find the tangent to the curve y = 2 tan (px>4) at x = 1.
b. Slopes on a tangent curve What is the smallest value the
slope of the curve can ever have on the interval
- 2 6 x 6 2? Give reasons for your answer.
96. Slopes on sine curves
a. Find equations for the tangents to the curves y = sin 2x and
y = - sin (x>2) at the origin. Is there anything special about
how the tangents are related? Give reasons for your answer.
b. Can anything be said about the tangents to the curves
y = sin mx and y = - sin (x>m) at the origin
(m a constant ≠ 0)? Give reasons for your answer.
c. For a given m, what are the largest values the slopes of the
curves y = sin mx and y = - sin (x>m) can ever have? Give
reasons for your answer.
d. The function y = sin x completes one period on the interval
30, 2p4, the function y = sin 2x completes two periods, the
function y = sin (x>2) completes half a period, and so on. Is
there any relation between the number of periods y = sin mx
completes on 30, 2p4 and the slope of the curve y = sin mx
at the origin? Give reasons for your answer.
x
ƒ(x)
g(x)
ƒ′(x)
g′(x)
97. Running machinery too fast Suppose that a piston is moving
straight up and down and that its position at time t sec is
0
1
1
3
1
-4
5
- 1>3
1>3
- 8>3
s = A cos (2pbt),
Find the derivatives with respect to x of the following combinations at the given value of x.
a. 5ƒ(x) - g(x), x = 1
c.
Theory and Examples
What happens if you can write a function as a composite in different
ways? Do you get the same derivative each time? The Chain Rule
says you should. Try it with the functions in Exercises 91 and 92.
91. Find dy>dx if y = x by using the Chain Rule with y as a compsite of
pu
, u = g(x) = 5 1x, x = 1
10
82. ƒ(u) = u +
169
ƒ(x)
, x = 1
g(x) + 1
e. g(ƒ(x)), x = 0
b. ƒ(x)g3(x), x = 0
d. ƒ(g(x)), x = 0
f. (x11 + ƒ(x))-2, x = 1
g. ƒ(x + g(x)), x = 0
89. Find ds>dt when u = 3p>2 if s = cos u and du>dt = 5.
90. Find dy>dt when x = 1 if y = x2 + 7x - 5 and dx>dt = 1>3.
with A and b positive. The value of A is the amplitude of the
motion, and b is the frequency (number of times the piston moves
up and down each second). What effect does doubling the frequency have on the piston’s velocity, acceleration, and jerk?
(Once you find out, you will know why some machinery breaks
when you run it too fast.)
98. Temperatures in Fairbanks, Alaska The graph in the accompanying figure shows the average Fahrenheit temperature in
Fairbanks, Alaska, during a typical 365-day year. The equation
that approximates the temperature on day x is
y = 37 sin c
2p
(x - 101) d + 25
365
and is graphed in the accompanying figure.
170
Chapter 3: Derivatives
a. On what day is the temperature increasing the fastest?
b. About how many degrees per day is the temperature increasing when it is increasing at its fastest?
T 105. The derivative of sin 2x Graph the function y = 2 cos 2x for
- 2 … x … 3.5. Then, on the same screen, graph
y =
y
Temperature (°F)
60
40
20
0
..
....
....
..
......
..
..
...
... .... . .....
....
....
....
. ..
....
...
.
....
.
..
...
...
...
...
...
..
for h = 1.0, 0.5, and 0.2. Experiment with other values of h,
including negative values. What do you see happening as
h S 0? Explain this behavior.
....
....
....
.
............
.
.....
106. The derivative of cos (x2) Graph y = - 2x sin (x2) for - 2 …
x … 3. Then, on the same screen, graph
.
...
x
y =
Ja
n
Fe
b
M
ar
A
pr
M
ay
Ju
n
Ju
l
A
ug
Se
p
O
ct
N
ov
D
ec
Ja
n
Fe
b
M
ar
−20
99. Particle motion The position of a particle moving along a
coordinate line is s = 21 + 4t, with s in meters and t in seconds. Find the particle’s velocity and acceleration at t = 6 sec.
100. Constant acceleration Suppose that the velocity of a falling
body is y = k 1s m>sec (k a constant) at the instant the body
has fallen s m from its starting point. Show that the body’s
acceleration is constant.
101. Falling meteorite The velocity of a heavy meteorite entering
Earth’s atmosphere is inversely proportional to 2s when it is
s km from Earth’s center. Show that the meteorite’s acceleration
is inversely proportional to s2.
102. Particle acceleration A particle moves along the x-axis with
velocity dx>dt = ƒ(x). Show that the particle’s acceleration is
ƒ(x)ƒ′(x).
103. Temperature and the period of a pendulum For oscillations
of small amplitude (short swings), we may safely model the relationship between the period T and the length L of a simple pendulum with the equation
T = 2p
L
,
Ag
where g is the constant acceleration of gravity at the pendulum’s
location. If we measure g in centimeters per second squared, we
measure L in centimeters and T in seconds. If the pendulum is
made of metal, its length will vary with temperature, either
increasing or decreasing at a rate that is roughly proportional to
L. In symbols, with u being temperature and k the proportionality constant,
dL
= kL.
du
Assuming this to be the case, show that the rate at which the
period changes with respect to temperature is kT>2.
104. Chain Rule
composites
sin 2(x + h) - sin 2x
h
Suppose that ƒ(x) = x2 and g(x) = $ x $. Then the
(ƒ ∘ g)(x) = $ x $ 2 = x2 and (g ∘ ƒ)(x) = $ x2 $ = x2
are both differentiable at x = 0 even though g itself is not differentiable at x = 0. Does this contradict the Chain Rule?
Explain.
cos ((x + h)2) - cos (x2)
h
for h = 1.0, 0.7, and 0.3. Experiment with other values of h.
What do you see happening as h S 0? Explain this behavior.
Using the Chain Rule, show that the Power Rule (d>dx)xn = nxn - 1
holds for the functions xn in Exercises 107 and 108.
107. x1>4 = 2 1x
108. x3>4 = 2x 1x
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
Trigonometric Polynomials
109. As the accompanying figure shows, the trigonometric “polynomial”
s = ƒ(t) = 0.78540 - 0.63662 cos 2t - 0.07074 cos 6t
- 0.02546 cos 10t - 0.01299 cos 14t
gives a good approximation of the sawtooth function s = g(t)
on the interval 3- p, p4. How well does the derivative of ƒ
approximate the derivative of g at the points where dg>dt is
defined? To find out, carry out the following steps.
a. Graph dg>dt (where defined) over 3- p, p4.
b. Find dƒ>dt.
c. Graph dƒ>dt. Where does the approximation of dg>dt by
dƒ>dt seem to be best? Least good? Approximations by trigonometric polynomials are important in the theories of heat
and oscillation, but we must not expect too much of them, as
we see in the next exercise.
s
p
2
−p
0
s = g(t)
s = f (t)
p
t
110. (Continuation of Exercise 109.) In Exercise 109, the trigonometric polynomial ƒ(t) that approximated the sawtooth function g(t)
on 3- p, p4 had a derivative that approximated the derivative
of the sawtooth function. It is possible, however, for a trigonometric polynomial to approximate a function in a reasonable
way without its derivative approximating the function’s derivative at all well. As a case in point, the trigonometric “polynomial”
s = h(t) = 1.2732 sin 2t + 0.4244 sin 6t + 0.25465 sin 10t
+ 0.18189 sin 14t + 0.14147 sin 18t
3.7 Implicit Differentiation
graphed in the accompanying figure approximates the step function s = k(t) shown there. Yet the derivative of h is nothing like
the derivative of k.
a. Graph dk>dt (where defined) over 3- p, p4.
b. Find dh>dt.
c. Graph dh>dt to see how badly the graph fits the graph of
dk>dt. Comment on what you see.
s
s = k(t)
s = h(t)
1
−p
p
−
2
171
p
2
0
p
t
−1
3.7 Implicit Differentiation
Most of the functions we have dealt with so far have been described by an equation of the
form y = ƒ(x) that expresses y explicitly in terms of the variable x. We have learned rules
for differentiating functions defined in this way. Another situation occurs when we encounter equations like
x3 + y3 - 9xy = 0,
y2 - x = 0,
or
x2 + y2 - 25 = 0.
(See Figures 3.28, 3.29, and 3.30.) These equations define an implicit relation between the
variables x and y. In some cases we may be able to solve such an equation for y as an
explicit function (or even several functions) of x. When we cannot put an equation
F(x, y) = 0 in the form y = ƒ(x) to differentiate it in the usual way, we may still be able
to find dy>dx by implicit differentiation. This section describes the technique.
Implicitly Defined Functions
We begin with examples involving familiar equations that we can solve for y as a function of
x to calculate dy>dx in the usual way. Then we differentiate the equations implicitly, and find
the derivative to compare the two methods. Following the examples, we summarize the steps
involved in the new method. In the examples and exercises, it is always assumed that the
given equation determines y implicitly as a differentiable function of x so that dy>dx exists.
y
5
y = f1(x)
(x 0, y 1)
EXAMPLE 1
A
Solution The equation y2 = x defines two differentiable functions of x that we can actually find, namely y1 = 2x and y2 = - 2x (Figure 3.29). We know how to calculate the
derivative of each of these for x 7 0:
x 3 + y 3 − 9xy = 0
y = f2(x)
(x 0, y 2)
x0
0
(x 0, y3)
5
Find dy>dx if y2 = x.
x
y = f3 (x)
FIGURE 3.28 The curve
x3 + y3 - 9xy = 0 is not the graph of any
one function of x. The curve can, however, be
divided into separate arcs that are the graphs
of functions of x. This particular curve, called
a folium, dates to Descartes in 1638.
dy1
1
=
dx
2 1x
and
dy2
1
= .
dx
2 1x
But suppose that we knew only that the equation y2 = x defined y as one or more differentiable functions of x for x 7 0 without knowing exactly what these functions were. Could
we still find dy>dx?
The answer is yes. To find dy>dx, we simply differentiate both sides of the equation
y2 = x with respect to x, treating y = ƒ(x) as a differentiable function of x:
y2 = x
dy
2y
= 1
dx
dy
1
= .
dx 2y
The Chain Rule gives
d 2
(y ) =
dx
dy
d
3ƒ(x) 4 2 = 2ƒ(x)ƒ′(x) = 2y .
dx
dx
172
Chapter 3: Derivatives
y
y
y2 = x
Slope = 1 = 1
2y1 2 "x
y1 = "25 − x 2
y1 = "x
P(x, "x )
x
0
0
−5
5
x
Q(x, − "x )
y 2 = − "x
Slope = 1 = − 1
2y 2
2 "x
(3, −4)
y2 = −"25 −
FIGURE 3.29 The equation y2 - x = 0,
or y2 = x as it is usually written, defines two
differentiable functions of x on the interval
x 7 0. Example 1 shows how to find the
derivatives of these functions without solving
the equation y2 = x for y.
x2
Slope = − xy = 3
4
FIGURE 3.30 The circle combines the
graphs of two functions. The graph of y2
is the lower semicircle and passes through
(3, - 4).
This one formula gives the derivatives we calculated for both explicit solutions y1 = 2x
and y2 = - 2x:
dy1
1
1
=
=
2y1 2 1x
dx
EXAMPLE 2
and
dy2
1
1
1
=
=
= .
2y2 21 - 1x 2
dx
2 1x
Find the slope of the circle x2 + y2 = 25 at the point (3, -4).
Solution The circle is not the graph of a single function of x. Rather, it is the combined
graphs of two differentiable functions, y1 = 225 - x2 and y2 = - 225 - x2 (Figure
3.30). The point (3, -4) lies on the graph of y2, so we can find the slope by calculating the
derivative directly, using the Power Chain Rule:
d
1 - ( 25 - x2 ) 1>2 2 =
dx
dy2
3
-2x
-6
`
= `
= = .
1
dx x = 3
- ( 25 - x2 ) -1>2(- 2x)
2 225 - x2 x = 3
2 225 - 9 4
2
We can solve this problem more easily by differentiating the given equation of the
circle implicitly with respect to x:
d 2
( x ) + d ( y2 ) = d (25)
dx
dx
dx
2x + 2y
dy
= 0
dx
See Example 1.
dy
x
= - y.
dx
x
The slope at (3, -4) is - y `
(3, -4)
= -
3
3
= .
-4 4
Notice that unlike the slope formula for dy2 >dx, which applies only to points below
the x-axis, the formula dy>dx = -x>y applies everywhere the circle has a slope; that is, at
all circle points (x, y) where y ≠ 0. Notice also that the derivative involves both variables
x and y, not just the independent variable x.
To calculate the derivatives of other implicitly defined functions, we proceed as in
Examples 1 and 2: We treat y as a differentiable implicit function of x and apply the usual
rules to differentiate both sides of the defining equation.
3.7 Implicit Differentiation
173
Implicit Differentiation
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a differentiable function of x.
2. Collect the terms with dy>dx on one side of the equation and solve for dy>dx.
EXAMPLE 3
y
4
y2
=
x2 +
sin xy
Solution We differentiate the equation implicitly.
y2 = x2 + sin xy
d 2
d
d 2
1 y 2 = dx
1 x 2 + dx
1 sin xy 2
dx
2
−4
−2
0
2
4
Find dy>dx if y2 = x2 + sin xy (Figure 3.31).
x
2y
−2
2y
−4
FIGURE 3.31
in Example 3.
The graph of the equation
2y
ctreating y as a function of
x and using the Chain Rule.
dy
d
= 2x + (cos xy) (xy)
dx
dx
dy
dy
= 2x + (cos xy)ay + x b
dx
dx
dy
dy
- (cos xy) ax b = 2x + (cos xy)y
dx
dx
(2y - x cos xy)
Differentiate both sides with
respect to x c
Treat xy as a product.
Collect terms with dy>dx.
dy
= 2x + y cos xy
dx
dy 2x + y cos xy
=
dx 2y - x cos xy
Solve for dy>dx.
Notice that the formula for dy>dx applies everywhere that the implicitly defined curve has
a slope. Notice again that the derivative involves both variables x and y, not just the independent variable x.
Derivatives of Higher Order
Implicit differentiation can also be used to find higher derivatives.
EXAMPLE 4
Find d 2y>dx2 if 2x3 - 3y2 = 8.
Solution To start, we differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x in order to
find y′ = dy>dx.
d
( 2x3 - 3y2 ) = d (8)
dx
dx
6x2 - 6yy′ = 0
2
x
y′ = y ,
Treat y as a function of x.
when y ≠ 0
Solve for y′.
We now apply the Quotient Rule to find y″.
y″ =
2xy - x2y′ 2x x2
d x2
= y - 2 # y′
ayb =
dx
y2
y
Finally, we substitute y′ = x2 >y to express y″ in terms of x and y.
2x x2 x2
2x x4
y″ = y - 2 a y b = y - 3 ,
y
y
when y ≠ 0
174
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Lenses, Tangents, and Normal Lines
Tangent
Light ray
Curve of lens
surface
Normal line
A
P
Point of entry
B
In the law that describes how light changes direction as it enters a lens, the important
angles are the angles the light makes with the line perpendicular to the surface of the
lens at the point of entry (angles A and B in Figure 3.32). This line is called the normal
to the surface at the point of entry. In a profile view of a lens like the one in
Figure 3.32, the normal is the line perpendicular (also said to be orthogonal) to the
tangent of the profile curve at the point of entry.
EXAMPLE 5
Show that the point (2, 4) lies on the curve x3 + y3 - 9xy = 0. Then
find the tangent and normal to the curve there (Figure 3.33).
FIGURE 3.32 The profile of a lens,
showing the bending (refraction) of a
ray of light as it passes through the lens
surface.
y
Solution The point (2, 4) lies on the curve because its coordinates satisfy the equation
given for the curve: 23 + 43 - 9(2) (4) = 8 + 64 - 72 = 0.
To find the slope of the curve at (2, 4), we first use implicit differentiation to find a
formula for dy>dx:
x3 + y3 - 9xy = 0
t
en
ng
Ta
d 3
d 3
( y ) - d (9xy) = d (0)
(x ) +
dx
dx
dx
dx
4
− 9xy = 0
3x2 + 3y2
al
rm
+
y3
No
x3
dy
dy
dx
- 9ax
+ y b = 0
dx
dx
dx
dy
0
2
x
( 3y2 - 9x ) + 3x2 - 9y = 0
dx
3 ( y2 - 3x )
FIGURE 3.33 Example 5 shows how to
find equations for the tangent and normal
to the folium of Descartes at (2, 4).
Differentiate both sides
with respect to x.
Treat xy as a product and y
as a function of x.
dy
= 9y - 3x2
dx
dy 3y - x2
.
=
dx y2 - 3x
Solve for dy>dx.
We then evaluate the derivative at (x, y) = (2, 4):
3y - x2
dy
3(4) - 22
8
4
=
`
= 2
= 2
`
= .
dx (2, 4) y - 3x (2, 4) 4 - 3(2) 10 5
The tangent at (2, 4) is the line through (2, 4) with slope 4>5:
y = 4 +
y =
4
(x - 2)
5
4
12
x +
.
5
5
The normal to the curve at (2, 4) is the line perpendicular to the tangent there, the line
through (2, 4) with slope -5>4:
y = 4 -
5
(x - 2)
4
5
13
y = - x +
.
4
2
3.7 Implicit Differentiation
3.7
Exercises
Differentiating Implicitly
Use implicit differentiation to find dy>dx in Exercises 1–16.
1. x2y + xy2 = 6
2. x3 + y3 = 18xy
2
3. 2xy + y = x + y
4. x3 - xy + y3 = 1
5. x2(x - y)2 = x2 - y2
6. (3xy + 7)2 = 6y
7. y2 =
x - 1
x + 1
8. x3 =
9. x = sec y
2x - y
x + 3y
41. Parallel tangents Find the two points where the curve
x2 + xy + y2 = 7 crosses the x-axis, and show that the tangents
to the curve at these points are parallel. What is the common
slope of these tangents?
42. Normals parallel to a line Find the normals to the curve
xy + 2x - y = 0 that are parallel to the line 2x + y = 0.
43. The eight curve Find the slopes of the curve y4 = y2 - x2 at
the two points shown here.
10. xy = cot (xy)
y
12. x4 + sin y = x3y2
11. x + tan (xy) = 0
1
13. y sin a y b = 1 - xy
a" 3 , " 3b
4
2
1
14. x cos (2x + 3y) = y sin x
2
15. e2x = sin (x + 3y)
a" 3 , 1b
4 2
16. ex y = 2x + 2y
Find dr>du in Exercises 17–20.
17. u
1>2
+ r
1>2
19. sin (r u) =
175
= 1
1
2
x
0
3
4
18. r - 2 2u = u 2>3 + u 3>4
2
3
y4 = y2 − x2
20. cos r + cot u = er u
−1
Second Derivatives
In Exercises 21–26, use implicit differentiation to find dy>dx and then
d 2y>dx2.
21. x2 + y2 = 1
44. The cissoid of Diocles (from about 200 b.c.) Find equations
for the tangent and normal to the cissoid of Diocles y2(2 - x) = x3
at (1, 1).
22. x2>3 + y2>3 = 1
2
23. y2 = ex + 2x
24. y2 - 2x = 1 - 2y
25. 2 1y = x - y
2
y
y 2(2 − x) = x 3
26. xy + y = 1
27. If x3 + y3 = 16, find the value of d 2y>dx2 at the point (2, 2).
28. If xy + y2 = 1, find the value of d 2y>dx2 at the point (0, - 1).
(1, 1)
1
In Exercises 29 and 30, find the slope of the curve at the given points.
29. y2 + x2 = y4 - 2x at (- 2, 1) and (-2, - 1)
0
30. (x2 + y2)2 = (x - y)2 at (1, 0) and (1, - 1)
Slopes, Tangents, and Normals
In Exercises 31–40, verify that the given point is on the curve and find
the lines that are (a) tangent and (b) normal to the curve at the given
point.
31. x2 + xy - y2 = 1, (2, 3)
1
x
45. The devil’s curve (Gabriel Cramer, 1750) Find the slopes of
the devil’s curve y4 - 4y2 = x4 - 9x2 at the four indicated
points.
y
32. x2 + y2 = 25, (3, - 4)
y 4 − 4y 2 = x 4 − 9x 2
2 2
33. x y = 9, (- 1, 3)
34. y2 - 2x - 4y - 1 = 0, (- 2, 1)
35. 6x2 + 3xy + 2y2 + 17y - 6 = 0, (- 1, 0)
2
2
36. x - 23xy + 2y = 5,
1 23, 2 2
37. 2xy + p sin y = 2p, (1, p>2)
38. x sin 2y = y cos 2x, (p>4, p>2)
39. y = 2 sin (px - y), (1, 0)
40. x2 cos2 y - sin y = 0, (0, p)
(−3, 2)
−3
(−3, −2)
2
−2
(3, 2)
x
3
(3, −2)
176
Chapter 3: Derivatives
46. The folium of Descartes
(See Figure 3.28.)
a. Find the slope of the folium of Descartes x3 + y3 - 9xy = 0
at the points (4, 2) and (2, 4).
52. The graph of y2 = x3 is called a semicubical parabola and is
shown in the accompanying figure. Determine the constant b so
that the line y = - 13 x + b meets this graph orthogonally.
b. At what point other than the origin does the folium have a
horizontal tangent?
y
c. Find the coordinates of the point A in Figure 3.28 where the
folium has a vertical tangent.
Theory and Examples
47. Intersecting normal The line that is normal to the curve
x2 + 2xy - 3y2 = 0 at (1, 1) intersects the curve at what other
point?
y2 = x3
1
y=− x+b
3
0
x
48. Power rule for rational exponents Let p and q be integers
with q 7 0. If y = x p>q, differentiate the equivalent equation
yq = xp implicitly and show that, for y ≠ 0,
d p>q p (p>q) - 1
x
= qx
.
dx
49. Normals to a parabola Show that if it is possible to draw three
normals from the point (a, 0) to the parabola x = y2 shown in the
accompanying diagram, then a must be greater than 1>2. One of
the normals is the x-axis. For what value of a are the other two
normals perpendicular?
y
x = y2
T In Exercises 53 and 54, find both dy>dx (treating y as a differentiable
function of x) and dx>dy (treating x as a differentiable function of y).
How do dy>dx and dx>dy seem to be related? Explain the relationship
geometrically in terms of the graphs.
53. xy3 + x2y = 6
54. x3 + y2 = sin2 y
55. Derivative of arcsine Assume that y = sin-1 x is a differentiable function of x. By differentiating the equation x = sin y
implicitly, show that dy>dx = 1> 21 - x2 .
56. Use the formula in Exercise 55 to find dy>dx if
a. y = ( sin-1 x ) 2
x
(a, 0)
0
1
b. y = sin-1 a x b .
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
Use a CAS to perform the following steps in Exercises 57–64.
a. Plot the equation with the implicit plotter of a CAS. Check to
see that the given point P satisfies the equation.
50. Is there anything special about the tangents to the curves y2 = x3
and 2x2 + 3y2 = 5 at the points (1, {1)? Give reasons for your
answer.
y
y2 = x3
2x 2
+
3y 2
58. x5 + y3x + yx2 + y4 = 4, P (1, 1)
(1, 1)
59. y2 + y =
x
0
(1, −1)
51. Verify that the following pairs of curves meet orthogonally.
b. x = 1 - y2, x =
1 2
y
3
c. Use the slope found in part (b) to find an equation for the tangent line to the curve at P. Then plot the implicit curve and
tangent line together on a single graph.
57. x3 - xy + y3 = 7, P (2, 1)
=5
a. x2 + y2 = 4, x2 = 3y2
b. Using implicit differentiation, find a formula for the derivative dy>dx and evaluate it at the given point P.
2 + x
, P (0, 1)
1 - x
60. y3 + cos xy = x2, P (1, 0)
y
p
61. x + tan a x b = 2, P a1, b
4
p
62. xy3 + tan (x + y) = 1, P a , 0b
4
63. 2y2 + (xy)1>3 = x2 + 2, P (1, 1)
64. x 21 + 2y + y = x2, P (1, 0)
3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Logarithms
177
3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Logarithms
In Section 1.6 we saw how the inverse of a function undoes, or inverts, the effect of that
function. We defined there the natural logarithm function ƒ-1(x) = ln x as the inverse of the
natural exponential function ƒ(x) = ex. This is one of the most important function-inverse
pairs in mathematics and science. We learned how to differentiate the exponential function
in Section 3.3. Here we learn a rule for differentiating the inverse of a differentiable function and we apply the rule to find the derivative of the natural logarithm function.
y
y = 2x − 2
y=x
y= 1x+1
2
Derivatives of Inverses of Differentiable Functions
We calculated the inverse of the function ƒ(x) = (1>2)x + 1 as ƒ-1(x) = 2x - 2 in
Example 3 of Section 1.6. Figure 3.34 shows again the graphs of both functions. If we
calculate their derivatives, we see that
d
d 1
1
ƒ(x) =
a x + 1b =
2
dx
dx 2
1
1
−2
x
d -1
d
ƒ (x) =
(2x - 2) = 2.
dx
dx
−2
FIGURE 3.34 Graphing a line and its
inverse together shows the graphs’ symmetry with respect to the line y = x. The
slopes are reciprocals of each other.
The derivatives are reciprocals of one another, so the slope of one line is the reciprocal of
the slope of its inverse line. (See Figure 3.34.)
This is not a special case. Reflecting any nonhorizontal or nonvertical line across the
line y = x always inverts the line’s slope. If the original line has slope m ≠ 0, the
reflected line has slope 1 > m.
y
y
y = f(x)
b = f(a)
(a, b)
a = f –1(b)
0
a
x
(b, a)
0
The slopes are reciprocal: ( f –1)′(b) =
y = f –1(x)
b
x
1 or ( f –1)′(b) =
1
f ′(a)
f ′( f –1(b))
FIGURE 3.35 The graphs of inverse functions have reciprocal slopes at corresponding points.
The reciprocal relationship between the slopes of ƒ and ƒ -1 holds for other functions
as well, but we must be careful to compare slopes at corresponding points. If the slope of
y = ƒ(x) at the point (a, ƒ(a)) is ƒ′(a) and ƒ′(a) ≠ 0, then the slope of y = ƒ -1(x) at the
point (ƒ(a), a) is the reciprocal 1>ƒ′(a) (Figure 3.35). If we set b = ƒ(a), then
(ƒ -1)′(b) =
1
1
.
=
ƒ′(a) ƒ′(ƒ -1(b))
If y = ƒ(x) has a horizontal tangent line at (a, ƒ(a)), then the inverse function ƒ -1 has a
vertical tangent line at (ƒ(a), a), and this infinite slope implies that ƒ -1 is not differentiable at ƒ(a). Theorem 3 gives the conditions under which ƒ -1 is differentiable in its domain
(which is the same as the range of ƒ).
178
Chapter 3: Derivatives
THEOREM 3—The Derivative Rule for Inverses If ƒ has an interval I as domain and ƒ′(x) exists and is never zero on I, then ƒ -1 is differentiable at every
point in its domain (the range of ƒ). The value of (ƒ -1)′ at a point b in the domain
of ƒ -1 is the reciprocal of the value of ƒ′ at the point a = ƒ -1(b):
( ƒ -1 ) ′(b) =
1
ƒ′ ( ƒ-1 ( b ) )
(1)
or
dƒ -1
1
2
=
.
dx x = b dƒ
2
dx x = ƒ -1(b)
Theorem 3 makes two assertions. The first of these has to do with the conditions
under which ƒ -1 is differentiable; the second assertion is a formula for the derivative of
ƒ -1 when it exists. While we omit the proof of the first assertion, the second one is proved
in the following way:
ƒ ( ƒ -1 ( x ) ) = x
Inverse function relationship
d
ƒ ( ƒ -1 ( x ) ) = 1
dx
ƒ′ ( ƒ -1 ( x ) ) #
Differentiating both sides
d -1
ƒ (x) = 1
dx
d -1
1
ƒ (x) =
.
dx
ƒ′ ( ƒ -1 ( x ) )
Chain Rule
Solving for the derivative
EXAMPLE 1
The function ƒ(x) = x2, x 7 0 and its inverse ƒ -1(x) = 2x have
derivatives ƒ′(x) = 2x and (ƒ -1)′(x) = 1> 1 2 2x 2.
Let’s verify that Theorem 3 gives the same formula for the derivative of ƒ -1(x):
1
ƒ′ ( ƒ -1 ( x ) )
1
=
2 ( ƒ -1 ( x ) )
1
=
.
2 ( 1x )
( ƒ -1 ) ′(x) =
y
y=
4
x 2,
x>0
Slope 4 (2, 4)
3
Slope 1–
4
2
(4, 2)
Theorem 3 gives a derivative that agrees with the known derivative of the square root
function.
Let’s examine Theorem 3 at a specific point. We pick x = 2 (the number a) and
ƒ(2) = 4 (the value b). Theorem 3 says that the derivative of ƒ at 2, which is ƒ′(2) = 4,
and the derivative of ƒ -1 at ƒ(2), which is ( ƒ -1 ) ′(4), are reciprocals. It states that
y = "x
1
0
1
2
3
4
( ƒ -1 ) ′(4) =
x
See Figure 3.36.
FIGURE 3.36 The derivative of
ƒ-1(x) = 1x at the point (4, 2) is the
reciprocal of the derivative of ƒ(x) = x2
at (2, 4) (Example 1).
ƒ′(x) = 2x with x replaced
by ƒ -1(x)
1
1
1
1
=
`
= .
=
ƒ′(2) 2x x = 2 4
ƒ′ ( ƒ -1 ( 4 ) )
We will use the procedure illustrated in Example 1 to calculate formulas for the derivatives
of many inverse functions throughout this chapter. Equation (1) sometimes enables us to
find specific values of dƒ -1 >dx without knowing a formula for ƒ -1.
3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Logarithms
y
6
(2, 6)
y = x3 − 2
Slope 3x 2 = 3(2)2 = 12
179
EXAMPLE 2
Let ƒ(x) = x3 - 2, x 7 0. Find the value of dƒ -1 >dx at x = 6 = ƒ(2)
without finding a formula for ƒ -1(x).
Solution We apply Theorem 3 to obtain the value of the derivative of ƒ -1 at x = 6:
Reciprocal slope: 1
12
(6, 2)
−2
0
6
dƒ
2
= 3x2 `
= 12
dx x = 2
x=2
dƒ -1
1
1
2
=
=
.
12
dx x = ƒ(2) dƒ
2
dx x = 2
x
−2
FIGURE 3.37 The derivative of
ƒ(x) = x3 - 2 at x = 2 tells us the
derivative of ƒ -1 at x = 6 (Example 2).
Eq. (1)
See Figure 3.37.
Derivative of the Natural Logarithm Function
Since we know the exponential function ƒ(x) = ex is differentiable everywhere, we can
apply Theorem 3 to find the derivative of its inverse ƒ -1(x) = ln x:
( ƒ -1 ) ′(x) =
=
=
1
ƒ′ ( ƒ -1 ( x ) )
1
eƒ
-1
(x)
1
ln x
e
1
= x.
Theorem 3
ƒ′(u) = eu
x 7 0
Inverse function relationship
Alternate Derivation Instead of applying Theorem 3 directly, we can find the derivative
of y = ln x using implicit differentiation, as follows:
y = ln x
ey = x
d y
d
(e ) =
(x)
dx
dx
ey
x 7 0
Inverse function relationship
Differentiate implicitly.
dy
= 1
dx
Chain Rule
dy
1
1
=
= x.
dx ey
ey = x
No matter which derivation we use, the derivative of y = ln x with respect to x is
d
1
(ln x) = x , x 7 0.
dx
The Chain Rule extends this formula to positive functions u(x):
d
1 du
ln u = u ,
dx
dx
u 7 0.
(2)
180
Chapter 3: Derivatives
EXAMPLE 3
(a)
We use Equation (2) to find derivatives.
d
1 d
1
1
ln 2x =
(2x) =
(2) = x , x 7 0
2x dx
2x
dx
(b) Equation (2) with u = x2 + 3gives
d
2x
1 # d 2
1 #
(x + 3) = 2
ln (x2 + 3) = 2
2x = 2
.
dx
dx
x + 3
x + 3
x + 3
(c) Equation (2) with u = 0 x 0 gives an important derivative:
d
d
du
ln 0 x 0 =
ln u #
dx
du
dx
1 x
= u#
0x0
=
Derivative of ln ∣ x ∣
1
#
x
0x0 0x0
u = 0x0, x ≠ 0
d
( 0x0 ) = x
dx
0x0
Substitute for u.
x
x2
1
= x.
=
d
1
ln 0 x 0 = x , x ≠ 0
dx
So 1>x is the derivative of ln x on the domain x 7 0, and the derivative of ln (-x) on
the domain x 6 0.
Notice from Example 3a that the function y = ln 2x has the same derivative as the
function y = ln x. This is true of y = ln bx for any constant b, provided that bx 7 0:
d
1 # d
1
1
ln bx =
(bx) =
(b) = x .
dx
bx dx
bx
d
1
ln bx = x , bx 7 0
dx
(3)
EXAMPLE 4
A line with slope m passes through the origin and is tangent to the graph
of y = ln x. What is the value of m?
Solution Suppose the point of tangency occurs at the unknown point x = a 7 0. Then
we know that the point (a, ln a) lies on the graph and that the tangent line at that point has
slope m = 1>a (Figure 3.38). Since the tangent line passes through the origin, its slope is
y
m =
2
1
0
(a, ln a)
1
2
y = ln x
ln a - 0 ln a
= a .
a - 0
Setting these two formulas for m equal to each other, we have
1
Slope = a
3
4
5
ln a
a
ln a
eln a
a
1
= a
= 1
= e1
= e
1
m = e.
x
FIGURE 3.38 The tangent line intersects
the curve at some point (a, ln a), where the
slope of the curve is 1>a (Example 4).
The Derivatives of au and log a u
x
We start with the equation ax = eln (a ) = e x ln a , a 7 0, which was seen in Section 1.6:
d x
d x ln a
a =
e
dx
dx
= e x ln a #
d
(x ln a)
dx
= ax ln a.
d u
du
e = eu
dx
dx
3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Logarithms
181
That is, if a 7 0, then ax is differentiable and
d x
a = ax ln a.
dx
(4)
This equation shows why ex is the preferred exponential function in calculus. If a = e,
then ln a = 1 and the derivative of ax simplifies to
d x
e = ex ln e = ex.
dx
With the Chain Rule, we get a more general form for the derivative of a general exponential function au.
If a 7 0 and u is a differentiable function of x, then au is a differentiable function of x and
d u
du
a = au ln a .
dx
dx
EXAMPLE 5
(5)
Here are some derivatives of general exponential functions.
d x
3 = 3x ln 3
dx
d -x
d
(b)
3 = 3-x(ln 3) (-x) = -3-x ln 3
dx
dx
d sin x
d
(c)
= 3sin x(ln 3) (sin x) = 3sin x(ln 3) cos x
3
dx
dx
(a)
Eq. (5) with a = 3, u = x
Eq. (5) with a = 3, u = - x
c, u = sin x
In Section 3.3 we looked at the derivative ƒ′(0) for the exponential functions ƒ(x) =
ax at various values of the base a. The number ƒ′(0) is the limit, lim h S 0 (ah - 1)>h, and
gives the slope of the graph of ax when it crosses the y-axis at the point (0, 1). We now see
from Equation (4) that the value of this slope is
ah - 1
= ln a.
h
hS0
lim
(6)
In particular, when a = e we obtain
eh - 1
= ln e = 1.
h
hS0
lim
However, we have not fully justified that these limits actually exist. While all of the arguments given in deriving the derivatives of the exponential and logarithmic functions are
correct, they do assume the existence of these limits. In Chapter 7 we will give another
development of the theory of logarithmic and exponential functions which fully justifies
that both limits do in fact exist and have the values derived above.
To find the derivative of loga u for an arbitrary base (a 7 0, a ≠ 1), we start with the
change-of-base formula for logarithms (reviewed in Section 1.6) and express loga u in
terms of natural logarithms,
loga x =
ln x
.
ln a
182
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Taking derivatives, we have
d
d ln x
loga x =
a
b
dx
dx ln a
1 # d
ln x
=
ln a dx
=
1 #1
ln a x
=
1
.
x ln a
ln a is a constant.
If u is a differentiable function of x and u 7 0, the Chain Rule gives a more general
formula.
For a 7 0 and a ≠ 1,
d
1 du
loga u =
.
dx
u ln a dx
(7)
Logarithmic Differentiation
The derivatives of positive functions given by formulas that involve products, quotients,
and powers can often be found more quickly if we take the natural logarithm of both sides
before differentiating. This enables us to use the laws of logarithms to simplify the formulas before differentiating. The process, called logarithmic differentiation, is illustrated in
the next example.
EXAMPLE 6
Find dy>dx if
y =
(x2 + 1)(x + 3)1>2
,
x - 1
x 7 1.
Solution We take the natural logarithm of both sides and simplify the result with the
algebraic properties of logarithms from Theorem 1 in Section 1.6:
ln y = ln
(x2 + 1)(x + 3)1>2
x - 1
= ln ((x2 + 1)(x + 3)1>2) - ln (x - 1)
Rule 2
= ln (x2 + 1) + ln (x + 3)1>2 - ln (x - 1)
Rule 1
1
ln (x + 3) - ln (x - 1).
2
Rule 4
= ln (x2 + 1) +
We then take derivatives of both sides with respect to x, using Equation (2) on the left:
1
1 dy
1# 1
1
#
y dx = x2 + 1 2x + 2 x + 3 - x - 1 .
Next we solve for dy>dx:
dy
2x
1
1
= ya 2
+
b.
dx
x + 1 2x + 6 x - 1
3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Logarithms
183
Finally, we substitute for y:
dy (x2 + 1)(x + 3)1>2
2x
1
1
=
+
a 2
b.
x - 1
dx
x + 1 2x + 6 x - 1
Irrational Exponents and the Power Rule (General Version)
The definition of the general exponential function enables us to raise any positive number
to any real power n, rational or irrational. That is, we can define the power function y = xn
for any exponent n.
DEFINITION For any x 7 0 and for any real number n,
xn = en ln x.
Because the logarithm and exponential functions are inverses of each other, the definition gives
ln xn = n ln x, for all real numbers n.
That is, the rule for taking the natural logarithm of any power holds for all real exponents
n, not just for rational exponents.
The definition of the power function also enables us to establish the derivative Power
Rule for any real power n, as stated in Section 3.3.
General Power Rule for Derivatives
For x 7 0 and any real number n,
d n
x = nxn - 1.
dx
If x … 0, then the formula holds whenever the derivative, xn, and xn - 1 all exist.
Proof
Differentiating xn with respect to x gives
d n
d n ln x
x =
e
dx
dx
= en ln x #
Definition of xn, x 7 0
d
(n ln x)
dx
Chain Rule for eu
n
= xn # x
Definition and derivative of ln x
= nxn - 1.
xn # x-1 = xn - 1
In short, whenever x 7 0,
d n
x = nxn - 1.
dx
For x 6 0, if y = xn, y′, and xn - 1 all exist, then
ln 0 y 0 = ln 0 x 0 n = n ln 0 x 0 .
184
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Using implicit differentiation (which assumes the existence of the derivative y′) and
Example 3(c), we have
y′ n
y = x.
Solving for the derivative,
y
xn
y′ = n x = n x = nxn - 1.
y = xn
It can be shown directly from the definition of the derivative that the derivative equals
0 when x = 0 and n Ú 1 (see Exercise 99). This completes the proof of the general version of the Power Rule for all values of x.
EXAMPLE 7
Differentiate ƒ(x) = xx, x 7 0.
Solution We note that ƒ(x) = xx = ex ln x, so differentiation gives
ƒ′(x) =
d x ln x
(e )
dx
= ex ln x
d
(x ln x)
dx
1
= ex ln x aln x + x # x b
= xx (ln x + 1).
d u
dx e ,
u = x ln x
x 7 0
We can also find the derivative of y = xx using logarithmic differentiation, assuming y′
exists.
The Number e Expressed as a Limit
In Section 1.5 we defined the number e as the base value for which the exponential function y = ax has slope 1 when it crosses the y-axis at (0, 1). Thus e is the constant that satisfies the equation
eh - 1
= ln e = 1.
h
hS0
lim
Slope equals ln e from Eq. (6).
We now prove that e can be calculated as a certain limit.
THEOREM 4—The Number e as a Limit The number e can be calculated as the
limit
e = lim (1 + x)1>x.
y
3
2
xS0
e
Proof
y = (1 + x)1#x
ƒ′(1) = lim
1
0
If ƒ(x) = ln x, then ƒ′(x) = 1>x, so ƒ′(1) = 1. But, by the definition of derivative,
hS0
x
FIGURE 3.39 The number e is the limit
of the function graphed here as x S 0.
= lim
xS0
ƒ(1 + h) - ƒ(1)
ƒ(1 + x) - ƒ(1)
= lim
x
h
xS0
ln (1 + x) - ln 1
1
= lim x ln (1 + x)
x
xS0
= lim ln (1 + x)1>x = ln c lim (1 + x)1>x d .
xS0
xS0
ln 1 = 0
ln is continuous,
Theorem 10 in
Chapter 2.
185
3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Because ƒ′(1) = 1, we have
ln c lim (1 + x)1>x d = 1.
xS0
Therefore, exponentiating both sides we get
lim (1 + x)1>x = e.
xS0
See Figure 3.39 on the previous page.
Approximating the limit in Theorem 4 by taking x very small gives approximations to e.
Its value is e ≈ 2.718281828459045 to 15 decimal places.
Exercises
3.8
13. y = ln ( t 2 )
Derivatives of Inverse Functions
In Exercises 1–4:
14. y = ln ( t 3>2 ) + 2t
a. Find ƒ -1(x).
3
15. y = ln x
b. Graph ƒ and ƒ -1 together.
17. y = ln (u + 1) - e
16. y = ln (sin x)
u
c. Evaluate dƒ>dx at x = a and dƒ -1 >dx at x = ƒ(a) to show that
at these points dƒ -1 >dx = 1>(dƒ>dx).
1. ƒ(x) = 2x + 3, a = -1
2. ƒ(x) = (1>5)x + 7, a = - 1
3. ƒ(x) = 5 - 4x, a = 1>2
4. ƒ(x) = 2x2, x Ú 0, a = 5
3
5. a. Show that ƒ(x) = x3 and g(x) = 1 x are inverses of one another.
b. Graph ƒ and g over an x-interval large enough to show the
graphs intersecting at (1, 1) and (- 1, -1). Be sure the picture
shows the required symmetry about the line y = x.
19. y = ln x
3
20. y = (ln x)3
21. y = t (ln t)
23. y =
2
4
22. y = t ln 2t
4
x
x
ln x 4
16
24. y = (x2 ln x)4
ln t
25. y = t
27. y =
26. y =
ln x
1 + ln x
28. y =
c. Find the slopes of the tangents to the graphs of ƒ and g at
(1, 1) and (- 1, -1) (four tangents in all).
29. y = ln (ln x)
d. What lines are tangent to the curves at the origin?
32. y = ln (sec u + tan u)
6. a. Show that h(x) = x3 >4 and k(x) = (4x)1>3 are inverses of one
another.
b. Graph h and k over an x-interval large enough to show the
graphs intersecting at (2, 2) and (- 2, -2). Be sure the picture
shows the required symmetry about the line y = x.
c. Find the slopes of the tangents to the graphs at h and k at
(2, 2) and (- 2, - 2).
d. What lines are tangent to the curves at the origin?
7. Let ƒ(x) = x3 - 3x2 - 1, x Ú 2. Find the value of dƒ -1 >dx at
the point x = -1 = ƒ(3).
8. Let ƒ(x) = x2 - 4x - 5, x 7 2. Find the value of dƒ -1 >dx at
the point x = 0 = ƒ(5).
9. Suppose that the differentiable function y = ƒ(x) has an inverse
and that the graph of ƒ passes through the point (2, 4) and has a
slope of 1>3 there. Find the value of dƒ -1 >dx at x = 4.
10. Suppose that the differentiable function y = g(x) has an inverse
and that the graph of g passes through the origin with slope 2.
Find the slope of the graph of g-1 at the origin.
Derivatives of Logarithms
In Exercises 11–40, find the derivative of y with respect to x, t, or u,
as appropriate.
1
12. y =
11. y = ln 3x + x
ln 3x
18. y = (cos u) ln (2u + 2)
t
2ln t
x ln x
1 + ln x
30. y = ln (ln (ln x))
31. y = u(sin (ln u) + cos (ln u))
33. y = ln
35. y =
1
x 2x + 1
34. y =
1 + ln t
1 - ln t
36. y = 2ln 1t
38. y = ln a
37. y = ln (sec (ln u))
39. y = ln a
(x2 + 1)5
21 - x
1 1 + x
ln
2 1 - x
b
40. y = ln
2sin u cos u
1 + 2 ln u
(x + 1)5
C(x + 2)20
b
Logarithmic Differentiation
In Exercises 41–54, use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of y with respect to the given independent variable.
41. y = 2x(x + 1)
42. y = 2(x2 + 1)(x - 1)2
45. y = (sin u) 2u + 3
46. y = (tan u) 22u + 1
43. y =
t
At + 1
44. y =
47. y = t(t + 1)(t + 2)
48. y =
49. y =
u + 5
u cos u
50. y =
51. y =
x 2x2 + 1
(x + 1)2>3
52. y =
1
A t(t + 1)
1
t(t + 1)(t + 2)
u sin u
2sec u
(x + 1)10
C(2x + 1)5
186
53. y =
Chapter 3: Derivatives
x(x - 2)
B x2 + 1
3
54. y =
x(x + 1)(x - 2)
B (x2 + 1)(2x + 3)
3
Finding Derivatives
In Exercises 55–62, find the derivative of y with respect to x, t, or u,
as appropriate.
55. y = ln (cos2 u)
56. y = ln (3ue-u)
57. y = ln (3te-t)
58. y = ln (2e-t sin t)
59. y = ln a
eu
b
1 + eu
60. y = ln a
61. y = e(cos t + ln t)
2u
b
1 + 2u
(n - 1)!
dn
ln x = (- 1)n - 1
.
xn
dxn
62. y = esin t (ln t 2 + 1)
64. ln xy = ex + y
63. ln y = ey sin x
65. x = y
x
x
66. tan y = e + ln x
In Exercises 67–88, find the derivative of y with respect to the given
independent variable.
-x
x
67. y = 2
68. y = 3
69. y = 52s
70. y = 2(s )
2
73. y = log2 5u
74. y = log3 (1 + u ln 3)
2
76. y = log25 ex - log5 1x
77. y = log2 r # log4 r
79. y = log3 a a
78. y = log3 r # log9 r
x + 1
b
x - 1
81. y = u sin (log7 u)
83. y = log5 ex
ln 3
b
80. y = log5
82. y = log7 a
84. y = log2 a
85. y = 3log2 t
a
7x
B 3x + 2
b
ln 5
sin u cos u
b
eu 2u
x2e2
b
2 2x + 1
86. y = 3 log8 (log2 t)
87. y = log2 (8t ln 2)
91. y =
( 1t ) t
93. y = (sin x)
x
95. y = xln x
c. Find the equation for the tangent line to ƒ at the specified point
(x0, ƒ(x0)).
d. Find the equation for the tangent line to g at the point (ƒ(x0), x0)
located symmetrically across the 45° line y = x (which is the
graph of the identity function). Use Theorem 3 to find the slope of
this tangent line.
e. Plot the functions ƒ and g, the identity, the two tangent lines, and
the line segment joining the points (x0, ƒ(x0)) and (ƒ(x0), x0).
Discuss the symmetries you see across the main diagonal.
101. y = 23x - 2,
2
… x … 4, x0 = 3
3
102. y =
3x + 2
, -2 … x … 2, x0 = 1>2
2x - 11
103. y =
4x
, - 1 … x … 1, x0 = 1>2
x2 + 1
90. y = x(x + 1)
104. y =
x3
, - 1 … x … 1, x0 = 1>2
x2 + 1
92. y = t 2t
94. y = xsin x
96. y = (ln x)ln x
Theory and Applications
97. If we write g(x) for ƒ-1(x), Equation (1) can be written as
g′(ƒ(a)) =
a. Plot the function y = ƒ(x) together with its derivative over the
given interval. Explain why you know that ƒ is one-to-one over
the interval.
88. y = t log3 1 e(sin t)(ln 3) 2
Logarithmic Differentiation with Exponentials
In Exercises 89–96, use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of y with respect to the given independent variable.
89. y = (x + 1)x
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
In Exercises 101–108, you will explore some functions and their
inverses together with their derivatives and tangent line approximations at specified points. Perform the following steps using your CAS:
b. Solve the equation y = ƒ(x) for x as a function of y, and name the
resulting inverse function g.
72. y = t 1 - e
71. y = xp
75. y = log4 x + log4 x
x n
98. Show that limn S q a1 + n b = ex for any x 7 0.
99. If ƒ(x) = xn, n Ú 1, show from the definition of the derivative
that ƒ′(0) = 0.
100. Using mathematical induction, show that for n 7 1
In Exercises 63–66, find dy>dx.
y
sides of this equation with respect to x, using the Chain Rule to
express (g ∘ ƒ)′(x) as a product of derivatives of g and ƒ.
What do you find? (This is not a proof of Theorem 3 because
we assume here the theorem’s conclusion that g = ƒ -1 is
differentiable.)
1
, or g′(ƒ(a)) # ƒ′(a) = 1.
ƒ′(a)
If we then write x for a, we get
g′(ƒ(x)) # ƒ′(x) = 1.
The latter equation may remind you of the Chain Rule, and indeed
there is a connection.
Assume that ƒ and g are differentiable functions that are
inverses of one another, so that (g ∘ ƒ)(x) = x. Differentiate both
105. y = x3 - 3x2 - 1, 2 … x … 5, x0 =
27
10
106. y = 2 - x - x3, -2 … x … 2, x0 =
3
2
107. y = ex, -3 … x … 5, x0 = 1
108. y = sin x, -
p
p
… x … , x0 = 1
2
2
In Exercises 109 and 110, repeat the steps above to solve for the functions y = ƒ(x) and x = ƒ -1(y) defined implicitly by the given equations over the interval.
109. y1>3 - 1 = (x + 2)3, - 5 … x … 5, x0 = - 3>2
110. cos y = x1>5, 0 … x … 1, x0 = 1>2
187
3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
We introduced the six basic inverse trigonometric functions in Section 1.6, but focused
there on the arcsine and arccosine functions. Here we complete the study of how all six
inverse trigonometric functions are defined, graphed, and evaluated, and how their derivatives are computed.
Inverses of tan x, cot x, sec x, and csc x
The graphs of these four basic inverse trigonometric functions are shown again in Figure 3.40.
We obtain these graphs by reflecting the graphs of the restricted trigonometric functions
(as discussed in Section 1.6) through the line y = x. Let’s take a closer look at the arctangent, arccotangent, arcsecant, and arccosecant functions.
Domain: −∞ < x < ∞
Range: − p < y < p
2
2
y
p
2
−2 −1
−
p
2
Domain: x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1
Range: 0 ≤ y ≤ p, y ≠ p
2
y
Domain: −∞ < x < ∞
0<y< p
Range:
y
p
p
2
p
y = cot –1x
y = tan –1x
x
1
2
p
2
p
2
(b)
y=
sec –1x
y = csc–1x
1
−2 −1
1
−2 −1
(a)
Domain: x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1
Range: − p ≤ y ≤ p , y ≠ 0
2
2
y
2
x
1
−2 −1
2
(c)
−
x
2
x
p
2
(d)
FIGURE 3.40 Graphs of the arctangent, arccotangent, arcsecant, and arccosecant functions.
The arctangent of x is a radian angle whose tangent is x. The arccotangent of x is an angle
whose cotangent is x, and so forth. The angles belong to the restricted domains of the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions.
DEFINITIONS
y
y
y
y
=
=
=
=
tan−1 x is the number in (-p>2, p>2) for which tan y = x.
cot−1 x is the number in (0, p) for which cot y = x.
sec−1 x is the number in 3 0, p/2) ∪ (p/2, p4 for which sec y = x.
csc−1 x is the number in 3 -p/2, 0) ∪ (0, p/24 for which csc y = x.
We use open or half-open intervals to avoid values for which the tangent, cotangent,
secant, and cosecant functions are undefined. (See Figure 3.40.)
The graph of y = tan-1 x is symmetric about the origin because it is a branch of the
graph x = tan y that is symmetric about the origin (Figure 3.40a). Algebraically this
means that
tan-1 (-x) = -tan-1 x;
the arctangent is an odd function. The graph of y = cot-1 x has no such symmetry
(Figure 3.40b). Notice from Figure 3.40a that the graph of the arctangent function has two
horizontal asymptotes: one at y = p>2 and the other at y = -p>2.
188
Chapter 3: Derivatives
The inverses of the restricted forms of sec x and csc x are chosen to be the functions
graphed in Figures 3.40c and 3.40d.
0x0 ≥ 1
0 ≤ y ≤ p, y ≠ p
2
y
Domain:
Range:
3p
2
B
p
A
y=
p
2
sec –1x
0
−1
x
1
−
C
Caution There is no general agreement about how to define sec-1 x for negative values of
x. We chose angles in the second quadrant between p>2 and p. This choice makes
sec-1 x = cos-1 (1>x). It also makes sec-1 x an increasing function on each interval of its
domain. Some tables choose sec-1 x to lie in 3 -p, -p>2) for x 6 0 and some texts
choose it to lie in 3 p, 3p>2) (Figure 3.41). These choices simplify the formula for the
derivative (our formula needs absolute value signs) but fail to satisfy the computational
equation sec-1 x = cos-1 (1>x). From this, we can derive the identity
p
1
1
sec-1 x = cos-1 a x b = - sin-1 a x b
2
p
2
by applying Equation (5) in Section 1.6.
−p
−
3p
2
FIGURE 3.41 There are several logical
choices for the left-hand branch of
y = sec-1 x. With choice A,
sec-1 x = cos-1 (1>x), a useful identity
employed by many calculators.
EXAMPLE 1
The accompanying figures show two values of tan-1 x.
y
tan–1 1 = tan–1 " 3 = p
3
6
"3
p
6
2
1
x
0 "3
y
x
23
y
y = sin–1x
Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
Range: −p&2 ≤ y ≤ p&2
1
−1
−
x
p
2
FIGURE 3.42 The graph of y = sin-1 x
has vertical tangents at x = - 1 and
x = 1.
1
23>3
- 23>3
-1
- 23
tan–1 a−" 3b = − p
3
−
1
0
2
tan p = 1
6
"3
p
2
(1)
p
3
x
−" 3
tan a− pb = −" 3
3
tan-1 x
p>3
p>4
p>6
-p>6
-p>4
-p>3
The angles come from the first and fourth quadrants because the range of tan-1 x is
(-p>2, p>2).
The Derivative of y = sin−1 u
We know that the function x = sin y is differentiable in the interval -p>2 6 y 6 p>2
and that its derivative, the cosine, is positive there. Theorem 3 in Section 3.8 therefore
assures us that the inverse function y = sin-1 x is differentiable throughout the interval
-1 6 x 6 1. We cannot expect it to be differentiable at x = 1 or x = -1 because the
tangents to the graph are vertical at these points (see Figure 3.42).
3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
189
We find the derivative of y = sin-1 x by applying Theorem 3 with ƒ(x) = sin x and
ƒ (x) = sin-1 x:
-1
( ƒ -1 ) ′(x) =
1
ƒ′ ( ƒ -1(x) )
Theorem 3
1
cos ( sin-1 x )
1
=
21 - sin2 ( sin-1 x )
1
=
.
21 - x2
=
ƒ′(u) = cos u
cos u = 21 - sin2 u
sin (sin-1 x) = x
If u is a differentiable function of x with 0 u 0 6 1, we apply the Chain Rule to get the
general formula
d
du
1
(sin-1 u) =
,
dx
21 - u2 dx
EXAMPLE 2
0 u 0 6 1.
Using the Chain Rule, we calculate the derivative
d
1
# d (x2) = 2x 4 .
(sin-1 x2) =
2 2 dx
dx
21 - (x )
21 - x
The Derivative of y = tan−1 u
We find the derivative of y = tan-1 x by applying Theorem 3 with ƒ(x) = tan x and
ƒ -1(x) = tan-1 x. Theorem 3 can be applied because the derivative of tan x is positive for
-p>2 6 x 6 p>2:
1
ƒ′ ( ƒ -1 ( x ) )
Theorem 3
=
1
sec2 (tan-1 x)
ƒ′(u) = sec2 u
=
1
1 + tan2 (tan-1 x)
sec2 u = 1 + tan2 u
=
1
.
1 + x2
tan (tan-1 x) = x
( ƒ -1 ) ′(x) =
The derivative is defined for all real numbers. If u is a differentiable function of x, we get
the Chain Rule form:
d
( tan-1 u ) = 1 2 du .
dx
1 + u dx
The Derivative of y = sec−1 u
Since the derivative of sec x is positive for 0 6 x 6 p>2 and p>2 6 x 6 p, Theorem 3
says that the inverse function y = sec-1 x is differentiable. Instead of applying the formula
190
Chapter 3: Derivatives
in Theorem 3 directly, we find the derivative of y = sec-1 x, 0 x 0 7 1, using implicit differentiation and the Chain Rule as follows:
y = sec-1 x
sec y = x
d
d
(sec y) =
x
dx
dx
sec y tan y
Inverse function relationship
Differentiate both sides.
dy
= 1
dx
Chain Rule
dy
1
=
.
dx sec y tan y
Since 0 x 0 7 1, y lies in
(0, p>2) ∪ (p>2, p) and
sec y tan y ≠ 0.
To express the result in terms of x, we use the relationships
sec y = x
tan y = { 2sec2 y - 1 = { 2x2 - 1
and
to get
y
dy
1
= {
.
dx
x 2x2 - 1
Can we do anything about the { sign? A glance at Figure 3.43 shows that the slope of the
graph y = sec-1 x is always positive. Thus,
y = sec –1x
p
p
2
−1
0
1
d
sec-1 x = d
dx
x
FIGURE 3.43 The slope of the curve
y = sec-1 x is positive for both x 6 - 1
and x 7 1.
1
x 2x2 - 1
1
x 2x2 - 1
+
if x 7 1
if x 6 -1.
With the absolute value symbol, we can write a single expression that eliminates the “ {”
ambiguity:
d
1
sec-1 x =
.
dx
0 x 0 2x2 - 1
If u is a differentiable function of x with 0 u 0 7 1, we have the formula
d
du
1
( sec-1 u ) =
,
dx
0 u 0 2u2 - 1 dx
EXAMPLE 3
0 u 0 7 1.
Using the Chain Rule and derivative of the arcsecant function, we find
d
d
1
( 5x4 )
sec-1 ( 5x4 ) =
4
4
2
dx
dx
0 5x 0 2 ( 5x ) - 1
=
=
1
( 20x3 )
5x 225x8 - 1
4
4
.
x 225x8 - 1
5x4 7 1 7 0
3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
191
Derivatives of the Other Three Inverse Trigonometric Functions
We could use the same techniques to find the derivatives of the other three inverse trigonometric functions—arccosine, arccotangent, and arccosecant—but there is an easier way,
thanks to the following identities.
Inverse Function–Inverse Cofunction Identities
cos-1 x = p>2 - sin-1 x
cot-1 x = p>2 - tan-1 x
csc-1 x = p>2 - sec-1 x
We saw the first of these identities in Equation (5) of Section 1.6. The others are
derived in a similar way. It follows easily that the derivatives of the inverse cofunctions are
the negatives of the derivatives of the corresponding inverse functions. For example, the
derivative of cos-1 x is calculated as follows:
d
( cos-1 x ) = d a p
- sin-1 xb
dx
dx 2
= -
Identity
d
( sin-1 x )
dx
= -
1
.
21 - x2
Derivative of arcsine
The derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions are summarized in Table 3.1.
TABLE 3.1 Derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
d ( sin-1 u )
du
1
=
,
2 dx
dx
21 - u
d ( cos-1 u )
du
1
= ,
dx
21 - u2 dx
0u0 6 1
d ( tan-1 u )
1 du
=
dx
1 + u2 dx
0u0 6 1
d ( cot-1 u )
1 du
= dx
1 + u2 dx
d ( sec-1 u )
du
1
=
,
dx
0 u 0 2u2 - 1 dx
d ( csc-1 u )
du
1
= ,
2
dx
0 u 0 2u - 1 dx
0u0 7 1
0u0 7 1
Chapter 3: Derivatives
3.9
Exercises
Common Values
Use reference triangles in an appropriate quadrant, as in Example 1, to
find the angles in Exercises 1–8.
1
1. a. tan-1 1
b. tan-11 - 23 2
c. tan-1 a
b
23
-1
2. a. tan (-1)
3. a. sin-1 a
-1
c. tan a
b
23
-1
-1
b. tan 23
-1
b
2
b. sin-1 a
1
4. a. sin-1 a b
2
b. sin-1 a
1
5. a. cos-1 a b
2
b. cos-1 a
6. a. csc-1 22
7. a. sec-11 - 22 2
8. a. cot-1 (- 1)
1
22
-1
22
b. csc-1 a
b. sec-1 a
-1
22
-2
23
2
23
c. sin-1 a
b
c. sin-1 a
b
c. cos-1 a
b
22
2
bb
23
2
23
2
c. csc-1 2
b
b
b
-1
2
b. cot-1 1 23 2
c. cot-1 a
1
10. sec acos-1 b
2
1
11. tan asin-1 a- b b
2
12. cot asin-1 a-
13. lim- sin-1 x
14.
15. lim tan-1 x
16. lim tan-1 x
1
40. y = cot-1 x - tan-1 x
-1
-1
23
b
x
42. y = ln (x2 + 4) - x tan-1 a b
2
Theory and Examples
43. You are sitting in a classroom next to the wall looking at the
blackboard at the front of the room. The blackboard is 12 ft long
and starts 3 ft from the wall you are sitting next to. Show that
your viewing angle is
a = cot-1
x Sq
12′
You
a
23
2
bb
Wall
x
44. Find the angle a.
x Sq
-1
x S -q
Finding Derivatives
In Exercises 21–42, find the derivative of y with respect to the appropriate variable.
21. y = cos-1 (x2)
22. y = cos-1 (1>x)
23. y = sin-1 22 t
24. y = sin-1 (1 - t)
-1
25. y = sec (2s + 1)
26. y = sec-1 5s
27. y = csc-1 (x2 + 1), x 7 0
x
28. y = csc-1
2
3
1
29. y = sec-1 t , 0 6 t 6 1 30. y = sin-1 2
t
31. y = cot-1 2t
32. y = cot-1 2t - 1
33. y = ln (tan-1 x)
-1
t
35. y = csc (e )
21
a
50
b
-1
20. lim csc x
19. lim csc x
65°
lim cos-1 x
x S -q
-1
x
x
- cot-1
3
15
if you are x ft from the front wall.
3′
18. lim sec x
17. lim sec x
41. y = x sin-1 x + 21 - x2
x S -1+
x S -q
x Sq
38. y = 2s2 - 1 - sec-1 s
39. y = tan 2x - 1 + csc x, x 7 1
Limits
Find the limits in Exercises 13–20. (If in doubt, look at the function’s
graph.)
xS1
-1
c. sec-1(-2)
b
Evaluations
Find the values in Exercises 9–12.
9. sin acos-1 a
- 23
b
2
37. y = s 21 - s2 + cos-1 s
Blackboard
192
34. y = tan-1 (ln x)
36. y = cos-1 (e-t)
45. Here is an informal proof that tan-1 1 + tan-1 2 + tan-1 3 = p.
Explain what is going on.
3.10 Related Rates
46. Two derivations of the identity sec−1 ( −x) = P − sec−1 x
-1
a. (Geometric) Here is a pictorial proof that sec (- x) =
p - sec-1 x. See if you can tell what is going on.
y
−1
0
sec-1 x = cos-1 (1>x)
1
x
Explain.
x
Eq. (4), Section 1.6
Eq. (1)
Which of the expressions in Exercises 47–50 are defined, and which
are not? Give reasons for your answers.
47. a. tan-1 2
x - 1
, x Ú 0, and g(x) = 2 tan-1 1x?
x + 1
ƒ(x) = sin-1
b. (Algebraic) Derive the identity sec-1 (- x) = p - sec-1 x by
combining the following two equations from the text:
cos-1 (- x) = p - cos-1 x
ƒ(x) = sin-1
56. What is special about the functions
p
−x
55. What is special about the functions
Explain.
y = sec –1x
p
2
1
2
2x + 1
1
and g(x) = tan-1 x ?
T 57. Find the values of
a. sec-1 1.5
b. csc-1 (- 1.5)
c. cot-1 2
T 58. Find the values of
a. sec-1(- 3)
b. csc-1 1.7
c. cot-1 (- 2)
T In Exercises 59–61, find the domain and range of each composite
function. Then graph the composites on separate screens. Do the
graphs make sense in each case? Give reasons for your answers. Comment on any differences you see.
59. a. y = tan-1 (tan x)
b. cos-1 2
-1
b. y = tan (tan-1 x)
48. a. csc-1 (1>2)
b. csc-1 2
60. a. y = sin (sin x)
b. y = sin (sin-1 x)
49. a. sec-1 0
b. sin-1 22
61. a. y = cos-1 (cos x)
b. y = cos (cos-1 x)
50. a. cot-1 (- 1>2)
b. cos-1 (- 5)
T Use your graphing utility for Exercises 62–66.
62. Graph y = sec (sec-1 x) = sec (cos-1(1>x)). Explain what you
see.
51. Use the identity
csc-1 u =
p
- sec-1 u
2
to derive the formula for the derivative of csc
from the formula for the derivative of sec-1 u.
-1
u in Table 3.1
52. Derive the formula
for the derivative of y = tan-1 x by differentiating both sides of
the equivalent equation tan y = x.
53. Use the Derivative Rule in Section 3.8, Theorem 3, to derive
54. Use the identity
cot-1 u =
63. Newton’s serpentine Graph Newton’s serpentine, y = 4x>(x2 + 1).
Then graph y = 2 sin (2 tan-1 x) in the same graphing window.
What do you see? Explain.
64. Graph the rational function y = (2 - x2)>x2. Then graph y =
cos (2 sec-1 x) in the same graphing window. What do you see?
Explain.
dy
1
=
dx 1 + x2
d
1
sec-1 x =
,
dx
0 x 0 2x2 - 1
193
0 x 0 7 1.
65. Graph ƒ(x) = sin-1 x together with its first two derivatives. Comment on the behavior of ƒ and the shape of its graph in relation to
the signs and values of ƒ′ and ƒ″.
66. Graph ƒ(x) = tan-1 x together with its first two derivatives. Comment on the behavior of ƒ and the shape of its graph in relation to
the signs and values of ƒ′ and ƒ″.
p
- tan-1 u
2
to derive the formula for the derivative of cot-1 u in Table 3.1
from the formula for the derivative of tan-1 u.
3.10 Related Rates
In this section we look at problems that ask for the rate at which some variable changes
when it is known how the rate of some other related variable (or perhaps several variables)
changes. The problem of finding a rate of change from other known rates of change is
called a related rates problem.
194
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Related Rates Equations
Suppose we are pumping air into a spherical balloon. Both the volume and radius of the
balloon are increasing over time. If V is the volume and r is the radius of the balloon at an
instant of time, then
V =
4 3
pr .
3
Using the Chain Rule, we differentiate both sides with respect to t to find an equation
relating the rates of change of V and r,
dV dV dr
dr
=
= 4pr 2 .
dt
dr dt
dt
So if we know the radius r of the balloon and the rate dV>dt at which the volume is
increasing at a given instant of time, then we can solve this last equation for dr>dt to find
how fast the radius is increasing at that instant. Note that it is easier to directly measure the
rate of increase of the volume (the rate at which air is being pumped into the balloon) than
it is to measure the increase in the radius. The related rates equation allows us to calculate
dr>dt from dV>dt.
Very often the key to relating the variables in a related rates problem is drawing a picture
that shows the geometric relations between them, as illustrated in the following example.
EXAMPLE 1
Water runs into a conical tank at the rate of 9 ft3 >min. The tank stands
point down and has a height of 10 ft and a base radius of 5 ft. How fast is the water level
rising when the water is 6 ft deep?
dV = 9 ft3&min
dt
5 ft
dy
=?
dt
when y = 6 ft
Solution Figure 3.44 shows a partially filled conical tank. The variables in the problem are
V = volume (ft3) of the water in the tank at time t (min)
x = radius (ft) of the surface of the water at time t
y = depth (ft) of the water in the tank at time t.
x
10 ft
y
FIGURE 3.44 The geometry of the
conical tank and the rate at which water
fills the tank determine how fast the water
level rises (Example 1).
We assume that V, x, and y are differentiable functions of t. The constants are the dimensions of the tank. We are asked for dy>dt when
y = 6 ft
dV
= 9 ft3 >min.
dt
and
The water forms a cone with volume
V =
1 2
px y.
3
This equation involves x as well as V and y. Because no information is given about x and
dx>dt at the time in question, we need to eliminate x. The similar triangles in Figure 3.44
give us a way to express x in terms of y:
x
5
y = 10
or
x =
y
.
2
Therefore, we find
V =
to give the derivative
y 2
p 3
1
pa b y =
y
3
2
12
dV
p # 2 dy p 2 dy
=
3y
= y
.
12
4 dt
dt
dt
3.10 Related Rates
195
Finally, use y = 6 and dV>dt = 9 to solve for dy>dt.
dy
p
9 = (6)2
4
dt
dy
1
= p ≈ 0.32
dt
At the moment in question, the water level is rising at about 0.32 ft>min.
Related Rates Problem Strategy
1. Draw a picture and name the variables and constants. Use t for time. Assume
that all variables are differentiable functions of t.
2. Write down the numerical information (in terms of the symbols you have chosen).
3. Write down what you are asked to find (usually a rate, expressed as a derivative).
4. Write an equation that relates the variables. You may have to combine two
or more equations to get a single equation that relates the variable whose rate
you want to the variables whose rates you know.
5. Differentiate with respect to t. Then express the rate you want in terms of the
rates and variables whose values you know.
6. Evaluate. Use known values to find the unknown rate.
Balloon
du
= 0.14 rad&min
dt
when u = p&4
Range
finder
dy
=?
y dt
when u = p&4
EXAMPLE 2
A hot air balloon rising straight up from a level field is tracked by a
range finder 150 m from the liftoff point. At the moment the range finder’s elevation angle
is p>4, the angle is increasing at the rate of 0.14 rad > min. How fast is the balloon rising at
that moment?
Solution We answer the question in the six strategy steps.
1.
u
150 m
FIGURE 3.45 The rate of change of the
balloon’s height is related to the rate of
change of the angle the range finder makes
with the ground (Example 2).
Draw a picture and name the variables and constants (Figure 3.45). The variables in
the picture are
u = the angle in radians the range finder makes with the ground.
y = the height in meters of the balloon above the ground.
We let t represent time in minutes and assume that u and y are differentiable functions of t.
The one constant in the picture is the distance from the range finder to the liftoff point
(150 m). There is no need to give it a special symbol.
2. Write down the additional numerical information.
du
= 0.14 rad>min
dt
when
u =
p
4
3.
4.
Write down what we are to find. We want dy>dt when u = p>4.
Write an equation that relates the variables y and u.
y
= tan u
or
y = 150 tan u
150
5.
Differentiate with respect to t using the Chain Rule. The result tells how dy>dt (which
we want) is related to du>dt (which we know).
dy
du
= 150 (sec2 u)
dt
dt
6.
Evaluate with u = p>4 and du>dt = 0.14 to find dy>dt.
dy
= 1501 22 22(0.14) = 42
dt
sec
p
= 22
4
At the moment in question, the balloon is rising at the rate of 42 m>min.
196
Chapter 3: Derivatives
EXAMPLE 3
A police cruiser, approaching a right-angled intersection from the north,
is chasing a speeding car that has turned the corner and is now moving straight east. When
the cruiser is 0.6 mi north of the intersection and the car is 0.8 mi to the east, the police determine with radar that the distance between them and the car is increasing at 20 mph. If the
cruiser is moving at 60 mph at the instant of measurement, what is the speed of the car?
y
Situation when
x = 0.8, y = 0.6
y
dy
= −60
dt
ds = 20
dt
0
dx = ?
dt
x
x
FIGURE 3.46 The speed of the car is
related to the speed of the police cruiser
and the rate of change of the distance s
between them (Example 3).
Solution We picture the car and cruiser in the coordinate plane, using the positive x-axis
as the eastbound highway and the positive y-axis as the southbound highway (Figure 3.46).
We let t represent time and set
x = position of car at time t
y = position of cruiser at time t
s = distance between car and cruiser at time t.
We assume that x, y, and s are differentiable functions of t.
We want to find dx>dt when
x = 0.8 mi,
dy
= -60 mph,
dt
y = 0.6 mi,
ds
= 20 mph.
dt
Note that dy>dt is negative because y is decreasing.
We differentiate the distance equation between the car and the cruiser,
s2 = x2 + y2
(we could also use s = 2x2 + y2 ), and obtain
2s
dy
ds
dx
= 2x
+ 2y
dt
dt
dt
dy
ds
1 dx
= s ax
+ y b
dt
dt
dt
=
dy
dx
1
+ y b.
ax
2
dt
dt
2x + y
2
Finally, we use x = 0.8, y = 0.6, dy>dt = -60, ds>dt = 20, and solve for dx>dt.
20 =
1
2(0.8)2 + (0.6)2
a0.8
dx
+ (0.6)(-60)b
dt
2
2
dx 20 2(0.8) + (0.6) + (0.6)(60)
= 70
=
0.8
dt
At the moment in question, the car’s speed is 70 mph.
y
P
10
u
0
Q
(x, 0)
FIGURE 3.47 The particle P
travels clockwise along the circle
(Example 4).
x
EXAMPLE 4
A particle P moves clockwise at a constant rate along a circle of radius
10 m centered at the origin. The particle’s initial position is (0, 10) on the y-axis, and its
final destination is the point (10, 0) on the x-axis. Once the particle is in motion, the tangent line at P intersects the x-axis at a point Q (which moves over time). If it takes the
particle 30 sec to travel from start to finish, how fast is the point Q moving along the x-axis
when it is 20 m from the center of the circle?
Solution We picture the situation in the coordinate plane with the circle centered at the
origin (see Figure 3.47). We let t represent time and let u denote the angle from the x-axis
to the radial line joining the origin to P. Since the particle travels from start to finish in
30 sec, it is traveling along the circle at a constant rate of p>2 radians in 1>2 min, or
p rad>min. In other words, du>dt = -p, with t being measured in minutes. The negative
sign appears because u is decreasing over time.
3.10 Related Rates
197
Setting x(t) to be the distance at time t from the point Q to the origin, we want to find
dx>dt when
x = 20 m
du
= -p rad>min.
dt
and
To relate the variables x and u, we see from Figure 3.47 that x cos u = 10, or
x = 10 sec u. Differentiation of this last equation gives
du
dx
= 10 sec u tan u
= -10p sec u tan u.
dt
dt
Note that dx>dt is negative because x is decreasing (Q is moving toward the origin).
When x = 20, cos u = 1>2 and sec u = 2. Also, tan u = 2sec2 u - 1 = 23. It
follows that
dx
= (-10p)(2)1 23 2 = -20 23p.
dt
At the moment in question, the point Q is moving toward the origin at the speed of
20 23p ≈ 109 m>min.
A
12,000
u
R
x
FIGURE 3.48 Jet airliner A
traveling at constant altitude
toward radar station R
(Example 5).
EXAMPLE 5
A jet airliner is flying at a constant altitude of 12,000 ft above sea level
as it approaches a Pacific island. The aircraft comes within the direct line of sight of a
radar station located on the island, and the radar indicates the initial angle between sea
level and its line of sight to the aircraft is 30°. How fast (in miles per hour) is the aircraft
approaching the island when first detected by the radar instrument if it is turning upward
(counterclockwise) at the rate of 2>3 deg>sec in order to keep the aircraft within its direct
line of sight?
Solution The aircraft A and radar station R are pictured in the coordinate plane, using
the positive x-axis as the horizontal distance at sea level from R to A, and the positive
y-axis as the vertical altitude above sea level. We let t represent time and observe that
y = 12,000 is a constant. The general situation and line-of-sight angle u are depicted in
Figure 3.48. We want to find dx>dt when u = p>6 rad and du>dt = 2>3 deg>sec.
From Figure 3.48, we see that
12,000
= tan u
x
or
x = 12,000 cot u.
Using miles instead of feet for our distance units, the last equation translates to
x =
12,000
cot u.
5280
Differentiation with respect to t gives
du
dx
1200
= csc2 u .
dt
dt
528
When u = p>6, sin2 u = 1>4, so csc2 u = 4. Converting du>dt = 2>3 deg>sec to radians per hour, we find
du 2 p
= a
b (3600) rad>hr.
3 180
dt
1 hr = 3600 sec, 1 deg = p>180 rad
Substitution into the equation for dx>dt then gives
dx
1200
p
2
= ab (4)a b a
b (3600) ≈ -380.
3 180
dt
528
The negative sign appears because the distance x is decreasing, so the aircraft is approaching the island at a speed of approximately 380 mi>hr when first detected by the radar.
198
Chapter 3: Derivatives
P
W
dx = 4 ft&sec
dt
M
O
5 ft
x
(a)
P
20 ft
EXAMPLE 6
Figure 3.49a shows a rope running through a pulley at P and bearing a
weight W at one end. The other end is held 5 ft above the ground in the hand M of
a worker. Suppose the pulley is 25 ft above ground, the rope is 45 ft long, and the worker
is walking rapidly away from the vertical line PW at the rate of 4 ft>sec. How fast is the
weight being raised when the worker’s hand is 21 ft away from PW?
Solution We let OM be the horizontal line of length x ft from a point O directly below
the pulley to the worker’s hand M at any instant of time (Figure 3.49). Let h be the height
of the weight W above O, and let z denote the length of rope from the pulley P to the
worker’s hand. We want to know dh>dt when x = 21 given that dx>dt = 4. Note that the
height of P above O is 20 ft because O is 5 ft above the ground. We assume the angle at O
is a right angle.
At any instant of time t we have the following relationships (see Figure 3.49b):
20 - h + z = 45
202 + x2 = z2.
z
W
h
dh = ?
dt
O
x
M
(b)
Total length of rope is 45 ft.
Angle at O is a right angle.
If we solve for z = 25 + h in the first equation, and substitute into the second equation,
we have
202 + x2 = (25 + h)2.
(1)
Differentiating both sides with respect to t gives
FIGURE 3.49 A worker at M
walks to the right, pulling the
weight W upward as the rope
moves through the pulley P
(Example 6).
2x
dx
dh
= 2(25 + h) ,
dt
dt
and solving this last equation for dh>dt we find
dh
x
dx
=
.
dt
25 + h dt
(2)
Since we know dx>dt, it remains only to find 25 + h at the instant when x = 21. From
Equation (1),
202 + 212 = (25 + h)2
so that
(25 + h)2 = 841,
or
25 + h = 29.
Equation (2) now gives
dh 21 #
84
=
4 =
≈ 2.9 ft>sec
29
29
dt
as the rate at which the weight is being raised when x = 21 ft.
Exercises
3.10
1. Area Suppose that the radius r and area A = pr 2 of a circle are
differentiable functions of t. Write an equation that relates dA>dt
to dr>dt.
2. Surface area Suppose that the radius r and surface area S = 4pr 2
of a sphere are differentiable functions of t. Write an equation that
relates dS>dt to dr>dt.
3. Assume that y = 5x and dx>dt = 2. Find dy>dt.
4. Assume that 2x + 3y = 12 and dy>dt = - 2. Find dx>dt.
2
5. If y = x and dx>dt = 3, then what is dy>dt when x = -1?
6. If x = y3 - y and dy>dt = 5, then what is dx>dt when y = 2?
7. If x2 + y2 = 25 and dx>dt = - 2, then what is dy>dt when
x = 3 and y = -4?
8. If x2y3 = 4>27 and dy>dt = 1>2, then what is dx>dt when
x = 2?
9. If L = 2x2 + y2, dx>dt = - 1, and dy>dt = 3, find dL>dt
when x = 5 and y = 12.
10. If r + s2 + y3 = 12, dr>dt = 4, and ds>dt = - 3, find dy>dt
when r = 3 and s = 1.
3.10 Related Rates
11. If the original 24 m edge length x of a cube decreases at the rate
of 5 m>min, when x = 3 m at what rate does the cube’s
a. surface area change?
199
a. Assuming that x, y, and z are differentiable functions of t,
how is ds>dt related to dx>dt, dy>dt, and dz>dt?
b. How is ds>dt related to dy>dt and dz>dt if x is constant?
c. How are dx>dt, dy>dt, and dz>dt related if s is constant?
b. volume change?
12. A cube’s surface area increases at the rate of 72 in2 >sec. At what rate
is the cube’s volume changing when the edge length is x = 3 in?
19. Area The area A of a triangle with sides of lengths a and b
enclosing an angle of measure u is
13. Volume The radius r and height h of a right circular cylinder
are related to the cylinder’s volume V by the formula V = pr 2h.
A =
1
ab sin u.
2
a. How is dV>dt related to dh>dt if r is constant?
a. How is dA>dt related to du>dt if a and b are constant?
b. How is dV>dt related to dr>dt if h is constant?
b. How is dA>dt related to du>dt and da>dt if only b is constant?
c. How is dV>dt related to dr>dt and dh>dt if neither r nor h is
constant?
c. How is dA>dt related to du>dt, da>dt, and db>dt if none of
a, b, and u are constant?
14. Volume The radius r and height h of a right circular cone are
related to the cone’s volume V by the equation V = (1>3)pr 2h.
a. How is dV>dt related to dh>dt if r is constant?
b. How is dV>dt related to dr>dt if h is constant?
c. How is dV>dt related to dr>dt and dh>dt if neither r nor h is
constant?
15. Changing voltage The voltage V (volts), current I (amperes),
and resistance R (ohms) of an electric circuit like the one shown
here are related by the equation V = IR. Suppose that V is
increasing at the rate of 1 volt>sec while I is decreasing at the
rate of 1>3 amp>sec. Let t denote time in seconds.
+ V−
I
R
a. What is the value of dV>dt?
b. What is the value of dI>dt?
c. What equation relates dR>dt to dV>dt and dI>dt?
d. Find the rate at which R is changing when V = 12 volts and
I = 2 amps. Is R increasing, or decreasing?
16. Electrical power The power P (watts) of an electric circuit is
related to the circuit’s resistance R (ohms) and current I (amperes)
by the equation P = RI 2.
20. Heating a plate When a circular plate of metal is heated in an
oven, its radius increases at the rate of 0.01 cm > min. At what rate
is the plate’s area increasing when the radius is 50 cm?
21. Changing dimensions in a rectangle The length l of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 2 cm>sec while the width w is
increasing at the rate of 2 cm>sec. When l = 12 cm and
w = 5 cm, find the rates of change of (a) the area, (b) the perimeter, and (c) the lengths of the diagonals of the rectangle. Which
of these quantities are decreasing, and which are increasing?
22. Changing dimensions in a rectangular box Suppose that the
edge lengths x, y, and z of a closed rectangular box are changing
at the following rates:
dy
dz
dx
= 1 m>sec,
= - 2 m>sec,
= 1 m>sec.
dt
dt
dt
Find the rates at which the box’s (a) volume, (b) surface area, and
(c) diagonal length s = 2x2 + y2 + z2 are changing at the
instant when x = 4, y = 3, and z = 2.
23. A sliding ladder A 13-ft ladder is leaning against a house when
its base starts to slide away (see accompanying figure). By the
time the base is 12 ft from the house, the base is moving at the
rate of 5 ft>sec.
a. How fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall then?
b. At what rate is the area of the triangle formed by the ladder,
wall, and ground changing then?
c. At what rate is the angle u between the ladder and the ground
changing then?
y
a. How are dP>dt, dR>dt, and dI>dt related if none of P, R, and
I are constant?
b. How is dR>dt related to dI>dt if P is constant?
y(t)
17. Distance Let x and y be differentiable functions of t and let
s = 2x2 + y2 be the distance between the points (x, 0) and
(0, y) in the xy-plane.
13-ft ladder
a. How is ds>dt related to dx>dt if y is constant?
b. How is ds>dt related to dx>dt and dy>dt if neither x nor y is
constant?
c. How is dx>dt related to dy>dt if s is constant?
18. Diagonals If x, y, and z are lengths of the edges of a rectangular
box, the common length of the box’s diagonals is s =
2x2 + y2 + z2.
u
0
x(t)
x
24. Commercial air traffic Two commercial airplanes are flying
at an altitude of 40,000 ft along straight-line courses that intersect
at right angles. Plane A is approaching the intersection point at a
speed of 442 knots (nautical miles per hour; a nautical mile is
2000 yd). Plane B is approaching the intersection at 481 knots. At
what rate is the distance between the planes changing when A is 5
200
Chapter 3: Derivatives
nautical miles from the intersection point and B is 12 nautical
miles from the intersection point?
Ring at edge
of dock
25. Flying a kite A girl flies a kite at a height of 300 ft, the wind carrying the kite horizontally away from her at a rate of 25 ft>sec. How
fast must she let out the string when the kite is 500 ft away from her?
26. Boring a cylinder The mechanics at Lincoln Automotive are
reboring a 6-in.-deep cylinder to fit a new piston. The machine
they are using increases the cylinder’s radius one-thousandth of
an inch every 3 min. How rapidly is the cylinder volume increasing when the bore (diameter) is 3.800 in.?
27. A growing sand pile Sand falls from a conveyor belt at the rate
of 10 m3 >min onto the top of a conical pile. The height of the pile
is always three-eighths of the base diameter. How fast are the (a)
height and (b) radius changing when the pile is 4 m high? Answer
in centimeters per minute.
u
6'
33. A balloon and a bicycle A balloon is rising vertically above a
level, straight road at a constant rate of 1 ft>sec. Just when the
balloon is 65 ft above the ground, a bicycle moving at a constant
rate of 17 ft>sec passes under it. How fast is the distance s(t)
between the bicycle and balloon increasing 3 sec later?
y
28. A draining conical reservoir Water is flowing at the rate of
50 m3 >min from a shallow concrete conical reservoir (vertex
down) of base radius 45 m and height 6 m.
a. How fast (centimeters per minute) is the water level falling
when the water is 5 m deep?
y(t)
b. How fast is the radius of the water’s surface changing then?
Answer in centimeters per minute.
29. A draining hemispherical reservoir Water is flowing at the
rate of 6 m3 >min from a reservoir shaped like a hemispherical bowl
of radius 13 m, shown here in profile. Answer the following questions, given that the volume of water in a hemispherical bowl of
radius R is V = (p>3)y2(3R - y) when the water is y meters deep.
s(t)
Center of sphere
13
Water level
r
y
0
x(t)
x
34. Making coffee Coffee is draining from a conical filter into a
cylindrical coffeepot at the rate of 10 in3 >min.
a. How fast is the level in the pot rising when the coffee in the
cone is 5 in. deep?
b. How fast is the level in the cone falling then?
a. At what rate is the water level changing when the water is
8 m deep?
6″
b. What is the radius r of the water’s surface when the water is
y m deep?
c. At what rate is the radius r changing when the water is 8 m deep?
30. A growing raindrop Suppose that a drop of mist is a perfect
sphere and that, through condensation, the drop picks up moisture
at a rate proportional to its surface area. Show that under these
circumstances the drop’s radius increases at a constant rate.
6″
How fast
is this
level falling?
31. The radius of an inflating balloon A spherical balloon is
inflated with helium at the rate of 100p ft3 >min. How fast is the
balloon’s radius increasing at the instant the radius is 5 ft? How
fast is the surface area increasing?
32. Hauling in a dinghy A dinghy is pulled toward a dock by a
rope from the bow through a ring on the dock 6 ft above the bow.
The rope is hauled in at the rate of 2 ft>sec.
a. How fast is the boat approaching the dock when 10 ft of rope
are out?
b. At what rate is the angle u changing at this instant (see the
figure)?
How fast
is this
level rising?
6″
201
3.10 Related Rates
35. Cardiac output In the late 1860s, Adolf Fick, a professor of
physiology in the Faculty of Medicine in Würzberg, Germany,
developed one of the methods we use today for measuring how
much blood your heart pumps in a minute. Your cardiac output as
you read this sentence is probably about 7 L>min. At rest it is
likely to be a bit under 6 L>min. If you are a trained marathon
runner running a marathon, your cardiac output can be as high as
30 L>min.
Your cardiac output can be calculated with the formula
Q
y = ,
D
where Q is the number of milliliters of CO2 you exhale in a minute
and D is the difference between the CO2 concentration (ml>L) in
the blood pumped to the lungs and the CO2 concentration in the
blood returning from the lungs. With Q = 233 ml>min and
D = 97 - 56 = 41 ml>L,
y =
233 ml>min
≈ 5.68 L>min,
41 ml>L
fairly close to the 6 L>min that most people have at basal (resting) conditions. (Data courtesy of J. Kenneth Herd, M.D., Quillan
College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University.)
Suppose that when Q = 233 and D = 41, we also know
that D is decreasing at the rate of 2 units a minute but that Q
remains unchanged. What is happening to the cardiac output?
39. A moving shadow A light shines from the top of a pole 50 ft
high. A ball is dropped from the same height from a point 30 ft
away from the light. (See accompanying figure.) How fast is the
shadow of the ball moving along the ground 1>2 sec later?
(Assume the ball falls a distance s = 16t 2 ft in t sec.)
Light
Ball at time t = 0
1/2 sec later
50-ft
pole
0
Shadow
x
30
x(t)
40. A building’s shadow On a morning of a day when the sun will
pass directly overhead, the shadow of an 80-ft building on level
ground is 60 ft long. At the moment in question, the angle u the
sun makes with the ground is increasing at the rate of 0.27°>min.
At what rate is the shadow decreasing? (Remember to use radians.
Express your answer in inches per minute, to the nearest tenth.)
36. Moving along a parabola A particle moves along the parabola
y = x2 in the first quadrant in such a way that its x-coordinate
(measured in meters) increases at a steady 10 m>sec. How fast is
the angle of inclination u of the line joining the particle to the
origin changing when x = 3 m?
37. Motion in the plane The coordinates of a particle in the metric
xy-plane are differentiable functions of time t with dx>dt =
- 1 m>sec and dy>dt = - 5 m>sec. How fast is the particle’s distance from the origin changing as it passes through the point
(5, 12)?
38. Videotaping a moving car You are videotaping a race from a
stand 132 ft from the track, following a car that is moving at
180 mi>h (264 ft>sec), as shown in the accompanying figure.
How fast will your camera angle u be changing when the car is
right in front of you? A half second later?
Camera
80′
u
41. A melting ice layer A spherical iron ball 8 in. in diameter is
coated with a layer of ice of uniform thickness. If the ice melts at
the rate of 10 in3 >min, how fast is the thickness of the ice
decreasing when it is 2 in. thick? How fast is the outer surface
area of ice decreasing?
42. Highway patrol A highway patrol plane flies 3 mi above a
level, straight road at a steady 120 mi>h. The pilot sees an
oncoming car and with radar determines that at the instant the
line-of-sight distance from plane to car is 5 mi, the line-of-sight
distance is decreasing at the rate of 160 mi>h. Find the car’s
speed along the highway.
u
132′
43. Baseball players A baseball diamond is a square 90 ft on a
side. A player runs from first base to second at a rate of 16 ft>sec.
a. At what rate is the player’s distance from third base changing
when the player is 30 ft from first base?
Car
b. At what rates are angles u1 and u2 (see the figure) changing
at that time?
202
Chapter 3: Derivatives
44. Ships Two ships are steaming straight away from a point O
along routes that make a 120° angle. Ship A moves at 14 knots
(nautical miles per hour; a nautical mile is 2000 yd). Ship B
moves at 21 knots. How fast are the ships moving apart when
OA = 5 and OB = 3 nautical miles?
c. The player slides into second base at the rate of 15 ft>sec. At
what rates are angles u1 and u2 changing as the player
touches base?
Second base
90′
Third
base
u1
u2
45. Clock’s moving hands At what rate is the angle between a
clock’s minute and hour hands changing at 4 o’clock in the afternoon?
Player
30′
46. Oil spill An explosion at an oil rig located in gulf waters causes
an elliptical oil slick to spread on the surface from the rig. The slick
is a constant 9 in. thick. After several days, when the major axis of
the slick is 2 mi long and the minor axis is 3/4 mi wide, it is determined that its length is increasing at the rate of 30 ft/hr, and its
width is increasing at the rate of 10 ft/hr. At what rate (in cubic feet
per hour) is oil flowing from the site of the rig at that time?
First
base
Home
3.11 Linearization and Differentials
Sometimes we can approximate complicated functions with simpler ones that give the
accuracy we want for specific applications and are easier to work with. The approximating
functions discussed in this section are called linearizations, and they are based on tangent
lines. Other approximating functions, such as polynomials, are discussed in Chapter 10.
We introduce new variables dx and dy, called differentials, and define them in a way that
makes Leibniz’s notation for the derivative dy>dx a true ratio. We use dy to estimate error in
measurement, which then provides for a precise proof of the Chain Rule (Section 3.6).
Linearization
As you can see in Figure 3.50, the tangent to the curve y = x2 lies close to the curve near
the point of tangency. For a brief interval to either side, the y-values along the tangent line
4
2
y = x2
y = x2
y = 2x − 1
y = 2x − 1
(1, 1)
(1, 1)
−1
3
0
y = x 2 and its tangent y = 2x − 1 at (1, 1).
1.2
0
2
0
Tangent and curve very close near (1, 1).
1.003
y = x2
y = x2
y = 2x − 1
(1, 1)
(1, 1)
y = 2x − 1
0.8
0.8
1.2
Tangent and curve very close throughout
entire x-interval shown.
0.997
0.997
1.003
Tangent and curve closer still. Computer
screen cannot distinguish tangent from
curve on this x-interval.
FIGURE 3.50 The more we magnify the graph of a function near a point where the function is differentiable, the flatter the graph becomes and the more it resembles its tangent.
3.11 Linearization and Differentials
y
y = f (x)
Slope = f ′(a)
(a, f (a))
0
y = L(x)
a
x
FIGURE 3.51 The tangent to the
curve y = ƒ(x) at x = a is the line
L(x) = ƒ(a) + ƒ′(a)(x - a).
203
give good approximations to the y-values on the curve. We observe this phenomenon by
zooming in on the two graphs at the point of tangency or by looking at tables of values for
the difference between ƒ(x) and its tangent line near the x-coordinate of the point of tangency. The phenomenon is true not just for parabolas; every differentiable curve behaves
locally like its tangent line.
In general, the tangent to y = ƒ(x) at a point x = a, where ƒ is differentiable
(Figure 3.51), passes through the point (a, ƒ(a)), so its point-slope equation is
y = ƒ(a) + ƒ′(a)(x - a).
Thus, this tangent line is the graph of the linear function
L(x) = ƒ(a) + ƒ′(a)(x - a).
For as long as this line remains close to the graph of ƒ as we move off the point of tangency, L(x) gives a good approximation to ƒ(x).
DEFINITIONS If ƒ is differentiable at x = a, then the approximating function
L(x) = ƒ(a) + ƒ′(a)(x - a)
is the linearization of ƒ at a. The approximation
ƒ(x) ≈ L(x)
of ƒ by L is the standard linear approximation of ƒ at a. The point x = a is the
center of the approximation.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the linearization of ƒ(x) = 21 + x at x = 0 (Figure 3.52).
y
x
y= 1+
2
2
5
x
+
4
4
0
1
2
y = "1 + x
1.0
3
4
x
FIGURE 3.52 The graph of y = 21 + x and its linearizations at x = 0 and x = 3. Figure 3.53 shows a magnified view of the small window about 1 on the y-axis.
Solution
y=1+ x
2
1.1
y = "1 + x
1
−1
y=
0.9
−0.1
0
0.1
0.2
FIGURE 3.53 Magnified view of the
window in Figure 3.52.
Since
ƒ′(x) =
1
(1 + x)-1>2,
2
we have ƒ(0) = 1 and ƒ′(0) = 1>2, giving the linearization
L(x) = ƒ(a) + ƒ′(a)(x - a) = 1 +
x
1
(x - 0) = 1 + .
2
2
See Figure 3.53.
The following table shows how accurate the approximation 21 + x ≈ 1 + (x>2)
from Example 1 is for some values of x near 0. As we move away from zero, we lose
204
Chapter 3: Derivatives
accuracy. For example, for x = 2, the linearization gives 2 as the approximation for 23,
which is not even accurate to one decimal place.
True value
- True value − approximation -
= 1.10
1.095445
0.004555 6 10-2
0.05
= 1.025
2
1.024695
0.000305 6 10-3
0.005
= 1.00250
2
1.002497
0.000003 6 10-5
Approximation
21.2 ≈ 1 +
21.05 ≈ 1 +
21.005 ≈ 1 +
0.2
2
Do not be misled by the preceding calculations into thinking that whatever we do with
a linearization is better done with a calculator. In practice, we would never use a linearization to find a particular square root. The utility of a linearization is its ability to replace a
complicated formula by a simpler one over an entire interval of values. If we have to work
with 21 + x for x close to 0 and can tolerate the small amount of error involved, we can
work with 1 + (x>2) instead. Of course, we then need to know how much error there is.
We further examine the estimation of error in Chapter 10.
A linear approximation normally loses accuracy away from its center. As Figure 3.52
suggests, the approximation 21 + x ≈ 1 + (x>2) will probably be too crude to be useful near x = 3. There, we need the linearization at x = 3.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the linearization of ƒ(x) = 21 + x at x = 3.
Solution We evaluate the equation defining L(x) at a = 3. With
ƒ(3) = 2,
ƒ′(3) =
we have
L(x) = 2 +
1
1
(1 + x)-1>2 `
= ,
2
4
x=3
5
x
1
(x - 3) = + .
4
4 4
At x = 3.2, the linearization in Example 2 gives
21 + x = 21 + 3.2 ≈
5 3.2
+
= 1.250 + 0.800 = 2.050,
4
4
which differs from the true value 24.2 ≈ 2.04939 by less than one one-thousandth. The
linearization in Example 1 gives
21 + x = 21 + 3.2 ≈ 1 +
y
3.2
= 1 + 1.6 = 2.6,
2
a result that is off by more than 25%.
EXAMPLE 3
0
p
2
x
y = cos x
y = −x + p
2
FIGURE 3.54 The graph of ƒ(x) = cos x
and its linearization at x = p>2. Near
x = p>2, cos x ≈ -x + (p>2)
(Example 3).
Find the linearization of ƒ(x) = cos x at x = p>2 (Figure 3.54).
Solution Since ƒ(p>2) = cos (p>2) = 0, ƒ′(x) = -sin x, and ƒ′(p>2) = -sin (p>2) =
-1, we find the linearization at a = p>2 to be
L(x) = ƒ(a) + ƒ′(a)(x - a)
= 0 + (-1)ax = -x +
p
.
2
p
b
2
3.11 Linearization and Differentials
205
An important linear approximation for roots and powers is
(1 + x)k ≈ 1 + kx
(x near 0; any number k)
(Exercise 15). This approximation, good for values of x sufficiently close to zero, has
broad application. For example, when x is small,
21 + x ≈ 1 +
Approximations Near x = 0
21 + x ≈ 1 +
x
2
1
≈ 1 + x
1 - x
x
1
≈ 1 +
2
2
21 - x
k = 1>2
1
= (1 - x)-1 ≈ 1 + (-1)(-x) = 1 + x
1 - x
5
1
3
21 + 5x4 = (1 + 5x4)1>3 ≈ 1 + (5x4) = 1 + x4
3
3
1
2
1
x
2
21 - x2
1
1
= (1 - x2)-1>2 ≈ 1 + a- b (-x2) = 1 + x2
2
2
k = - 1; replace x by - x.
k = 1>3; replace x by 5x4.
k = - 1>2;
replace x by - x2 .
Differentials
We sometimes use the Leibniz notation dy>dx to represent the derivative of y with respect
to x. Contrary to its appearance, it is not a ratio. We now introduce two new variables dx
and dy with the property that when their ratio exists, it is equal to the derivative.
DEFINITION Let y = ƒ(x) be a differentiable function. The differential dx is an
independent variable. The differential dy is
dy = ƒ′(x) dx.
Unlike the independent variable dx, the variable dy is always a dependent variable. It
depends on both x and dx. If dx is given a specific value and x is a particular number in the
domain of the function ƒ, then these values determine the numerical value of dy. Often the
variable dx is chosen to be ∆x, the change in x.
EXAMPLE 4
(a) Find dy if y = x5 + 37x.
(b) Find the value of dy when x = 1 and dx = 0.2.
Solution
(a) dy = (5x4 + 37) dx
(b) Substituting x = 1 and dx = 0.2 in the expression for dy, we have
dy = (5 # 14 + 37) 0.2 = 8.4.
The geometric meaning of differentials is shown in Figure 3.55. Let x = a and set
dx = ∆x. The corresponding change in y = ƒ(x) is
∆y = ƒ(a + dx) - ƒ(a).
The corresponding change in the tangent line L is
∆L = L(a + dx) - L(a)
= ƒ(a) + ƒ′(a)3 (a + dx) - a4 - ƒ(a)
(++++1+)+++++1* ()*
L (a + dx)
= ƒ′(a) dx.
L (a)
206
Chapter 3: Derivatives
y
y = f(x)
(a + dx, f (a + dx))
Δy = f (a + dx) − f (a)
ΔL = f ′(a)dx
(a, f(a))
dx = Δx
When dx is a small change in x,
the corresponding change in
the linearization is precisely dy.
Tangent
line
0
a
x
a + dx
FIGURE 3.55 Geometrically, the differential dy is the change
∆L in the linearization of ƒ when x = a changes by an amount
dx = ∆x.
That is, the change in the linearization of ƒ is precisely the value of the differential dy
when x = a and dx = ∆x. Therefore, dy represents the amount the tangent line rises or
falls when x changes by an amount dx = ∆x.
If dx ≠ 0, then the quotient of the differential dy by the differential dx is equal to the
derivative ƒ′(x) because
dy , dx =
dy
ƒ′(x) dx
= ƒ′(x) = .
dx
dx
We sometimes write
dƒ = ƒ′(x) dx
in place of dy = ƒ′(x) dx, calling dƒ the differential of ƒ. For instance, if ƒ(x) = 3x2 - 6,
then
dƒ = d(3x2 - 6) = 6x dx.
Every differentiation formula like
d (u + y) du dy
=
+
dx
dx
dx
or
d (sin u)
du
= cos u
dx
dx
or
d(sin u) = cos u du.
has a corresponding differential form like
d(u + y) = du + dy
EXAMPLE 5
We can use the Chain Rule and other differentiation rules to find differentials of functions.
(a) d (tan 2x) = sec2 (2x) d (2x) = 2 sec2 2x dx
(b) d a
(x + 1) dx - x d (x + 1) x dx + dx - x dx
dx
x
b =
=
=
2
2
x + 1
(x + 1)
(x + 1)
(x + 1)2
Estimating with Differentials
Suppose we know the value of a differentiable function ƒ(x) at a point a and want to estimate how much this value will change if we move to a nearby point a + dx. If dx = ∆x is
small, then we can see from Figure 3.55 that ∆y is approximately equal to the differential
dy. Since
ƒ(a + dx) = ƒ(a) + ∆y,
∆x = dx
3.11 Linearization and Differentials
207
the differential approximation gives
ƒ(a + dx) ≈ ƒ(a) + dy
when dx = ∆x. Thus the approximation ∆y ≈ dy can be used to estimate ƒ(a + dx)
when ƒ(a) is known, dx is small, and dy = ƒ′(a) dx.
dr = 0.1
a = 10
EXAMPLE 6
The radius r of a circle increases from a = 10 m to 10.1 m (Figure 3.56).
Use dA to estimate the increase in the circle’s area A. Estimate the area of the enlarged
circle and compare your estimate to the true area found by direct calculation.
Solution Since A = pr 2, the estimated increase is
dA = A′(a) dr = 2pa dr = 2p(10)(0.1) = 2p m2.
ΔA ≈ dA = 2 pa dr
FIGURE 3.56 When dr is
small compared with a, the
differential dA gives the estimate
A(a + dr) = pa2 + dA
(Example 6).
Thus, since A(r + ∆r) ≈ A(r) + dA, we have
A(10 + 0.1) ≈ A(10) + 2p
= p(10)2 + 2p = 102p.
The area of a circle of radius 10.1 m is approximately 102p m2.
The true area is
A(10.1) = p(10.1)2
= 102.01p m2.
The error in our estimate is 0.01p m2, which is the difference ∆A - dA.
EXAMPLE 7
Use differentials to estimate
1>3
(a) 7.97
(b) sin (p>6 + 0.01).
Solution
(a) The differential associated with the cube root function y = x1>3 is
dy =
1
dx.
3x2>3
We set a = 8, the closest number near 7.97 where we can easily compute ƒ(a) and
ƒ′(a). To arrange that a + dx = 7.97, we choose dx = -0.03. Approximating with
the differential gives
ƒ(7.97) = ƒ(a + dx) ≈ ƒ(a) + dy
= 81>3 +
= 2 +
1
(-0.03)
3(8)2>3
1
(-0.03) = 1.9975
12
This gives an approximation to the true value of 7.971>3, which is 1.997497 to 6 decimals.
(b) The differential associated with y = sin x is
dy = cos x dx.
208
Chapter 3: Derivatives
To estimate sin (p>6 + 0.01), we set a = p>6 and dx = 0.01. Then
ƒ(p>6 + 0.01) = ƒ(a + dx) ≈ ƒ(a) + dy
sin (a + dx) ≈ sin a + (cos a) dx
= sin
=
p
p
+ acos b (0.01)
6
6
23
1
+
(0.01) ≈ 0.5087
2
2
For comparison, the true value of sin (p>6 + 0.01) to 6 decimals is 0.508635.
The method in part (b) of Example 7 is used by some calculator and computer algorithms to give values of trigonometric functions. The algorithms store a large table of sine
and cosine values between 0 and p>4. Values between these stored values are computed
using differentials as in Example 7b. Values outside of 3 0, p>44 are computed from values in this interval using trigonometric identities.
Error in Differential Approximation
Let ƒ(x) be differentiable at x = a and suppose that dx = ∆x is an increment of x. We
have two ways to describe the change in ƒ as x changes from a to a + ∆x:
The true change:
The differential estimate:
∆ƒ = ƒ(a + ∆x) - ƒ(a)
dƒ = ƒ′(a) ∆x.
How well does dƒ approximate ∆ƒ?
We measure the approximation error by subtracting dƒ from ∆ƒ:
Approximation error = ∆ƒ - dƒ
= ∆ƒ - ƒ′(a)∆x
= ƒ(a + ∆x) - ƒ(a) - ƒ′(a)∆x
(+++)+++*
∆ƒ
ƒ(a + ∆x) - ƒ(a)
= a
- ƒ′(a)b # ∆x
∆x
(++++1+)+++++1*
= P # ∆x.
Call this part P.
As ∆x S 0, the difference quotient
ƒ(a + ∆x) - ƒ(a)
∆x
approaches ƒ′(a) (remember the definition of ƒ′(a)), so the quantity in parentheses
becomes a very small number (which is why we called it P). In fact, P S 0 as ∆x S 0.
When ∆x is small, the approximation error P ∆x is smaller still.
∆ƒ = ƒ′(a)∆x + P ∆x
()* (+)+* ()*
true
change
estimated
change
error
Although we do not know the exact size of the error, it is the product P # ∆x of two small
quantities that both approach zero as ∆x S 0. For many common functions, whenever ∆x
is small, the error is still smaller.
3.11 Linearization and Differentials
209
Change in y = ƒ(x) near x = a
If y = ƒ(x) is differentiable at x = a and x changes from a to a + ∆x, the
change ∆y in ƒ is given by
∆y = ƒ′(a) ∆x + P ∆x
(1)
in which P S 0 as ∆x S 0.
In Example 6 we found that
6
∆A = p(10.1)2 - p(10)2 = (102.01 - 100)p = (2p + 0.01p) m2
()*
dA
error
so the approximation error is ∆A - dA = P∆r = 0.01p and P = 0.01p> ∆r =
0.01p>0.1 = 0.1p m.
Proof of the Chain Rule
Equation (1) enables us to prove the Chain Rule correctly. Our goal is to show that if ƒ(u)
is a differentiable function of u and u = g(x) is a differentiable function of x, then the
composite y = ƒ(g(x)) is a differentiable function of x. Since a function is differentiable if
and only if it has a derivative at each point in its domain, we must show that whenever g is
differentiable at x0 and ƒ is differentiable at g(x0), then the composite is differentiable at
x0 and the derivative of the composite satisfies the equation
dy
2
= ƒ′(g(x0)) # g′(x0).
dx x = x0
Let ∆x be an increment in x and let ∆u and ∆y be the corresponding increments in u
and y. Applying Equation (1) we have
∆u = g′(x0)∆x + P1 ∆x = (g′(x0) + P1)∆x,
where P1 S 0 as ∆x S 0. Similarly,
∆y = ƒ′(u0)∆u + P2 ∆u = (ƒ′(u0) + P2)∆u,
where P2 S 0 as ∆u S 0. Notice also that ∆u S 0 as ∆x S 0. Combining the equations
for ∆u and ∆y gives
∆y = (ƒ′(u0) + P2)(g′(x0) + P1)∆x,
so
∆y
= ƒ′(u0)g′(x0) + P2 g′(x0) + ƒ′(u0)P1 + P2P1.
∆x
Since P1 and P2 go to zero as ∆x goes to zero, the last three terms on the right vanish in
the limit, leaving
dy
∆y
2
= lim
= ƒ′(u0)g′(x0) = ƒ′(g(x0)) # g′(x0).
dx x = x0 ∆x S 0 ∆x
210
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Sensitivity to Change
The equation df = ƒ′(x) dx tells how sensitive the output of ƒ is to a change in input at different values of x. The larger the value of ƒ′ at x, the greater the effect of a given change dx.
As we move from a to a nearby point a + dx, we can describe the change in ƒ in three ways:
Absolute change
Relative change
Percentage change
True
Estimated
∆ƒ = ƒ(a + dx) - ƒ(a)
∆ƒ
ƒ(a)
dƒ = ƒ′(a) dx
dƒ
ƒ(a)
∆ƒ
* 100
ƒ(a)
dƒ
* 100
ƒ(a)
EXAMPLE 8
You want to calculate the depth of a well from the equation s = 16t 2 by
timing how long it takes a heavy stone you drop to splash into the water below. How sensitive will your calculations be to a 0.1-sec error in measuring the time?
Solution The size of ds in the equation
ds = 32t dt
depends on how big t is. If t = 2 sec, the change caused by dt = 0.1 is about
ds = 32(2)(0.1) = 6.4 ft.
Three seconds later at t = 5 sec, the change caused by the same dt is
ds = 32(5)(0.1) = 16 ft.
For a fixed error in the time measurement, the error in using ds to estimate the depth is
larger when it takes a longer time before the stone splashes into the water. That is, the estimate is more sensitive to the effect of the error for larger values of t.
EXAMPLE 9
Newton’s second law,
F =
d
dy
(my) = m
= ma,
dt
dt
is stated with the assumption that mass is constant, but we know this is not strictly true
because the mass of an object increases with velocity. In Einstein’s corrected formula,
mass has the value
m =
m0
21 - y2 >c2
,
where the “rest mass” m0 represents the mass of an object that is not moving and c is the
speed of light, which is about 300,000 km>sec. Use the approximation
1
21 - x2
≈ 1 +
1 2
x
2
(2)
to estimate the increase ∆m in mass resulting from the added velocity y.
Solution When y is very small compared with c, y2 >c2 is close to zero and it is safe to
use the approximation
1
1 y2
≈ 1 + a 2b
2 2
2 c
21 - y >c
y
Eq. (2) with x = c
3.11 Linearization and Differentials
211
to obtain
m =
or
m0
2
2
21 - y >c
≈ m0 c 1 +
m ≈ m0 +
1 y2
1
1
a b d = m0 + m0 y2 a 2 b ,
2 c2
2
c
1
1
m y2 a 2 b .
2 0
c
(3)
Equation (3) expresses the increase in mass that results from the added velocity y.
Converting Mass to Energy
Equation (3) derived in Example 9 has an important interpretation. In Newtonian physics,
(1>2) m0y2 is the kinetic energy (KE) of the object, and if we rewrite Equation (3) in the
form
(m - m0) c2 ≈
1
m y2,
2 0
we see that
(m - m0)c2 ≈
1
1
1
m y2 = m0 y2 - m0 (0)2 = ∆(KE),
2 0
2
2
or
(∆m)c2 ≈ ∆(KE).
So the change in kinetic energy ∆(KE) in going from velocity 0 to velocity y is approximately equal to (∆m) c2, the change in mass times the square of the speed of light. Using
c ≈ 3 * 108 m>sec, we see that a small change in mass can create a large change in
energy.
Exercises
3.11
Finding Linearizations
In Exercises 1–5, find the linearization L(x) of ƒ(x) at x = a.
12. ƒ(x) =
x
, a = 1.3
x + 1
1. ƒ(x) = x3 - 2x + 3, a = 2
13. ƒ(x) = e-x, a = -0.1
2. ƒ(x) = 2x2 + 9, a = - 4
1
3. ƒ(x) = x + x , a = 1
15. Show that the linearization of ƒ(x) = (1 + x)k at x = 0 is
L(x) = 1 + kx.
14. ƒ(x) = sin-1 x, a = p>12
3
4. ƒ(x) = 2x, a = - 8
5. ƒ(x) = tan x, a = p
6. Common linear approximations at x = 0
tions of the following functions at x = 0.
a. sin x
b. cos x
c. tan x
d. ex
Find the linearizae. ln (1 + x)
Linearization for Approximation
In Exercises 7–14, find a linearization at a suitably chosen integer near
a at which the given function and its derivative are easy to evaluate.
7. ƒ(x) = x2 + 2x, a = 0.1
-1
8. ƒ(x) = x , a = 0.9
9. ƒ(x) = 2x2 + 3x - 3, a = -0.9
10. ƒ(x) = 1 + x, a = 8.1
3
11. ƒ(x) = 2x, a = 8.5
16. Use the linear approximation (1 + x)k ≈ 1 + kx to find an
approximation for the function ƒ(x) for values of x near zero.
2
a. ƒ(x) = (1 - x)6
b. ƒ(x) =
1 - x
c. ƒ(x) =
1
21 + x
e. ƒ(x) = (4 + 3x)1>3
d. ƒ(x) = 22 + x2
f. ƒ(x) =
3
B
a1 -
2
x
b
2 + x
17. Faster than a calculator Use the approximation (1 + x)k ≈
1 + kx to estimate the following.
a. (1.0002)50
3
b. 2
1.009
18. Find the linearization of ƒ(x) = 2x + 1 + sin x at x = 0. How
is it related to the individual linearizations of 2x + 1 and sin x
at x = 0?
212
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Derivatives in Differential Form
In Exercises 19–38, find dy.
49. The change in the volume V = pr 2h of a right circular cylinder
when the radius changes from r0 to r0 + dr and the height does
not change
19. y = x3 - 3 2x
20. y = x 21 - x2
23. 2y3>2 + xy - x = 0
24. xy2 - 4x3>2 - y = 0
25. y = sin (5 1x)
26. y = cos (x2)
29. y = 3 csc 1 1 - 2 2x 2
1
30. y = 2 cot a b
1x
33. y = ln (1 + x2)
34. y = ln a
21. y =
2x
1 + x2
22. y =
27. y = 4 tan (x3 >3)
2 1x
3(1 + 1x)
28. y = sec (x2 - 1)
31. y = e2x
x + 1
b. Express the estimate as a percentage of the circle’s original area.
b
1
36. y = cot-1 a 2 b + cos-1 2x
x
2
35. y = tan-1 (ex )
37. y = sec-1 (e-x)
38. y = etan
-1
52. The diameter of a tree was 10 in. During the following year, the
circumference increased 2 in. About how much did the tree’s
diameter increase? The tree’s cross-sectional area?
53. Estimating volume Estimate the volume of material in a cylindrical shell with length 30 in., radius 6 in., and shell thickness 0.5 in.
2x2 + 1
Approximation Error
In Exercises 39–44, each function ƒ(x) changes value when x changes
from x0 to x0 + dx. Find
a. the change ∆ƒ = ƒ(x0 + dx) - ƒ(x0);
b. the value of the estimate dƒ = ƒ′(x0) dx; and
c. the approximation error 0 ∆ƒ - dƒ 0 .
y
Applications
51. The radius of a circle is increased from 2.00 to 2.02 m.
a. Estimate the resulting change in area.
32. y = xe-x
2x - 1
50. The change in the lateral surface area S = 2prh of a right circular cylinder when the height changes from h0 to h0 + dh and the
radius does not change
30 in.
54. Estimating height of a building A surveyor, standing 30 ft
from the base of a building, measures the angle of elevation to the
top of the building to be 75°. How accurately must the angle be
measured for the percentage error in estimating the height of the
building to be less than 4%?
55. The radius r of a circle is measured with an error of at most 2%.
What is the maximum corresponding percentage error in computing the circle’s
y = f (x)
a. circumference?
Δf = f(x 0 + dx) − f (x 0)
df = f ′(x 0 ) dx
(x 0, f (x 0 ))
dx
b. area?
56. The edge x of a cube is measured with an error of at most 0.5%.
What is the maximum corresponding percentage error in computing the cube’s
a. surface area?
Tangent
0.5 in.
6 in.
b. volume?
40. ƒ(x) = 2x2 + 4x - 3, x0 = - 1, dx = 0.1
57. Tolerance The height and radius of a right circular cylinder are
equal, so the cylinder’s volume is V = ph3. The volume is to be
calculated with an error of no more than 1% of the true value.
Find approximately the greatest error that can be tolerated in the
measurement of h, expressed as a percentage of h.
41. ƒ(x) = x3 - x, x0 = 1, dx = 0.1
58. Tolerance
0
x0
x 0 + dx
x
39. ƒ(x) = x2 + 2x, x0 = 1, dx = 0.1
42. ƒ(x) = x4, x0 = 1, dx = 0.1
43. ƒ(x) = x-1, x0 = 0.5, dx = 0.1
44. ƒ(x) = x3 - 2x + 3, x0 = 2, dx = 0.1
Differential Estimates of Change
In Exercises 45–50, write a differential formula that estimates the
given change in volume or surface area.
a. About how accurately must the interior diameter of a
10-m-high cylindrical storage tank be measured to calculate
the tank’s volume to within 1% of its true value?
b. About how accurately must the tank’s exterior diameter be
measured to calculate the amount of paint it will take to paint
the side of the tank to within 5% of the true amount?
45. The change in the volume V = (4>3)pr 3 of a sphere when the
radius changes from r0 to r0 + dr
59. The diameter of a sphere is measured as 100 { 1 cm and the
volume is calculated from this measurement. Estimate the percentage error in the volume calculation.
46. The change in the volume V = x3 of a cube when the edge
lengths change from x0 to x0 + dx
60. Estimate the allowable percentage error in measuring the diameter D
of a sphere if the volume is to be calculated correctly to within 3%.
47. The change in the surface area S = 6x2 of a cube when the edge
lengths change from x0 to x0 + dx
61. The effect of flight maneuvers on the heart The amount of
work done by the heart’s main pumping chamber, the left ventricle, is given by the equation
48. The change in the lateral surface area S = pr 2r 2 + h2 of a right
circular cone when the radius changes from r0 to r0 + dr and the
height does not change
W = PV +
Vdy2
,
2g
3.11 Linearization and Differentials
where W is the work per unit time, P is the average blood pressure, V is the volume of blood pumped out during the unit of time,
d (“delta”) is the weight density of the blood, y is the average
velocity of the exiting blood, and g is the acceleration of gravity.
When P, V, d, and y remain constant, W becomes a function
of g, and the equation takes the simplified form
b
W = a + g (a, b constant).
As a member of NASA’s medical team, you want to know how
sensitive W is to apparent changes in g caused by flight maneuvers,
and this depends on the initial value of g. As part of your investigation, you decide to compare the effect on W of a given change dg
on the moon, where g = 5.2 ft>sec2, with the effect the same
change dg would have on Earth, where g = 32 ft>sec2. Use the
simplified equation above to find the ratio of dWmoon to dWEarth.
62. Drug concentration The concentration C in milligrams per
milliliter (mg>ml) of a certain drug in a person’s bloodstream t
hrs after a pill is swallowed is modeled by the approximation
C (t) = 1 +
4t
- e-0.06t.
1 + t3
Estimate the change in concentration when t changes from 20 to
30 min.
4
63. Unclogging arteries The formula V = kr , discovered by the
physiologist Jean Poiseuille (1797–1869), allows us to predict how
much the radius of a partially clogged artery has to be expanded in
order to restore normal blood flow. The formula says that the volume V of blood flowing through the artery in a unit of time at a
fixed pressure is a constant k times the radius of the artery to the
fourth power. How will a 10% increase in r affect V?
64. Measuring acceleration of gravity When the length L of a
clock pendulum is held constant by controlling its temperature,
the pendulum’s period T depends on the acceleration of gravity g.
The period will therefore vary slightly as the clock is moved from
place to place on the earth’s surface, depending on the change in
g. By keeping track of ∆T, we can estimate the variation in g
from the equation T = 2p(L>g)1>2 that relates T, g, and L.
a. With L held constant and g as the independent variable, calculate dT and use it to answer parts (b) and (c).
b. If g increases, will T increase or decrease? Will a pendulum
clock speed up or slow down? Explain.
c. A clock with a 100-cm pendulum is moved from a location
where g = 980 cm>sec2 to a new location. This increases the
period by dT = 0.001 sec. Find dg and estimate the value of
g at the new location.
65. Quadratic approximations
a. Let Q(x) = b0 + b1(x - a) + b2(x - a)2 be a quadratic
approximation to ƒ(x) at x = a with the properties:
i) Q(a) = ƒ(a)
ii) Q′(a) = ƒ′(a)
iii) Q″(a) = ƒ″(a).
Determine the coefficients b0, b1, and b2.
b. Find the quadratic approximation to ƒ(x) = 1>(1 - x) at
x = 0.
213
T c. Graph ƒ(x) = 1>(1 - x) and its quadratic approximation at
x = 0. Then zoom in on the two graphs at the point (0, 1).
Comment on what you see.
T d. Find the quadratic approximation to g(x) = 1>x at x = 1.
Graph g and its quadratic approximation together. Comment
on what you see.
T e. Find the quadratic approximation to h(x) = 21 + x at
x = 0. Graph h and its quadratic approximation together.
Comment on what you see.
f. What are the linearizations of ƒ, g, and h at the respective
points in parts (b), (d), and (e)?
66. The linearization is the best linear approximation Suppose
that y = ƒ(x) is differentiable at x = a and that g(x) =
m(x - a) + c is a linear function in which m and c are constants.
If the error E(x) = ƒ(x) - g(x) were small enough near x = a,
we might think of using g as a linear approximation of ƒ instead
of the linearization L(x) = ƒ(a) + ƒ′(a)(x - a). Show that if we
impose on g the conditions
1. E(a) = 0
The approximation error is zero at x = a.
E(x)
2. lim x - a = 0
xSa
The error is negligible when compared
with x - a.
then g(x) = ƒ(a) + ƒ′(a)(x - a). Thus, the linearization L(x)
gives the only linear approximation whose error is both zero at
x = a and negligible in comparison with x - a.
The linearization, L(x):
y = f (a) + f ′(a)(x − a)
Some other linear
approximation, g(x):
y = m(x − a) + c
y = f(x)
(a, f(a))
a
x
67. The linearization of 2x
a. Find the linearization of ƒ(x) = 2x at x = 0. Then round its
coefficients to two decimal places.
T b. Graph the linearization and function together for
-3 … x … 3 and -1 … x … 1.
68. The linearization of log3 x
a. Find the linearization of ƒ(x) = log3 x at x = 3. Then round
its coefficients to two decimal places.
T b. Graph the linearization and function together in the window
0 … x … 8 and 2 … x … 4.
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
In Exercises 69–74, use a CAS to estimate the magnitude of the error
in using the linearization in place of the function over a specified
interval I. Perform the following steps:
a. Plot the function ƒ over I.
b. Find the linearization L of the function at the point a.
c. Plot ƒ and L together on a single graph.
214
Chapter 3: Derivatives
d. Plot the absolute error - ƒ(x) - L(x) - over I and find its maximum value.
70. ƒ(x) =
e. From your graph in part (d), estimate as large a d 7 0 as you
can, satisfying
71. ƒ(x) = x2>3(x - 2),
0x - a0 6 d
0 ƒ(x) - L(x) 0 6 P
1
for P = 0.5, 0.1, and 0.01. Then check graphically to see if
your d@estimate holds true.
69. ƒ(x) = x3 + x2 - 2x,
Chapter
3
3- 1, 24, a = 1
2. What role does the derivative play in defining slopes, tangents,
and rates of change?
3. How can you sometimes graph the derivative of a function when
all you have is a table of the function’s values?
4. What does it mean for a function to be differentiable on an open
interval? On a closed interval?
5. How are derivatives and one-sided derivatives related?
6. Describe geometrically when a function typically does not have a
derivative at a point.
7. How is a function’s differentiability at a point related to its continuity there, if at all?
8. What rules do you know for calculating derivatives? Give some
examples.
9. Explain how the three formulas
d n
(x ) = nxn - 1
dx
3
1
c- , 1d, a =
4
2
72. ƒ(x) = 2x - sin x,
73. ƒ(x) = x2x,
3- 2, 34, a = 2
30, 2p4, a = 2
30, 24, a = 1
74. ƒ(x) = 2x sin-1 x, 30, 14, a =
1
2
Questions to Guide Your Review
1. What is the derivative of a function ƒ? How is its domain related
to the domain of ƒ? Give examples.
du
d
(cu) = c
dx
dx
dun
du2
du1
d
c.
(u + u2 + g + un) =
+
+
+
dx 1
dx
dx g dx
enable us to differentiate any polynomial.
a.
x - 1
,
4x2 + 1
b.
10. What formula do we need, in addition to the three listed in Question 9, to differentiate rational functions?
18. Once you know the derivatives of sin x and cos x, how can you
find the derivatives of tan x, cot x, sec x, and csc x? What are the
derivatives of these functions?
19. At what points are the six basic trigonometric functions continuous? How do you know?
20. What is the rule for calculating the derivative of a composite of
two differentiable functions? How is such a derivative evaluated?
Give examples.
21. If u is a differentiable function of x, how do you find (d>dx)(un) if
n is an integer? If n is a real number? Give examples.
22. What is implicit differentiation? When do you need it? Give
examples.
23. What is the derivative of the natural logarithm function ln x? How
does the domain of the derivative compare with the domain of the
function?
24. What is the derivative of the exponential function ax, a 7 0 and
a ≠ 1? What is the geometric significance of the limit of
(ah - 1)>h as h S 0? What is the limit when a is the number e?
25. What is the derivative of loga x? Are there any restrictions on a?
26. What is logarithmic differentiation? Give an example.
27. How can you write any real power of x as a power of e? Are there
any restrictions on x? How does this lead to the Power Rule for
differentiating arbitrary real powers?
11. What is a second derivative? A third derivative? How many
derivatives do the functions you know have? Give examples.
28. What is one way of expressing the special number e as a limit?
What is an approximate numerical value of e correct to 7 decimal
places?
12. What is the derivative of the exponential function ex ? How does
the domain of the derivative compare with the domain of the
function?
29. What are the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions?
How do the domains of the derivatives compare with the domains
of the functions?
13. What is the relationship between a function’s average and instantaneous rates of change? Give an example.
30. How do related rates problems arise? Give examples.
14. How do derivatives arise in the study of motion? What can you
learn about an object’s motion along a line by examining the
derivatives of the object’s position function? Give examples.
15. How can derivatives arise in economics?
16. Give examples of still other applications of derivatives.
17. What do the limits limh S 0 ((sin h)>h) and limh S 0 ((cos h - 1)>h)
have to do with the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions?
What are the derivatives of these functions?
31. Outline a strategy for solving related rates problems. Illustrate
with an example.
32. What is the linearization L (x) of a function ƒ(x) at a point x = a?
What is required of ƒ at a for the linearization to exist? How are
linearizations used? Give examples.
33. If x moves from a to a nearby value a + dx, how do you estimate
the corresponding change in the value of a differentiable function
ƒ(x)? How do you estimate the relative change? The percentage
change? Give an example.
Chapter 3 Practice Exercises
Chapter
3
Practice Exercises
Derivatives of Functions
Find the derivatives of the functions in Exercises 1–64.
1. y = x5 - 0.125x2 + 0.25x
3
2
2
3. y = x - 3(x + p )
5. y = (x + 1)2(x2 + 2x)
7. y = (u 2 + sec u + 1)3
1t
9. s =
1 + 1t
11. y = 2 tan2 x - sec2 x
57. y = ln cos-1 x
2. y = 3 - 0.7x3 + 0.3x7
1
4. y = x + 27x p + 1
7
6. y = (2x - 5)(4 - x)-1
8. y = a-1 -
1
10. s =
1t - 1
12. y =
2 2
u
csc u
- b
2
4
1
2
sin2 x sin x
58. y = z cos-1 z - 21 - z2
59. y = t tan-1 t -
61. y = z sec-1 z - 2z2 - 1, z 7 1
62. y = 2 2x - 1 sec-1 1x
63. y = csc-1 (sec u), 0 6 u 6 p>2
64. y = ( 1 + x2 ) etan
x
65. xy + 2x + 3y = 1
15. s = (sec t + tan t)5
16. s = csc5 (1 - t + 3t 2)
17. r = 22u sin u
18. r = 2u 2cos u
71. y2 =
3
20. r = sin 1 u + 2u + 1 2
1 2
2
x csc x
2
-1
Implicit Differentiation
In Exercises 65–78, find dy>dx by implicit differentiation.
67. x + 4xy - 3y
19. r = sin 22u
1
ln t
2
60. y = ( 1 + t 2 ) cot-1 2t
2
14. s = cot3 a t b
13. s = cos4 (1 - 2t)
21. y =
22. y = 2 2x sin 2x
4>3
= 2x
66. x2 + xy + y2 - 5x = 2
68. 5x4>5 + 10y6>5 = 15
69. 1xy = 1
70. x2y2 = 1
73. ex + 2y = 1
74. y2 = 2e-1>x
75. ln (x>y) = 1
76. x sin-1 y = 1 + x2
x
x + 1
tan-1 x
72. y2 =
77. ye
25. y = 5 cot x2
26. y = x2 cot 5x
In Exercises 79 and 80, find dp>dq.
27. y = x2 sin2 (2x2)
28. y = x-2 sin2 (x3)
79. p3 + 4pq - 3q2 = 2
4t
b
t + 1
31. y = a
2x
1 + x
-2
b
2
x2 + x
33. y =
B x2
35. r = a
30. s =
sin u
b
cos u - 1
2
3
(5x2 + sin 2x)3>2
41. y = 10e-x>5
43. y =
1 4x
1 4x
xe e
4
16
34. y = 4x 2x + 1x
36. r = a
1 + sin u
b
1 - cos u
2
38. y = 20 (3x - 4)1>4 (3x - 4)-1>5
40. y = (3 + cos3 3x)-1>3
42. y = 22e22x
44. y = x2e-2>x
45. y = ln (sin2 u)
46. y = ln (sec2 u)
47. y = log2 (x2 >2)
48. y = log5 (3x - 7)
49. y = 8-t
50. y = 92t
51. y = 5x3.6
52. y = 22x- 22
53. y = (x + 2)x + 2
-1
54. y = 2 (ln x)x>2
2
55. y = sin 21 - u , 0 6 u 6 1
56. y = sin-1 a
1
2y
b, y 7 1
80. q = (5p2 + 2p)-3>2
In Exercises 81 and 82, find dr>ds.
2
2 2x
32. y = a
b
2 2x + 1
37. y = (2x + 1) 22x + 1
39. y =
-1
15(15t - 1)3
1 + x
A1 - x
78. xy = 22
= 2
24. y = 2x csc (x + 1)3
23. y = x-1>2 sec (2x)2
29. s = a
215
81. r cos 2s + sin2 s = p
2
82. 2rs - r - s + s2 = - 3
2
83. Find d y>dx by implicit differentiation:
2
b. y2 = 1 - x
a. x3 + y3 = 1
84. a. By differentiating
dy>dx = x>y.
x2 - y2 = 1
implicitly, show that
b. Then show that d 2y>dx2 = - 1>y3.
Numerical Values of Derivatives
85. Suppose that functions ƒ(x) and g(x) and their first derivatives
have the following values at x = 0 and x = 1.
x
ƒ(x)
g(x)
ƒ′(x)
g′(x)
0
1
1
3
1
5
-3
1>2
1>2
-4
Find the first derivatives of the following combinations at the
given value of x.
a. 6ƒ(x) - g(x), x = 1
ƒ(x)
, x = 1
c.
g(x) + 1
e. g(ƒ(x)), x = 0
g. ƒ(x + g(x)), x = 0
b. ƒ(x)g2(x), x = 0
d. ƒ(g(x)), x = 0
f. (x + ƒ(x))3>2, x = 1
216
Chapter 3: Derivatives
86. Suppose that the function ƒ(x) and its first derivative have the following values at x = 0 and x = 1.
x
ƒ(x)
ƒ′(x)
0
1
9
-3
-2
1>5
a. 1x ƒ(x), x = 1
b. differentiable at x = 0?
b. 2ƒ(x), x = 0
87. Find the value of dy>dt at t = 0 if y = 3 sin 2x and x = t 2 + p.
88. Find the value of ds>du at u = 2 if s = t 2 + 5t and t =
(u2 + 2u)1>3.
89. Find the value of dw>ds at s = 0 if w = sin 1 e
r = 3 sin (s + p>6).
2
1r
90. Find the value of dr>dt at t = 0 if r = (u + 7)
u 2t + u = 1.
2
1>3
2
and
and
91. If y + y = 2 cos x, find the value of d y>dx at the point (0, 1).
92. If x
1>3
+ y
1>3
2
2
= 4, find d y>dx at the point (8, 8).
Applying the Derivative Definition
In Exercises 93 and 94, find the derivative using the definition.
93. ƒ(t) =
1
2t + 1
94. g(x) = 2x2 + 1
95. a. Graph the function
ƒ(x) = e
x2, -1 … x 6 0
- x 2,
0 … x … 1.
b. Is ƒ continuous at x = 0?
c. Is ƒ differentiable at x = 0?
Give reasons for your answers.
96. a. Graph the function
x,
-1 … x 6 0
ƒ(x) = e
tan x,
0 … x … p>4.
b. Is ƒ continuous at x = 0?
c. Is ƒ differentiable at x = 0?
Give reasons for your answers.
97. a. Graph the function
x,
0 … x … 1
ƒ(x) = e
2 - x, 1 6 x … 2.
b. Is ƒ continuous at x = 1?
c. Is ƒ differentiable at x = 1?
Give reasons for your answers.
Slopes, Tangents, and Normals
99. Tangents with specified slope Are there any points on the
curve y = (x>2) + 1>(2x - 4) where the slope is - 3>2? If so,
find them.
100. Tangents with specified slope Are there any points on the
curve y = x - e-x where the slope is 2? If so, find them.
px
f. 10 sin a b ƒ2(x), x = 1
2
2
sin 2x, x … 0
mx,
x 7 0
Give reasons for your answers.
d. ƒ(1 - 5 tan x), x = 0
3
ƒ(x) = e
a. continuous at x = 0?
Find the first derivatives of the following combinations at the
given value of x.
c. ƒ1 2x 2, x = 1
ƒ(x)
, x = 0
e.
2 + cos x
98. For what value or values of the constant m, if any, is
101. Horizontal tangents Find the points on the curve y =
2x3 - 3x2 - 12x + 20 where the tangent is parallel to the
x-axis.
102. Tangent intercepts Find the x- and y-intercepts of the line
that is tangent to the curve y = x3 at the point (- 2, - 8).
103. Tangents perpendicular or parallel to lines Find the points
on the curve y = 2x3 - 3x2 - 12x + 20 where the tangent is
a. perpendicular to the line y = 1 - (x>24).
b. parallel to the line y = 22 - 12x.
104. Intersecting tangents Show that the tangents to the curve
y = (p sin x)>x at x = p and x = - p intersect at right angles.
105. Normals parallel to a line Find the points on the curve
y = tan x, -p>2 6 x 6 p>2, where the normal is parallel to
the line y = - x>2. Sketch the curve and normals together,
labeling each with its equation.
106. Tangent and normal lines Find equations for the tangent and
normal to the curve y = 1 + cos x at the point (p>2, 1). Sketch
the curve, tangent, and normal together, labeling each with its
equation.
107. Tangent parabola The parabola y = x2 + C is to be tangent
to the line y = x. Find C.
108. Slope of tangent Show that the tangent to the curve y = x3 at
any point (a, a3) meets the curve again at a point where the slope
is four times the slope at (a, a3).
109. Tangent curve For what value of c is the curve y = c>(x + 1)
tangent to the line through the points (0, 3) and (5, - 2)?
110. Normal to a circle Show that the normal line at any point of
the circle x2 + y2 = a2 passes through the origin.
In Exercises 111–116, find equations for the lines that are tangent and
normal to the curve at the given point.
111. x2 + 2y2 = 9, (1, 2)
112. ex + y2 = 2, (0, 1)
113. xy + 2x - 5y = 2, (3, 2)
114. (y - x)2 = 2x + 4, (6, 2)
115. x + 1xy = 6, (4, 1)
116. x3>2 + 2y3>2 = 17, (1, 4)
117. Find the slope of the curve x3y3 + y2 = x + y at the points
(1, 1) and (1, - 1).
Chapter 3 Practice Exercises
118. The graph shown suggests that the curve y = sin (x - sin x)
might have horizontal tangents at the x-axis. Does it? Give reasons for your answer.
y
y = sin (x − sin x)
1
−2p
0
−p
123. a. What is the value of the derivative of the rabbit population
when the number of rabbits is largest? Smallest?
b. What is the size of the rabbit population when its derivative
is largest? Smallest (negative value)?
124. In what units should the slopes of the rabbit and fox population
curves be measured?
x
2p
p
Number
of rabbits
2000
Initial no. rabbits = 1000
Initial no. foxes = 40
−1
Analyzing Graphs
Each of the figures in Exercises 119 and 120 shows two graphs, the
graph of a function y = ƒ(x) together with the graph of its derivative
ƒ′(x). Which graph is which? How do you know?
119.
120.
y
A
(20, 1700)
1000
Number
of foxes
y
4
2
0
A
50
150
200
100
150
Time (days)
Derivative of the rabbit population
(b)
200
3
0
x
1
+100
B
1
0
1
2
x
50
(20, 40)
0
−1
B
100
Time (days)
(a)
2
1
−1
217
−50
−2
−100
0
50
121. Use the following information to graph the function y = ƒ(x)
for -1 … x … 6.
i) The graph of ƒ is made of line segments joined end to end.
Source: NCPMF “Differentiation” by W.U. Walton et al., Project
CALC. Reprinted by permission of Educational Development
Center, Inc.
ii) The graph starts at the point (- 1, 2).
iii) The derivative of ƒ, where defined, agrees with the step
function shown here.
Trigonometric Limits
Find the limits in Exercises 125–132.
y
y = f ′(x)
125. lim
sin x
2x2 - x
126. lim
3x - tan 7x
2x
127. lim
sin r
tan 2r
128. lim
sin (sin u)
u
xS0
1
1
−1
2
3
4
5
6
x
rS0
−1
−2
122. Repeat Exercise 121, supposing that the graph starts at (-1, 0)
instead of (-1, 2).
Exercises 123 and 124 are about the accompanying graphs. The
graphs in part (a) show the numbers of rabbits and foxes in a small
arctic population. They are plotted as functions of time for 200 days.
The number of rabbits increases at first, as the rabbits reproduce. But
the foxes prey on rabbits and, as the number of foxes increases, the
rabbit population levels off and then drops. Part (b) shows the graph
of the derivative of the rabbit population, made by plotting slopes.
129.
lim
u S (p>2)-
130. lim+
uS0
131. lim
xS0
xS0
uS0
4 tan2 u + tan u + 1
tan2 u + 5
1 - 2 cot2 u
5 cot2 u - 7 cot u - 8
x sin x
2 - 2 cos x
132. lim
uS0
1 - cos u
u2
Show how to extend the functions in Exercises 133 and 134 to be continuous at the origin.
133. g(x) =
tan (tan x)
tan x
134. ƒ(x) =
tan (tan x)
sin (sin x)
218
Chapter 3: Derivatives
Logarithmic Differentiation
In Exercises 135–140, use logarithmic differentiation to find the
derivative of y with respect to the appropriate variable.
135. y =
2(x2 + 1)
2cos 2x
137. y = a
138. y =
136. y =
(t + 1)(t - 1) 5
b , t 7 2
(t - 2)(t + 3)
2u2u
2u2 + 1
139. y = (sin u)2u
3x + 4
A 2x - 4
10
140. y = (ln x)1>(ln x)
147. Speed of moving particle The coordinates of a particle moving
in the metric xy-plane are differentiable functions of time t with
dx>dt = 10 m>sec and dy>dt = 5 m>sec. How fast is the particle
moving away from the origin as it passes through the point (3, - 4)?
148. Motion of a particle A particle moves along the curve y = x3>2
in the first quadrant in such a way that its distance from the origin
increases at the rate of 11 units per second. Find dx>dt when x = 3.
149. Draining a tank Water drains from the conical tank shown in
the accompanying figure at the rate of 5 ft3 >min.
a. What is the relation between the variables h and r in the figure?
b. How fast is the water level dropping when h = 6 ft?
Related Rates
141. Right circular cylinder The total surface area S of a right circular cylinder is related to the base radius r and height h by the
equation S = 2pr 2 + 2prh.
4′
a. How is dS>dt related to dr>dt if h is constant?
r
b. How is dS>dt related to dh>dt if r is constant?
c. How is dS>dt related to dr>dt and dh>dt if neither r nor h is
constant?
10′
h
d. How is dr>dt related to dh>dt if S is constant?
142. Right circular cone The lateral surface area S of a right circular cone is related to the base radius r and height h by the equation S = pr 2r 2 + h2.
a. How is dS>dt related to dr>dt if h is constant?
b. How is dS>dt related to dh>dt if r is constant?
c. How is dS>dt related to dr>dt and dh>dt if neither r nor h is
constant?
143. Circle’s changing area The radius of a circle is changing at
the rate of - 2>p m>sec. At what rate is the circle’s area changing when r = 10 m?
Exit rate: 5 ft3&min
150. Rotating spool As television cable is pulled from a large spool
to be strung from the telephone poles along a street, it unwinds
from the spool in layers of constant radius (see accompanying
figure). If the truck pulling the cable moves at a steady 6 ft > sec
(a touch over 4 mph), use the equation s = r u to find how fast
(radians per second) the spool is turning when the layer of radius
1.2 ft is being unwound.
144. Cube’s changing edges The volume of a cube is increasing at
the rate of 1200 cm3 >min at the instant its edges are 20 cm long.
At what rate are the lengths of the edges changing at that instant?
145. Resistors connected in parallel If two resistors of R1 and R2
ohms are connected in parallel in an electric circuit to make an
R-ohm resistor, the value of R can be found from the equation
1.2′
1
1
1
+ .
=
R
R1
R2
+
−
R1
R2 R
151. Moving searchlight beam The figure shows a boat 1 km offshore, sweeping the shore with a searchlight. The light turns at a
constant rate, du>dt = - 0.6 rad/sec.
a. How fast is the light moving along the shore when it reaches
point A?
If R1 is decreasing at the rate of 1 ohm > sec and R2 is increasing
at the rate of 0.5 ohm > sec, at what rate is R changing when
R1 = 75 ohms and R2 = 50 ohms?
146. Impedance in a series circuit The impedance Z (ohms) in a
series circuit is related to the resistance R (ohms) and reactance
X (ohms) by the equation Z = 2R2 + X 2. If R is increasing at
3 ohms > sec and X is decreasing at 2 ohms > sec, at what rate is Z
changing when R = 10 ohms and X = 20 ohms?
b. How many revolutions per minute is 0.6 rad>sec?
x
u
A
1 km
Chapter 3 Additional and Advanced Exercises
152. Points moving on coordinate axes Points A and B move
along the x- and y-axes, respectively, in such a way that the distance r (meters) along the perpendicular from the origin to the
line AB remains constant. How fast is OA changing, and is it
increasing, or decreasing, when OB = 2r and B is moving
toward O at the rate of 0.3r m > sec?
Linearization
153. Find the linearizations of
a. tan x at x = - p>4
b. sec x at x = -p>4.
Graph the curves and linearizations together.
154. We can obtain a useful linear approximation of the function
ƒ(x) = 1>(1 + tan x) at x = 0 by combining the approximations
1
≈ 1 - x
1 + x
and
tan x ≈ x
to get
219
158. Controlling error
a. How accurately should you measure the edge of a cube to be
reasonably sure of calculating the cube’s surface area with an
error of no more than 2%?
b. Suppose that the edge is measured with the accuracy required
in part (a). About how accurately can the cube’s volume be
calculated from the edge measurement? To find out, estimate
the percentage error in the volume calculation that might
result from using the edge measurement.
159. Compounding error The circumference of the equator of a
sphere is measured as 10 cm with a possible error of 0.4 cm.
This measurement is used to calculate the radius. The radius is
then used to calculate the surface area and volume of the sphere.
Estimate the percentage errors in the calculated values of
a. the radius.
b. the surface area.
1
≈ 1 - x.
1 + tan x
Show that this result is the standard linear approximation of
1>(1 + tan x) at x = 0.
155. Find the linearization of ƒ(x) = 21 + x + sin x - 0.5 at x = 0.
156. Find the linearization of ƒ(x) = 2>(1 - x) + 21 + x - 3.1
at x = 0.
c. the volume.
160. Finding height To find the height of a lamppost (see accompanying figure), you stand a 6 ft pole 20 ft from the lamp and
measure the length a of its shadow, finding it to be 15 ft, give or
take an inch. Calculate the height of the lamppost using the
value a = 15 and estimate the possible error in the result.
Differential Estimates of Change
157. Surface area of a cone Write a formula that estimates the
change that occurs in the lateral surface area of a right circular
cone when the height changes from h0 to h0 + dh and the radius
does not change.
h
6 ft
20 ft
h
a
r
V = 1 pr2h
3
S = pr "r2 + h2
(Lateral surface area)
Chapter
3
Additional and Advanced Exercises
1. An equation like sin2 u + cos2 u = 1 is called an identity
because it holds for all values of u. An equation like sin u = 0.5
is not an identity because it holds only for selected values of u,
not all. If you differentiate both sides of a trigonometric identity
in u with respect to u, the resulting new equation will also be an
identity.
Differentiate the following to show that the resulting equations hold for all u.
a. sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u
b. cos 2u = cos2 u - sin2 u
2. If the identity sin (x + a) = sin x cos a + cos x sin a is differentiated with respect to x, is the resulting equation also an identity?
Does this principle apply to the equation x2 - 2x - 8 = 0?
Explain.
220
Chapter 3: Derivatives
3. a. Find values for the constants a, b, and c that will make
ƒ(x) = cos x and g(x) = a + bx + cx
2
satisfy the conditions
ƒ(0) = g(0), ƒ′(0) = g′(0), and ƒ″(0) = g″(0).
8. Designing a gondola The designer of a 30-ft-diameter spherical hot air balloon wants to suspend the gondola 8 ft below the
bottom of the balloon with cables tangent to the surface of the
balloon, as shown. Two of the cables are shown running from the
top edges of the gondola to their points of tangency, (-12, - 9)
and (12, -9). How wide should the gondola be?
b. Find values for b and c that will make
ƒ(x) = sin (x + a) and g(x) = b sin x + c cos x
satisfy the conditions
y
x 2 + y 2 = 225
ƒ(0) = g(0) and ƒ′(0) = g′(0).
c. For the determined values of a, b, and c, what happens for
the third and fourth derivatives of ƒ and g in each of parts (a)
and (b)?
4. Solutions to differential equations
a. Show that y = sin x, y = cos x, and y = a cos x + b sin x
(a and b constants) all satisfy the equation
y″ + y = 0.
b. How would you modify the functions in part (a) to satisfy the
equation
y″ + 4y = 0?
Generalize this result.
5. An osculating circle Find the values of h, k, and a that make
the circle (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = a2 tangent to the parabola
y = x2 + 1 at the point (1, 2) and that also make the second
derivatives d 2y>dx2 have the same value on both curves there.
Circles like this one that are tangent to a curve and have the same
second derivative as the curve at the point of tangency are called
osculating circles (from the Latin osculari, meaning “to kiss”).
We encounter them again in Chapter 13.
6. Marginal revenue A bus will hold 60 people. The number x of
people per trip who use the bus is related to the fare charged ( p
dollars) by the law p = 33 - (x>40) 4 2. Write an expression for
the total revenue r(x) per trip received by the bus company. What
number of people per trip will make the marginal revenue dr>dx
equal to zero? What is the corresponding fare? (This fare is the
one that maximizes the revenue.)
7. Industrial production
a. Economists often use the expression “rate of growth” in relative rather than absolute terms. For example, let u = ƒ(t) be
the number of people in the labor force at time t in a given
industry. (We treat this function as though it were differentiable even though it is an integer-valued step function.)
Let y = g(t) be the average production per person in
the labor force at time t. The total production is then y = uy.
If the labor force is growing at the rate of 4% per year
(du>dt = 0.04u) and the production per worker is growing at
the rate of 5% per year (dy>dt = 0.05y), find the rate of
growth of the total production, y.
b. Suppose that the labor force in part (a) is decreasing at the
rate of 2% per year while the production per person is
increasing at the rate of 3% per year. Is the total production
increasing, or is it decreasing, and at what rate?
x
0
15 ft
(12, −9)
(−12, −9)
Suspension
cables
8 ft
Gondola
Width
NOT TO SCALE
9. Pisa by parachute On August 5, 1988, Mike McCarthy of
London jumped from the top of the Tower of Pisa. He then
opened his parachute in what he said was a world record lowlevel parachute jump of 179 ft. Make a rough sketch to show the
shape of the graph of his speed during the jump. (Source: Boston
Globe, Aug. 6, 1988.)
10. Motion of a particle The position at time t Ú 0 of a particle
moving along a coordinate line is
s = 10 cos (t + p>4).
a. What is the particle’s starting position (t = 0)?
b. What are the points farthest to the left and right of the origin
reached by the particle?
c. Find the particle’s velocity and acceleration at the points in
part (b).
d. When does the particle first reach the origin? What are its
velocity, speed, and acceleration then?
11. Shooting a paper clip On Earth, you can easily shoot a paper
clip 64 ft straight up into the air with a rubber band. In t sec after
firing, the paper clip is s = 64t - 16t 2 ft above your hand.
a. How long does it take the paper clip to reach its maximum
height? With what velocity does it leave your hand?
b. On the moon, the same acceleration will send the paper clip
to a height of s = 64t - 2.6t 2 ft in t sec. About how long
will it take the paper clip to reach its maximum height, and
how high will it go?
12. Velocities of two particles At time t sec, the positions of two
particles on a coordinate line are s1 = 3t 3 - 12t 2 + 18t + 5 m
and s2 = - t 3 + 9t 2 - 12t m. When do the particles have the
same velocities?
13. Velocity of a particle A particle of constant mass m moves
along the x-axis. Its velocity y and position x satisfy the equation
1
1
m (y2 - y0 2) = k (x0 2 - x2),
2
2
Chapter 3 Additional and Advanced Exercises
where k, y0, and x0 are constants. Show that whenever y ≠ 0,
m
h(x) = e
a. Show that if the position x of a moving point is given by a
quadratic function of t, x = At 2 + Bt + C, then the average
velocity over any time interval 3t1, t2 4 is equal to the instantaneous velocity at the midpoint of the time interval.
b. What is the geometric significance of the result in part (a)?
15. Find all values of the constants m and b for which the function
y = e
is
23. Is the derivative of
dy
= -kx.
dt
14. Average and instantaneous velocity
sin x,
x 6 p
mx + b, x Ú p
a. continuous at x = p.
24. Suppose that a function ƒ satisfies the following conditions for all
real values of x and y:
i) ƒ(x + y) = ƒ(x) # ƒ(y).
ii) ƒ(x) = 1 + xg(x), where limx S 0 g(x) = 1.
Show that the derivative ƒ′(x) exists at every value of x and that
ƒ′(x) = ƒ(x).
25. The generalized product rule Use mathematical induction to
prove that if y = u1 u2 gun is a finite product of differentiable
functions, then y is differentiable on their common domain and
dun
dy du1
du2
=
u
+ u1 u2 gun - 1
.
u + u1
u +
dx
dx 2 g n
dx g n g
dx
16. Does the function
1 - cos x
, x ≠ 0
x
x = 0
0,
have a derivative at x = 0? Explain.
17. a. For what values of a and b will
ƒ(x) = e
ax,
x 6 2
ax2 - bx + 3, x Ú 2
be differentiable for all values of x?
b. Discuss the geometry of the resulting graph of ƒ.
18. a. For what values of a and b will
ax + b,
x … -1
g(x) = e 3
ax + x + 2b, x 7 - 1
be differentiable for all values of x?
b. Discuss the geometry of the resulting graph of g.
19. Odd differentiable functions Is there anything special about
the derivative of an odd differentiable function of x? Give reasons
for your answer.
20. Even differentiable functions Is there anything special about
the derivative of an even differentiable function of x? Give reasons for your answer.
21. Suppose that the functions ƒ and g are defined throughout an
open interval containing the point x0, that ƒ is differentiable at x0,
that ƒ(x0) = 0, and that g is continuous at x0. Show that the product ƒg is differentiable at x0. This process shows, for example,
that although 0 x 0 is not differentiable at x = 0, the product x 0 x 0
is differentiable at x = 0.
22. (Continuation of Exercise 21.) Use the result of Exercise 21 to
show that the following functions are differentiable at x = 0.
a. 0 x 0 sin x
d. h(x) = e
b. x2>3 sin x
x sin (1>x), x ≠ 0
0,
x = 0
2
x2 sin (1>x), x ≠ 0
0,
x = 0
continuous at x = 0? How about the derivative of k(x) = xh (x)?
Give reasons for your answers.
b. differentiable at x = p.
ƒ(x) =
221
3
c. 2
x (1 - cos x)
26. Leibniz’s rule for higher-order derivatives of products Leibniz’s
rule for higher-order derivatives of products of differentiable
functions says that
a.
d 2(uy)
d 2y
du dy
d 2u
+ u 2.
= 2y + 2
2
dx dx
dx
dx
dx
b.
d 3(uy)
du d 2y
d 2u dy
d 3y
d 3u
+ 3
= 3y + 3 2
+ u 3.
3
2
dx dx
dx
dx
dx dx
dx
c.
d n(uy)
d n - 1u dy
d nu
+ g
= n y + n n-1
n
dx
dx
dx
dx
+
n(n - 1) g(n - k + 1) d n - ku d ky
k!
dxn - k dxk
d ny
+ g + u n.
dx
The equations in parts (a) and (b) are special cases of the
equation in part (c). Derive the equation in part (c) by mathematical induction, using
m
m
m!
m!
a b + a
b =
+
.
k!(m - k)!
(k + 1)!(m - k - 1)!
k
k + 1
27. The period of a clock pendulum The period T of a clock pendulum (time for one full swing and back) is given by the formula
T 2 = 4p2L>g, where T is measured in seconds, g = 32.2 ft>sec2,
and L, the length of the pendulum, is measured in feet. Find
approximately
a. the length of a clock pendulum whose period is T = 1 sec.
b. the change dT in T if the pendulum in part (a) is lengthened
0.01 ft.
c. the amount the clock gains or loses in a day as a result of the
period’s changing by the amount dT found in part (b).
222
Chapter 3: Derivatives
28. The melting ice cube Assume that an ice cube retains its cubical shape as it melts. If we call its edge length s, its volume is
V = s3 and its surface area is 6s2. We assume that V and s are
differentiable functions of time t. We assume also that the cube’s
volume decreases at a rate that is proportional to its surface area.
(This latter assumption seems reasonable enough when we think
that the melting takes place at the surface: Changing the amount
of surface changes the amount of ice exposed to melt.) In mathematical terms,
dV
= - k(6s2),
dt
Chapter
3
The minus sign indicates that the volume is decreasing. We
assume that the proportionality factor k is constant. (It probably
depends on many things, such as the relative humidity of the surrounding air, the air temperature, and the incidence or absence of
sunlight, to name only a few.) Assume a particular set of conditions in which the cube lost 1 > 4 of its volume during the first
hour, and that the volume is V0 when t = 0. How long will it take
the ice cube to melt?
k 7 0.
Technology Application Projects
Mathematica/Maple Modules:
Convergence of Secant Slopes to the Derivative Function
You will visualize the secant line between successive points on a curve and observe what happens as the distance between them becomes small.
The function, sample points, and secant lines are plotted on a single graph, while a second graph compares the slopes of the secant lines with the
derivative function.
Derivatives, Slopes, Tangent Lines, and Making Movies
Parts I–III. You will visualize the derivative at a point, the linearization of a function, and the derivative of a function. You learn how to plot the
function and selected tangents on the same graph.
Part IV (Plotting Many Tangents)
Part V (Making Movies). Parts IV and V of the module can be used to animate tangent lines as one moves along the graph of a function.
Convergence of Secant Slopes to the Derivative Function
You will visualize right-hand and left-hand derivatives.
Motion Along a Straight Line: Position S Velocity S Acceleration
Observe dramatic animated visualizations of the derivative relations among the position, velocity, and acceleration functions. Figures in the text
can be animated.
4
Applications of
Derivatives
OVERVIEW One of the most important applications of the derivative is its use as a tool for
finding the optimal (best) solutions to problems. Optimization problems abound in mathematics, physical science and engineering, business and economics, and biology and
medicine. For example, what are the height and diameter of the cylinder of largest volume
that can be inscribed in a given sphere? What are the dimensions of the strongest rectangular wooden beam that can be cut from a cylindrical log of given diameter? Based on production costs and sales revenue, how many items should a manufacturer produce to maximize profit? How much does the trachea (windpipe) contract to expel air at the maximum
speed during a cough? What is the branching angle at which blood vessels minimize the
energy loss due to friction as blood flows through the branches?
In this chapter we use derivatives to find extreme values of functions, to determine
and analyze the shapes of graphs, and to solve equations numerically. We also introduce
the idea of recovering a function from its derivative. The key to many of these applications
is the Mean Value Theorem, which paves the way to integral calculus.
4.1 Extreme Values of Functions
This section shows how to locate and identify extreme (maximum or minimum) values of
a function from its derivative. Once we can do this, we can solve a variety of optimization
problems (see Section 4.6). The domains of the functions we consider are intervals or
unions of separate intervals.
DEFINITIONS Let ƒ be a function with domain D. Then ƒ has an absolute
maximum value on D at a point c if
y
ƒ(x) … ƒ(c)
1
−
and an absolute minimum value on D at c if
y = sin x
y = cos x
ƒ(x) Ú ƒ(c)
0
p
2
p
2
for all x in D
for all x in D.
x
−1
FIGURE 4.1 Absolute extrema
for the sine and cosine functions on
3- p>2, p>24. These values can depend
on the domain of a function.
Maximum and minimum values are called extreme values of the function ƒ. Absolute
maxima or minima are also referred to as global maxima or minima.
For example, on the closed interval 3 -p>2, p>24 the function ƒ(x) = cos x takes on
an absolute maximum value of 1 (once) and an absolute minimum value of 0 (twice). On
the same interval, the function g(x) = sin x takes on a maximum value of 1 and a minimum value of -1 (Figure 4.1).
Functions with the same defining rule or formula can have different extrema (maximum
or minimum values), depending on the domain. We see this in the following example.
223
224
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
EXAMPLE 1
The absolute extrema of the following functions on their domains can
be seen in Figure 4.2. Each function has the same defining equation, y = x2, but the
domains vary. Notice that a function might not have a maximum or minimum if the
domain is unbounded or fails to contain an endpoint.
Function rule
(a) y = x
Domain D
Absolute extrema on D
(- q, q)
No absolute maximum
Absolute minimum of 0 at x = 0
3 0, 24
Absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2
Absolute minimum of 0 at x = 0
2
(b) y = x2
y = x2
(c) y = x2
(0, 24
Absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2
No absolute minimum
(d) y = x2
(0, 2)
No absolute extrema
y = x2
y
D = (−∞, ∞)
x
2
(b) abs max and min
y = x2
y
D = (0, 2]
D = [0, 2]
2
(a) abs min only
y = x2
y
x
D = (0, 2)
2
(c) abs max only
y
x
2
(d) no max or min
x
FIGURE 4.2 Graphs for Example 1.
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Daniel Bernoulli
(1700–1789)
Some of the functions in Example 1 did not have a maximum or a minimum value.
The following theorem asserts that a function which is continuous over (or on) a finite
closed interval 3 a, b4 has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum value on the
interval. We look for these extreme values when we graph a function.
THEOREM 1—The Extreme Value Theorem If ƒ is continuous on a closed
interval 3 a, b4 , then ƒ attains both an absolute maximum value M and an absolute minimum value m in 3 a, b4 . That is, there are numbers x1 and x2 in 3 a, b4
with ƒ(x1) = m, ƒ(x2) = M, and m … ƒ(x) … M for every other x in 3 a, b4 .
The proof of the Extreme Value Theorem requires a detailed knowledge of the real
number system (see Appendix 7) and we will not give it here. Figure 4.3 illustrates possible locations for the absolute extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval 3 a, b4 .
As we observed for the function y = cos x, it is possible that an absolute minimum (or
absolute maximum) may occur at two or more different points of the interval.
The requirements in Theorem 1 that the interval be closed and finite, and that the
function be continuous, are key ingredients. Without them, the conclusion of the theorem
225
4.1 Extreme Values of Functions
(x2, M)
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
M
M
x1
a
x2
b
0m0
m
x
b
a
x
Maximum and minimum
at endpoints
(x1, m)
Maximum and minimum
at interior points
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
M
m
m
a
x2
b
x
Maximum at interior point,
minimum at endpoint
y
a
x1
b
x
Minimum at interior point,
maximum at endpoint
FIGURE 4.3 Some possibilities for a continuous function’s maximum and
minimum on a closed interval 3a, b4.
need not hold. Example 1 shows that an absolute extreme value may not exist if the interval fails to be both closed and finite. The exponential function y = ex over (- q, q)
shows that neither extreme value need exist on an infinite interval. Figure 4.4 shows that
the continuity requirement cannot be omitted.
No largest value
1
y=x
0≤ x<1
0
M
1
Smallest value
x
FIGURE 4.4 Even a single point of discontinuity can keep a function from having
either a maximum or minimum value on a
closed interval. The function
y = e
x, 0 … x 6 1
0, x = 1
is continuous at every point of 30, 14
except x = 1, yet its graph over 30, 14
does not have a highest point.
Local (Relative) Extreme Values
Figure 4.5 shows a graph with five points where a function has extreme values on its
domain 3 a, b4 . The function’s absolute minimum occurs at a even though at e the function’s value is smaller than at any other point nearby. The curve rises to the left and falls to
the right around c, making ƒ(c) a maximum locally. The function attains its absolute
maximum at d. We now define what we mean by local extrema.
DEFINITIONS A function ƒ has a local maximum value at a point c within its
domain D if ƒ(x) … ƒ(c) for all x∊D lying in some open interval containing c.
A function ƒ has a local minimum value at a point c within its domain D if
ƒ(x) Ú ƒ(c) for all x∊D lying in some open interval containing c.
If the domain of ƒ is the closed interval 3 a, b4 , then ƒ has a local maximum at the endpoint
x = a, if ƒ(x) … ƒ(a) for all x in some half-open interval 3 a, a + d), d 7 0. Likewise, ƒ
has a local maximum at an interior point x = c if ƒ(x) … ƒ(c) for all x in some open interval (c - d, c + d), d 7 0, and a local maximum at the endpoint x = b if ƒ(x) … ƒ(b) for
all x in some half-open interval (b - d, b4 , d 7 0. The inequalities are reversed for local
minimum values. In Figure 4.5, the function ƒ has local maxima at c and d and local minima at a, e, and b. Local extrema are also called relative extrema. Some functions can
have infinitely many local extrema, even over a finite interval. One example is the function
ƒ(x) = sin (1>x) on the interval (0, 14 . (We graphed this function in Figure 2.40.)
226
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
Absolute maximum
No greater value of f anywhere.
Also a local maximum.
Local maximum
No greater value of
f nearby.
Local minimum
No smaller value
of f nearby.
y = f (x)
Absolute minimum
No smaller value of
f anywhere. Also a
local minimum.
Local minimum
No smaller value of
f nearby.
a
c
e
d
b
x
FIGURE 4.5 How to identify types of maxima and minima for a function with domain
a … x … b.
An absolute maximum is also a local maximum. Being the largest value overall, it is
also the largest value in its immediate neighborhood. Hence, a list of all local maxima will
automatically include the absolute maximum if there is one. Similarly, a list of all local
minima will include the absolute minimum if there is one.
Finding Extrema
The next theorem explains why we usually need to investigate only a few values to find a
function’s extrema.
Local maximum value
y = f (x)
THEOREM 2—The First Derivative Theorem for Local Extreme Values If
ƒ has a local maximum or minimum value at an interior point c of its domain,
and if ƒ′ is defined at c, then
ƒ′(c) = 0.
Secant slopes ≥ 0
(never negative)
x
Secant slopes ≤ 0
(never positive)
c
x
x
FIGURE 4.6 A curve with a local
maximum value. The slope at c, simultaneously the limit of nonpositive numbers and
nonnegative numbers, is zero.
Proof
To prove that ƒ′(c) is zero at a local extremum, we show first that ƒ′(c) cannot
be positive and second that ƒ′(c) cannot be negative. The only number that is neither positive nor negative is zero, so that is what ƒ′(c) must be.
To begin, suppose that ƒ has a local maximum value at x = c (Figure 4.6) so that
ƒ(x) - ƒ(c) … 0 for all values of x near enough to c. Since c is an interior point of ƒ’s
domain, ƒ′(c) is defined by the two-sided limit
lim
xSc
ƒ(x) - ƒ(c)
x - c .
This means that the right-hand and left-hand limits both exist at x = c and equal ƒ′(c).
When we examine these limits separately, we find that
ƒ′(c) = lim+
ƒ(x) - ƒ(c)
… 0.
x - c
Because (x - c) 7 0 and ƒ(x) … ƒ(c)
(1)
ƒ′(c) = lim-
ƒ(x) - ƒ(c)
Ú 0.
x - c
Because (x - c) 6 0 and ƒ(x) … ƒ(c)
(2)
xSc
Similarly,
xSc
Together, Equations (1) and (2) imply ƒ′(c) = 0.
This proves the theorem for local maximum values. To prove it for local minimum
values, we simply use ƒ(x) Ú ƒ(c), which reverses the inequalities in Equations (1)
and (2).
4.1 Extreme Values of Functions
Theorem 2 says that a function’s first derivative is always zero at an interior point
where the function has a local extreme value and the derivative is defined. If we recall that
all the domains we consider are intervals or unions of separate intervals, the only places
where a function ƒ can possibly have an extreme value (local or global) are
y
y = x3
1
−1
0
1
227
x
−1
1.
2.
3.
interior points where ƒ′ = 0,
interior points where ƒ′ is undefined,
endpoints of the domain of ƒ.
At x = c and x = e in Fig. 4.5
At x = d in Fig. 4.5
At x = a and x = b in Fig. 4.5
The following definition helps us to summarize these results.
(a)
DEFINITION An interior point of the domain of a function ƒ where ƒ′ is zero
or undefined is a critical point of ƒ.
y
1
y = x1!3
−1
0
1
x
−1
(b)
FIGURE 4.7 Critical points without
extreme values. (a) y′ = 3x2 is 0 at x = 0,
but y = x3 has no extremum there.
(b) y′ = (1>3)x-2>3 is undefined at x = 0,
but y = x1>3 has no extremum there.
Thus the only domain points where a function can assume extreme values are critical
points and endpoints. However, be careful not to misinterpret what is being said here. A
function may have a critical point at x = c without having a local extreme value there. For
instance, both of the functions y = x3 and y = x1>3 have critical points at the origin, but
neither function has a local extreme value at the origin. Instead, each function has a point
of inflection there (see Figure 4.7). We define and explore inflection points in Section 4.4.
Most problems that ask for extreme values call for finding the absolute extrema of a
continuous function on a closed and finite interval. Theorem 1 assures us that such values
exist; Theorem 2 tells us that they are taken on only at critical points and endpoints. Often
we can simply list these points and calculate the corresponding function values to find
what the largest and smallest values are, and where they are located. Of course, if the
interval is not closed or not finite (such as a 6 x 6 b or a 6 x 6 q), we have seen that
absolute extrema need not exist. If an absolute maximum or minimum value does exist, it
must occur at a critical point or at an included right- or left-hand endpoint of the interval.
How to Find the Absolute Extrema of a Continuous Function ƒ on a Finite
Closed Interval
1. Evaluate ƒ at all critical points and endpoints.
2. Take the largest and smallest of these values.
EXAMPLE 2
3 -2, 14 .
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒ(x) = x2 on
Solution The function is differentiable over its entire domain, so the only critical point
is where ƒ′(x) = 2x = 0, namely x = 0. We need to check the function’s values at x = 0
and at the endpoints x = -2 and x = 1:
Critical point value:
Endpoint values:
ƒ(0) = 0
ƒ(-2) = 4
ƒ(1) = 1.
The function has an absolute maximum value of 4 at x = -2 and an absolute minimum
value of 0 at x = 0.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒ(x) =
10x (2 - ln x) on the interval 3 1, e2 4 .
228
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
Solution Figure 4.8 suggests that ƒ has its absolute maximum value near x = 3 and its
absolute minimum value of 0 at x = e2. Let’s verify this observation.
We evaluate the function at the critical points and endpoints and take the largest and
smallest of the resulting values.
The first derivative is
y
30
(e, 10e)
25
20
15
(1, 20)
1
ƒ′(x) = 10(2 - ln x) - 10xa x b = 10(1 - ln x).
10
5
(e 2, 0)
1
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
x
8
FIGURE 4.8 The extreme values of
ƒ(x) = 10x(2 - ln x) on 31, e2 4 occur at
x = e and x = e2 (Example 3).
The only critical point in the domain 3 1, e2 4 is the point x = e, where ln x = 1. The values of ƒ at this one critical point and at the endpoints are
Critical point value:
ƒ(e) = 10e
Endpoint values:
ƒ(1) = 10(2 - ln 1) = 20
ƒ(e2) = 10e2(2 - 2 ln e) = 0.
We can see from this list that the function’s absolute maximum value is 10e ≈ 27.2; it
occurs at the critical interior point x = e. The absolute minimum value is 0 and occurs at
the right endpoint x = e2.
EXAMPLE 4
interval 3 -2, 34 .
y
Solution We evaluate the function at the critical points and endpoints and take the largest and smallest of the resulting values.
The first derivative
y = x 2!3, −2 ≤ x ≤ 3
0
1
2
3
Absolute minimum;
also a local minimum
x
Endpoint values:
4.1
Finding Extrema from Graphs
In Exercises 1–6, determine from the graph whether the function has
any absolute extreme values on 3a, b4 . Then explain how your
answer is consistent with .Theorem 1
1.
3
ƒ(-2) = (-2)2>3 = 2
4
3
2>3
ƒ(3) = (3) = 29.
3
We can see from this list that the function’s absolute maximum value is 2
9 ≈ 2.08, and
it occurs at the right endpoint x = 3. The absolute minimum value is 0, and it occurs at
the interior point x = 0 where the graph has a cusp (Figure 4.9).
FIGURE 4.9 The extreme values of
ƒ(x) = x2>3 on 3- 2, 34 occur at x = 0
and x = 3 (Example 4).
Exercises
2.
y
3.
c1
y = h(x)
y = f (x)
c2
b
x
y
y = f (x)
0
a
4.
y
y
y = h(x)
0
2 -1>3
2
x
= 3
3
3 2x
has no zeros but is undefined at the interior point x = 0. The values of ƒ at this one critical
point and at the endpoints are
Critical point value:
ƒ(0) = 0
1
−1
ƒ′(x) =
Absolute maximum;
also a local maximum
Local
maximum 2
−2
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒ(x) = x2>3 on the
0
a
c
b
x
a
c
b
x
0
a
c
b
x
4.1 Extreme Values of Functions
5.
6.
y
In Exercises 15–20, sketch the graph of each function and determine
whether the function has any absolute extreme values on its domain.
Explain how your answer is consistent with Theorem 1.
y
y = g(x)
229
y = g(x)
15. ƒ(x) = 0 x 0 , - 1 6 x 6 2
6
, -1 6 x 6 1
x2 + 2
- x,
0 … x 6 1
17. g(x) = e
x - 1, 1 … x … 2
16. y =
0
a
c
b
x
0
a
c
x
b
In Exercises 7–10, find the absolute extreme values and where they
occur.
y
7.
y
8.
1
−2
0
x
2
y
(1, 2)
2
x
2
−3
cos x,
0 6 x …
p
2
Absolute Extrema on Finite Closed Intervals
In Exercises 21–40, find the absolute maximum and minimum values
of each function on the given interval. Then graph the function. Identify the points on the graph where the absolute extrema occur, and
include their coordinates.
21. ƒ(x) =
−1
2
x - 5, - 2 … x … 3
3
22. ƒ(x) = -x - 4, -4 … x … 1
x
2
0 … x … 4
20. ƒ(x) = •
5
0
2x,
19. y = 3 sin x, 0 6 x 6 2p
10.
y
-1 … x 6 0
x + 1, - 1 … x 6 0
−1
9.
1
x,
2
x
1
−1
18. h(x) = •
23. ƒ(x) = x2 - 1, - 1 … x … 2
24. ƒ(x) = 4 - x3, - 2 … x … 1
In Exercises 11–14, match the table with a graph.
11. x
12. x
ƒ′(x)
13. x
does not exist
0
-2
a
b c
(a)
3
27. h(x) = 2x, - 1 … x … 8
28. h(x) = - 3x2>3, - 1 … x … 1
29. g(x) = 24 - x2 , - 2 … x … 1
ƒ′(x)
30. g(x) = - 25 - x2 , - 25 … x … 0
p
5p
31. ƒ(u) = sin u, - … u …
2
6
p
p
32. ƒ(u) = tan u, - … u …
3
4
p
2p
33. g(x) = csc x,
… x …
3
3
p
p
34. g(x) = sec x, - … x …
3
6
35. ƒ(t) = 2 - 0 t 0 , - 1 … t … 3
does not exist
does not exist
- 1.7
a
b
c
1
, 0.5 … x … 2
x2
1
26. F(x) = - x , -2 … x … -1
0
0
-5
14. x
ƒ′(x)
a
b
c
ƒ′(x)
a
b
c
0
0
5
a
b
c
25. F(x) = -
a
b
c
36. ƒ(t) = 0 t - 5 0 , 4 … t … 7
(b)
37. g(x) = xe-x, - 1 … x … 1
38. h(x) = ln (x + 1), 0 … x … 3
1
39. ƒ(x) = x + ln x, 0.5 … x … 4
2
a
b
(c)
c
a
(d)
b
c
40. g(x) = e-x , - 2 … x … 1
230
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
In Exercises 41–44, find the function’s absolute maximum and minimum values and say where they are assumed.
41. ƒ(x) = x4>3, - 1 … x … 8
42. ƒ(x) = x5>3, - 1 … x … 8
43. g(u) = u 3>5, - 32 … u … 1
44. h(u) = 3u 2>3, - 27 … u … 8
Finding Critical Points
In Exercises 45–52, determine all critical points for each function.
2
45. y = x - 6x + 7
47. ƒ(x) = x(4 - x)
3
2
46. ƒ(x) = 6x - x
3
48. g(x) = (x - 1)2(x - 3)2
2
49. y = x + x
x2
50. ƒ(x) =
x - 2
51. y = x2 - 32 2x
52. g(x) = 22x - x2
2
Finding Extreme Values
In Exercises 53–68, find the extreme values (absolute and local) of the
function over its natural domain, and where they occur.
53. y = 2x2 - 8x + 9
54. y = x3 - 2x + 4
55. y = x3 + x2 - 8x + 5
56. y = x3(x - 5)2
57. y = 2x2 - 1
58. y = x - 4 2x
59. y =
61. y =
1
3
21 - x2
x
x2 + 1
60. y = 23 + 2x - x2
62. y =
x + 1
x2 + 2x + 2
Theory and Examples
79. A minimum with no derivative The function ƒ(x) = 0 x 0 has
an absolute minimum value at x = 0 even though ƒ is not differentiable at x = 0. Is this consistent with Theorem 2? Give reasons for your answer.
80. Even functions If an even function ƒ(x) has a local maximum
value at x = c, can anything be said about the value of ƒ at
x = - c? Give reasons for your answer.
81. Odd functions If an odd function g(x) has a local minimum
value at x = c, can anything be said about the value of g at
x = - c? Give reasons for your answer.
82. No critical points or endpoints exist We know how to find the
extreme values of a continuous function ƒ(x) by investigating its
values at critical points and endpoints. But what if there are no critical points or endpoints? What happens then? Do such functions
really exist? Give reasons for your answers.
83. The function
V(x) = x(10 - 2x)(16 - 2x),
0 6 x 6 5,
models the volume of a box.
a. Find the extreme values of V.
b. Interpret any values found in part (a) in terms of the volume
of the box.
84. Cubic functions Consider the cubic function
ƒ(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
63. y = ex + e-x
64. y = ex - e-x
65. y = x ln x
66. y = x2 ln x
a. Show that ƒ can have 0, 1, or 2 critical points. Give examples
and graphs to support your argument.
67. y = cos-1 (x2)
68. y = sin-1(ex)
b. How many local extreme values can ƒ have?
Local Extrema and Critical Points
In Exercises 69–76, find the critical points, domain endpoints, and
extreme values (absolute and local) for each function.
69. y = x2>3(x + 2)
70. y = x2>3(x2 - 4)
71. y = x 24 - x2
72. y = x2 23 - x
73. y = e
74. y = e
75. y = e
4 - 2x, x … 1
x + 1, x 7 1
3 - x,
x 6 0
3 + 2x - x2, x Ú 0
-x2 - 2x + 4, x … 1
- x2 + 6x - 4, x 7 1
15
1
1
, x … 1
- x2 - x +
2
4
76. y = c 4
x3 - 6x2 + 8x,
x 7 1
In Exercises 77 and 78, give reasons for your answers.
77. Let ƒ(x) = (x - 2)2>3.
a. Does ƒ′(2) exist?
b. Show that the only local extreme value of ƒ occurs at x = 2.
c. Does the result in part (b) contradict the Extreme Value
Theorem?
d. Repeat parts (a) and (b) for ƒ(x) = (x - a)2>3, replacing 2
by a.
85. Maximum height of a vertically moving body The height of a
body moving vertically is given by
1
s = - gt 2 + y0 t + s0,
2
g 7 0,
with s in meters and t in seconds. Find the body’s maximum height.
86. Peak alternating current Suppose that at any given time t (in
seconds) the current i (in amperes) in an alternating current circuit is i = 2 cos t + 2 sin t. What is the peak current for this circuit (largest magnitude)?
T Graph the functions in Exercises 87–90. Then find the extreme values
of the function on the interval and say where they occur.
87. ƒ(x) = 0 x - 2 0 + 0 x + 3 0 , - 5 … x … 5
88. g(x) = 0 x - 1 0 - 0 x - 5 0 , - 2 … x … 7
89. h(x) = 0 x + 2 0 - 0 x - 3 0 , - q 6 x 6 q
90. k(x) = 0 x + 1 0 + 0 x - 3 0 , - q 6 x 6 q
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
In Exercises 91–98, you will use a CAS to help find the absolute
extrema of the given function over the specified closed interval. Perform the following steps.
a. Plot the function over the interval to see its general behavior there.
a. Does ƒ′(0) exist?
b. Does ƒ′(3) exist?
b. Find the interior points where ƒ′ = 0. (In some exercises, you
may have to use the numerical equation solver to approximate a
solution.) You may want to plot ƒ′ as well.
c. Does ƒ′(-3) exist?
d. Determine all extrema of ƒ.
c. Find the interior points where ƒ′ does not exist.
78. Let ƒ(x) = 0 x3 - 9x 0 .
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem
d. Evaluate the function at all points found in parts (b) and (c) and at
the endpoints of the interval.
94. ƒ(x) = 2 + 2x - 3x2>3,
e. Find the function’s absolute extreme values on the interval and
identify where they occur.
3>4
91. ƒ(x) = x4 - 8x2 + 4x + 2,
4
3
92. ƒ(x) = - x + 4x - 4x + 1,
93. ƒ(x) = x2>3(3 - x),
3- 2, 24
3- 20>25, 64>254
3- 3>4, 34
231
3- 1, 10>34
30, 2p4
1
96. ƒ(x) = x - sin x + , 30, 2p4
2
30, 54
97. ƒ(x) = px2e - 3x>2,
95. ƒ(x) = 2x + cos x,
98. ƒ(x) = ln (2x + x sin x),
31, 154
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem
We know that constant functions have zero derivatives, but could there be a more complicated function whose derivative is always zero? If two functions have identical derivatives
over an interval, how are the functions related? We answer these and other questions in
this chapter by applying the Mean Value Theorem. First we introduce a special case,
known as Rolle’s Theorem, which is used to prove the Mean Value Theorem.
y
f ′(c) = 0
Rolle’s Theorem
y = f (x)
0
a
c
As suggested by its graph, if a differentiable function crosses a horizontal line at two different points, there is at least one point between them where the tangent to the graph is
horizontal and the derivative is zero (Figure 4.10). We now state and prove this result.
x
b
(a)
THEOREM 3—Rolle’s Theorem Suppose that y = ƒ(x) is continuous over
the closed interval 3 a, b4 and differentiable at every point of its interior (a, b).
If ƒ(a) = ƒ(b), then there is at least one number c in (a, b) at which ƒ′(c) = 0.
y
f ′(c1 ) = 0
0
a
c1
f ′(c3 ) = 0
f ′(c2 ) = 0
c2
y = f (x)
c3
b
x
(b)
FIGURE 4.10 Rolle’s Theorem says
that a differentiable curve has at least one
horizontal tangent between any two points
where it crosses a horizontal line. It may
have just one (a), or it may have more (b).
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Michel Rolle
(1652–1719)
Proof
Being continuous, ƒ assumes absolute maximum and minimum values on
3 a, b4 by Theorem 1. These can occur only
1.
2.
3.
at interior points where ƒ′ is zero,
at interior points where ƒ′ does not exist,
at endpoints of the function’s domain, in this case a and b.
By hypothesis, ƒ has a derivative at every interior point. That rules out possibility (2),
leaving us with interior points where ƒ′ = 0 and with the two endpoints a and b.
If either the maximum or the minimum occurs at a point c between a and b, then
ƒ′(c) = 0 by Theorem 2 in Section 4.1, and we have found a point for Rolle’s Theorem.
If both the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum occur at the endpoints, then
because ƒ(a) = ƒ(b) it must be the case that ƒ is a constant function with ƒ(x) = ƒ(a) = ƒ(b)
for every x∊ 3 a, b4 . Therefore ƒ′(x) = 0 and the point c can be taken anywhere in the
interior (a, b).
The hypotheses of Theorem 3 are essential. If they fail at even one point, the graph
may not have a horizontal tangent (Figure 4.11).
Rolle’s Theorem may be combined with the Intermediate Value Theorem to show
when there is only one real solution of an equation ƒ(x) = 0, as we illustrate in the next
example.
EXAMPLE 1
Show that the equation
x3 + 3x + 1 = 0
has exactly one real solution.
232
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
y
y
y
y = f(x)
a
y = f(x)
b
(a) Discontinuous at an
endpoint of [a, b]
y
x
a
x0 b
y = f(x)
x
(b) Discontinuous at an
interior point of [a, b]
(1, 5)
a
x0
x
b
(c) Continuous on [a, b] but not
differentiable at an interior
point
FIGURE 4.11 There may be no horizontal tangent if the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem do not hold.
0
−1
Solution
y = x 3 + 3x + 1
1
1
We define the continuous function
ƒ(x) = x3 + 3x + 1.
x
(−1, −3)
FIGURE 4.12 The only real zero of the
polynomial y = x3 + 3x + 1 is the one
shown here where the curve crosses the
x-axis between -1 and 0 (Example 1).
Since ƒ(-1) = -3 and ƒ(0) = 1, the Intermediate Value Theorem tells us that the graph
of ƒ crosses the x-axis somewhere in the open interval (-1, 0). (See Figure 4.12.) Now, if
there were even two points x = a and x = b where ƒ(x) was zero, Rolle’s Theorem
would guarantee the existence of a point x = c in between them where ƒ′ was zero. However, the derivative
ƒ′(x) = 3x2 + 3
is never zero (because it is always positive). Therefore, ƒ has no more than one zero.
Our main use of Rolle’s Theorem is in proving the Mean Value Theorem.
The Mean Value Theorem
The Mean Value Theorem, which was first stated by Joseph-Louis Lagrange, is a slanted
version of Rolle’s Theorem (Figure 4.13). The Mean Value Theorem guarantees that there
is a point where the tangent line is parallel to the secant joining A and B.
Tangent parallel to secant
y
Slope f ′(c)
B
Slope
f (b) − f (a)
b−a
A
0
a
y = f (x)
c
b
x
FIGURE 4.13 Geometrically, the Mean
Value Theorem says that somewhere
between a and b the curve has at least one
tangent parallel to the secant joining A and B.
THEOREM 4—The Mean Value Theorem Suppose y = ƒ(x) is continuous
over a closed interval 3 a, b4 and differentiable on the interval’s interior (a, b).
Then there is at least one point c in (a, b) at which
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
= ƒ′(c).
b - a
(1)
Proof
We picture the graph of ƒ and draw a line through the points A(a, ƒ(a)) and
B(b, ƒ(b)). (See Figure 4.14.) The secant line is the graph of the function
g(x) = ƒ(a) +
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
(x - a)
b - a
(2)
(point-slope equation). The vertical difference between the graphs of ƒ and g at x is
h(x) = ƒ(x) - g(x)
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Joseph-Louis Lagrange
(1736–1813)
= ƒ(x) - ƒ(a) -
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
(x - a).
b - a
Figure 4.15 shows the graphs of ƒ, g, and h together.
(3)
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem
y = f(x)
B(b, f(b))
233
B
y = f (x)
h(x)
A(a, f (a))
A
y = g(x)
h(x) = f (x) − g(x)
a
y
y = "1 − x 2, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
1
0
−1
x
1
FIGURE 4.16 The function ƒ(x) =
21 - x2 satisfies the hypotheses (and
conclusion) of the Mean Value Theorem
on 3-1, 14 even though ƒ is not differentiable at - 1 and 1.
ƒ(b)
b
ƒ(b)
h′(c) = ƒ′(c) b
ƒ(b)
0 = ƒ′(c) b
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
ƒ′(c) =
,
b - a
h′(x) = ƒ′(x) -
3
y = x2
2
1
x
2
FIGURE 4.17 As we find in Example 2,
c = 1 is where the tangent is parallel to
the secant line.
s
Distance (ft)
400
s = f (t)
(8, 352)
320
240
160
80
0
x
b
x
FIGURE 4.15 The secant AB is the
graph of the function g(x). The function
h(x) = ƒ(x) - g(x) gives the vertical distance between the graphs of ƒ and g at x.
-
ƒ(a)
a
ƒ(a)
a
ƒ(a)
a
Derivative of Eq. (3) . . .
. . . with x = c
h′(c) = 0
Rearranged
which is what we set out to prove.
(1, 1)
A(0, 0)
a
The function h satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem on 3 a, b4 . It is continuous
on 3 a, b4 and differentiable on (a, b) because both ƒ and g are. Also, h(a) = h(b) = 0
because the graphs of ƒ and g both pass through A and B. Therefore h′(c) = 0 at some
point c∊(a, b). This is the point we want for Equation (1) in the theorem.
To verify Equation (1), we differentiate both sides of Equation (3) with respect to x
and then set x = c:
B(2, 4)
1
x
FIGURE 4.14 The graph of ƒ and the
secant AB over the interval 3a, b4 .
y
4
b
At this point,
the car’s speed
was 30 mph.
t
5
Time (sec)
FIGURE 4.18 Distance versus elapsed
time for the car in Example 3.
The hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem do not require ƒ to be differentiable at
either a or b. One-sided continuity at a and b is enough (Figure 4.16).
EXAMPLE 2
The function ƒ(x) = x2 (Figure 4.17) is continuous for 0 … x … 2 and
differentiable for 0 6 x 6 2. Since ƒ(0) = 0 and ƒ(2) = 4, the Mean Value Theorem
says that at some point c in the interval, the derivative ƒ′(x) = 2x must have the value
(4 - 0)>(2 - 0) = 2. In this case we can identify c by solving the equation 2c = 2 to
get c = 1. However, it is not always easy to find c algebraically, even though we know it
always exists.
A Physical Interpretation
We can think of the number (ƒ(b) - ƒ(a))>(b - a) as the average change in ƒ over
3 a, b4 and ƒ′(c) as an instantaneous change. Then the Mean Value Theorem says that at
some interior point the instantaneous change must equal the average change over the
entire interval.
EXAMPLE 3
If a car accelerating from zero takes 8 sec to go 352 ft, its average
velocity for the 8-sec interval is 352>8 = 44 ft>sec. The Mean Value Theorem says that at
some point during the acceleration the speedometer must read exactly 30 mph (44 ft>sec)
(Figure 4.18).
234
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
Mathematical Consequences
At the beginning of the section, we asked what kind of function has a zero derivative over
an interval. The first corollary of the Mean Value Theorem provides the answer that only
constant functions have zero derivatives.
COROLLARY 1 If ƒ′(x) = 0 at each point x of an open interval (a, b), then
ƒ(x) = C for all x∊(a, b), where C is a constant.
Proof
We want to show that ƒ has a constant value on the interval (a, b). We do so by
showing that if x1 and x2 are any two points in (a, b) with x1 6 x2 , then ƒ(x1) = ƒ(x2).
Now ƒ satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on 3 x1, x2 4 : It is differentiable
at every point of 3 x1, x2 4 and hence continuous at every point as well. Therefore,
ƒ(x2) - ƒ(x1)
= ƒ′(c)
x2 - x1
at some point c between x1 and x2. Since ƒ′ = 0 throughout (a, b), this equation implies
successively that
ƒ(x2) - ƒ(x1)
= 0,
x2 - x1
ƒ(x2) - ƒ(x1) = 0,
and
ƒ(x1) = ƒ(x2).
At the beginning of this section, we also asked about the relationship between two
functions that have identical derivatives over an interval. The next corollary tells us that
their values on the interval have a constant difference.
y
y = x2 + C
COROLLARY 2 If ƒ′(x) = g′(x) at each point x in an open interval (a, b), then
there exists a constant C such that ƒ(x) = g(x) + C for all x∊(a, b). That is,
ƒ - g is a constant function on (a, b).
C=2
C=1
C=0
Proof
C = −1
2
h′(x) = ƒ′(x) - g′(x) = 0.
C = −2
1
0
At each point x∊(a, b) the derivative of the difference function h = ƒ - g is
x
−1
−2
FIGURE 4.19 From a geometric point
of view, Corollary 2 of the Mean Value
Theorem says that the graphs of functions
with identical derivatives on an interval
can differ only by a vertical shift there.
The graphs of the functions with derivative
2x are the parabolas y = x2 + C, shown
here for selected values of C.
Thus, h(x) = C on (a, b) by Corollary 1. That is, ƒ(x) - g(x) = C on (a, b), so ƒ(x) =
g(x) + C.
Corollaries 1 and 2 are also true if the open interval (a, b) fails to be finite. That is,
they remain true if the interval is (a, q), (- q, b), or (- q, q).
Corollary 2 plays an important role when we discuss antiderivatives in Section 4.8. It
tells us, for instance, that since the derivative of ƒ(x) = x2 on (- q, q) is 2x, any other
function with derivative 2x on (- q, q) must have the formula x2 + C for some value of
C (Figure 4.19).
EXAMPLE 4
Find the function ƒ(x) whose derivative is sin x and whose graph passes
through the point (0, 2).
Solution Since the derivative of g(x) = -cos x is g′(x) = sin x, we see that ƒ and
g have the same derivative. Corollary 2 then says that ƒ(x) = -cos x + C for some
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem
235
constant C. Since the graph of ƒ passes through the point (0, 2), the value of C is determined from the condition that ƒ(0) = 2:
ƒ(0) = -cos (0) + C = 2,
C = 3.
so
The function is ƒ(x) = -cos x + 3.
Finding Velocity and Position from Acceleration
We can use Corollary 2 to find the velocity and position functions of an object moving
along a vertical line. Assume the object or body is falling freely from rest with acceleration 9.8 m>sec2. We assume the position s(t) of the body is measured positive downward
from the rest position (so the vertical coordinate line points downward, in the direction of
the motion, with the rest position at 0).
We know that the velocity y(t) is some function whose derivative is 9.8. We also
know that the derivative of g(t) = 9.8t is 9.8. By Corollary 2,
y(t) = 9.8t + C
for some constant C. Since the body falls from rest, y(0) = 0. Thus
9.8(0) + C = 0,
C = 0.
and
The velocity function must be y(t) = 9.8t. What about the position function s(t)?
We know that s(t) is some function whose derivative is 9.8t. We also know that the
derivative of ƒ(t) = 4.9t 2 is 9.8t. By Corollary 2,
s(t) = 4.9t 2 + C
for some constant C. Since s(0) = 0,
4.9(0)2 + C = 0,
C = 0.
and
The position function is s(t) = 4.9t 2 until the body hits the ground.
The ability to find functions from their rates of change is one of the very powerful
tools of calculus. As we will see, it lies at the heart of the mathematical developments in
Chapter 5.
Proofs of the Laws of Logarithms
The algebraic properties of logarithms were stated in Section 1.6. We can prove those
properties by applying Corollary 2 of the Mean Value Theorem to each of them. The steps
in the proofs are similar to those used in solving problems involving logarithms.
Proof that ln bx = ln b + ln x
have the same derivative:
The argument starts by observing that ln bx and ln x
d
b
d
1
ln (bx) =
= x =
ln x.
dx
bx
dx
According to Corollary 2 of the Mean Value Theorem, then, the functions must differ by a
constant, which means that
ln bx = ln x + C
for some C.
Since this last equation holds for all positive values of x, it must hold for x = 1.
Hence,
ln (b # 1) = ln 1 + C
ln b = 0 + C
C = ln b.
ln 1 = 0
236
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
By substituting, we conclude
ln bx = ln b + ln x.
Proof that ln x r = r ln x
tive values of x,
We use the same-derivative argument again. For all posi-
d
1 d
ln xr = r (xr)
x dx
dx
=
Chain Rule
1 r-1
rx
xr
Derivative Power Rule
d
1
= r#x =
(r ln x).
dx
Since ln xr and r ln x have the same derivative,
ln xr = r ln x + C
for some constant C. Taking x to be 1 identifies C as zero, and we’re done.
You are asked to prove the Quotient Rule for logarithms,
b
ln a x b = ln b - ln x,
in Exercise 75. The Reciprocal Rule, ln (1>x) = -ln x, is a special case of the Quotient
Rule, obtained by taking b = 1 and noting that ln 1 = 0.
Laws of Exponents
The laws of exponents for the natural exponential ex are consequences of the algebraic
properties of ln x. They follow from the inverse relationship between these functions.
Laws of Exponents for ex
For all numbers x, x1, and x2, the natural exponential ex obeys the following
laws:
1. ex1 # ex2 = ex1 + x2
3.
ex1
= ex1 - x2
ex2
2. e-x =
1
ex
4. (ex1)x2 = ex1x2 = (ex2)x1
Proof of Law 1 Let
y1 = ex1
and
y2 = ex2.
Then
x1 = ln y1 and x2 = ln y2
x1 + x2 = ln y1 + ln y2
= ln y1 y2
x1 + x2
e
ln y1 y2
= e
= y1 y2
Take logs of both
sides of Eqs. (4).
Product Rule for logarithms
Exponentiate.
eln u = u
= ex1ex2.
The proof of Law 4 is similar. Laws 2 and 3 follow from Law 1 (Exercises 77 and 78).
(4)
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem
Exercises
4.2
Checking the Mean Value Theorem
Find the value or values of c that satisfy the equation
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
= ƒ′(c)
b - a
in the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for the functions and
intervals in Exercises 1–8.
1. ƒ(x) = x2 + 2x - 1,
2. ƒ(x) = x2>3,
30, 14
30, 14
1
3. ƒ(x) = x + x ,
4. ƒ(x) = 2x - 1,
5. ƒ(x) = sin-1 x,
7. ƒ(x) = x3 - x2,
iv) y = x3 - 33x2 + 216x = x(x - 9)(x - 24)
3-1, 24
19. Show that if ƒ″ 7 0 throughout an interval 3a, b4 , then ƒ′ has at
most one zero in 3a, b4 . What if ƒ″ 6 0 throughout 3a, b4 instead?
3- 1, 14
32, 44
30, 14
11. ƒ(x) = 2x(1 - x),
2
iii) y = x3 - 3x2 + 4 = (x + 1)(x - 2)2
18. Suppose that ƒ″ is continuous on 3a, b4 and that ƒ has three
zeros in the interval. Show that ƒ″ has at least one zero in (a, b).
Generalize this result.
20. Show that a cubic polynomial can have at most three real zeros.
Show that the functions in Exercises 21–28 have exactly one zero in
the given interval.
3- 1, 84
sin x
,
12. ƒ(x) = • x
0,
ii) y = x2 + 8x + 15
31, 34
Which of the functions in Exercises 9–14 satisfy the hypotheses of the
Mean Value Theorem on the given interval, and which do not? Give
reasons for your answers.
10. ƒ(x) = x4>5,
i) y = x2 - 4
nxn - 1 + (n - 1)an - 1xn - 2 + g + a1.
x3, -2 … x … 0
x 2,
0 6 x … 2
9. ƒ(x) = x2>3,
Roots (Zeros)
17. a. Plot the zeros of each polynomial on a line together with the
zeros of its first derivative.
b. Use Rolle’s Theorem to prove that between every two zeros
of xn + an - 1xn - 1 + g + a1 x + a0 there lies a zero of
1
c , 2d
2
6. ƒ(x) = ln (x - 1),
8. g(x) = e
237
1
+ 21 + t - 3.1, (- 1, 1)
1 - t
u
25. r(u) = u + sin2 a b - 8, (- q, q)
3
x = 0
… x
6 x
x …
x …
… -1
… 0
2
3
15. The function
ƒ(x) = e
4
+ 7, (- q, 0)
x2
24. g(t) =
-p … x 6 0
-2
-1
0 …
2 6
22. ƒ(x) = x3 +
3- 2, -14
23. g(t) = 2t + 21 + t - 4, (0, q)
30, 14
x - x,
13. ƒ(x) = e 2
2x - 3x - 3,
2x - 3,
14. ƒ(x) = e
6x - x2 - 7,
21. ƒ(x) = x4 + 3x + 1,
x, 0 … x 6 1
0, x = 1
is zero at x = 0 and x = 1 and differentiable on (0, 1), but its
derivative on (0, 1) is never zero. How can this be? Doesn’t
Rolle’s Theorem say the derivative has to be zero somewhere in
(0, 1)? Give reasons for your answer.
16. For what values of a, m, and b does the function
3,
ƒ(x) = c - x2 + 3x + a,
mx + b,
x = 0
0 6 x 6 1
1 … x … 2
satisfy the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the interval
30, 24 ?
26. r(u) = 2u - cos2 u + 22, (- q, q)
27. r(u) = sec u -
1
+ 5, (0, p>2)
u3
28. r(u) = tan u - cot u - u, (0, p>2)
Finding Functions from Derivatives
29. Suppose that ƒ(- 1) = 3 and that ƒ′(x) = 0 for all x. Must
ƒ(x) = 3 for all x? Give reasons for your answer.
30. Suppose that ƒ(0) = 5 and that ƒ′(x) = 2 for all x. Must ƒ(x) =
2x + 5 for all x? Give reasons for your answer.
31. Suppose that ƒ′(x) = 2x for all x. Find ƒ(2) if
a. ƒ(0) = 0
b. ƒ(1) = 0
c. ƒ(-2) = 3.
32. What can be said about functions whose derivatives are constant?
Give reasons for your answer.
In Exercises 33–38, find all possible functions with the given
derivative.
33. a. y′ = x
b. y′ = x2
c. y′ = x3
34. a. y′ = 2x
b. y′ = 2x - 1
c. y′ = 3x2 + 2x - 1
35. a. y′ = -
1
x2
b. y′ = 1 -
1
x2
c. y′ = 5 +
1
x2
238
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
36. a. y′ =
1
2 2x
b. y′ =
1
2x
37. a. y′ = sin 2t
b. y′ = cos
38. a. y′ = sec2 u
b. y′ = 2u
c. y′ = 4x t
2
1
2x
c. y′ = sin 2t + cos
t
2
c. y′ = 2u - sec2 u
In Exercises 39–42, find the function with the given derivative whose
graph passes through the point P.
39. ƒ′(x) = 2x - 1, P(0, 0)
40. g′(x) =
1
+ 2x, P(- 1, 1)
x2
3
41. ƒ′(x) = e2x, P a0, b
2
42. r′(t) = sec t tan t - 1, P(0, 0)
Finding Position from Velocity or Acceleration
Exercises 43–46 give the velocity y = ds>dt and initial position of an
object moving along a coordinate line. Find the object’s position at
time t.
43. y = 9.8t + 5, s(0) = 10
44. y = 32t - 2, s(0.5) = 4
45. y = sin pt, s(0) = 0
2t
2
46. y = p cos p , s(p2) = 1
Exercises 47–50 give the acceleration a = d 2s>dt 2, initial velocity,
and initial position of an object moving on a coordinate line. Find the
object’s position at time t.
47. a = et, y(0) = 20, s(0) = 5
48. a = 9.8, y(0) = -3, s(0) = 0
49. a = -4 sin 2t, y(0) = 2, s(0) = - 3
50. a =
9
3t
cos p , y(0) = 0, s(0) = - 1
p2
Applications
51. Temperature change It took 14 sec for a mercury thermometer
to rise from -19°C to 100°C when it was taken from a freezer
and placed in boiling water. Show that somewhere along the way
the mercury was rising at the rate of 8.5°C>sec.
52. A trucker handed in a ticket at a toll booth showing that in 2 hours
she had covered 159 mi on a toll road with speed limit 65 mph.
The trucker was cited for speeding. Why?
53. Classical accounts tell us that a 170-oar trireme (ancient Greek or
Roman warship) once covered 184 sea miles in 24 hours. Explain
why at some point during this feat the trireme’s speed exceeded
7.5 knots (sea or nautical miles per hour).
54. A marathoner ran the 26.2-mi New York City Marathon in 2.2 hours.
Show that at least twice the marathoner was running at exactly 11
mph, assuming the initial and final speeds are zero.
55. Show that at some instant during a 2-hour automobile trip the car’s
speedometer reading will equal the average speed for the trip.
56. Free fall on the moon On our moon, the acceleration of gravity
is 1.6 m>sec2. If a rock is dropped into a crevasse, how fast will it
be going just before it hits bottom 30 sec later?
Theory and Examples
57. The geometric mean of a and b The geometric mean of
two positive numbers a and b is the number 2ab. Show that
the value of c in the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem
for ƒ(x) = 1>x on an interval of positive numbers
3a, b4 is c = 2ab.
58. The arithmetic mean of a and b The arithmetic mean of two
numbers a and b is the number (a + b)>2. Show that the value of
c in the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for ƒ(x) = x2 on
any interval 3a, b4 is c = (a + b)>2.
T 59. Graph the function
ƒ(x) = sin x sin (x + 2) - sin2 (x + 1).
What does the graph do? Why does the function behave this way?
Give reasons for your answers.
60. Rolle’s Theorem
a. Construct a polynomial ƒ(x) that has zeros at x = - 2, -1, 0,
1, and 2.
b. Graph ƒ and its derivative ƒ′ together. How is what you see
related to Rolle’s Theorem?
c. Do g(x) = sin x and its derivative g′ illustrate the same phenomenon as ƒ and ƒ′?
61. Unique solution Assume that ƒ is continuous on 3a, b4 and
differentiable on (a, b). Also assume that ƒ(a) and ƒ(b) have
opposite signs and that ƒ′ ≠ 0 between a and b. Show that
ƒ(x) = 0 exactly once between a and b.
62. Parallel tangents Assume that ƒ and g are differentiable on
3a, b4 and that ƒ(a) = g(a) and ƒ(b) = g(b). Show that there is
at least one point between a and b where the tangents to the
graphs of ƒ and g are parallel or the same line. Illustrate with a
sketch.
63. Suppose that ƒ′(x) … 1 for 1 … x … 4. Show that ƒ(4) ƒ(1) … 3.
64. Suppose that 0 6 ƒ′(x) 6 1>2 for all x-values. Show that ƒ(- 1) 6
ƒ(1) 6 2 + ƒ(- 1).
65. Show that 0 cos x - 1 0 … 0 x 0 for all x-values. (Hint: Consider
ƒ(t) = cos t on 30, x4 .)
66. Show that for any numbers a and b, the sine inequality 0 sin b sin a 0 … 0 b - a 0 is true.
67. If the graphs of two differentiable functions ƒ(x) and g(x) start at
the same point in the plane and the functions have the same rate
of change at every point, do the graphs have to be identical? Give
reasons for your answer.
68. If 0 ƒ(w) - ƒ(x) 0 … 0 w - x 0 for all values w and x and ƒ is a differentiable function, show that -1 … ƒ′(x) … 1 for all x-values.
69. Assume that ƒ is differentiable on a … x … b and that ƒ(b) 6 ƒ(a).
Show that ƒ′ is negative at some point between a and b.
70. Let ƒ be a function defined on an interval 3a, b4 . What conditions could you place on ƒ to guarantee that
min ƒ′ …
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
… max ƒ′,
b - a
where min ƒ′ and max ƒ′ refer to the minimum and maximum
values of ƒ′ on 3a, b4 ? Give reasons for your answers.
239
4.3 Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test
T 71. Use the inequalities in Exercise 70 to estimate ƒ(0.1) if ƒ′(x) =
1>(1 + x4 cos x) for 0 … x … 0.1 and ƒ(0) = 1.
T 72. Use the inequalities in Exercise 70 to estimate ƒ(0.1) if ƒ′(x) =
1>(1 - x4) for 0 … x … 0.1 and ƒ(0) = 2.
73. Let ƒ be differentiable at every value of x and suppose that
ƒ(1) = 1, that ƒ′ 6 0 on (- q, 1), and that ƒ′ 7 0 on (1, q).
a. Show that ƒ(x) Ú 1 for all x.
b. Must ƒ′(1) = 0? Explain.
74. Let ƒ(x) = px2 + qx + r be a quadratic function defined on a
closed interval 3a, b4 . Show that there is exactly one point c in (a, b)
at which ƒ satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem.
75. Use the same-derivative argument, as was done to prove the
Product and Power Rules for logarithms, to prove the Quotient
Rule property.
76. Use the same-derivative argument to prove the identities
a. tan-1 x + cot-1 x =
p
2
b. sec-1 x + csc-1 x =
p
2
77. Starting with the equation ex1ex2 = ex1 + x2, derived in the text,
show that e-x = 1>ex for any real number x. Then show that
ex1 >ex2 = ex1 - x2 for any numbers x1 and x2.
78. Show that (ex1)x2 = ex1 x2 = (ex2)x1 for any numbers x1 and x2.
4.3 Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test
In sketching the graph of a differentiable function, it is useful to know where it increases
(rises from left to right) and where it decreases (falls from left to right) over an interval. This
section gives a test to determine where it increases and where it decreases. We also show how
to test the critical points of a function to identify whether local extreme values are present.
Increasing Functions and Decreasing Functions
As another corollary to the Mean Value Theorem, we show that functions with positive
derivatives are increasing functions and functions with negative derivatives are decreasing
functions. A function that is increasing or decreasing on an interval is said to be monotonic on the interval.
COROLLARY 3
(a, b).
Suppose that ƒ is continuous on 3 a, b4 and differentiable on
If ƒ′(x) 7 0 at each point x∊(a, b), then ƒ is increasing on 3 a, b4 .
If ƒ′(x) 6 0 at each point x∊(a, b), then ƒ is decreasing on 3 a, b4 .
Proof
Let x1 and x2 be any two points in 3 a, b4 with x1 6 x2. The Mean Value Theorem applied to ƒ on 3 x1, x2 4 says that
ƒ(x2) - ƒ(x1) = ƒ′(c)(x2 - x1)
for some c between x1 and x2. The sign of the right-hand side of this equation is the same
as the sign of ƒ ′(c) because x2 - x1 is positive. Therefore, ƒ(x2) 7 ƒ(x1) if ƒ′ is positive
on (a, b) and ƒ(x2) 6 ƒ(x1) if ƒ′ is negative on (a, b).
Corollary 3 tells us that ƒ(x) = 2x is increasing on the interval 3 0, b4 for any
b 7 0 because ƒ′(x) = 1> 2x is positive on (0, b). The derivative does not exist at x = 0,
but Corollary 3 still applies. The corollary is valid for infinite as well as finite intervals, so
ƒ(x) = 2x is increasing on 3 0, q).
To find the intervals where a function ƒ is increasing or decreasing, we first find all of
the critical points of ƒ. If a 6 b are two critical points for ƒ, and if the derivative ƒ′ is
continuous but never zero on the interval (a, b), then by the Intermediate Value Theorem
applied to ƒ′, the derivative must be everywhere positive on (a, b), or everywhere negative
there. One way we can determine the sign of ƒ′ on (a, b) is simply by evaluating the
derivative at a single point c in (a, b). If ƒ′(c) 7 0, then ƒ′(x) 7 0 for all x in (a, b) so ƒ
is increasing on 3 a, b4 by Corollary 3; if ƒ′(c) 6 0, then ƒ is decreasing on 3 a, b4 . The
next example illustrates how we use this procedure.
240
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
EXAMPLE 1
Find the critical points of ƒ(x) = x3 - 12x - 5 and identify the open
intervals on which ƒ is increasing and on which ƒ is decreasing.
y y = x3 − 12x − 5
20
Solution
(−2, 11)
10
−4 −3 −2 −1 0
1
2
3
ƒ′(x) = 3x2 - 12 = 3(x2 - 4)
= 3(x + 2)(x - 2)
x
4
is zero at x = -2 and x = 2. These critical points subdivide the domain of ƒ to create nonoverlapping open intervals (- q, -2), (-2, 2), and (2, q) on which ƒ′ is either positive or
negative. We determine the sign of ƒ′ by evaluating ƒ′ at a convenient point in each subinterval. The behavior of ƒ is determined by then applying Corollary 3 to each subinterval.
The results are summarized in the following table, and the graph of ƒ is given in Figure 4.20.
−10
−20
The function ƒ is everywhere continuous and differentiable. The first derivative
(2, −21)
FIGURE 4.20 The function ƒ(x) =
x3 - 12x - 5 is monotonic on three
separate intervals (Example 1).
Interval
- q 6 x 6 -2
-2 6 x 6 2
2 6 x 6 q
ƒ′(-3) = 15
ƒ′(0) = -12
-
ƒ′(3) = 15
+
decreasing
increasing
ƒ′ evaluated
+
Sign of ƒ′
increasing
Behavior of ƒ
−3
−2
0
−1
1
2
x
3
We used “strict” less-than inequalities to identify the intervals in the summary table
for Example 1, since open intervals were specified. Corollary 3 says that we could use …
inequalities as well. That is, the function ƒ in the example is increasing on - q 6 x … -2,
decreasing on -2 … x … 2, and increasing on 2 … x 6 q. We do not talk about whether
a function is increasing or decreasing at a single point.
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Edmund Halley
(1656–1742)
First Derivative Test for Local Extrema
In Figure 4.21, at the points where ƒ has a minimum value, ƒ′ 6 0 immediately to the left
and ƒ′ 7 0 immediately to the right. (If the point is an endpoint, there is only one side to
consider.) Thus, the function is decreasing on the left of the minimum value and it is
increasing on its right. Similarly, at the points where ƒ has a maximum value, ƒ′ 7 0
immediately to the left and ƒ′ 6 0 immediately to the right. Thus, the function is increasing on the left of the maximum value and decreasing on its right. In summary, at a local
extreme point, the sign of ƒ′(x) changes.
Local max
f′ = 0
No extremum
f′ = 0
f′ > 0
Absolute max
f ′ undefined
y = f(x)
No extremum
f′ = 0
f′ > 0
f′ < 0
f′ < 0
f′ < 0
Local min
Local min
f′ = 0
f′ > 0
Absolute min
a
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
b
x
FIGURE 4.21 The critical points of a function locate where it is increasing and where it is decreasing. The
first derivative changes sign at a critical point where a local extremum occurs.
These observations lead to a test for the presence and nature of local extreme values
of differentiable functions.
241
4.3 Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test
First Derivative Test for Local Extrema
Suppose that c is a critical point of a continuous function ƒ, and that ƒ is differentiable at every point in some interval containing c except possibly at c itself.
Moving across this interval from left to right,
1. if ƒ′ changes from negative to positive at c, then ƒ has a local minimum at c;
2. if ƒ′ changes from positive to negative at c, then ƒ has a local maximum at c;
3. if ƒ′ does not change sign at c (that is, ƒ′ is positive on both sides of c or
negative on both sides), then ƒ has no local extremum at c.
The test for local extrema at endpoints is similar, but there is only one side to consider in
determining whether ƒ is increasing or decreasing, based on the sign of ƒ′.
Proof of the First Derivative Test
Part (1). Since the sign of ƒ′ changes from negative to positive at c, there are numbers a and b such that a 6 c 6 b, ƒ′ 6 0 on (a, c), and
ƒ′ 7 0 on (c, b). If x∊(a, c), then ƒ(c) 6 ƒ(x) because ƒ′ 6 0 implies that ƒ is decreasing on 3 a, c4 . If x∊(c, b), then ƒ(c) 6 ƒ(x) because ƒ′ 7 0 implies that ƒ is increasing
on 3 c, b4 . Therefore, ƒ(x) Ú ƒ(c) for every x∊(a, b). By definition, ƒ has a local minimum at c.
Parts (2) and (3) are proved similarly.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the critical points of
ƒ(x) = x1>3(x - 4) = x4>3 - 4x1>3.
Identify the open intervals on which ƒ is increasing and decreasing. Find the function’s
local and absolute extreme values.
Solution The function ƒ is continuous at all x since it is the product of two continuous
functions, x1>3 and (x - 4). The first derivative
d 4>3
4
4
(x - 4x1>3) = x1>3 - x-2>3
3
3
dx
4(x
1)
4
= x-2>3(x - 1) =
3
3x2>3
is zero at x = 1 and undefined at x = 0. There are no endpoints in the domain, so the
critical points x = 0 and x = 1 are the only places where ƒ might have an extreme value.
The critical points partition the x-axis into open intervals on which ƒ′ is either positive or negative. The sign pattern of ƒ′ reveals the behavior of ƒ between and at the critical
points, as summarized in the following table.
ƒ′(x) =
Interval
Sign of ƒ′
y
4
y = x1!3(x − 4)
1
1
2
3
4
x
−2
−3
0 6 x 6 1
-
x 7 1
+
decreasing
decreasing
increasing
−1
2
−1 0
−1
Behavior of ƒ
x 6 0
-
(1, −3)
FIGURE 4.22 The function ƒ(x) =
x1>3(x - 4) decreases when x 6 1 and
increases when x 7 1 (Example 2).
0
1
x
2
Corollary 3 to the Mean Value Theorem implies that ƒ decreases on (- q, 0),
decreases on (0, 1), and increases on (1, q). The First Derivative Test for Local Extrema
tells us that ƒ does not have an extreme value at x = 0 (ƒ′ does not change sign) and that
ƒ has a local minimum at x = 1 (ƒ′ changes from negative to positive).
The value of the local minimum is ƒ(1) = 11>3(1 - 4) = -3. This is also an absolute
minimum since ƒ is decreasing on (- q, 1) and increasing on (1, q). Figure 4.22 shows
this value in relation to the function’s graph.
Note that limx S 0 ƒ′(x) = - q, so the graph of ƒ has a vertical tangent at the origin.
242
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
EXAMPLE 3
Find the critical points of
ƒ(x) = (x2 - 3)ex.
Identify the open intervals on which ƒ is increasing and decreasing. Find the function’s
local and absolute extreme values.
Solution The function ƒ is continuous and differentiable for all real numbers, so the
critical points occur only at the zeros of ƒ′.
Using the Derivative Product Rule, we find the derivative
ƒ′(x) = (x2 - 3) #
d x
d 2
e +
(x - 3) # ex
dx
dx
= (x2 - 3) # ex + (2x) # ex
= (x2 + 2x - 3)ex.
Since ex is never zero, the first derivative is zero if and only if
y
x2 + 2x - 3 = 0
(x + 3)(x - 1) = 0.
y = (x 2 − 3)e x
The zeros x = -3 and x = 1 partition the x-axis into open intervals as follows.
4
3
2
1
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1
2
3
x
Interval
Sign of ƒ′
Behavior of ƒ
−2
x 6 -3
+
-3 6 x 6 1
-
1 6 x
+
increasing
decreasing
increasing
−4
−3
−3
−2
0
−1
1
2
x
3
−4
We can see from the table that there is a local maximum (about 0.299) at x = -3 and
a local minimum (about -5.437) at x = 1. The local minimum value is also an absolute minimum because ƒ(x) 7 0 for 0 x 0 7 23. There is no absolute maximum. The
function increases on (- q, -3) and (1, q) and decreases on (-3, 1). Figure 4.23
shows the graph.
−5
−6
FIGURE 4.23 The graph of
ƒ(x) = (x2 - 3)ex (Example 3).
Exercises
4.3
Analyzing Functions from Derivatives
Answer the following questions about the functions whose derivatives
are given in Exercises 1–14:
a. What are the critical points of ƒ?
b. On what open intervals is ƒ increasing or decreasing?
c. At what points, if any, does ƒ assume local maximum and minimum values?
1. ƒ′(x) = x(x - 1)
2. ƒ′(x) = (x - 1)(x + 2)
3. ƒ′(x) = (x - 1)2(x + 2)
4. ƒ′(x) = (x - 1)2(x + 2)2
5. ƒ′(x) = (x - 1)e-x
6. ƒ′(x) = (x - 7)(x +
x2(x - 1)
7. ƒ′(x) =
,
x + 2
(x - 2)(x +
8. ƒ′(x) =
(x + 1)(x 9. ƒ′(x) = 1 -
14. ƒ′(x) = (sin x + cos x)(sin x - cos x), 0 … x … 2p
Identifying Extrema
In Exercises 15–44:
a. Find the open intervals on which the function is increasing and
decreasing.
b. Identify the function’s local and absolute extreme values, if
any, saying where they occur.
1
4)
, x ≠ - 1, 3
3)
10. ƒ′(x) = 3 -
6
2x
−3 −2 −1
−1
, x≠0
−2
y
16.
y
2
x ≠ -2
12. ƒ′(x) = x-1>2(x - 3)
13. ƒ′(x) = (sin x - 1)(2 cos x + 1), 0 … x … 2p
15.
1)(x + 5)
4
, x≠0
x2
11. ƒ′(x) = x-1>3(x + 2)
2
y = f (x)
1
2
1
3
x
−3 −2 −1
−1
−2
y = f (x)
1
2
3
x
4.3 Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test
17.
18.
y
243
57. ƒ(x) = sin 2x, 0 … x … p
y
58. ƒ(x) = sin x - cos x, 0 … x … 2p
2
1
y = f (x)
1
−3 −2 −1
−1
2
2
y = f (x)
3
x
1
−3 −2 −1
−1
−2
1
2
3
x
−2
59. ƒ(x) = 23 cos x + sin x,
-p
60. ƒ(x) = - 2x + tan x,
2
x
x
61. ƒ(x) = - 2 sin , 0 …
2
2
62. ƒ(x) = - 2 cos x - cos2 x,
0 … x … 2p
p
6 x 6
2
x … 2p
-p … x … p
2
19. g(t) = -t 2 - 3t + 3
20. g(t) = - 3t 2 + 9t + 5
21. h(x) = -x3 + 2x2
22. h(x) = 2x3 - 18x
23. ƒ(u) = 3u 2 - 4u 3
24. ƒ(u) = 6u - u 3
3
25. ƒ(r) = 3r + 16r
26. h(r) = (r + 7)3
27. ƒ(x) = x4 - 8x2 + 16
28. g(x) = x4 - 4x3 + 4x2
29. H(t) =
3 4
t - t6
2
31. ƒ(x) = x - 6 2x - 1
33. g(x) = x 28 - x2
32. g(x) = 4 2x - x2 + 3
34. g(x) = x2 25 - x
37. ƒ(x) = x1>3(x + 8)
x3
3x + 1
38. g(x) = x2>3(x + 5)
39. h(x) = x1>3(x2 - 4)
40. k(x) = x2>3(x2 - 4)
35. ƒ(x) =
2
30. K(t) = 15t 3 - t 5
x - 3
, x≠2
x - 2
2x
41. ƒ(x) = e
-x
+ e
43. ƒ(x) = x ln x
36. ƒ(x) =
42. ƒ(x) = e
2
2x
44. ƒ(x) = x2 ln x
In Exercises 45–56:
a. Identify the function’s local extreme values in the given
domain, and say where they occur.
b. Which of the extreme values, if any, are absolute?
T c. Support your findings with a graphing calculator or computer
grapher.
45. ƒ(x) = 2x - x2, - q 6 x … 2
46. ƒ(x) = (x + 1)2, - q 6 x … 0
47. g(x) = x2 - 4x + 4, 1 … x 6 q
48. g(x) = -x2 - 6x - 9, - 4 … x 6 q
49. ƒ(t) = 12t - t 3, -3 … t 6 q
50. ƒ(t) = t 3 - 3t 2, - q 6 t … 3
x3
- 2x2 + 4x, 0 … x 6 q
3
52. k(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1, - q 6 x … 0
51. h(x) =
53. ƒ(x) = 225 - x2, - 5 … x … 5
54. ƒ(x) = 2x2 - 2x - 3, 3 … x 6 q
x - 2
, 0 … x 6 1
x2 - 1
2
x
, -2 6 x … 1
56. g(x) =
4 - x2
55. g(x) =
In Exercises 57–64:
a. Find the local extrema of each function on the given interval,
and say where they occur.
T b. Graph the function and its derivative together. Comment on the
behavior of ƒ in relation to the signs and values of ƒ′.
63. ƒ(x) = csc x - 2 cot x, 0 6 x 6 p
-p
p
6 x 6
64. ƒ(x) = sec2 x - 2 tan x,
2
2
Theory and Examples
Show that the functions in Exercises 65 and 66 have local extreme
values at the given values of u, and say which kind of local extreme
the function has.
u
65. h(u) = 3 cos , 0 … u … 2p, at u = 0 and u = 2p
2
u
66. h(u) = 5 sin , 0 … u … p, at u = 0 and u = p
2
67. Sketch the graph of a differentiable function y = ƒ(x) through
the point (1, 1) if ƒ′(1) = 0 and
a. ƒ′(x) 7 0 for x 6 1 and ƒ′(x) 6 0 for x 7 1;
b. ƒ′(x) 6 0 for x 6 1 and ƒ′(x) 7 0 for x 7 1;
c. ƒ′(x) 7 0 for x ≠ 1;
d. ƒ′(x) 6 0 for x ≠ 1.
68. Sketch the graph of a differentiable function y = ƒ(x) that has
a. a local minimum at (1, 1) and a local maximum at (3, 3);
b. a local maximum at (1, 1) and a local minimum at (3, 3);
c. local maxima at (1, 1) and (3, 3);
d. local minima at (1, 1) and (3, 3).
69. Sketch the graph of a continuous function y = g(x) such that
a. g(2) = 2, 0 6 g′ 6 1 for x 6 2, g′(x) S 1- as x S 2-,
- 1 6 g′ 6 0 for x 7 2, and g′(x) S -1+ as x S 2+;
b. g(2) = 2, g′ 6 0 for x 6 2, g′(x) S - q as x S 2-,
g′ 7 0 for x 7 2, and g′(x) S q as x S 2+.
70. Sketch the graph of a continuous function y = h(x) such that
a. h(0) = 0, -2 … h(x) … 2 for all x, h′(x) S q as x S 0-,
and h′(x) S q as x S 0+;
b. h(0) = 0, -2 … h(x) … 0 for all x, h′(x) S q as x S 0-,
and h′(x) S - q as x S 0+.
71. Discuss the extreme-value behavior of the function ƒ(x) =
x sin (1>x), x ≠ 0. How many critical points does this function
have? Where are they located on the x-axis? Does ƒ have an absolute minimum? An absolute maximum? (See Exercise 49 in
Section 2.3.)
72. Find the open intervals on which the function ƒ(x) = ax2 +
bx + c, a ≠ 0, is increasing and decreasing. Describe the
reasoning behind your answer.
73. Determine the values of constants a and b so that ƒ(x) =
ax2 + bx has an absolute maximum at the point (1, 2).
74. Determine the values of constants a, b, c, and d so that
ƒ(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d has a local maximum at the point
(0, 0) and a local minimum at the point (1, - 1).
244
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
75. Locate and identify the absolute extreme values of
79. Find the absolute maximum value of ƒ(x) = x2 ln (1>x) and say
where it is assumed.
a. ln (cos x) on 3- p>4, p>34,
80. a. Prove that ex Ú 1 + x if x Ú 0.
b. cos (ln x) on 31>2, 24.
b. Use the result in part (a) to show that
76. a. Prove that ƒ(x) = x - ln x is increasing for x 7 1.
b. Using part (a), show that ln x 6 x if x 7 1.
77. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ƒ(x) =
ex - 2x on 30, 14 .
78. Where does the periodic function ƒ(x) = 2esin (x>2) take on its
extreme values and what are these values?
y
y = 2e sin (x!2)
ex Ú 1 + x +
81. Show that increasing functions and decreasing functions are oneto-one. That is, show that for any x1 and x2 in I, x2 ≠ x1 implies
ƒ(x2) ≠ ƒ(x1).
Use the results of Exercise 81 to show that the functions in Exercises
82–86 have inverses over their domains. Find a formula for dƒ -1 >dx
using Theorem 3, Section 3.8.
82. ƒ(x) = (1>3)x + (5>6)
x
0
1 2
x.
2
84. ƒ(x) = 1 - 8x
3
83. ƒ(x) = 27x3
85. ƒ(x) = (1 - x)3
86. ƒ(x) = x5>3
4.4 Concavity and Curve Sketching
y
CA
VE
UP
y = x3
CO
N
W
0
f ′ increases
x
CO
NC
AV
E
DO
f ′ decreases
N
FIGURE 4.24 The graph of ƒ(x) = x3
is concave down on (- q, 0) and concave
up on (0, q) (Example 1a).
We have seen how the first derivative tells us where a function is increasing, where it is
decreasing, and whether a local maximum or local minimum occurs at a critical point. In
this section we see that the second derivative gives us information about how the graph of
a differentiable function bends or turns. With this knowledge about the first and second
derivatives, coupled with our previous understanding of symmetry and asymptotic behavior studied in Sections 1.1 and 2.6, we can now draw an accurate graph of a function. By
organizing all of these ideas into a coherent procedure, we give a method for sketching
graphs and revealing visually the key features of functions. Identifying and knowing the
locations of these features is of major importance in mathematics and its applications to
science and engineering, especially in the graphical analysis and interpretation of data.
Concavity
As you can see in Figure 4.24, the curve y = x3 rises as x increases, but the portions
defined on the intervals (- q, 0) and (0, q) turn in different ways. As we approach the
origin from the left along the curve, the curve turns to our right and falls below its tangents. The slopes of the tangents are decreasing on the interval (- q, 0). As we move
away from the origin along the curve to the right, the curve turns to our left and rises above
its tangents. The slopes of the tangents are increasing on the interval (0, q). This turning
or bending behavior defines the concavity of the curve.
DEFINITION The graph of a differentiable function y = ƒ(x) is
(a) concave up on an open interval I if ƒ′ is increasing on I;
(b) concave down on an open interval I if ƒ′ is decreasing on I.
If y = ƒ(x) has a second derivative, we can apply Corollary 3 of the Mean Value Theorem
to the first derivative function. We conclude that ƒ′ increases if ƒ″ 7 0 on I, and decreases
if ƒ″ 6 0.
4.4 Concavity and Curve Sketching
The Second Derivative Test for Concavity
Let y = ƒ(x) be twice-differentiable on an interval I.
y
4
y = x2
1. If ƒ″ 7 0 on I, the graph of ƒ over I is concave up.
2. If ƒ″ 6 0 on I, the graph of ƒ over I is concave down.
CA
CON
P
−2
−1
1
CO
NC
AV
E
U
VE
y″ > 0
UP
3
2
245
0
1
If y = ƒ(x) is twice-differentiable, we will use the notations ƒ″ and y″ interchangeably
when denoting the second derivative.
y″ > 0
x
2
EXAMPLE 1
FIGURE 4.25 The graph of ƒ(x) = x2
is concave up on every interval
(Example 1b).
(a) The curve y = x3 (Figure 4.24) is concave down on (- q, 0) where y″ = 6x 6 0 and
concave up on (0, q) where y″ = 6x 7 0.
(b) The curve y = x2 (Figure 4.25) is concave up on (- q, q) because its second derivative y″ = 2 is always positive.
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the concavity of y = 3 + sin x on 3 0, 2p4 .
Solution The first derivative of y = 3 + sin x is y′ = cos x, and the second derivative
is y″ = -sin x. The graph of y = 3 + sin x is concave down on (0, p), where y″ = -sin x
is negative. It is concave up on (p, 2p), where y″ = -sin x is positive (Figure 4.26).
Points of Inflection
y
4
3
y = 3 + sin x
(p, 3)
2
1
0
−1
p
2p
x
The curve y = 3 + sin x in Example 2 changes concavity at the point (p, 3). Since the
first derivative y′ = cos x exists for all x, we see that the curve has a tangent line of slope
-1 at the point (p, 3). This point is called a point of inflection of the curve. Notice from
Figure 4.26 that the graph crosses its tangent line at this point and that the second derivative y″ = -sin x has value 0 when x = p. In general, we have the following definition.
y″ = −sin x
FIGURE 4.26 Using the sign of y″ to
determine the concavity of y (Example 2).
DEFINITION A point (c, ƒ(c)) where the graph of a function has a tangent line
and where the concavity changes is a point of inflection.
We observed that the second derivative of ƒ(x) = 3 + sin x is equal to zero at the
inflection point (p, 3). Generally, if the second derivative exists at a point of inflection
(c, ƒ(c)), then ƒ″(c) = 0. This follows immediately from the Intermediate Value Theorem
whenever ƒ″ is continuous over an interval containing x = c because the second derivative changes sign moving across this interval. Even if the continuity assumption is dropped,
it is still true that ƒ″(c) = 0, provided the second derivative exists (although a more
advanced argument is required in this noncontinuous case). Since a tangent line must exist
at the point of inflection, either the first derivative ƒ′(c) exists (is finite) or the graph has a
vertical tangent at the point. At a vertical tangent neither the first nor second derivative
exists. In summary, we conclude the following result.
At a point of inflection (c, ƒ(c)), either ƒ″(c) = 0 or ƒ″(c) fails to exist.
The next example illustrates a function having a point of inflection where the first
derivative exists, but the second derivative fails to exist.
246
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
EXAMPLE 3
y
y=
2
ƒ′(x) = (5>3)x
x5!3
2>3
The graph of ƒ(x) = x5>3 has a horizontal tangent at the origin because
= 0 when x = 0. However, the second derivative
ƒ″(x) =
1
0
−1
1
Point of
inflection
−1
x
d 5 2>3
10 -1>3
a x b =
x
9
dx 3
fails to exist at x = 0. Nevertheless, ƒ″(x) 6 0 for x 6 0 and ƒ″(x) 7 0 for x 7 0, so
the second derivative changes sign at x = 0 and there is a point of inflection at the origin.
The graph is shown in Figure 4.27.
−2
FIGURE 4.27 The graph of ƒ(x) = x5>3
has a horizontal tangent at the origin where
the concavity changes, although ƒ″ does
not exist at x = 0 (Example 3).
Here is an example showing that an inflection point need not occur even though both
derivatives exist and ƒ″ = 0.
EXAMPLE 4
The curve y = x4 has no inflection point at x = 0 (Figure 4.28). Even
though the second derivative y″ = 12x2 is zero there, it does not change sign.
As our final illustration, we show a situation in which a point of inflection occurs at a
vertical tangent to the curve where neither the first nor the second derivative exists.
y
y = x4
2
EXAMPLE 5
The graph of y = x1>3 has a point of inflection at the origin because the
second derivative is positive for x 6 0 and negative for x 7 0:
1
y″ = 0
−1
0
1
x
y″ =
FIGURE 4.28 The graph of y = x4
has no inflection point at the origin, even
though y″ = 0 there (Example 4).
y
Point of
inflection
y = x1!3
0
x
FIGURE 4.29 A point of inflection
where y′ and y″ fail to exist (Example 5).
d 2 1>3
d 1 -2>3
2
1 x 2 = dx
a x b = - x-5>3.
3
9
dx2
However, both y′ = x-2>3 >3 and y″ fail to exist at x = 0, and there is a vertical tangent
there. See Figure 4.29.
Caution Example 4 in Section 4.1 (Figure 4.9) shows that the function ƒ(x) = x2>3 does
not have a second derivative at x = 0 and does not have a point of inflection there (there is
no change in concavity at x = 0). Combined with the behavior of the function in Example
5 above, we see that when the second derivative does not exist at x = c, an inflection
point may or may not occur there. So we need to be careful about interpreting functional
behavior whenever first or second derivatives fail to exist at a point. At such points the
graph can have vertical tangents, corners, cusps, or various discontinuities.
To study the motion of an object moving along a line as a function of time, we often
are interested in knowing when the object’s acceleration, given by the second derivative, is
positive or negative. The points of inflection on the graph of the object’s position function
reveal where the acceleration changes sign.
EXAMPLE 6
A particle is moving along a horizontal coordinate line (positive to the
right) with position function
s(t) = 2t 3 - 14t 2 + 22t - 5,
t Ú 0.
Find the velocity and acceleration, and describe the motion of the particle.
Solution
The velocity is
y(t) = s′(t) = 6t 2 - 28t + 22 = 2(t - 1)(3t - 11),
and the acceleration is
a(t) = y′(t) = s″(t) = 12t - 28 = 4(3t - 7).
When the function s(t) is increasing, the particle is moving to the right; when s(t) is
decreasing, the particle is moving to the left.
Notice that the first derivative (y = s′) is zero at the critical points t = 1 and t = 11>3.
4.4 Concavity and Curve Sketching
Interval
Sign of Y = s′
Behavior of s
Particle motion
0 6 t 6 1
+
increasing
right
1 6 t 6 11>3
decreasing
left
247
11>3 6 t
+
increasing
right
The particle is moving to the right in the time intervals 3 0, 1) and (11>3, q), and moving
to the left in (1, 11>3). It is momentarily stationary (at rest) at t = 1 and t = 11>3.
The acceleration a(t) = s″(t) = 4(3t - 7) is zero when t = 7>3.
Interval
Sign of a = s″
Graph of s
0 6 t 6 7>3
concave down
7>3 6 t
+
concave up
The particle starts out moving to the right while slowing down, and then reverses and
begins moving to the left at t = 1 under the influence of the leftward acceleration over the
time interval 3 0, 7>3). The acceleration then changes direction at t = 7>3 but the particle
continues moving leftward, while slowing down under the rightward acceleration. At
t = 11>3 the particle reverses direction again: moving to the right in the same direction as
the acceleration, so it is speeding up.
Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema
Instead of looking for sign changes in ƒ′ at critical points, we can sometimes use the following test to determine the presence and nature of local extrema.
THEOREM 5—Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema Suppose ƒ″ is
continuous on an open interval that contains x = c.
1. If ƒ′(c) = 0 and ƒ″(c) 6 0, then ƒ has a local maximum at x = c.
2. If ƒ′(c) = 0 and ƒ″(c) 7 0, then ƒ has a local minimum at x = c.
3. If ƒ′(c) = 0 and ƒ″(c) = 0, then the test fails. The function ƒ may have a
local maximum, a local minimum, or neither.
f ′ = 0, f ″ < 0
1 local max
f ′ = 0, f ″ > 0
1 local min
Proof
Part (1). If ƒ″(c) 6 0, then ƒ″(x) 6 0 on some open interval I containing the
point c, since ƒ″ is continuous. Therefore, ƒ′ is decreasing on I. Since ƒ′(c) = 0, the sign
of ƒ′ changes from positive to negative at c so ƒ has a local maximum at c by the First
Derivative Test.
The proof of Part (2) is similar.
For Part (3), consider the three functions y = x4, y = -x4, and y = x3. For each
function, the first and second derivatives are zero at x = 0. Yet the function y = x4 has a
local minimum there, y = -x4 has a local maximum, and y = x3 is increasing in any
open interval containing x = 0 (having neither a maximum nor a minimum there). Thus
the test fails.
This test requires us to know ƒ″ only at c itself and not in an interval about c. This
makes the test easy to apply. That’s the good news. The bad news is that the test is inconclusive if ƒ″ = 0 or if ƒ″ does not exist at x = c. When this happens, use the First Derivative Test for local extreme values.
248
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
Together ƒ′ and ƒ″ tell us the shape of the function’s graph—that is, where the critical
points are located and what happens at a critical point, where the function is increasing and
where it is decreasing, and how the curve is turning or bending as defined by its concavity.
We use this information to sketch a graph of the function that captures its key features.
EXAMPLE 7
Sketch a graph of the function
ƒ(x) = x4 - 4x3 + 10
using the following steps.
(a) Identify where the extrema of ƒ occur.
(b) Find the intervals on which ƒ is increasing and the intervals on which ƒ is decreasing.
(c) Find where the graph of ƒ is concave up and where it is concave down.
(d) Sketch the general shape of the graph for ƒ.
(e) Plot some specific points, such as local maximum and minimum points, points of
inflection, and intercepts. Then sketch the curve.
Solution The function ƒ is continuous since ƒ′(x) = 4x3 - 12x2 exists. The domain of
ƒ is (- q, q), and the domain of ƒ′ is also (- q, q). Thus, the critical points of ƒ occur
only at the zeros of ƒ′. Since
ƒ′(x) = 4x3 - 12x2 = 4x2(x - 3),
the first derivative is zero at x = 0 and x = 3. We use these critical points to define intervals where ƒ is increasing or decreasing.
Interval
Sign of ƒ′
Behavior of ƒ
x 6 0
decreasing
0 6 x 6 3
decreasing
3 6 x
+
increasing
(a) Using the First Derivative Test for local extrema and the table above, we see that there
is no extremum at x = 0 and a local minimum at x = 3.
(b) Using the table above, we see that ƒ is decreasing on (- q, 04 and 3 0, 34 , and
increasing on 3 3, q).
(c) ƒ″(x) = 12x2 - 24x = 12x(x - 2) is zero at x = 0 and x = 2. We use these points
to define intervals where ƒ is concave up or concave down.
Interval
Sign of ƒ″
Behavior of ƒ
x 6 0
+
concave up
0 6 x 6 2
concave down
2 6 x
+
concave up
We see that ƒ is concave up on the intervals (- q, 0) and (2, q), and concave down
on (0, 2).
(d) Summarizing the information in the last two tables, we obtain the following.
x * 0
decreasing
concave up
0 * x * 2
2 * x * 3
3 * x
decreasing
concave down
decreasing
concave up
increasing
concave up
4.4 Concavity and Curve Sketching
The general shape of the curve is shown in the accompanying figure.
y
20
y=
x4
−
4x 3
+ 10
15
Inflection 10
point
5
−1
0
−5
−10
(0, 10)
1
Inflection
point
2
3
4
(2, −6)
−15
−20
249
(3, −17)
Local
minimum
FIGURE 4.30 The graph of ƒ(x) =
x4 - 4x3 + 10 (Example 7).
x
decr
decr
decr
incr
conc
up
conc
down
conc
up
conc
up
0
2
3
infl
point
infl
point
local
min
General shape
(e) Plot the curve’s intercepts (if possible) and the points where y′ and y″ are zero. Indicate
any local extreme values and inflection points. Use the general shape as a guide to sketch
the curve. (Plot additional points as needed.) Figure 4.30 shows the graph of ƒ.
The steps in Example 7 give a procedure for graphing the key features of a function.
Asymptotes were defined and discussed in Section 2.6. We can find them for rational functions,
and the methods in the next section give tools to help find them for more general functions.
Procedure for Graphing y = ƒ(x)
1. Identify the domain of ƒ and any symmetries the curve may have.
2. Find the derivatives y′ and y″.
3. Find the critical points of ƒ, if any, and identify the function’s behavior at
each one.
4. Find where the curve is increasing and where it is decreasing.
5. Find the points of inflection, if any occur, and determine the concavity of the
curve.
6. Identify any asymptotes that may exist.
7. Plot key points, such as the intercepts and the points found in Steps 3–5, and
sketch the curve together with any asymptotes that exist.
EXAMPLE 8
Sketch the graph of ƒ(x) =
(x + 1)2
.
1 + x2
Solution
1. The domain of ƒ is (- q, q) and there are no symmetries about either axis or the origin (Section 1.1).
2. Find ƒ′ and ƒ″.
(x + 1)2
1 + x2
(1 + x2) # 2(x + 1) - (x + 1)2 # 2x
ƒ′(x) =
(1 + x2)2
2(1 - x2)
=
(1 + x2)2
ƒ(x) =
ƒ″(x) =
=
x@intercept at x = - 1,
y@intercept (y = 1) at
x = 0
Critical points: x = - 1, x = 1
(1 + x2)2 # 2( -2x) - 2(1 - x2) 3 2(1 + x2) # 2x4
(1 + x2)4
4x(x2 - 3)
(1 + x2)3
After some algebra
3. Behavior at critical points. The critical points occur only at x = {1 where ƒ′(x) = 0
(Step 2) since ƒ′ exists everywhere over the domain of ƒ. At x = -1, ƒ″(-1) = 1 7 0,
yielding a relative minimum by the Second Derivative Test. At x = 1, f″(1) = -1 6 0,
yielding a relative maximum by the Second Derivative test.
250
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
4. Increasing and decreasing. We see that on the interval (- q, -1) the derivative
ƒ′(x) 6 0, and the curve is decreasing. On the interval (-1, 1), ƒ′(x) 7 0 and the
curve is increasing; it is decreasing on (1, q) where ƒ′(x) 6 0 again.
5. Inflection points. Notice that the denominator of the second derivative (Step 2) is
always positive. The second derivative ƒ″ is zero when x = - 23, 0, and 23. The second derivative changes sign at each of these points: negative on 1 - q, - 23 2,
positive on 1 - 23, 0 2, negative on 1 0, 23 2, and positive again on 1 23, q 2. Thus
each point is a point of inflection. The curve is concave down on the interval
1 - q, - 23 2, concave up on 1 - 23, 0 2, concave down on 1 0, 23 2, and concave up
again on 1 23, q 2.
6. Asymptotes. Expanding the numerator of ƒ(x) and then dividing both numerator and
denominator by x2 gives
(x + 1)2 x2 + 2x + 1
=
1 + x2
1 + x2
1 + (2>x) + (1>x2)
.
=
(1>x2) + 1
ƒ(x) =
y
2
(1, 2)
Point of inflection
where x = " 3
y=1
1
Horizontal
asymptote
−1
Point of inflection
where x = − " 3
1
FIGURE 4.31 The graph of y =
(Example 8).
x
(x + 1)2
1 + x2
Expanding numerator
Dividing by x2
We see that ƒ(x) S 1+ as x S q and that ƒ(x) S 1- as x S - q. Thus, the line
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.
Since ƒ decreases on (- q, -1) and then increases on (-1, 1), we know that
ƒ(-1) = 0 is a local minimum. Although ƒ decreases on (1, q), it never crosses the
horizontal asymptote y = 1 on that interval (it approaches the asymptote from above).
So the graph never becomes negative, and ƒ(-1) = 0 is an absolute minimum as
well. Likewise, ƒ(1) = 2 is an absolute maximum because the graph never crosses
the asymptote y = 1 on the interval (- q, -1), approaching it from below. Therefore,
there are no vertical asymptotes (the range of ƒ is 0 … y … 2).
7. The graph of ƒ is sketched in Figure 4.31. Notice how the graph is concave down as it
approaches the horizontal asymptote y = 1 as x S - q, and concave up in its
approach to y = 1 as x S q.
EXAMPLE 9
Sketch the graph of ƒ(x) =
x2 + 4
.
2x
Solution
1. The domain of ƒ is all nonzero real numbers. There are no intercepts because neither x
nor ƒ(x) can be zero. Since ƒ(-x) = -ƒ(x), we note that ƒ is an odd function, so the
graph of ƒ is symmetric about the origin.
2. We calculate the derivatives of the function, but first rewrite it in order to simplify our
computations:
ƒ(x) =
x2 + 4
x
2
= + x
2x
2
x2 - 4
1
2
=
2 x2
2x2
4
ƒ″(x) = 3
x
ƒ′(x) =
Function simplified for differentiation
Combine fractions to solve easily ƒ′(x) = 0.
Exists throughout the entire domain of ƒ
3. The critical points occur at x = {2 where ƒ′(x) = 0. Since ƒ″(-2) 6 0 and
ƒ″(2) 7 0, we see from the Second Derivative Test that a relative maximum occurs
at x = -2 with ƒ(-2) = -2, and a relative minimum occurs at x = 2 with
ƒ(2) = 2.
4.4 Concavity and Curve Sketching
y
y=
2
−4
−2
(−2, −2)
4. On the interval (- q, -2) the derivative ƒ′ is positive because x2 - 4 7 0 so the
graph is increasing; on the interval (-2, 0) the derivative is negative and the graph is
decreasing. Similarly, the graph is decreasing on the interval (0, 2) and increasing on
(2, q).
5. There are no points of inflection because ƒ″(x) 6 0 whenever x 6 0, ƒ″(x) 7 0
whenever x 7 0, and ƒ″ exists everywhere and is never zero throughout the domain
of ƒ. The graph is concave down on the interval (- q, 0) and concave up on the
interval (0, q).
6. From the rewritten formula for ƒ(x), we see that
x2
+4
2x
4
(2, 2)
y= x
2
0
2
4
x
−2
−4
FIGURE 4.32 The graph of y =
(Example 9).
251
lim a
x2 + 4
2x
xS0 +
x
2
+ x b = + q and
2
lim a
xS0 -
x
2
+ x b = - q,
2
so the y-axis is a vertical asymptote. Also, as x S q or as x S - q, the graph of ƒ(x)
approaches the line y = x>2. Thus y = x>2 is an oblique asymptote.
7. The graph of ƒ is sketched in Figure 4.32.
EXAMPLE 10
Sketch the graph of ƒ(x) = e2>x.
Solution The domain of ƒ is (- q, 0)h(0, q) and there are no symmetries about either
axis or the origin. The derivatives of ƒ are
ƒ′(x) = e2>x a-
and
y
5
ƒ″(x) = y = e 2!x
4
3
Inflection 2
point
1
−2
−1
y=1
0
1
2
3
x
FIGURE 4.33 The graph of y = e2>x
has a point of inflection at (-1, e-2).
The line y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote
and x = 0 is a vertical asymptote
(Example 10).
2e2>x
2
b = - 2
2
x
x
x2(2e2>x)(-2>x2) - 2e2>x(2x)
x4
=
4e2>x(1 + x)
.
x4
Both derivatives exist everywhere over the domain of ƒ. Moreover, since e2>x and x2 are
both positive for all x ≠ 0, we see that ƒ′ 6 0 everywhere over the domain and the graph
is everywhere decreasing. Examining the second derivative, we see that ƒ″(x) = 0 at
x = -1. Since e2>x 7 0 and x4 7 0, we have ƒ″ 6 0 for x 6 -1 and ƒ″ 7 0 for
x 7 -1, x ≠ 0. Therefore, the point (-1, e-2) is a point of inflection. The curve is concave down on the interval (- q, -1) and concave up over (-1, 0) h (0, q).
From Example 7, Section 2.6, we see that limx S 0- ƒ(x) = 0. As x S 0+, we see that
2>x S q, so limx S 0+ ƒ(x) = q and the y-axis is a vertical asymptote. Also, as
x S - q or x S q, 2>x S 0 and so limx S - q ƒ(x) = limx Sq ƒ(x) = e0 = 1. Therefore,
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. There are no absolute extrema, since ƒ never takes on the
value 0 and has no absolute maximum. The graph of ƒ is sketched in Figure 4.33.
Graphical Behavior of Functions from Derivatives
As we saw in Examples 7–10, we can learn much about a twice-differentiable function
y = ƒ(x) by examining its first derivative. We can find where the function’s graph
rises and falls and where any local extrema are located. We can differentiate y′ to
learn how the graph bends as it passes over the intervals of rise and fall. We can determine
the shape of the function’s graph. Information we cannot get from the derivative is
how to place the graph in the xy-plane. But, as we discovered in Section 4.2, the only
additional information we need to position the graph is the value of ƒ at one point.
Information about the asymptotes is found using limits (Section 2.6). The following
252
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
figure summarizes how the first derivative and second derivative affect the shape of a
graph.
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
Differentiable 1
smooth, connected; graph
may rise and fall
y′ > 0 1 rises from
left to right;
may be wavy
or
y = f (x)
y′ < 0 1 falls from
left to right;
may be wavy
−
or
+
y″ > 0 1 concave up
throughout; no waves; graph
may rise or fall
+
−
or
−
2.
3
2
y = x − x − 2x + 1
3
3
2
y
4
y = x − 2x2 + 4
4
y
y′ = 0 and y″ > 0
at a point; graph has
local minimum
6.
p
p
y = x + sin 2x, − 2p ≤ x ≤ 2p
y = tan x − 4x, − < x <
3
2
3
2
y
y
2p
3
0
2p
3
7. y = sin 0 x 0 , −2p ≤ x ≤ 2p
y
0
y = 3 (x 2 − 1)2!3
4
y
0
5.
−
x
0
3.
y′ = 0 and y″ < 0
at a point; graph has
local maximum
4.4
Analyzing Functions from Graphs
Identify the inflection points and local maxima and minima of the
functions graphed in Exercises 1–8. Identify the intervals on which
the functions are concave up and concave down.
1.
y″ changes sign at an
inflection point
+
y′ changes sign 1 graph
has local maximum or local
minimum
Exercises
y″ < 0 1 concave down
throughout; no waves;
graph may rise or fall
4.
x
x
0
y = 9 x1!3(x 2 − 7)
14
y
0
x
x
x
0
8. y = 2 cos x − 2 x, −p ≤ x ≤ 3p
"
2
y
−p
0
3p
2
x
NOT TO SCALE
Graphing Functions
In Exercises 9–58, identify the coordinates of any local and absolute
extreme points and inflection points. Graph the function.
x
9. y = x2 - 4x + 3
11. y = x3 - 3x + 3
10. y = 6 - 2x - x2
12. y = x(6 - 2x)2
253
4.4 Concavity and Curve Sketching
13. y = - 2x3 + 6x2 - 3
14. y = 1 - 9x - 6x2 - x3
15. y = (x - 2)3 + 1
16. y = 1 - (x + 1)3
17. y = x4 - 2x2 = x2(x2 - 2)
18. y = - x4 + 6x2 - 4 = x2(6 - x2) - 4
19. y = 4x3 - x4 = x3(4 - x)
20. y = x4 + 2x3 = x3(x + 2)
21. y = x5 - 5x4 = x4(x - 5)
22. y = xa
65. y′ = (8x - 5x2)(4 - x)2
66. y′ = (x2 - 2x)(x - 5)2
p
p
67. y′ = sec2 x, - 6 x 6
2
2
p
p
68. y′ = tan x, - 6 x 6
2
2
u
u
69. y′ = cot , 0 6 u 6 2p 70. y′ = csc2 , 0 6 u 6 2p
2
2
p
p
71. y′ = tan2 u - 1, - 6 u 6
2
2
72. y′ = 1 - cot2 u, 0 6 u 6 p
73. y′ = cos t, 0 … t … 2p
4
x
- 5b
2
74. y′ = sin t, 0 … t … 2p
75. y′ = (x + 1)-2>3
76. y′ = (x - 2)-1>3
24. y = x - sin x, 0 … x … 2p
77. y′ = x-2>3(x - 1)
78. y′ = x-4>5(x + 1)
25. y = 23x - 2 cos x, 0 … x … 2p
-p
p
4
6 x 6
26. y = x - tan x,
3
2
2
79. y′ = 2 0 x 0 = e
23. y = x + sin x, 0 … x … 2p
80. y′ = e
27. y = sin x cos x, 0 … x … p
28. y = cos x + 23 sin x, 0 … x … 2p
29. y = x1>5
31. y =
30. y = x2>5
x
32. y =
2x2 + 1
33. y = 2x - 3x2>3
35. y = x2>3 a
5
- xb
2
2
5
x4 + 5
46. y = 0 x2 - 2 x 0
48. y = 2 0 x - 4 0
2-x,
2x,
ex
50. y = x
51. y = ln (3 - x2)
52. y = x (ln x)2
53. y = ex - 2e-x - 3x
54. y = xe-x
ln x
2x
ex
58. y =
1 + ex
55. y = ln (cos x)
57. y =
56. y =
1
1 + e-x
Sketching the General Shape, Knowing y ′
Each of Exercises 59–80 gives the first derivative of a continuous
function y = ƒ(x). Find y″ and then use Steps 2–4 of the graphing
procedure on page 249 to sketch the general shape of the graph of ƒ.
59. y′ = 2 + x - x2
61. y′ = x(x - 3)
2
63. y′ = x(x2 - 12)
60. y′ = x2 - x - 6
62. y′ = x2(2 - x)
64. y′ = (x - 1)2(2x + 3)
y
y = f ′(x)
P
x
x
P
y = f ″(x)
83.
y = f ″(x)
y
P
x 6 0
x Ú 0
49. y = xe1>x
82.
y = f ′(x)
44. y =
47. y = 2 0 x 0 = e
y
81.
36. y = x2>3(x - 5)
3 3
42. y = 2
x + 1
-x2, x … 0
x 2,
x 7 0
Sketching y from Graphs of y′ and y″
Each of Exercises 81–84 shows the graphs of the first and second
derivatives of a function y = ƒ(x). Copy the picture and add to it a
sketch of the approximate graph of ƒ, given that the graph passes
through the point P.
38. y = (2 - x2)3>2
2
40. y = x2 + x
39. y = 216 - x2
x - 3
x - 2
8x
43. y = 2
x + 4
45. y = 0 x2 - 1 0
2x + 1
34. y = 5x2>5 - 2x
37. y = x 28 - x2
41. y =
21 - x2
- 2x, x … 0
2x,
x 7 0
y = f ′(x)
x
0
y = f ″(x)
84.
y
y = f ′(x)
x
0
y = f ″(x)
P
Graphing Rational Functions
Graph the rational functions in Exercises 85–102 using all the steps in
the graphing procedure on page 249.
x2 - 49
2x2 + x - 1
85. y =
86. y = 2
2
x - 1
x + 5x - 14
x4 + 1
x2
1
89. y = 2
x - 1
87. y =
x2 - 4
2x
x2
90. y = 2
x - 1
88. y =
254
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
95. y =
97. y =
99. y =
101. y =
102. y =
s = f(t)
5
0
Theory and Examples
103. The accompanying figure shows a portion of the graph of a
twice-differentiable function y = ƒ(x). At each of the five
labeled points, classify y′ and y″ as positive, negative, or zero.
y
R
5
104. Sketch a smooth connected curve y = ƒ(x) with
ƒ′(x) 6 0 for
ƒ(2) = 0,
ƒ″(x) 6 0 for x 6 0,
ƒ″(x) 7 0 for x 7 0.
c = f (x)
105. Sketch the graph of a twice-differentiable function y = ƒ(x)
with the following properties. Label coordinates where possible.
x 6
2
2 6 x
4
4 6 x
6
x 7
2
Derivatives
1
6 4
6 6
6
4
7
y′
y′
y′
y′
y′
y′
y′
6
=
7
7
7
=
6
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
y″
y″
y″
y″
y″
y″
y″
t
Cost
0 x 0 6 2,
ƒ(0) = 4,
y
15
c
ƒ′(2) = ƒ′(-2) = 0,
x
10
Time (sec)
109. Marginal cost The accompanying graph shows the hypothetical cost c = ƒ(x) of manufacturing x items. At approximately
what production level does the marginal cost change from
decreasing to increasing?
x
0 x 0 7 2,
t
s = f(t)
0
T
0
ƒ′(x) 7 0 for
15
s
108.
Q
ƒ(-2) = 8,
10
Time (sec)
S
y = f (x)
P
s
107.
Displacement
93. y =
Motion Along a Line The graphs in Exercises 107 and 108 show
the position s = ƒ(t) of an object moving up and down on a coordinate line. (a) When is the object moving away from the origin?
Toward the origin? At approximately what times is the (b) velocity
equal to zero? (c) Acceleration equal to zero? (d) When is the acceleration positive? Negative?
x2 - 4
x2 - 2
x2 - 4
x + 1
x2 - x + 1
x - 1
x3 + x - 2
x - x2
x - 1
x2(x - 2)
Displacement
x2 - 2
92. y =
x2 - 1
2
x
94. y =
x + 1
2
x - x + 1
96. y =
x - 1
3
2
x - 3x + 3x - 1
98. y =
x2 + x - 2
x
100. y =
x2 - 1
8
(Agnesi>s witch)
x2 + 4
4x
(Newton>s serpentine)
x2 + 4
91. y = -
7
7
7
=
6
6
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
106. Sketch the graph of a twice-differentiable function y = ƒ(x) that
passes through the points (- 2, 2), (- 1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), and
(2, 2) and whose first two derivatives have the following sign
patterns.
+
+
y′:
-2
0
2
+
y″:
-1
1
20 40 60 80 100 120
Thousands of units produced
x
110. The accompanying graph shows the monthly revenue of the Widget
Corporation for the past 12 years. During approximately what
time intervals was the marginal revenue increasing? Decreasing?
y
y = r(t)
0
5
10
t
111. Suppose the derivative of the function y = ƒ(x) is
y′ = (x - 1)2(x - 2).
At what points, if any, does the graph of ƒ have a local minimum, local maximum, or point of inflection? (Hint: Draw the
sign pattern for y′.)
4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule
112. Suppose the derivative of the function y = ƒ(x) is
120. Suppose that the second derivative of the function y = ƒ(x) is
2
y″ = x2(x - 2)3(x + 3).
y′ = (x - 1) (x - 2)(x - 4).
At what points, if any, does the graph of ƒ have a local minimum, local maximum, or point of inflection?
113. For x 7 0, sketch a curve y = ƒ(x) that has ƒ(1) = 0 and
ƒ′(x) = 1>x. Can anything be said about the concavity of such a
curve? Give reasons for your answer.
114. Can anything be said about the graph of a function y = ƒ(x) that
has a continuous second derivative that is never zero? Give reasons for your answer.
115. If b, c, and d are constants, for what value of b will the curve
y = x3 + bx2 + cx + d have a point of inflection at x = 1?
Give reasons for your answer.
116. Parabolas
a. Find the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola
y = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0.
b. When is the parabola concave up? Concave down? Give reasons for your answers.
117. Quadratic curves What can you say about the inflection
points of a quadratic curve y = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0? Give
reasons for your answer.
118. Cubic curves What can you say about the inflection points of
a cubic curve y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a ≠ 0? Give reasons
for your answer.
119. Suppose that the second derivative of the function y = ƒ(x) is
y″ = (x + 1)(x - 2).
For what x-values does the graph of ƒ have an inflection point?
255
For what x-values does the graph of ƒ have an inflection point?
121. Find the values of constants a, b, and c so that the graph of
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx has a local maximum at x = 3, local minimum at x = - 1, and inflection point at (1, 11).
122. Find the values of constants a, b, and c so that the graph of
y = (x2 + a)>(bx + c) has a local minimum at x = 3 and a
local maximum at (-1, - 2).
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
In Exercises 123–126, find the inflection points (if any) on the graph of
the function and the coordinates of the points on the graph where the
function has a local maximum or local minimum value. Then graph the
function in a region large enough to show all these points simultaneously. Add to your picture the graphs of the function’s first and second
derivatives. How are the values at which these graphs intersect the
x-axis related to the graph of the function? In what other ways are the
graphs of the derivatives related to the graph of the function?
123. y = x5 - 5x4 - 240
124. y = x3 - 12x2
125. y =
4 5
x + 16x2 - 25
5
126. y =
x3
x4
- 4x2 + 12x + 20
4
3
127. Graph ƒ(x) = 2x4 - 4x2 + 1 and its first two derivatives
together. Comment on the behavior of ƒ in relation to the signs
and values of ƒ′ and ƒ″.
128. Graph ƒ(x) = x cos x and its second derivative together for
0 … x … 2p. Comment on the behavior of the graph of ƒ in
relation to the signs and values of ƒ″.
4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Guillaume François Antoine de l’Hôpital
(1661–1704)
Johann Bernoulli
(1667–1748)
John (Johann) Bernoulli discovered a rule using derivatives to calculate limits of fractions whose numerators and denominators both approach zero or + q. The rule is known
today as l’Hôpital’s Rule, after Guillaume de l’Hôpital. He was a French nobleman who
wrote the first introductory differential calculus text, where the rule first appeared in
print. Limits involving transcendental functions often require some use of the rule for
their calculation.
Indeterminate Form 0 , 0
If we want to know how the function
F(x) =
x - sin x
x3
behaves near x = 0 (where it is undefined), we can examine the limit of F(x) as x S 0.
We cannot apply the Quotient Rule for limits (Theorem 1 of Chapter 2) because the limit
of the denominator is 0. Moreover, in this case, both the numerator and denominator
approach 0, and 0>0 is undefined. Such limits may or may not exist in general, but the
limit does exist for the function F(x) under discussion by applying l’Hôpital’s Rule, as we
will see in Example 1d.
256
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
If the continuous functions ƒ(x) and g (x) are both zero at x = a, then
lim
xSa
ƒ(x)
g(x)
cannot be found by substituting x = a. The substitution produces 0>0, a meaningless
expression, which we cannot evaluate. We use 0>0 as a notation for an expression known
as an indeterminate form. Other meaningless expressions often occur, such as q > q,
q # 0, q - q, 00, and 1q, which cannot be evaluated in a consistent way; these are
called indeterminate forms as well. Sometimes, but not always, limits that lead to indeterminate forms may be found by cancelation, rearrangement of terms, or other algebraic
manipulations. This was our experience in Chapter 2. It took considerable analysis in Section 2.4 to find limx S 0 (sin x)>x. But we have had success with the limit
ƒ(x) - ƒ(a)
x - a ,
xSa
ƒ′(a) = lim
from which we calculate derivatives and which produces the indeterminant form 0>0
when we attempt to substitute x = a. L’Hôpital’s Rule enables us to draw on our success
with derivatives to evaluate limits that otherwise lead to indeterminate forms.
THEOREM 6—L’Hôpital’s Rule Suppose that ƒ(a) = g(a) = 0, that ƒ and
g are differentiable on an open interval I containing a, and that g′(x) ≠ 0 on
I if x ≠ a. Then
lim
xSa
ƒ(x)
ƒ′(x)
= lim
,
g(x) x S a g′(x)
assuming that the limit on the right side of this equation exists.
We give a proof of Theorem 6 at the end of this section.
Caution
To apply l’Hôpital’s Rule to ƒ>g, divide
the derivative of ƒ by the derivative of
g. Do not fall into the trap of taking the
derivative of ƒ>g. The quotient to use is
ƒ′>g′, not (ƒ>g)′.
EXAMPLE 1
The following limits involve 0>0 indeterminate forms, so we apply
l’Hôpital’s Rule. In some cases, it must be applied repeatedly.
(a) lim
3x - sin x
3 - cos x 3 - cos x 2
= lim
= 2
=
x
1
1
xS0
x=0
(b) lim
21 + x - 1
xS0
xS0
(c)
lim
xS0
x
1
2 21 + x
1
= lim
=
2
xS0
1
21 + x - 1 - x>2
x2
0
; apply l’Hôpital’s Rule.
0
(1>2)(1 + x)-1>2 - 1>2
2x
xS0
0
Still ; apply l’Hôpital’s Rule again.
0
-(1>4)(1 + x)-3>2
1
= 8
2
xS0
0
Not ; limit is found.
0
= lim
= lim
4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule
(d) lim
xS0
x - sin x
x3
257
0
; apply l’Hôpital’s Rule.
0
1 - cos x
3x2
sin x
= lim
x S 0 6x
cos x 1
= lim
=
6
xS0 6
0
Still ; apply l’Hôpital’s Rule again.
0
= lim
xS0
0
Still ; apply l’Hôpital’s Rule again.
0
0
Not ; limit is found.
0
Here is a summary of the procedure we followed in Example 1.
Using L’Hôpital’s Rule
To find
lim
xSa
ƒ(x)
g(x)
by l’Hôpital’s Rule, we continue to differentiate ƒ and g, so long as we still get
the form 0>0 at x = a. But as soon as one or the other of these derivatives is
different from zero at x = a we stop differentiating. L’Hôpital’s Rule does not
apply when either the numerator or denominator has a finite nonzero limit.
EXAMPLE 2
Be careful to apply l’Hôpital’s Rule correctly:
1 - cos x
x + x2
sin x
= lim
x S 0 1 + 2x
lim
xS0
0
0
Not
0
0
It is tempting to try to apply l’Hôpital’s Rule again, which would result in
lim
xS0
cos x 1
= ,
2
2
but this is not the correct limit. L’Hôpital’s Rule can be applied only to limits that give
indeterminate forms, and limx S 0 (sin x)>(1 + 2x) does not give an indeterminate form.
Instead, this limit is 0>1 = 0, and the correct answer for the original limit is 0.
L’Hôpital’s Rule applies to one-sided limits as well.
EXAMPLE 3
(a)
Recall that q and + q mean the same
thing.
lim
x S 0+
In this example the one-sided limits are different.
sin x
x2
0
0
= lim+
xS0
(b)
lim
x S 0-
cos x q
=
2x
sin x
x2
Positive for x 7 0
0
0
= limxS0
cos x
= -q
2x
Indeterminate Forms
Negative for x 6 0
H , H, H # 0, H − H
Sometimes when we try to evaluate a limit as x S a by substituting x = a we get an indeterminant form like q > q, q # 0, or q - q, instead of 0>0. We first consider the form
q > q.
258
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
More advanced treatments of calculus prove that l’Hôpital’s Rule applies to the
indeterminate form q > q , as well as to 0>0. If ƒ(x) S { q and g(x) S { q as x S a,
then
lim
xSa
ƒ(x)
ƒ′(x)
= lim
g(x) x S a g′(x)
provided the limit on the right exists. In the notation x S a, a may be either finite or infinite. Moreover, x S a may be replaced by the one-sided limits x S a+ or x S a-.
EXAMPLE 4
(a)
Find the limits of these q > q forms:
sec x
x S p>2 1 + tan x
lim
(b) lim
x Sq
ln x
2 2x
(c) lim
x Sq
ex
.
x2
Solution
(a) The numerator and denominator are discontinuous at x = p>2, so we investigate the
one-sided limits there. To apply l’Hôpital’s Rule, we can choose I to be any open
interval with x = p>2 as an endpoint.
sec x
q
lim
q from the left so we apply l’Hôpital’s Rule.
x S (p>2)- 1 + tan x
=
lim
x S (p>2)-
sec x tan x
=
sec2 x
lim sin x = 1
x S (p>2)-
The right-hand limit is 1 also, with (- q)>(- q) as the indeterminate form. Therefore,
the two-sided limit is equal to 1.
(b) lim
x Sq
(c) lim
x Sq
1>x
ln x
1
= lim
= lim
= 0
Sq
2 2x x
1> 2x x Sq 2x
1>x
1> 2x
2x
1
= x =
2x
ex
ex
ex q
= lim
= lim
=
2
x Sq 2x
x Sq 2
x
Next we turn our attention to the indeterminate forms q # 0 and q - q. Sometimes
these forms can be handled by using algebra to convert them to a 0>0 or q > q form. Here
again we do not mean to suggest that q # 0 or q - q is a number. They are only notations for functional behaviors when considering limits. Here are examples of how we
might work with these indeterminate forms.
EXAMPLE 5
(a)
Find the limits of these q # 0 forms:
1
lim ax sin x b
(b) lim+ 2x ln x
x Sq
xS0
Solution
sin h
1
1
= 1
a. lim ax sin x b = lim+ a sin hb = lim+
h
x Sq
hS0 h
hS0
b. lim+ 2x ln x = lim+
xS0
xS0
= lim+
xS0
ln x
1> 2x
1>x
-1>2x3>2
= lim+1 -2 2x 2 = 0
xS0
q # 0; let h = 1>x.
q # 0 converted to q > q
l’Hôpital’s Rule applied
4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule
EXAMPLE 6
Find the limit of this q - q form:
lim a
xS0
Solution
259
1
1
- xb.
sin x
If x S 0+, then sin x S 0+ and
1
1
- x S q - q.
sin x
Similarly, if x S 0-, then sin x S 0- and
1
1
- x S - q - (- q) = - q + q.
sin x
Neither form reveals what happens in the limit. To find out, we first combine the fractions:
1
1 x - sin x
- x =
.
sin x
x sin x
Common denominator is x sin x.
Then we apply l’Hôpital’s Rule to the result:
lim a
xS0
x - sin x
1
1
- x b = lim
sin x
x S 0 x sin x
0
0
= lim
1 - cos x
sin x + x cos x
= lim
sin x
0
= = 0.
2 cos x - x sin x 2
xS0
xS0
Still
0
0
Indeterminate Powers
Limits that lead to the indeterminate forms 1q, 00, and q0 can sometimes be handled by
first taking the logarithm of the function. We use l’Hôpital’s Rule to find the limit of the
logarithm expression and then exponentiate the result to find the original function limit.
This procedure is justified by the continuity of the exponential function and Theorem 10 in
Section 2.5, and it is formulated as follows. (The formula is also valid for one-sided limits.)
If limx S a ln ƒ(x) = L, then
lim ƒ(x) = lim eln ƒ(x) = eL.
xSa
xSa
Here a may be either finite or infinite.
EXAMPLE 7
Apply l’Hôpital’s Rule to show that limx S 0+ (1 + x)1>x = e.
Solution The limit leads to the indeterminate form 1q . We let ƒ(x) = (1 + x)1>x and
find limx S 0+ ln ƒ(x). Since
1
ln ƒ(x) = ln (1 + x)1>x = x ln (1 + x),
l’Hôpital’s Rule now applies to give
lim ln ƒ(x) = lim+
x S 0+
xS0
ln (1 + x)
x
1
1 + x
= lim+
1
xS0
=
0
0
l’Hôpital’s Rule applied
1
= 1.
1
Therefore, lim+ (1 + x)1>x = lim+ ƒ(x) = lim+ eln ƒ(x) = e1 = e.
xS0
xS0
xS0
260
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
EXAMPLE 8
Find limx Sq x1>x.
Solution The limit leads to the indeterminate form q0 . We let ƒ(x) = x1>x and find
limx Sq ln ƒ(x). Since
ln x
ln ƒ(x) = ln x1>x = x ,
l’Hôpital’s Rule gives
ln x
lim ln ƒ(x) = lim x
x Sq
x Sq
= lim
x Sq
=
1>x
1
q
q
l’Hôpital’s Rule applied
0
= 0.
1
Therefore lim x1>x = lim ƒ(x) = lim eln ƒ(x) = e0 = 1.
x Sq
x Sq
x Sq
Proof of L’Hôpital’s Rule
y
y = f ′(a)(x − a)
f (x)
y = g′(a)(x − a)
ƒ(x) = ƒ′(a)(x - a) + P1(x - a) and g(x) = g′(a)(x - a) + P2(x - a)
g(x)
0
a
Before we prove l’Hôpital’s Rule, we consider a special case to provide some geometric
insight for its reasonableness. Consider the two functions ƒ(x) and g(x) having continuous
derivatives and satisfying ƒ(a) = g(a) = 0, g′(a) ≠ 0. The graphs of ƒ(x) and g(x),
together with their linearizations y = ƒ′(a)(x - a) and y = g′(a)(x - a), are shown in
Figure 4.34. We know that near x = a, the linearizations provide good approximations to
the functions. In fact,
x
where P1 S 0 and P2 S 0 as x S a. So, as Figure 4.34 suggests,
lim
xSa
FIGURE 4.34 The two functions in
l’Hôpital’s Rule, graphed with their
linear approximations at x = a.
ƒ′(a)(x - a) + P1(x - a)
ƒ(x)
= lim
g(x) x S a g′(a)(x - a) + P2(x - a)
= lim
ƒ′(a) + P1 ƒ′(a)
=
g′(a) + P2 g′(a)
g′(a) ≠ 0
= lim
ƒ′(x)
,
g′(x)
Continuous derivatives
xSa
xSa
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Augustin-Louis Cauchy
(1789–1857)
as asserted by l’Hôpital’s Rule. We now proceed to a proof of the rule based on the more
general assumptions stated in Theorem 6, which do not require that g′(a) ≠ 0 and that
the two functions have continuous derivatives.
The proof of l’Hôpital’s Rule is based on Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem, an extension of the Mean Value Theorem that involves two functions instead of one. We prove
Cauchy’s Theorem first and then show how it leads to l’Hôpital’s Rule.
THEOREM 7—Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem Suppose functions ƒ and g
are continuous on 3 a, b4 and differentiable throughout (a, b) and also suppose
g′(x) ≠ 0 throughout (a, b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b) at which
When g(x) = x, Theorem 7 is the Mean
Value Theorem.
ƒ′(c) ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
.
=
g′(c) g(b) - g(a)
Proof
We apply the Mean Value Theorem of Section 4.2 twice. First we use it to show
that g(a) ≠ g(b). For if g(b) did equal g(a), then the Mean Value Theorem would give
g′(c) =
g(b) - g(a)
= 0
b - a
4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule
261
for some c between a and b, which cannot happen because g′(x) ≠ 0 in (a, b).
We next apply the Mean Value Theorem to the function
F(x) = ƒ(x) - ƒ(a) -
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
3 g(x) - g(a) 4 .
g(b) - g(a)
This function is continuous and differentiable where ƒ and g are, and F(b) = F(a) = 0.
Therefore, there is a number c between a and b for which F′(c) = 0. When expressed in
terms of ƒ and g, this equation becomes
F′(c) = ƒ′(c) so that
y
slope =
ƒ′(c) ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
.
=
g′(c) g(b) - g(a)
f ′(c)
g′(c)
B
(g(b), f (b))
P
slope =
A
0
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
3 g′(c) 4 = 0
g(b) - g(a)
f (b) − f (a)
g(b) − g(a)
(g(a), f (a))
Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem has a geometric interpretation for a general winding
curve C in the plane joining the two points A = (g(a), ƒ(a)) and B = (g(b), ƒ(b)). In
Chapter 11 you will learn how the curve C can be formulated so that there is at least one
point P on the curve for which the tangent to the curve at P is parallel to the secant line
joining the points A and B. The slope of that tangent line turns out to be the quotient ƒ′>g′
evaluated at the number c in the interval (a, b), which is the left-hand side of the equation
in Theorem 7. Because the slope of the secant line joining A and B is
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
,
g(b) - g(a)
x
FIGURE 4.35 There is at least one point
P on the curve C for which the slope of the
tangent to the curve at P is the same as the
slope of the secant line joining the points
A(g(a), ƒ(a)) and B(g(b), ƒ(b)).
the equation in Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem says that the slope of the tangent line
equals the slope of the secant line. This geometric interpretation is shown in Figure 4.35.
Notice from the figure that it is possible for more than one point on the curve C to have a
tangent line that is parallel to the secant line joining A and B.
Proof of l’Hôpital’s Rule
We first establish the limit equation for the case x S a+.
The method needs almost no change to apply to x S a-, and the combination of these two
cases establishes the result.
Suppose that x lies to the right of a. Then g′(x) ≠ 0, and we can apply Cauchy’s
Mean Value Theorem to the closed interval from a to x. This step produces a number c
between a and x such that
ƒ′(c) ƒ(x) - ƒ(a)
=
.
g′(c) g(x) - g(a)
But ƒ(a) = g(a) = 0, so
ƒ′(c) ƒ(x)
=
.
g′(c) g(x)
As x approaches a, c approaches a because it always lies between a and x. Therefore,
lim+
xSa
ƒ(x)
ƒ′(c)
ƒ′(x)
= lim+
= lim+
,
g(x) c S a g′(c) x S a g′(x)
which establishes l’Hôpital’s Rule for the case where x approaches a from above. The case
where x approaches a from below is proved by applying Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem to
the closed interval 3 x, a4 , x 6 a.
262
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
4.5
Exercises
Finding Limits in Two Ways
In Exercises 1–6, use l’Hôpital’s Rule to evaluate the limit. Then
evaluate the limit using a method studied in Chapter 2.
x + 2
x S -2 x 2 - 4
sin 5x
x
xS0
1. lim
2. lim
5x2 - 3x
3. lim
Sq
x
7x2 + 1
x3 - 1
4. lim 3
S
x 1 4x - x - 3
1 - cos x
5. lim
xS0
x2
2x2 + 3x
6. lim 3
x Sq x + x + 1
x - sin x
47. lim x tan x
xS0
u - sin u cos u
tan u - u
uS0
49. lim
3
5x - 2x
x Sq 7x 3 + 3
11. lim
51. lim+ x1>(1 - x)
53. lim (ln x)
55. lim+ x
xS0
59. lim+ xx
8x2
15. lim
x S 0 cos x - 1
sin x - x
16. lim
xS0
x3
2u - p
17. lim
u S p>2 cos (2p - u)
3u + p
18. lim
u S -p>3 sin (u + (p>3))
61. lim a
1 - sin u
19. lim
u S p>2 1 + cos 2u
x - 1
20. lim
x S 1 ln x - sin px
23. lim
tS0
25.
t(1 - cos t)
t - sin t
lim ax -
x S (p>2)-
3sin u - 1
S
u
u 0
27. lim
p
b sec x
2
x2x
- 1
29. lim
26.
lim
25y + 25 - 5
36. lim
x Sq
xS0
(ln x)2
ln (sin x)
41. lim+ a
xS1
1
1
b
x - 1 ln x
69.
29x + 1
lim
2x + 1
sec x
tan x
x S (p>2)-
ex
x
x Sq xe
34. lim+
39. lim+
p
- xb tan x
2
x Sq
73.
ln (x2 + 2x)
ln x
37. lim (ln 2x - ln (x + 1))
p
- xb
2
3x - 1
- 1
33. lim+
yS0
67. lim
log2 x
(x + 3)
yS0
ln (ex - 1)
ln x
2ay + a2 - a
y
, a 7 0
3x + 1
1
b
x
sin x
42. lim+ (csc x - cot x + cos x)
xS0
lim
xS3
xS0
xS0
lim
a. lim
38. lim+ (ln x - ln sin x)
40. lim+ a
1 x
60. lim+ a1 + x b
xS0
62.
64.
66.
lim a
x Sq
x2 + 1 1>x
b
x + 2
lim x (ln x)2
x S 0+
lim sin x # ln x
x S 0+
68. lim+
xS0
2x
2sin x
cot x
70. lim+ csc x
xS0
72.
lim
74.
2x + 4x
- 2x
x
x S -q 5
lim
x
x S 0+ e-1>x
75. Which one is correct, and which one is wrong? Give reasons for
your answers.
x Sq log 3
xS0
xS0
2
x
xS0 2
y
lim x tan a
x S 0+
2x - 3x
x
x
x Sq 3 + 4
32. lim
35. lim
xS0
71.
ln (x + 1)
log2 x
xS0
65.
lim+ x2 ln x
(1>2)u - 1
u
uS0
28. lim
31. lim
x Sq
a
63.
x + 2 x
b
x - 1
58. lim (ex + x)1>x
Theory and Applications
L’Hôpital’s Rule does not help with the limits in Exercises 67–74. Try
it—you just keep on cycling. Find the limits some other way.
t sin t
- cos t
x S (p>2)-
30. lim
x
xS0 2
x Sq
ln (csc x)
x S p>2 (x - (p>2))2
tS0 1
sin 3x - 3x + x2
sin x sin 2x
xS0
50. lim
xS q
1>(2 ln x)
xS0
lim
24. lim
(ex - 1)2
x sin x
56. lim x1>ln x
x Sq
sin 5t
14. lim
t S 0 2t
22.
xS0
xSe
-1>ln x
sin t 2
13. lim t
tS0
x2
x S 0 ln (sec x)
48. lim
54. lim+ (ln x)1>(x - e)
57. lim (1 + 2x)
2
x - 8x
x Sq 12x 2 + 5x
21. lim
x Sq
xS1
1>x
x Sq
3t 3 + 3
10. lim 3
t S -1 4t - t + 3
12. lim
46. lim x2e-x
52. lim+ x1>(x - 1)
xS1
x2 - 25
8. lim
xS - 5 x + 5
t 3 - 4t + 15
9. lim 2
t S -3 t - t - 12
eh - (1 + h)
hS0
h2
44. lim
Indeterminate Powers and Products
Find the limits in Exercises 51–66.
Applying l’Hôpital’s Rule
Use l’Hôpital’s rule to find the limits in Exercises 7–50.
x - 2
7. lim 2
xS2 x - 4
cos u - 1
u S 0 eu - u - 1
et + t 2
45. lim t
t Sq e - t
43. lim
x - 3
1
1
=
= lim
x2 - 3 x S 3 2x 6
b. lim
xS3
x - 3
0
= = 0
x2 - 3 6
76. Which one is correct, and which one is wrong? Give reasons for
your answers.
x2 - 2x
2x - 2
= lim
x S 0 x 2 - sin x
x S 0 2x - cos x
2
2
=
= 1
= lim
2 + 0
x S 0 2 + sin x
a. lim
x2 - 2x
2x - 2
-2
=
= 2
= lim
0 - 1
x S 0 x 2 - sin x
x S 0 2x - cos x
b. lim
4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule
77. Only one of these calculations is correct. Which one? Why are the
others wrong? Give reasons for your answers.
a. lim x ln x = 0 # (- q) = 0
a. Use l’Hôpital’s Rule to show that
x S 0+
b. lim+ x ln x = 0 # (- q) = - q
T b. Graph
xS0
c. lim+ x ln x = lim+
ln x
-q
= q = -1
(1>x)
d. lim+ x ln x = lim+
ln x
(1>x)
xS0
xS0
xS0
xS0
= lim+
xS0
(1>x)
(- 1>x2)
= lim+ (-x) = 0
xS0
g(x) = x2,
(a, b) = (- 2, 0)
b. ƒ(x) = x,
g(x) = x2,
(a, b) arbitrary
g(x) = x2,
(a, b) = (0, 3)
79. Continuous extension Find a value of c that makes the function
9x - 3 sin 3x
, x ≠ 0
5x3
ƒ(x) = c
c,
x = 0
continuous at x = 0. Explain why your value of c works.
80. For what values of a and b is
lim a
xS0
T 81. H − H Form
tan 2x
a
sin bx
+ 2 + x b = 0?
x3
x
a. Estimate the value of
lim 1 x - 2x2 + x 2
x Sq
by graphing ƒ(x) = x - 2x2 + x over a suitably large interval of x-values.
b. Now confirm your estimate by finding the limit with
l’Hôpital’s Rule. As the first step, multiply ƒ(x) by the fraction 1 x + 2x2 + x 2 > 1 x + 2x2 + x 2 and simplify the new
numerator.
82. Find lim
x Sq
1 2x
T 83. 0 , 0 Form
2
+ 1 - 2x 2.
Estimate the value of
2x2 - (3x + 1) 2x + 2
x - 1
xS1
lim
by graphing. Then confirm your estimate with l’Hôpital’s Rule.
84. This exercise explores the difference between the limit
lim a1 +
x Sq
and the limit
1 x
b
x2
1 x
lim a1 + x b = e.
x Sq
1 x
1 x
b and g(x) = a1 + x b
2
x
together for x Ú 0. How does the behavior of ƒ compare with
that of g? Estimate the value of limx Sq ƒ(x).
a. ƒ(x) = x,
c. ƒ(x) = x >3 - 4x,
1 x
lim a1 + x b = e.
x Sq
ƒ(x) = a1 +
78. Find all values of c that satisfy the conclusion of Cauchy’s Mean
Value Theorem for the given functions and interval.
3
263
c. Confirm your estimate of limx Sq ƒ(x) by calculating it with
l’Hôpital’s Rule.
85. Show that
r k
lim a1 + b = er.
k
k Sq
86. Given that x 7 0, find the maximum value, if any, of
a. x1>x
2
b. x1>x
n
c. x1>x (n a positive integer)
n
d. Show that limx Sq x1>x = 1 for every positive integer n.
87. Use limits to find horizontal asymptotes for each function.
1
a. y = x tan a x b
88. Find ƒ′(0) for ƒ(x) = e
b. y =
2
e-1/x ,
0,
3x + e2x
2x + e3x
x ≠ 0
x = 0.
T 89. The continuous extension of (sin x)x to 30, p4
a. Graph ƒ(x) = (sin x)x on the interval 0 … x … p. What
value would you assign to ƒ to make it continuous at x = 0?
b. Verify your conclusion in part (a) by finding limx S 0+ ƒ(x)
with l’Hôpital’s Rule.
c. Returning to the graph, estimate the maximum value of ƒ on
30, p4 . About where is max ƒ taken on?
d. Sharpen your estimate in part (c) by graphing ƒ′ in the same
window to see where its graph crosses the x-axis. To simplify
your work, you might want to delete the exponential factor
from the expression for ƒ′ and graph just the factor that has a
zero.
T 90. The function (sin x)tan x (Continuation of Exercise 89.)
a. Graph ƒ(x) = (sin x)tan x on the interval - 7 … x … 7. How
do you account for the gaps in the graph? How wide are the
gaps?
b. Now graph ƒ on the interval 0 … x … p. The function is not
defined at x = p>2, but the graph has no break at this point.
What is going on? What value does the graph appear to give
for ƒ at x = p>2? (Hint: Use l’Hôpital’s Rule to find lim ƒ
as x S (p>2)- and x S (p>2)+.)
c. Continuing with the graphs in part (b), find max ƒ and min ƒ
as accurately as you can and estimate the values of x at which
they are taken on.
264
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
4.6 Applied Optimization
What are the dimensions of a rectangle with fixed perimeter having maximum area?
What are the dimensions for the least expensive cylindrical can of a given volume? How
many items should be produced for the most profitable production run? Each of these
questions asks for the best, or optimal, value of a given function. In this section we use
derivatives to solve a variety of optimization problems in mathematics, physics, economics, and business.
x
Solving Applied Optimization Problems
1. Read the problem. Read the problem until you understand it. What is given?
What is the unknown quantity to be optimized?
2. Draw a picture. Label any part that may be important to the problem.
3. Introduce variables. List every relation in the picture and in the problem as
an equation or algebraic expression, and identify the unknown variable.
4. Write an equation for the unknown quantity. If you can, express the unknown
as a function of a single variable or in two equations in two unknowns. This
may require considerable manipulation.
5. Test the critical points and endpoints in the domain of the unknown. Use
what you know about the shape of the function’s graph. Use the first and
second derivatives to identify and classify the function’s critical points.
12
x
x
x
12
(a)
x
12 − 2x
12
12 − 2x
x
x
EXAMPLE 1
An open-top box is to be made by cutting small congruent squares from
the corners of a 12-in.-by-12-in. sheet of tin and bending up the sides. How large should
the squares cut from the corners be to make the box hold as much as possible?
(b)
FIGURE 4.36 An open box made by
cutting the corners from a square sheet of
tin. What size corners maximize the box’s
volume (Example 1)?
Solution We start with a picture (Figure 4.36). In the figure, the corner squares are x in.
on a side. The volume of the box is a function of this variable:
V(x) = x(12 - 2x)2 = 144x - 48x2 + 4x3.
Since the sides of the sheet of tin are only 12 in. long, x … 6 and the domain of V is the
interval 0 … x … 6.
A graph of V (Figure 4.37) suggests a minimum value of 0 at x = 0 and x = 6 and
a maximum near x = 2. To learn more, we examine the first derivative of V with respect
to x:
Maximum
y
Volume
y = x(12 − 2x)2,
0≤x≤6
0
dV
= 144 - 96x + 12x2 = 12(12 - 8x + x2) = 12(2 - x)(6 - x).
dx
min
min
2
6
V = hlw
x
NOT TO SCALE
FIGURE 4.37 The volume of the box in
Figure 4.36 graphed as a function of x.
Of the two zeros, x = 2 and x = 6, only x = 2 lies in the interior of the function’s
domain and makes the critical-point list. The values of V at this one critical point and two
endpoints are
Critical point value: V(2) = 128
Endpoint values:
V(0) = 0,
V(6) = 0.
The maximum volume is 128 in3. The cutout squares should be 2 in. on a side.
4.6 Applied Optimization
265
EXAMPLE 2
You have been asked to design a one-liter can shaped like a right circular cylinder (Figure 4.38). What dimensions will use the least material?
2r
Solution Volume of can: If r and h are measured in centimeters, then the volume of the
can in cubic centimeters is
h
pr 2h = 1000.
Surface area of can:
FIGURE 4.38 This one-liter can uses
the least material when h = 2r
(Example 2).
1 liter = 1000 cm3
2
A = 2pr
+ 2prh
()*
()*
circular cylindrical
ends
wall
How can we interpret the phrase “least material”? For a first approximation we can ignore
the thickness of the material and the waste in manufacturing. Then we ask for dimensions
r and h that make the total surface area as small as possible while satisfying the constraint
pr 2h = 1000 cm3.
To express the surface area as a function of one variable, we solve for one of the variables in pr 2h = 1000 and substitute that expression into the surface area formula. Solving
for h is easier:
h =
1000
.
pr 2
Thus,
A = 2pr 2 + 2prh
= 2pr 2 + 2pr a
= 2pr 2 +
1000
b
pr 2
2000
r .
Our goal is to find a value of r 7 0 that minimizes the value of A. Figure 4.39 suggests
that such a value exists.
A
Tall and
thin can
Short and
wide can
—— , r > 0
A = 2pr2 + 2000
r
Tall and thin
min
0
Short and wide
3
500
p
r
FIGURE 4.39 The graph of A = 2pr 2 + 2000>r is concave up.
Notice from the graph that for small r (a tall, thin cylindrical container), the term
2000>r dominates (see Section 2.6) and A is large. For large r (a short, wide cylindrical
container), the term 2pr 2 dominates and A again is large.
266
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
Since A is differentiable on r 7 0, an interval with no endpoints, it can have a minimum value only where its first derivative is zero.
dA
2000
= 4pr dr
r2
2000
0 = 4pr r2
Set dA>dr = 0.
4pr 3 = 2000
r =
3
What happens at r = 2
500>p?
The second derivative
Multiply by r 2.
3 500
≈ 5.42
A p
Solve for r.
d 2A
4000
= 4p + 3
r
dr 2
is positive throughout the domain of A. The graph is therefore everywhere concave up and
3
the value of A at r = 2
500>p is an absolute minimum.
The corresponding value of h (after a little algebra) is
h =
1000
500
= 2 3 p = 2r.
2
pr
A
The one-liter can that uses the least material has height equal to twice the radius, here with
r ≈ 5.42 cm and h ≈ 10.84 cm.
Examples from Mathematics and Physics
EXAMPLE 3
A rectangle is to be inscribed in a semicircle of radius 2. What is the
largest area the rectangle can have, and what are its dimensions?
y
x 2 + y2 = 4
Qx, "4 − x 2 R
2
−2 −x
0
x 2
FIGURE 4.40 The rectangle inscribed
in the semicircle in Example 3.
x
Solution Let 1 x, 24 - x2 2 be the coordinates of the corner of the rectangle obtained
by placing the circle and rectangle in the coordinate plane (Figure 4.40). The length,
height, and area of the rectangle can then be expressed in terms of the position x of the
lower right-hand corner:
Length: 2x,
Height: 24 - x2,
Area: 2x 24 - x2.
Notice that the values of x are to be found in the interval 0 … x … 2, where the selected
corner of the rectangle lies.
Our goal is to find the absolute maximum value of the function
on the domain 3 0, 24 .
The derivative
A(x) = 2x 24 - x2
dA
-2x2
=
+ 2 24 - x2
dx
24 - x2
is not defined when x = 2 and is equal to zero when
-2x2
+ 2 24 - x2
24 - x2
-2x2 + 2(4 - x2)
8 - 4x2
x2
= 0
= 0
= 0
= 2
x = { 22.
4.6 Applied Optimization
267
Of the two zeros, x = 22 and x = - 22, only x = 22 lies in the interior of A’s domain
and makes the critical-point list. The values of A at the endpoints and at this one critical
point are
Critical point value: A1 22 2 = 2 22 24 - 2 = 4
Endpoint values:
A(0) = 0,
A(2) = 0.
The area has a maximum value of 4 when the rectangle is 24 - x2 = 22 units high and
2x = 2 22 units long.
EXAMPLE 4
The speed of light depends on the medium through which it travels, and
is generally slower in denser media.
Fermat’s principle in optics states that light travels from one point to another along
a path for which the time of travel is a minimum. Describe the path that a ray of light will
follow in going from a point A in a medium where the speed of light is c1 to a point B in a
second medium where its speed is c2.
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Willebrord Snell van Royen
(1580–1626)
y
A
a
u1
Angle of
incidence
u1
Medium 1
P
0
x
Medium 2
Solution Since light traveling from A to B follows the quickest route, we look for a path
that will minimize the travel time. We assume that A and B lie in the xy-plane and that the
line separating the two media is the x-axis (Figure 4.41).
In a uniform medium, where the speed of light remains constant, “shortest time”
means “shortest path,” and the ray of light will follow a straight line. Thus the path from A
to B will consist of a line segment from A to a boundary point P, followed by another line
segment from P to B. Distance traveled equals rate times time, so
b
u2
d−x
d
Angle of
refraction
x
B
Time =
FIGURE 4.41 A light ray refracted
(deflected from its path) as it passes from
one medium to a denser medium
(Example 4).
distance
rate .
From Figure 4.41, the time required for light to travel from A to P is
2a2 + x2
AP
.
t1 = c =
c1
1
From P to B, the time is
2b2 + (d - x)2
PB
.
t2 = c =
c2
2
The time from A to B is the sum of these:
t = t1 + t2 =
2a2 + x2
c1
+
2b2 + (d - x)2
c2
.
This equation expresses t as a differentiable function of x whose domain is 3 0, d4 . We
want to find the absolute minimum value of t on this closed interval. We find the derivative
dt!dx
negative
0
dt!dx
zero
− − − − − +++++++++
x0
dt
x
d - x
=
dx c1 2a2 + x2 c2 2b2 + (d - x)2
and observe that it is continuous. In terms of the angles u1 and u2 in Figure 4.41,
dt!dx
positive
x
d
FIGURE 4.42 The sign pattern of dt>dx
in Example 4.
sin u1 sin u2
dt
= c - c .
1
2
dx
The function t has a negative derivative at x = 0 and a positive derivative at x = d. Since
dt>dx is continuous over the interval 3 0, d4 , by the Intermediate Value Theorem for continuous functions (Section 2.5), there is a point x0 ∊ 3 0, d4 where dt>dx = 0 (Figure 4.42).
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
There is only one such point because dt>dx is an increasing function of x (Exercise 62). At
this unique point we then have
sin u1 sin u2
c1 = c2 .
This equation is Snell’s Law or the Law of Refraction, and is an important principle in
the theory of optics. It describes the path the ray of light follows.
Examples from Economics
Suppose that
r(x) = the revenue from selling x items
c(x) = the cost of producing the x items
p(x) = r(x) - c(x) = the profit from producing and selling x items.
Although x is usually an integer in many applications, we can learn about the behavior of
these functions by defining them for all nonzero real numbers and by assuming they are
differentiable functions. Economists use the terms marginal revenue, marginal cost, and
marginal profit to name the derivatives r′(x), c′(x), and p′(x) of the revenue, cost, and
profit functions. Let’s consider the relationship of the profit p to these derivatives.
If r(x) and c(x) are differentiable for x in some interval of production possibilities,
and if p(x) = r(x) - c(x) has a maximum value there, it occurs at a critical point of p(x)
or at an endpoint of the interval. If it occurs at a critical point, then p′(x) = r′(x) c′(x) = 0 and we see that r′(x) = c′(x). In economic terms, this last equation means that
At a production level yielding maximum profit, marginal revenue equals marginal cost (Figure 4.43).
y
Cost c(x)
Dollars
268
Revenue r(x)
Break-even point
B
0
Maximum profit, c′(x) = r ′(x)
Local maximum for loss (minimum profit), c′(x) = r ′(x)
x
Items produced
FIGURE 4.43 The graph of a typical cost function starts concave down and later turns concave
up. It crosses the revenue curve at the break-even point B. To the left of B, the company operates
at a loss. To the right, the company operates at a profit, with the maximum profit occurring where
c′(x) = r′(x). Farther to the right, cost exceeds revenue (perhaps because of a combination of rising
labor and material costs and market saturation) and production levels become unprofitable again.
4.6 Applied Optimization
269
EXAMPLE 5
Suppose that r(x) = 9x and c(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 15x, where x represents millions of MP3 players produced. Is there a production level that maximizes profit?
If so, what is it?
y
c(x) = x 3 − 6x2 + 15x
Solution
Notice that r′(x) = 9 and c′(x) = 3x2 - 12x + 15.
3x2 - 12x + 15 = 9
3x2 - 12x + 6 = 0
r(x) = 9x
The two solutions of the quadratic equation are
Maximum
for profit
x1 =
Local maximum for loss
0 2 − "2
2
Set c′(x) = r′(x).
2 + "2
x2 =
x
12 - 272
= 2 - 22 ≈ 0.586
6
and
12 + 272
= 2 + 22 ≈ 3.414.
6
The possible production levels for maximum profit are x ≈ 0.586 million MP3 players or
x ≈ 3.414 million. The second derivative of p(x) = r(x) - c(x) is p″(x) = -c″(x) since
r″(x) is everywhere zero. Thus, p″(x) = 6(2 - x), which is negative at x = 2 + 22 and
positive at x = 2 - 22. By the Second Derivative Test, a maximum profit occurs at
about x = 3.414 (where revenue exceeds costs) and maximum loss occurs at about
x = 0.586. The graphs of r(x) and c(x) are shown in Figure 4.44.
NOT TO SCALE
FIGURE 4.44 The cost and revenue
curves for Example 5.
EXAMPLE 6
A cabinetmaker uses mahogany wood to produce 5 desks each day.
Each delivery of one container of wood is $5000, whereas the storage of that material is
$10 per day per unit stored, where a unit is the amount of material needed by her to produce 1 desk. How much material should be ordered each time, and how often should the
material be delivered, to minimize her average daily cost in the production cycle between
deliveries?
Solution If she asks for a delivery every x days, then she must order 5x units to have
enough material for that delivery cycle. The average amount in storage is approximately
one-half of the delivery amount, or 5x>2. Thus, the cost of delivery and storage for each
cycle is approximately
Cost per cycle = delivery costs + storage costs
y
Cost per cycle = 5000
()*
5000
c(x) = x + 25x
+
delivery
cost
y = 25x
Cost
5000
y= x
FIGURE 4.45 The average daily cost
c(x) is the sum of a hyperbola and a linear
function (Example 6).
#
5x
b
2
()*
average
amount stored
x
()*
number of
days stored
#
10
()*
storage cost
per day
We compute the average daily cost c(x) by dividing the cost per cycle by the number of
days x in the cycle (see Figure 4.45).
c(x) =
min x value
Cycle length
a
x
5000
x + 25x,
x 7 0.
As x S 0 and as x S q , the average daily cost becomes large. So we expect a minimum
to exist, but where? Our goal is to determine the number of days x between deliveries that
provides the absolute minimum cost.
We find the critical points by determining where the derivative is equal to zero:
c′(x) = -
500
+ 25 = 0
x2
x = { 2200 ≈ {14.14.
270
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
Of the two critical points, only 2200 lies in the domain of c(x). The critical point value of
the average daily cost is
c1 2200 2 =
5000
2200
+ 25 2200 = 500 22 ≈ $707.11.
We note that c(x) is defined over the open interval (0, q) with c″(x) = 10000>x3 7 0.
Thus, an absolute minimum exists at x = 2200 ≈ 14.14 days.
The cabinetmaker should schedule a delivery of 5(14) = 70 units of the mahogany
wood every 14 days.
Exercises
4.6
Mathematical Applications
Whenever you are maximizing or minimizing a function of a single variable, we urge you to graph it over the domain that is appropriate to the
problem you are solving. The graph will provide insight before you calculate and will furnish a visual context for understanding your answer.
1. Minimizing perimeter What is the smallest perimeter possible
for a rectangle whose area is 16 in2, and what are its dimensions?
2. Show that among all rectangles with an 8-m perimeter, the one
with largest area is a square.
3. The figure shows a rectangle inscribed in an isosceles right triangle whose hypotenuse is 2 units long.
a. Express the y-coordinate of P in terms of x. (Hint: Write an
equation for the line AB.)
b. Express the area of the rectangle in terms of x.
c. What is the largest area the rectangle can have, and what are
its dimensions?
y
B
single-strand electric fence. With 800 m of wire at your disposal,
what is the largest area you can enclose, and what are its dimensions?
8. The shortest fence A 216 m2 rectangular pea patch is to be
enclosed by a fence and divided into two equal parts by another
fence parallel to one of the sides. What dimensions for the outer
rectangle will require the smallest total length of fence? How
much fence will be needed?
9. Designing a tank Your iron works has contracted to design and
build a 500 ft3, square-based, open-top, rectangular steel holding
tank for a paper company. The tank is to be made by welding thin
stainless steel plates together along their edges. As the production
engineer, your job is to find dimensions for the base and height
that will make the tank weigh as little as possible.
a. What dimensions do you tell the shop to use?
b. Briefly describe how you took weight into account.
10. Catching rainwater A 1125 ft3 open-top rectangular tank with
a square base x ft on a side and y ft deep is to be built with its top
flush with the ground to catch runoff water. The costs associated
with the tank involve not only the material from which the tank is
made but also an excavation charge proportional to the product xy.
a. If the total cost is
c = 5(x2 + 4xy) + 10xy,
P(x, ?)
what values of x and y will minimize it?
A
−1
0
x
1
x
4. A rectangle has its base on the x-axis and its upper two vertices
on the parabola y = 12 - x2. What is the largest area the rectangle can have, and what are its dimensions?
5. You are planning to make an open rectangular box from an 8-in.-by15-in. piece of cardboard by cutting congruent squares from the corners and folding up the sides. What are the dimensions of the box of
largest volume you can make this way, and what is its volume?
6. You are planning to close off a corner of the first quadrant with a
line segment 20 units long running from (a, 0) to (0, b). Show
that the area of the triangle enclosed by the segment is largest
when a = b.
7. The best fencing plan A rectangular plot of farmland will be
bounded on one side by a river and on the other three sides by a
b. Give a possible scenario for the cost function in part (a).
11. Designing a poster You are designing a rectangular poster to
contain 50 in2 of printing with a 4-in. margin at the top and bottom and a 2-in. margin at each side. What overall dimensions will
minimize the amount of paper used?
12. Find the volume of the largest right circular cone that can be
inscribed in a sphere of radius 3.
3
3
y
x
4.6 Applied Optimization
13. Two sides of a triangle have lengths a and b, and the angle
between them is u. What value of u will maximize the triangle’s
area? (Hint: A = (1>2)ab sin u.)
14. Designing a can What are the dimensions of the lightest opentop right circular cylindrical can that will hold a volume of
1000 cm3? Compare the result here with the result in Example 2.
x
x
x
x
24″
24″
x
3
15. Designing a can You are designing a 1000 cm right circular
cylindrical can whose manufacture will take waste into account.
There is no waste in cutting the aluminum for the side, but the top
and bottom of radius r will be cut from squares that measure 2r
units on a side. The total amount of aluminum used up by the can
will therefore be
271
x
x
36″
x
18″
The sheet is then unfolded.
A = 8r 2 + 2prh
rather than the A = 2pr 2 + 2prh in Example 2. In Example 2,
the ratio of h to r for the most economical can was 2 to 1. What is
the ratio now?
T 16. Designing a box with a lid A piece of cardboard measures
10 in. by 15 in. Two equal squares are removed from the corners
of a 10-in. side as shown in the figure. Two equal rectangles are
removed from the other corners so that the tabs can be folded to
form a rectangular box with lid.
NOT TO SCALE
x
x
x
x
10″
Base
Lid
x
x
x
x
15″
Base
24″
36″
18. A rectangle is to be inscribed under the arch of the curve
y = 4 cos (0.5x) from x = - p to x = p. What are the dimensions of the rectangle with largest area, and what is the largest
area?
19. Find the dimensions of a right circular cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius 10 cm. What is the
maximum volume?
20. a. The U.S. Postal Service will accept a box for domestic shipment only if the sum of its length and girth (distance around)
does not exceed 108 in. What dimensions will give a box with
a square end the largest possible volume?
Girth = distance
around here
a. Write a formula V(x) for the volume of the box.
b. Find the domain of V for the problem situation and graph V
over this domain.
c. Use a graphical method to find the maximum volume and the
value of x that gives it.
d. Confirm your result in part (c) analytically.
T 17. Designing a suitcase A 24-in.-by-36-in. sheet of cardboard is
folded in half to form a 24-in.-by-18-in. rectangle as shown in the
accompanying figure. Then four congruent squares of side length
x are cut from the corners of the folded rectangle. The sheet is
unfolded, and the six tabs are folded up to form a box with sides
and a lid.
a. Write a formula V(x) for the volume of the box.
b. Find the domain of V for the problem situation and graph V
over this domain.
c. Use a graphical method to find the maximum volume and the
value of x that gives it.
d. Confirm your result in part (c) analytically.
e. Find a value of x that yields a volume of 1120 in3.
f. Write a paragraph describing the issues that arise in part (b).
Length
Square end
T b. Graph the volume of a 108-in. box (length plus girth equals
108 in.) as a function of its length and compare what you see
with your answer in part (a).
21. (Continuation of Exercise 20.)
a. Suppose that instead of having a box with square ends you
have a box with square sides so that its dimensions are h by h
by w and the girth is 2h + 2w. What dimensions will give the
box its largest volume now?
272
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
Girth
D
C
R
"L2 − x 2
h
Crease
L
Q (originally at A)
x
w
h
x
A
T b. Graph the volume as a function of h and compare what you
see with your answer in part (a).
22. A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle.
The rectangle is of clear glass, whereas the semicircle is of tinted
glass that transmits only half as much light per unit area as clear
glass does. The total perimeter is fixed. Find the proportions of
the window that will admit the most light. Neglect the thickness
of the frame.
P
B
26. Constructing cylinders Compare the answers to the following
two construction problems.
a. A rectangular sheet of perimeter 36 cm and dimensions x cm
by y cm is to be rolled into a cylinder as shown in part (a) of
the figure. What values of x and y give the largest volume?
b. The same sheet is to be revolved about one of the sides of
length y to sweep out the cylinder as shown in part (b) of the
figure. What values of x and y give the largest volume?
y
x
x
Circumference = x
y
y
23. A silo (base not included) is to be constructed in the form of a
cylinder surmounted by a hemisphere. The cost of construction
per square unit of surface area is twice as great for the hemisphere
as it is for the cylindrical sidewall. Determine the dimensions to
be used if the volume is fixed and the cost of construction is to be
kept to a minimum. Neglect the thickness of the silo and waste in
construction.
24. The trough in the figure is to be made to the dimensions shown.
Only the angle u can be varied. What value of u will maximize
the trough’s volume?
(a)
(b)
27. Constructing cones A right triangle whose hypotenuse is
23 m long is revolved about one of its legs to generate a right
circular cone. Find the radius, height, and volume of the cone of
greatest volume that can be made this way.
h
r
1′ u
"3
y
x
28. Find the point on the line a + = 1 that is closest to the origin.
b
u 1′
1′
20′
29. Find a positive number for which the sum of it and its reciprocal
is the smallest (least) possible.
30. Find a positive number for which the sum of its reciprocal and
four times its square is the smallest possible.
25. Paper folding A rectangular sheet of 8.5-in.-by-11-in. paper is
placed on a flat surface. One of the corners is placed on the opposite longer edge, as shown in the figure, and held there as the
paper is smoothed flat. The problem is to make the length of the
crease as small as possible. Call the length L. Try it with paper.
a. Show that L2 = 2x3 >(2x - 8.5).
2
b. What value of x minimizes L ?
c. What is the minimum value of L?
31. A wire b m long is cut into two pieces. One piece is bent into an
equilateral triangle and the other is bent into a circle. If the sum of
the areas enclosed by each part is a minimum, what is the length
of each part?
32. Answer Exercise 31 if one piece is bent into a
square and the other into a circle.
33. Determine the dimensions of the rectangle of
largest area that can be inscribed in the right triangle shown in the accompanying figure.
w
5
h
3
4
4.6 Applied Optimization
34. Determine the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be
inscribed in a semicircle of radius 3.
(See accompanying figure.)
y02
R = g sin 2a,
w
where g is the downward acceleration due to gravity. Find the
angle a for which the range R is the largest possible.
h
35. What value of a makes
ƒ(x) = x2 + (a>x) have
r=3
a. a local minimum at x = 2?
b. a point of inflection at x = 1?
3
273
2
36. What values of a and b make ƒ(x) = x + ax + bx have
a. a local maximum at x = -1 and a local minimum at x = 3?
b. a local minimum at x = 4 and a point of inflection at x = 1?
Physical Applications
37. Vertical motion The height above ground of an object moving
vertically is given by
s = - 16t 2 + 96t + 112,
T 43. Strength of a beam The strength S of a rectangular wooden
beam is proportional to its width times the square of its depth.
(See the accompanying figure.)
a. Find the dimensions of the strongest beam that can be cut
from a 12-in.-diameter cylindrical log.
b. Graph S as a function of the beam’s width w, assuming the
proportionality constant to be k = 1. Reconcile what you see
with your answer in part (a).
c. On the same screen, graph S as a function of the beam’s depth
d, again taking k = 1. Compare the graphs with one another
and with your answer in part (a). What would be the effect of
changing to some other value of k? Try it.
with s in feet and t in seconds. Find
a. the object’s velocity when t = 0;
b. its maximum height and when it occurs;
12″
c. its velocity when s = 0.
d
38. Quickest route Jane is 2 mi offshore in a boat and wishes to reach
a coastal village 6 mi down a straight shoreline from the point nearest the boat. She can row 2 mph and can walk 5 mph. Where should
she land her boat to reach the village in the least amount of time?
39. Shortest beam The 8-ft wall shown here stands 27 ft from the
building. Find the length of the shortest straight beam that will
reach to the side of the building from the ground outside the wall.
Beam
Building
8′ wall
27′
40. Motion on a line The positions of two particles on the s-axis
are s1 = sin t and s2 = sin (t + p>3), with s1 and s2 in meters
and t in seconds.
a. At what time(s) in the interval 0 … t … 2p do the particles
meet?
b. What is the farthest apart that the particles ever get?
c. When in the interval 0 … t … 2p is the distance between the
particles changing the fastest?
41. The intensity of illumination at any point from a light source is
proportional to the square of the reciprocal of the distance
between the point and the light source. Two lights, one having an
intensity eight times that of the other, are 6 m apart. How far from
the stronger light is the total illumination least?
42. Projectile motion The range R of a projectile fired from the origin over horizontal ground is the distance from the origin to the
point of impact. If the projectile is fired with an initial velocity y0
at an angle a with the horizontal, then in Chapter 13 we find that
w
T 44. Stiffness of a beam The stiffness S of a rectangular beam is
proportional to its width times the cube of its depth.
a. Find the dimensions of the stiffest beam that can be cut from
a 12-in.-diameter cylindrical log.
b. Graph S as a function of the beam’s width w, assuming the
proportionality constant to be k = 1. Reconcile what you see
with your answer in part (a).
c. On the same screen, graph S as a function of the beam’s depth
d, again taking k = 1. Compare the graphs with one another
and with your answer in part (a). What would be the effect of
changing to some other value of k? Try it.
45. Frictionless cart A small frictionless cart, attached to the wall
by a spring, is pulled 10 cm from its rest position and released at
time t = 0 to roll back and forth for 4 sec. Its position at time t is
s = 10 cos pt.
a. What is the cart’s maximum speed? When is the cart moving
that fast? Where is it then? What is the magnitude of the
acceleration then?
b. Where is the cart when the magnitude of the acceleration is
greatest? What is the cart’s speed then?
0
10
s
46. Two masses hanging side by side from springs have positions
s1 = 2 sin t and s2 = sin 2t, respectively.
a. At what times in the interval 0 6 t do the masses pass each
other? (Hint: sin 2t = 2 sin t cos t.)
274
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
b. When in the interval 0 … t … 2p is the vertical distance
between the masses the greatest? What is this distance? (Hint:
cos 2t = 2 cos2 t - 1.)
s1
m1
0
s2
m2
churches crumble away years ago called the change tin pest
because it seemed to be contagious, and indeed it was, for the
gray powder is a catalyst for its own formation.
A catalyst for a chemical reaction is a substance that controls the rate of reaction without undergoing any permanent
change in itself. An autocatalytic reaction is one whose product
is a catalyst for its own formation. Such a reaction may proceed
slowly at first if the amount of catalyst present is small and
slowly again at the end, when most of the original substance is
used up. But in between, when both the substance and its catalyst
product are abundant, the reaction proceeds at a faster pace.
In some cases, it is reasonable to assume that the rate
y = dx>dt of the reaction is proportional both to the amount of
the original substance present and to the amount of product. That
is, y may be considered to be a function of x alone, and
y = kx(a - x) = kax - kx2,
s
47. Distance between two ships At noon, ship A was 12 nautical
miles due north of ship B. Ship A was sailing south at 12 knots
(nautical miles per hour; a nautical mile is 2000 yd) and continued to do so all day. Ship B was sailing east at 8 knots and continued to do so all day.
a. Start counting time with t = 0 at noon and express the distance s between the ships as a function of t.
b. How rapidly was the distance between the ships changing at
noon? One hour later?
c. The visibility that day was 5 nautical miles. Did the ships
ever sight each other?
T d. Graph s and ds>dt together as functions of t for - 1 … t … 3,
using different colors if possible. Compare the graphs and
reconcile what you see with your answers in parts (b)
and (c).
e. The graph of ds>dt looks as if it might have a horizontal
asymptote in the first quadrant. This in turn suggests that
ds>dt approaches a limiting value as t S q. What is this
value? What is its relation to the ships’ individual speeds?
48. Fermat’s principle in optics Light from a source A is reflected
by a plane mirror to a receiver at point B, as shown in the accompanying figure. Show that for the light to obey Fermat’s principle,
the angle of incidence must equal the angle of reflection, both
measured from the line normal to the reflecting surface. (This
result can also be derived without calculus. There is a purely geometric argument, which you may prefer.)
Normal
Light
receiver
Light
source
A
Angle of
incidence
u1
Angle of
reflection
u2
B
Plane mirror
49. Tin pest When metallic tin is kept below 13.2°C, it slowly
becomes brittle and crumbles to a gray powder. Tin objects eventually crumble to this gray powder spontaneously if kept in a cold
climate for years. The Europeans who saw tin organ pipes in their
where
x = the amount of product
a = the amount of substance at the beginning
k = a positive constant.
At what value of x does the rate y have a maximum? What is the
maximum value of y?
50. Airplane landing path An airplane is flying at altitude H when it
begins its descent to an airport runway that is at horizontal ground
distance L from the airplane, as shown in the figure. Assume that the
landing path of the airplane is the graph of a cubic polynomial function y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where y(- L) = H and y(0) = 0.
a. What is dy>dx at x = 0?
b. What is dy>dx at x = - L?
c. Use the values for dy>dx at x = 0 and x = -L together with
y(0) = 0 and y(- L) = H to show that
x 3
x 2
y(x) = H c 2a b + 3a b d .
L
L
y
Landing path
H = Cruising altitude
Airport
L
x
Business and Economics
51. It costs you c dollars each to manufacture and distribute backpacks.
If the backpacks sell at x dollars each, the number sold is given by
a
n = x - c + b(100 - x),
where a and b are positive constants. What selling price will bring
a maximum profit?
52. You operate a tour service that offers the following rates:
$200 per person if 50 people (the minimum number to book the
tour) go on the tour.
For each additional person, up to a maximum of 80 people
total, the rate per person is reduced by $2.
It costs $6000 (a fixed cost) plus $32 per person to conduct the
tour. How many people does it take to maximize your profit?
4.6 Applied Optimization
53. Wilson lot size formula One of the formulas for inventory
management says that the average weekly cost of ordering, paying for, and holding merchandise is
hq
km
A(q) = q + cm +
,
2
where q is the quantity you order when things run low (shoes,
radios, brooms, or whatever the item might be), k is the cost of
placing an order (the same, no matter how often you order), c is
the cost of one item (a constant), m is the number of items sold
each week (a constant), and h is the weekly holding cost per item
(a constant that takes into account things such as space, utilities,
insurance, and security).
a. Your job, as the inventory manager for your store, is to find
the quantity that will minimize A(q). What is it? (The formula
you get for the answer is called the Wilson lot size formula.)
b. Shipping costs sometimes depend on order size. When they
do, it is more realistic to replace k by k + bq, the sum of k
and a constant multiple of q. What is the most economical
quantity to order now?
54. Production level Prove that the production level (if any) at
which average cost is smallest is a level at which the average cost
equals marginal cost.
55. Show that if r(x) = 6x and c(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 15x are your revenue and cost functions, then the best you can do is break even
(have revenue equal cost).
56. Production level Suppose that c(x) = x3 - 20x2 + 20,000x is
the cost of manufacturing x items. Find a production level that
will minimize the average cost of making x items.
57. You are to construct an open rectangular box with a square base
and a volume of 48 ft3. If material for the bottom costs $6>ft2 and
material for the sides costs $4>ft2, what dimensions will result in
the least expensive box? What is the minimum cost?
58. The 800-room Mega Motel chain is filled to capacity when the
room charge is $50 per night. For each $10 increase in room
charge, 40 fewer rooms are filled each night. What charge per
room will result in the maximum revenue per night?
Biology
59. Sensitivity to medicine (Continuation of Exercise 72, Section
3.3.) Find the amount of medicine to which the body is most sensitive by finding the value of M that maximizes the derivative
dR>dM, where
and C is a constant.
R = M2 a
C
M
- b
2
3
60. How we cough
a. When we cough, the trachea (windpipe) contracts to increase
the velocity of the air going out. This raises the questions of
how much it should contract to maximize the velocity and
whether it really contracts that much when we cough.
275
Under reasonable assumptions about the elasticity of
the tracheal wall and about how the air near the wall is
slowed by friction, the average flow velocity y can be modeled by the equation
r0
… r … r0 ,
2
y = c(r0 - r)r 2 cm>sec,
where r0 is the rest radius of the trachea in centimeters and c
is a positive constant whose value depends in part on the
length of the trachea.
Show that y is greatest when r = (2>3)r0; that is, when
the trachea is about 33% contracted. The remarkable fact is
that X-ray photographs confirm that the trachea contracts
about this much during a cough.
T b. Take r0 to be 0.5 and c to be 1 and graph y over the interval
0 … r … 0.5. Compare what you see with the claim that y is
at a maximum when r = (2>3)r0.
Theory and Examples
61. An inequality for positive integers
are positive integers, then
Show that if a, b, c, and d
(a2 + 1)(b2 + 1)(c2 + 1)(d 2 + 1)
Ú 16.
abcd
62. The derivative dt>dx in Example 4
a. Show that
ƒ(x) =
x
2a2 + x2
is an increasing function of x.
b. Show that
g(x) =
d - x
2b + (d - x)2
2
is a decreasing function of x.
c. Show that
dt
x
d - x
=
dx c1 2a2 + x2
c2 2b2 + (d - x)2
is an increasing function of x.
63. Let ƒ(x) and g(x) be the differentiable functions graphed here.
Point c is the point where the vertical distance between the curves
is the greatest. Is there anything special about the tangents to the
two curves at c? Give reasons for your answer.
y = f (x)
y = g(x)
a
c
b
x
276
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
64. You have been asked to determine whether the function ƒ(x) =
3 + 4 cos x + cos 2x is ever negative.
T b. Graph the distance function D(x) and y = 2x together and
reconcile what you see with your answer in part (a).
a. Explain why you need to consider values of x only in the
interval 30, 2p4.
y
b. Is ƒ ever negative? Explain.
(x, " x)
65. a. The function y = cot x - 22 csc x has an absolute maximum value on the interval 0 6 x 6 p. Find it.
T b. Graph the function and compare what you see with your
answer in part (a).
66. a. The function y = tan x + 3 cot x has an absolute minimum
value on the interval 0 6 x 6 p>2. Find it.
T b. Graph the function and compare what you see with your
answer in part (a).
67. a. How close does the curve y = 2x come to the point
(3>2, 0)? (Hint: If you minimize the square of the distance,
you can avoid square roots.)
0
3
a , 0b
2
y = "x
x
68. a. How close does the semicircle y = 216 - x2 come to the
point 1 1, 23 2?
T b. Graph the distance function and y = 216 - x2 together and
reconcile what you see with your answer in part (a).
4.7 Newton’s Method
In this section we study a numerical method, called Newton’s method or the Newton–
Raphson method, which is a technique to approximate the solution to an equation
ƒ(x) = 0. Essentially it uses tangent lines of the graph of y = ƒ(x) near the points where ƒ
is zero to estimate the solution. (A value of x where ƒ is zero is a root of the function ƒ and
a solution of the equation ƒ(x) = 0.)
Procedure for Newton’s Method
The goal of Newton’s method for estimating a solution of an equation ƒ(x) = 0 is to produce a sequence of approximations that approach the solution. We pick the first number x0
of the sequence. Then, under favorable circumstances, the method does the rest by moving
step by step toward a point where the graph of ƒ crosses the x-axis (Figure 4.46). At each
step the method approximates a zero of ƒ with a zero of one of its linearizations. Here is
how it works.
The initial estimate, x0, may be found by graphing or just plain guessing. The method then
uses the tangent to the curve y = ƒ(x) at (x0, ƒ(x0)) to approximate the curve, calling the
point x1 where the tangent meets the x-axis (Figure 4.46). The number x1 is usually a better
approximation to the solution than is x0. The point x2 where the tangent to the curve at
(x1, ƒ(x1)) crosses the x-axis is the next approximation in the sequence. We continue on,
using each approximation to generate the next, until we are close enough to the root to stop.
We can derive a formula for generating the successive approximations in the following way. Given the approximation xn, the point-slope equation for the tangent to the curve
at (xn, ƒ(xn)) is
y
y = f (x)
(x0, f (x0))
(x1, f (x1))
(x2, f (x2 ))
y = ƒ(xn) + ƒ′(xn)(x - xn).
Root
sought
0
x3
Fourth
x2
Third
x1
Second
x0
First
APPROXIMATIONS
FIGURE 4.46 Newton’s method starts
with an initial guess x0 and (under favorable circumstances) improves the guess
one step at a time.
x
We can find where it crosses the x-axis by setting y = 0 (Figure 4.47):
0 = ƒ(xn) + ƒ′(xn)(x - xn)
ƒ(xn)
= x - xn
ƒ′(xn)
x = xn -
ƒ(xn)
ƒ′(xn)
If ƒ′(xn) ≠ 0
This value of x is the next approximation xn + 1. Here is a summary of Newton’s method.
277
4.7 Newton’s Method
y
y = f (x)
Point: (xn, f (xn ))
Slope: f ′(xn )
Tangent line equation:
y − f (xn ) = f ′(xn )(x − xn )
(xn, f (xn))
Tangent line
(graph of
linearization
of f at xn )
Newton’s Method
1. Guess a first approximation to a solution of the equation ƒ(x) = 0. A graph
of y = ƒ(x) may help.
2. Use the first approximation to get a second, the second to get a third, and so
on, using the formula
xn + 1 = xn -
ƒ(xn)
,
ƒ′(xn)
if ƒ′(xn) ≠ 0.
(1)
Root sought
0
xn
xn+1 = xn −
x
f (xn )
f '(xn )
FIGURE 4.47 The geometry of the successive steps of Newton’s method. From
xn we go up to the curve and follow the
tangent line down to find xn + 1.
Applying Newton’s Method
Applications of Newton’s method generally involve many numerical computations, making them well suited for computers or calculators. Nevertheless, even when the calculations are done by hand (which may be very tedious), they give a powerful way to find
solutions of equations.
In our first example, we find decimal approximations to 22 by estimating the positive root of the equation ƒ(x) = x2 - 2 = 0.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the positive root of the equation
ƒ(x) = x2 - 2 = 0.
Solution
With ƒ(x) = x2 - 2 and ƒ′(x) = 2x, Equation (1) becomes
xn 2 - 2
2xn
xn
1
= xn + x
n
2
xn + 1 = xn -
=
xn
1
+ x .
n
2
The equation
xn + 1 =
xn
1
+ x
n
2
enables us to go from each approximation to the next with just a few keystrokes. With the
starting value x0 = 1, we get the results in the first column of the following table. (To five
decimal places, 22 = 1.41421.)
x0
x1
x2
x3
=
=
=
=
1
1.5
1.41667
1.41422
Error
Number of
correct digits
-0.41421
0.08579
0.00246
0.00001
1
1
3
5
Newton’s method is the method used by most software applications to calculate roots
because it converges so fast (more about this later). If the arithmetic in the table in Example 1 had been carried to 13 decimal places instead of 5, then going one step further would
have given 22 correctly to more than 10 decimal places.
278
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
EXAMPLE 2
Find the x-coordinate of the point where the curve y = x3 - x crosses
the horizontal line y = 1.
y
20
y = x3 − x − 1
Solution The curve crosses the line when x3 - x = 1 or x3 - x - 1 = 0. When does
ƒ(x) = x3 - x - 1 equal zero? Since ƒ(1) = -1 and ƒ(2) = 5, we know by the Intermediate Value Theorem there is a root in the interval (1, 2) (Figure 4.48).
We apply Newton’s method to ƒ with the starting value x0 = 1. The results are displayed in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.49.
At n = 5, we come to the result x6 = x5 = 1.3247 17957. When xn + 1 = xn, Equation (1) shows that ƒ(xn) = 0. We have found a solution of ƒ(x) = 0 to nine decimals.
15
10
5
1
0
−1
2
x
3
FIGURE 4.48 The graph of ƒ(x) =
x3 - x - 1 crosses the x-axis once; this is
the root we want to find (Example 2).
y = x3 − x − 1
(1.5, 0.875)
Root sought
x1
x2
x0
1
TABLE 4.1 The result of applying Newton’s method to ƒ(x) = x 3 - x - 1
with x0 = 1
n
xn
ƒ(xn)
ƒ′(xn)
xn+1 = xn −
0
1
2
3
4
5
1
1.5
1.3478 26087
1.3252 00399
1.3247 18174
1.3247 17957
-1
0.875
0.1006 82173
0.0020 58362
0.0000 00924
-1.8672E@13
2
5.75
4.4499 05482
4.2684 68292
4.2646 34722
4.2646 32999
1.5
1.3478 26087
1.3252 00399
1.3247 18174
1.3247 17957
1.3247 17957
ƒ(xn)
ƒ′(xn)
x
1.5
1.3478
(1, −1)
FIGURE 4.49 The first three x-values in
Table 4.1 (four decimal places).
In Figure 4.50 we have indicated that the process in Example 2 might have started at
the point B0(3, 23) on the curve, with x0 = 3. Point B0 is quite far from the x-axis, but the
tangent at B0 crosses the x-axis at about (2.12, 0), so x1 is still an improvement over x0. If
we use Equation (1) repeatedly as before, with ƒ(x) = x3 - x - 1 and ƒ′(x) = 3x2 - 1,
we obtain the nine-place solution x7 = x6 = 1.3247 17957 in seven steps.
Convergence of the Approximations
In Chapter 10 we define precisely the idea of convergence for the approximations xn in
Newton’s method. Intuitively, we mean that as the number n of approximations increases
without bound, the values xn get arbitrarily close to the desired root r. (This notion is
similar to the idea of the limit of a function g(t) as t approaches infinity, as defined in
Section 2.6.)
In practice, Newton’s method usually gives convergence with impressive speed, but
this is not guaranteed. One way to test convergence is to begin by graphing the function to
estimate a good starting value for x0. You can test that you are getting closer to a zero of
the function by evaluating 0 ƒ(xn) 0 , and check that the approximations are converging by
evaluating 0 xn - xn + 1 0 .
Newton’s method does not always converge. For instance, if
y
25
B0(3, 23)
20
y = x3 − x − 1
15
10
B1(2.12, 6.35)
5
−1!" 3
−1
0
ƒ(x) = e
Root sought
1!" 3
x2 x1
1
1.6 2.12
x0
3
FIGURE 4.50 Any starting value x0 to
the right of x = 1> 23 will lead to the
root in Example 2.
x
- 2r - x,
2x - r,
x 6 r
x Ú r,
the graph will be like the one in Figure 4.51. If we begin with x0 = r - h, we get
x1 = r + h, and successive approximations go back and forth between these two values.
No amount of iteration brings us closer to the root than our first guess.
If Newton’s method does converge, it converges to a root. Be careful, however. There
are situations in which the method appears to converge but no root is there. Fortunately,
such situations are rare.
279
4.7 Newton’s Method
When Newton’s method converges to a root, it may not be the root you have in mind.
Figure 4.52 shows two ways this can happen.
y
y = f (x)
r
0
x0
x1
x
y = f (x)
Starting
point
Root sought
FIGURE 4.51 Newton’s method fails to
converge. You go from x0 to x1 and back
to x0, never getting any closer to r.
Exercises
x0
Root
found
y = f (x)
x1
x
x1
x2
Root found
x
x0
Root
sought
Starting
point
FIGURE 4.52 If you start too far away, Newton’s method may miss the root you want.
4.7
Root Finding
1. Use Newton’s method to estimate the solutions of the equation
x2 + x - 1 = 0. Start with x0 = -1 for the left-hand solution
and with x0 = 1 for the solution on the right. Then, in each case,
find x2.
2. Use Newton’s method to estimate the one real solution of
x3 + 3x + 1 = 0. Start with x0 = 0 and then find x2.
3. Use Newton’s method to estimate the two zeros of the function
ƒ(x) = x4 + x - 3. Start with x0 = -1 for the left-hand zero and
with x0 = 1 for the zero on the right. Then, in each case, find x2.
4. Use Newton’s method to estimate the two zeros of the function
ƒ(x) = 2x - x2 + 1. Start with x0 = 0 for the left-hand zero and
with x0 = 2 for the zero on the right. Then, in each case, find x2.
5. Use Newton’s method to find the positive fourth root of 2 by
solving the equation x4 - 2 = 0. Start with x0 = 1 and find x2.
6. Use Newton’s method to find the negative fourth root of 2 by
solving the equation x4 - 2 = 0. Start with x0 = - 1 and find x2.
7. Guessing a root Suppose that your first guess is lucky, in the
sense that x0 is a root of ƒ(x) = 0. Assuming that ƒ′(x0) is
defined and not 0, what happens to x1 and later approximations?
8. Estimating pi You plan to estimate p>2 to five decimal places
by using Newton’s method to solve the equation cos x = 0. Does
it matter what your starting value is? Give reasons for your
answer.
Theory and Examples
9. Oscillation Show that if h 7 0, applying Newton’s method to
ƒ(x) = e
2x,
2- x,
x Ú 0
x 6 0
leads to x1 = - h if x0 = h and to x1 = h if x0 = - h. Draw a
picture that shows what is going on.
10. Approximations that get worse and worse Apply Newton’s
method to ƒ(x) = x1>3 with x0 = 1 and calculate x1, x2, x3, and x4.
Find a formula for 0 xn 0 . What happens to 0 xn 0 as n S q? Draw a
picture that shows what is going on.
11. Explain why the following four statements ask for the same
information:
i) Find the roots of ƒ(x) = x3 - 3x - 1.
ii) Find the x-coordinates of the intersections of the curve
y = x3 with the line y = 3x + 1.
iii) Find the x-coordinates of the points where the curve
y = x3 - 3x crosses the horizontal line y = 1.
iv) Find the values of x where the derivative of g(x) =
(1>4)x4 - (3>2)x2 - x + 5 equals zero.
12. Locating a planet To calculate a planet’s space coordinates,
we have to solve equations like x = 1 + 0.5 sin x. Graphing the
function ƒ(x) = x - 1 - 0.5 sin x suggests that the function has
a root near x = 1.5. Use one application of Newton’s method to
improve this estimate. That is, start with x0 = 1.5 and find x1.
(The value of the root is 1.49870 to five decimal places.) Remember to use radians.
T 13. Intersecting curves The curve y = tan x crosses the line
y = 2x between x = 0 and x = p>2. Use Newton’s method to
find where.
T 14. Real solutions of a quartic Use Newton’s method to find the
two real solutions of the equation x4 - 2x3 - x2 - 2x + 2 = 0.
T 15. a. How many solutions does the equation sin 3x = 0.99 - x2
have?
b. Use Newton’s method to find them.
16. Intersection of curves
a. Does cos 3x ever equal x? Give reasons for your answer.
b. Use Newton’s method to find where.
17. Find the four real zeros of the function ƒ(x) = 2x4 - 4x2 + 1.
280
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
T 18. Estimating pi Estimate p to as many decimal places as your
calculator will display by using Newton’s method to solve the
equation tan x = 0 with x0 = 3.
19. Intersection of curves
At what value(s) of x does cos x = 2x?
20. Intersection of curves
At what value(s) of x does cos x = -x?
2
21. The graphs of y = x (x + 1) and y = 1>x (x 7 0) intersect at
one point x = r. Use Newton’s method to estimate the value of r
to four decimal places.
y
the submarine travels on the parabolic path y = x2 and that the
buoy is located at the point (2, - 1>2).
a. Show that the value of x that minimizes the distance between
the submarine and the buoy is a solution of the equation
x = 1>(x2 + 1).
b. Solve the equation x = 1>(x2 + 1) with Newton’s method.
y
y = x2
y = x 2(x + 1)
3
2
ar, 1rb
1
0
−1
CPA
y = 1x
1
2
1
0
2
x
1
Sonobuoy a2, − 2b
x
22. The graphs of y = 2x and y = 3 - x2 intersect at one point
x = r. Use Newton’s method to estimate the value of r to four
decimal places.
23. Intersection of curves
x2 - x + 1?
Submarine track
in two dimensions
1
2
At what value(s) of x does e-x =
T 29. Curves that are nearly flat at the root Some curves are so flat
that, in practice, Newton’s method stops too far from the root to
give a useful estimate. Try Newton’s method on ƒ(x) = (x - 1)40
with a starting value of x0 = 2 to see how close your machine
comes to the root x = 1. See the accompanying graph.
24. Intersection of curves At what value(s) of x does ln (1 - x2) =
x - 1?
y
25. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem from Section 2.5 to show
that ƒ(x) = x3 + 2x - 4 has a root between x = 1 and x = 2.
Then find the root to five decimal places.
26. Factoring a quartic Find the approximate values of r1 through
r4 in the factorization
8x4 - 14x3 - 9x2 + 11x - 1 = 8(x - r1)(x - r2)(x - r3)(x - r4).
y
y = 8x 4 − 14x 3 − 9x 2 + 11x − 1
−2
−4
−6
−8
−10
−12
Slope = −40
Slope = 40
1
2
−1
y = (x − 1) 40
1
2
T 27. Converging to different zeros Use Newton’s method to find
the zeros of ƒ(x) = 4x4 - 4x2 using the given starting values.
a. x0 = -2 and x0 = -0.8, lying in 1 - q, - 22>2 2
b. x0 = -0.5 and x0 = 0.25, lying in 1 - 221>7, 221>7 2
c. x0 = 0.8 and x0 = 2, lying in 1 22>2, q 2
d. x0 = - 221>7 and x0 = 221>7
(2, 1)
x
28. The sonobuoy problem In submarine location problems, it is
often necessary to find a submarine’s closest point of approach
(CPA) to a sonobuoy (sound detector) in the water. Suppose that
Nearly flat
0
1
2
x
30. The accompanying figure shows a circle of radius r with a chord
of length 2 and an arc s of length 3. Use Newton’s method to
solve for r and u (radians) to four decimal places. Assume
0 6 u 6 p.
s=3
r
u
r
2
4.8 Antiderivatives
281
4.8 Antiderivatives
We have studied how to find the derivative of a function and how to use it to solve a wide
range of problems. However, many other problems require that we recover a function from
its known derivative (from its known rate of change). For instance, the laws of physics tell
us the acceleration of an object falling from an initial height, and we can use this to compute its velocity and its height at any time. More generally, starting with a function ƒ, we
want to find a function F whose derivative is ƒ. If such a function F exists, it is called an
antiderivative of ƒ. We will see in the next chapter that antiderivatives are the link connecting the two major elements of calculus: derivatives and definite integrals.
Finding Antiderivatives
DEFINITION A function F is an antiderivative of ƒ on an interval I if
F′(x) = ƒ(x) for all x in I.
The process of recovering a function F(x) from its derivative ƒ(x) is called antidifferentiation. We use capital letters such as F to represent an antiderivative of a function ƒ, G to
represent an antiderivative of g, and so forth.
EXAMPLE 1
(a) ƒ(x) = 2x
Find an antiderivative for each of the following functions.
(b) g(x) = cos x
1
(c) h(x) = x + 2e2x
Solution We need to think backward here: What function do we know has a derivative
equal to the given function?
(a) F(x) = x2
(b) G(x) = sin x
(c) H(x) = ln 0 x 0 + e2x
Each answer can be checked by differentiating. The derivative of F(x) = x2 is 2x.
The derivative of G(x) = sin x is cos x, and the derivative of H(x) = ln 0 x 0 + e2x is
(1>x) + 2e2x.
The function F(x) = x2 is not the only function whose derivative is 2x. The function
x + 1 has the same derivative. So does x2 + C for any constant C. Are there others?
Corollary 2 of the Mean Value Theorem in Section 4.2 gives the answer: Any two
antiderivatives of a function differ by a constant. So the functions x2 + C, where C is an
arbitrary constant, form all the antiderivatives of ƒ(x) = 2x. More generally, we have
the following result.
2
THEOREM 8 If F is an antiderivative of ƒ on an interval I, then the most general antiderivative of ƒ on I is
F(x) + C
where C is an arbitrary constant.
Thus the most general antiderivative of ƒ on I is a family of functions F(x) + C
whose graphs are vertical translations of one another. We can select a particular antiderivative from this family by assigning a specific value to C. Here is an example showing how
such an assignment might be made.
282
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
EXAMPLE 2
y
C=2
C=1
C=0
C = −1
C = −2
y = x3 + C
2
1
Since the derivative of x3 is 3x2 , the general antiderivative
F(x) = x3 + C
gives all the antiderivatives of ƒ(x). The condition F(1) = -1 determines a specific value
for C. Substituting x = 1 into F(x) = x3 + C gives
x
0
−1
Solution
Find an antiderivative of ƒ(x) = 3x2 that satisfies F(1) = -1.
F(1) = (1)3 + C = 1 + C.
(1, −1)
Since F(1) = -1, solving 1 + C = -1 for C gives C = -2. So
−2
F(x) = x3 - 2
FIGURE 4.53 The curves y = x3 + C
fill the coordinate plane without overlapping. In Example 2, we identify the curve
y = x3 - 2 as the one that passes through
the given point (1, - 1).
is the antiderivative satisfying F(1) = -1. Notice that this assignment for C selects the
particular curve from the family of curves y = x3 + C that passes through the point
(1, -1) in the plane (Figure 4.53).
By working backward from assorted differentiation rules, we can derive formulas and
rules for antiderivatives. In each case there is an arbitrary constant C in the general expression representing all antiderivatives of a given function. Table 4.2 gives antiderivative formulas for a number of important functions.
The rules in Table 4.2 are easily verified by differentiating the general antiderivative
formula to obtain the function to its left. For example, the derivative of (tan kx)>k + C is
sec2 kx, whatever the value of the constants C or k ≠ 0, and this establishes Formula 4
for the most general antiderivative of sec2 kx.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the general antiderivative of each of the following functions.
(a) ƒ(x) = x5
(d) i(x) = cos
(b) g(x) =
x
2
1
2x
(e) j(x) = e-3x
(c) h(x) = sin 2x
(f) k(x) = 2x
TABLE 4.2 Antiderivative formulas, k a nonzero constant
Function
General antiderivative
Function
General antiderivative
1. xn
1
xn + 1 + C, n ≠ -1
n + 1
8. ekx
1 kx
e + C
k
2. sin kx
1
- cos kx + C
k
1
9. x
3. cos kx
1
sin kx + C
k
10.
ln 0 x 0 + C, x ≠ 0
4. sec2 kx
1
tan kx + C
k
11.
5. csc2 kx
1
- cot kx + C
k
6. sec kx tan kx
1
sec kx + C
k
7. csc kx cot kx
1
- csc kx + C
k
12.
1
21 - k 2x2
1 -1
sin kx + C
k
1
1 + k 2x2
1
tan-1 kx + C
k
1
x 2k 2x2 - 1
sec-1 kx + C, kx 7 1
13. akx
a
1
b akx + C, a 7 0, a ≠ 1
k ln a
4.8 Antiderivatives
Solution
283
In each case, we can use one of the formulas listed in Table 4.2.
x6
+ C
6
(b) g(x) = x-1>2, so
Formula 1
with n = 5
x1>2
+ C = 2 2x + C
1>2
-cos 2x
(c) H(x) =
+ C
2
sin (x>2)
x
(d) I(x) =
+ C = 2 sin + C
2
1>2
Formula 1
with n = - 1>2
1
(e) J(x) = - e-3x + C
3
Formula 8
with k = - 3
(a) F(x) =
G(x) =
(f) K(x) = a
Formula 2
with k = 2
Formula 3
with k = 1>2
1
b 2x + C
ln 2
Formula 13
with a = 2, k = 1
Other derivative rules also lead to corresponding antiderivative rules. We can add and
subtract antiderivatives and multiply them by constants.
TABLE 4.3 Antiderivative linearity rules
1.
2.
3.
Constant Multiple Rule:
Negative Rule:
Sum or Difference Rule:
Function
General antiderivative
kƒ(x)
-ƒ(x)
ƒ(x) { g(x)
kF(x) + C, k a constant
-F(x) + C
F(x) { G(x) + C
The formulas in Table 4.3 are easily proved by differentiating the antiderivatives and
verifying that the result agrees with the original function. Formula 2 is the special case
k = -1 in Formula 1.
EXAMPLE 4
Find the general antiderivative of
ƒ(x) =
3
2x
+ sin 2x.
Solution We have that ƒ(x) = 3g(x) + h(x) for the functions g and h in Example 3.
Since G(x) = 2 2x is an antiderivative of g(x) from Example 3b, it follows from the Constant Multiple Rule for antiderivatives that 3G(x) = 3 # 2 2x = 6 2x is an antiderivative
of 3g(x) = 3> 2x. Likewise, from Example 3c we know that H(x) = (-1>2) cos 2x is an
antiderivative of h(x) = sin 2x. From the Sum Rule for antiderivatives, we then get that
F(x) = 3G(x) + H(x) + C
1
= 6 2x - cos 2x + C
2
is the general antiderivative formula for ƒ(x), where C is an arbitrary constant.
Initial Value Problems and Differential Equations
Antiderivatives play several important roles in mathematics and its applications. Methods
and techniques for finding them are a major part of calculus, and we take up that study in
284
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
Chapter 8. Finding an antiderivative for a function ƒ(x) is the same problem as finding a
function y(x) that satisfies the equation
dy
= ƒ(x).
dx
This is called a differential equation, since it is an equation involving an unknown function y that is being differentiated. To solve it, we need a function y(x) that satisfies the
equation. This function is found by taking the antiderivative of ƒ(x). We can fix the arbitrary constant arising in the antidifferentiation process by specifying an initial condition
y(x0) = y0.
This condition means the function y(x) has the value y0 when x = x0. The combination of
a differential equation and an initial condition is called an initial value problem. Such
problems play important roles in all branches of science.
The most general antiderivative F(x) + C (such as x3 + C in Example 2) of the
function ƒ(x) gives the general solution y = F(x) + C of the differential equation
dy>dx = ƒ(x). The general solution gives all the solutions of the equation (there are infinitely many, one for each value of C). We solve the differential equation by finding its
general solution. We then solve the initial value problem by finding the particular solution that satisfies the initial condition y(x0) = y0. In Example 2, the function y = x3 - 2
is the particular solution of the differential equation dy>dx = 3x2 satisfying the initial
condition y(1) = -1.
Antiderivatives and Motion
We have seen that the derivative of the position function of an object gives its velocity, and
the derivative of its velocity function gives its acceleration. If we know an object’s acceleration, then by finding an antiderivative we can recover the velocity, and from an antiderivative of the velocity we can recover its position function. This procedure was used as an
application of Corollary 2 in Section 4.2. Now that we have a terminology and conceptual
framework in terms of antiderivatives, we revisit the problem from the point of view of
differential equations.
EXAMPLE 5
A hot-air balloon ascending at the rate of 12 ft>sec is at a height 80 ft
above the ground when a package is dropped. How long does it take the package to reach
the ground?
s
y(0) = 12
Solution Let y(t) denote the velocity of the package at time t, and let s(t) denote its
height above the ground. The acceleration of gravity near the surface of the earth is
32 ft>sec2. Assuming no other forces act on the dropped package, we have
dy
= -32.
dt
Negative because gravity acts in the
direction of decreasing s
This leads to the following initial value problem (Figure 4.54):
Differential equation:
dy = −32
dt
Initial condition:
dy
= -32
dt
y(0) = 12.
Balloon initially rising
This is our mathematical model for the package’s motion. We solve the initial value problem to obtain the velocity of the package.
s(t)
1.
0
ground
FIGURE 4.54 A package dropped from
a rising hot-air balloon (Example 5).
Solve the differential equation: The general formula for an antiderivative of -32 is
y = -32t + C.
Having found the general solution of the differential equation, we use the initial condition to find the particular solution that solves our problem.
4.8 Antiderivatives
2.
285
Evaluate C:
12 = -32(0) + C
Initial condition y(0) = 12
C = 12.
The solution of the initial value problem is
y = -32t + 12.
Since velocity is the derivative of height, and the height of the package is 80 ft at time
t = 0 when it is dropped, we now have a second initial value problem:
Differential equation:
Initial condition:
ds
= -32t + 12
dt
s(0) = 80.
Set y = ds>dt in the previous equation.
We solve this initial value problem to find the height as a function of t.
1.
Solve the differential equation: Finding the general antiderivative of -32t + 12 gives
s = -16t 2 + 12t + C.
2.
Evaluate C:
80 = -16(0)2 + 12(0) + C
C = 80.
Initial condition s(0) = 80
The package’s height above ground at time t is
s = -16t 2 + 12t + 80.
Use the solution: To find how long it takes the package to reach the ground, we set s
equal to 0 and solve for t:
-16t 2 + 12t + 80 = 0
-4t 2 + 3t + 20 = 0
-3 { 2329
Quadratic formula
-8
t ≈ -1.89,
t ≈ 2.64.
t =
The package hits the ground about 2.64 sec after it is dropped from the balloon. (The negative root has no physical meaning.)
Indefinite Integrals
A special symbol is used to denote the collection of all antiderivatives of a function ƒ.
DEFINITION The collection of all antiderivatives of ƒ is called the indefinite
integral of ƒ with respect to x, and is denoted by
ƒ(x) dx.
L
The symbol 1 is an integral sign. The function ƒ is the integrand of the integral, and x is the variable of integration.
After the integral sign in the notation we just defined, the integrand function is always
followed by a differential to indicate the variable of integration. We will have more to say
286
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
about why this is important in Chapter 5. Using this notation, we restate the solutions of
Example 1, as follows:
L
2x dx = x2 + C,
L
cos x dx = sin x + C,
L
This notation is related to the main application of antiderivatives, which will be explored
in Chapter 5. Antiderivatives play a key role in computing limits of certain infinite sums,
an unexpected and wonderfully useful role that is described in a central result of Chapter 5,
called the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
1
a x + 2e2x b dx = ln 0 x 0 + e2x + C.
EXAMPLE 6
Evaluate
L
(x2 - 2x + 5) dx.
Solution If we recognize that (x3 >3) - x2 + 5x is an antiderivative of x2 - 2x + 5,
we can evaluate the integral as
antiderivative
$++%++&
x3
(x2 - 2x + 5) dx =
- x2 + 5x + "
C.
3
L
arbitrary constant
If we do not recognize the antiderivative right away, we can generate it term-by-term
with the Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules:
L
(x2 - 2x + 5) dx =
L
x2 dx -
=
L
x2 dx - 2 x dx + 5 1 dx
L
L
= a
=
L
2x dx +
L
5 dx
x3
x2
+ C1 b - 2a + C2 b + 5(x + C3)
3
2
x3
+ C1 - x2 - 2C2 + 5x + 5C3.
3
This formula is more complicated than it needs to be. If we combine C1, -2C2, and 5C3
into a single arbitrary constant C = C1 - 2C2 + 5C3, the formula simplifies to
x3
- x2 + 5x + C
3
and still gives all the possible antiderivatives there are. For this reason, we recommend that
you go right to the final form even if you elect to integrate term-by-term. Write
L
(x2 - 2x + 5) dx =
=
L
x2 dx -
L
2x dx +
L
5 dx
x3
- x2 + 5x + C.
3
Find the simplest antiderivative you can for each part and add the arbitrary constant of
integration at the end.
4.8 Antiderivatives
Exercises
4.8
Finding Antiderivatives
In Exercises 1–24, find an antiderivative for each function. Do as
many as you can mentally. Check your answers by differentiation.
1. a. 2x
2. a. 6x
3. a. -3x
-4
4. a. 2x-3
1
5. a. 2
x
7. a.
8. a.
b. x2
c. x2 - 2x + 1
b. x7
c. x7 - 6x + 8
b. x
b.
b.
2
x3
b.
3
2x
2
b.
6. a. -
4 3
2x
3
b.
-4
c. x
-3
x
+ x2
2
5
x2
1
2x3
1
2 2x
1
3
32
x
1 -2>3
x
3
-4
+ 2x + 3
29.
L
a3t 2 +
t
b dt
2
(2x3 - 5x + 7) dx
1
1
a 2 - x2 - b dx
3
L x
L
26.
28.
30.
32.
x-1>3 dx
34.
1 2x
36.
L
(5 - 6x) dx
t2
+ 4t 3 b dt
L 2
L
a
(1 - x2 - 3x5) dx
1
2
a - 3 + 2xb dx
L 5 x
L
37.
L
1
c. - x-4>3
3
39.
L
41.
t 2t + 2t
dt
t2
L
42.
4 + 2t
dt
t3
L
43.
L
(- 2 cos t) dt
44.
L
(- 5 sin t) dt
45.
L
7 sin
u
du
3
46.
L
3 cos 5u du
47.
L
(- 3 csc2 x) dx
48.
L
49.
csc u cot u
du
2
L
50.
2
sec u tan u du
L5
51.
L
(e3x + 5e-x) dx
52.
L
(2ex - 3e-2x) dx
53.
L
(e-x + 4x) dx
54.
L
(1.3)x dx
(4 sec x tan x - 2 sec2 x) dx
3
c. 2
x +
1
1
b. - x-3>2
2
3
c. - x-5>2
2
7
b. x
5
c. 1 - x
c. 1 +
3
2x
4
1
3x x2
3
+ 2
x 2 dx
a8y -
2
b dy
y1>4
2x(1 - x-3) dx
38.
40.
L
x-5>4 dx
L
2x
1 -1>2
x
2
2
5x
L
33.
1
10. a.
b.
27.
(x + 1) dx
35.
c. 2x +
b.
1
3x
L
31.
5
c. 2 - 2
x
1
c. x3 - 3
x
2 -1>3
x
3
1
11. a. x
25.
c. -x-3 + x - 1
9. a.
12. a.
287
a
2x
2
+
2
2x
b dx
1
1
b dy
a L 7 y5>4
L
x-3(x + 1) dx
13. a. -p sin px
b. 3 sin x
c. sin px - 3 sin 3x
14. a. p cos px
p
px
cos
2
2
x
2
b. sec2
3
3
3
3x
b. - csc2
2
2
c. cos
17. a. csc x cot x
b. -csc 5x cot 5x
c. - p csc
18. a. sec x tan x
b. 4 sec 3x tan 3x
19. a. e3x
b. e-x
c. ex>2
20. a. e-2x
b. e4x>3
c. e-x>5
55.
21. a. 3x
b. 2-x
56.
22. a. x 23
b. xp
5 x
c. a b
3
L
1
(csc2 x - csc x cot x) dx
L2
57.
L
(sin 2x - csc2 x) dx
58.
L
(2 cos 2x - 3 sin 3x) dx
59.
L
1 + cos 4t
dt
2
60.
L
1 - cos 6t
dt
2
61.
L
63.
L
1
ax -
15. a. sec2 x
2
16. a. csc x
23. a.
2
21 - x2
1 x
24. a. x - a b
2
b.
b.
px
+ p cos x
2
3x
c. - sec2
2
2
c. 1 - 8 csc 2x
px
px
cot
2
2
px
px
tan
c. sec
2
2
c. x 22 - 1
1
2(x + 1)
2
b. x2 + 2x
c.
1
1 + 4x2
c. px - x-1
Finding Indefinite Integrals
In Exercises 25–70, find the most general antiderivative or indefinite
integral. You may need to try a solution and then adjust your guess.
Check your answers by differentiation.
5
b dx
x2 + 1
3x 23 dx
62.
64.
a-
sec2 x
b dx
3
2
1
a
- 1>4 b dy
y
L 21 - y2
L
x 22 - 1 dx
288
65.
67.
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
L
(Hint: 1 + tan2 u = sec2 u)
(1 + tan2 u) du
cot x dx
L
(Hint: 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x)
2
L
66.
L
68.
(2 + tan2 u) du
2
(1 - cot x) dx
csc u
cos u (tan u + sec u) du 70.
du
69.
csc
u
- sin u
L
L
Checking Antiderivative Formulas
Verify the formulas in Exercises 71–82 by differentiation.
71.
L
(7x - 2)3 dx =
(7x - 2)4
+ C
28
(3x + 5)
3
-1
L
(3x + 5)-2 dx = -
73.
L
sec2 (5x - 1) dx =
74.
L
75.
1
1
+ C
dx = 2
x + 1
L (x + 1)
76.
x
1
+ C
dx =
2
x
+
1
(x
+
1)
L
72.
77.
78.
csc2 a
+ C
1
tan (5x - 1) + C
5
x - 1
x - 1
b dx = -3 cot a
b + C
3
3
1
dx = ln 0 x + 1 0 + C, x ≠ -1
Lx + 1
L
84. Right, or wrong? Say which for each formula and give a brief
reason for each answer.
a.
b.
L
tan u sec2 u du =
sec3 u
+ C
3
L
tan u sec2 u du =
1 2
tan u + C
2
L
85. Right, or wrong? Say which for each formula and give a brief
reason for each answer.
(2x + 1)3
a.
+ C
(2x + 1)2 dx =
3
L
tan u sec2 u du =
c.
b.
L
3(2x + 1)2 dx = (2x + 1)3 + C
c.
L
6(2x + 1)2 dx = (2x + 1)3 + C
86. Right, or wrong? Say which for each formula and give a brief
reason for each answer.
a.
L
22x + 1 dx = 2x2 + x + C
b.
L
22x + 1 dx = 2x2 + x + C
1
22x + 1 dx = 1 22x + 1 23 + C
3
L
87. Right, or wrong? Give a brief reason why.
c.
- 15(x + 3)2
x + 3 3
dx = a
b + C
4
x - 2
L (x - 2)
xex dx = xex - ex + C
88. Right, or wrong? Give a brief reason why.
x
dx
1
79.
= a tan-1 a a b + C
2
2
La + x
80.
81.
82.
x
dx
= sin-1 a a b + C
2
L 2a - x
2
tan-1 x
tan-1 x
1
dx = ln x - ln (1 + x2) + C
x
2
2
L x
L
1
sec2 u + C
2
x cos (x2) - sin (x2)
sin (x2)
dx =
+ C
x
2
x
L
Initial Value Problems
89. Which of the following graphs shows the solution of the initial
value problem
dy
= 2x, y = 4 when x = 1?
dx
(sin-1 x)2 dx = x(sin-1 x)2 - 2x + 2 21 - x2 sin-1 x + C
y
y
y
83. Right, or wrong? Say which for each formula and give a brief
reason for each answer.
a.
b.
c.
L
x sin x dx =
L
x sin x dx = -x cos x + C
L
x sin x dx = -x cos x + sin x + C
x2
sin x + C
2
4
(1, 4)
3
4
(1, 4)
4
3
2
3
2
1
1
1
−1 0
(a)
1
x
−1 0
(b)
Give reasons for your answer.
(1, 4)
2
1
x
−1 0
(c)
1
x
289
4.8 Antiderivatives
90. Which of the following graphs shows the solution of the initial
value problem
dy
= -x, y = 1 when x = - 1?
dx
y
y
(−1, 1)
0
x
(a)
(−1, 1)
0
x
(b)
Give reasons for your answer.
Solve the initial value problems in Exercises 91–112.
dy
= 2x - 7, y(2) = 0
91.
dx
dy
= 10 - x, y(0) = - 1
92.
dx
dy
1
=
+ x, x 7 0; y(2) = 1
93.
dx x2
dy
= 9x2 - 4x + 5, y(- 1) = 0
94.
dx
dy
= 3x-2>3, y(- 1) = -5
95.
dx
dy
1
=
, y(4) = 0
96.
dx 2 2x
97.
ds
= 1 + cos t, s(0) = 4
dt
98.
ds
= cos t + sin t, s(p) = 1
dt
99.
dr
= - p sin pu, r(0) = 0
du
dr
= cos pu, r(0) = 1
100.
du
dy
1
= sec t tan t, y(0) = 1
101.
2
dt
p
dy
= 8t + csc2 t, y a b = -7
102.
2
dt
dy
3
=
, t 7 1, y(2) = 0
dt
t 2t 2 - 1
dy
8
=
+ sec2 t, y(0) = 1
104.
dt
1 + t2
103.
105.
112. y(4) = - cos x + 8 sin 2x ;
y‴(0) = 0, y″(0) = y′(0) = 1, y(0) = 3
y
(−1, 1)
d 2y
= 2 - 6x; y′(0) = 4, y(0) = 1
dx2
d 2y
106. 2 = 0; y′(0) = 2, y(0) = 0
dx
107.
d 2r
2 dr 2
= 3;
= 1, r(1) = 1
dt t = 1
dt 2
t
108.
d 2s
3t ds 2
= ;
= 3, s(4) = 4
8
dt t = 4
dt 2
109.
d 3y
= 6; y″(0) = -8, y′(0) = 0, y(0) = 5
dx3
0
(c)
d3 u
1
= 0; u″(0) = - 2, u′(0) = - , u(0) = 22
2
dt 3
111. y(4) = - sin t + cos t ;
y‴(0) = 7, y″(0) = y′(0) = - 1, y(0) = 0
110.
x
113. Find the curve y = ƒ(x) in the xy-plane that passes through the
point (9, 4) and whose slope at each point is 3 2x.
114. a. Find a curve y = ƒ(x) with the following properties:
d 2y
i)
= 6x
dx2
ii) Its graph passes through the point (0, 1) and has a horizontal tangent there.
b. How many curves like this are there? How do you know?
Solution (Integral) Curves
Exercises 115–118 show solution curves of differential equations. In
each exercise, find an equation for the curve through the labeled point.
115.
116.
dy = 1 − 4 x1!3
3
dx
y
y dy = x − 1
dx
2
1
(1, 0.5)
0
1
2
1
(−1, 1)
x
1
0
−1
x
2
−1
−1
117.
118.
dy
= sin x − cos x
dx
y
y
6
dy
= 1 + psin px
dx 2" x
1
0
(−p, −1)
2
x
4
2
0
(1, 2)
1
2
3
x
−2
Applications
119. Finding displacement from an antiderivative of velocity
a. Suppose that the velocity of a body moving along the s-axis is
ds
= y = 9.8t - 3.
dt
i) Find the body’s displacement over the time interval from
t = 1 to t = 3 given that s = 5 when t = 0.
ii) Find the body’s displacement from t = 1 to t = 3 given
that s = -2 when t = 0.
iii) Now find the body’s displacement from t = 1 to t = 3
given that s = s0 when t = 0.
290
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
b. Suppose that the position s of a body moving along a coordinate line is a differentiable function of time t. Is it true that
once you know an antiderivative of the velocity function
ds>dt you can find the body’s displacement from t = a to
t = b even if you do not know the body’s exact position at
either of those times? Give reasons for your answer.
120. Liftoff from Earth A rocket lifts off the surface of Earth with
a constant acceleration of 20 m>sec2. How fast will the rocket
be going 1 min later?
121. Stopping a car in time You are driving along a highway at a
steady 60 mph (88 ft>sec) when you see an accident ahead
and slam on the brakes. What constant deceleration is required
to stop your car in 242 ft? To find out, carry out the following
steps.
1. Solve the initial value problem
Differential equation:
Initial conditions:
d 2s
= -k
dt 2
(k constant)
ds
= 88 and s = 0 when t = 0.
dt
Measuring time and distance from
when the brakes are applied
2. Find the value of t that makes ds>dt = 0. (The answer will
where y0 and s0 are the body’s velocity and position at time
t = 0. Derive this equation by solving the initial value problem
Differential equation:
Initial conditions:
1
s = - gt 2 + y0 t + s0 ,
2
123. Motion along a coordinate line A particle moves on a coordinate line with acceleration a = d 2s>dt 2 = 15 2t - 1 3> 2t 2,
subject to the conditions that ds>dt = 4 and s = 0 when t = 1.
Find
a. the velocity y = ds>dt in terms of t
b. the position s in terms of t.
T 124. The hammer and the feather When Apollo 15 astronaut
David Scott dropped a hammer and a feather on the moon to
demonstrate that in a vacuum all bodies fall with the same (constant) acceleration, he dropped them from about 4 ft above the
ground. The television footage of the event shows the hammer
and the feather falling more slowly than on Earth, where, in a
vacuum, they would have taken only half a second to fall the 4
ft. How long did it take the hammer and feather to fall 4 ft on the
moon? To find out, solve the following initial value problem for
s as a function of t. Then find the value of t that makes s equal to 0.
d 2s
Differential equation:
= - 5.2 ft>sec2
dt 2
Initial conditions:
ds
= 0 and s = 4 when t = 0
dt
125. Motion with constant acceleration The standard equation for
the position s of a body moving with a constant acceleration a
along a coordinate line is
a
s = t 2 + y0 t + s0 ,
(1)
2
(2)
where s is the body’s height above the surface. The equation has
a minus sign because the acceleration acts downward, in the
direction of decreasing s. The velocity y0 is positive if the object
is rising at time t = 0 and negative if the object is falling.
Instead of using the result of Exercise 125, you can derive
Equation (2) directly by solving an appropriate initial value
problem. What initial value problem? Solve it to be sure you
have the right one, explaining the solution steps as you go along.
127. Suppose that
ƒ(x) =
3. Find the value of k that makes s = 242 for the value of t you
found in Step 2.
ds
= y0 and s = s0 when t = 0.
dt
126. Free fall near the surface of a planet For free fall near the
surface of a planet where the acceleration due to gravity has a
constant magnitude of g length@units>sec2, Equation (1) in Exercise 125 takes the form
involve k.)
122. Stopping a motorcycle The State of Illinois Cycle Rider
Safety Program requires motorcycle riders to be able to brake
from 30 mph (44 ft>sec) to 0 in 45 ft. What constant deceleration does it take to do that?
d 2s
= a
dt 2
Find:
d
d
1 1 - 2x 2 and g(x) = dx
(x + 2).
dx
a.
L
ƒ(x) dx
b.
L
c.
L
[- ƒ(x)] dx
d.
L
e.
L
3ƒ(x) + g(x) 4 dx
f.
L
g(x) dx
3- g(x) 4 dx
3ƒ(x) - g(x) 4 dx
128. Uniqueness of solutions If differentiable functions y = F(x)
and y = g(x) both solve the initial value problem
dy
= ƒ(x),
dx
y(x0) = y0,
on an interval I, must F(x) = G(x) for every x in I? Give reasons
for your answer.
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
Use a CAS to solve the initial value problems in Exercises 129–132.
Plot the solution curves.
129. y′ = cos2 x + sin x, y(p) = 1
1
130. y′ = x + x, y(1) = -1
1
, y(0) = 2
24 - x2
2
132. y″ = x + 2x, y(1) = 0, y′(1) = 0
131. y′ =
Chapter 4 Practice Exercises
Chapter
4
291
Questions to Guide Your Review
1. What can be said about the extreme values of a function that is
continuous on a closed interval?
2. What does it mean for a function to have a local extreme value on
its domain? An absolute extreme value? How are local and absolute extreme values related, if at all? Give examples.
14. What is a cusp? Give examples.
15. List the steps you would take to graph a rational function. Illustrate with an example.
16. Outline a general strategy for solving max-min problems. Give
examples.
3. How do you find the absolute extrema of a continuous function
on a closed interval? Give examples.
17. Describe l’Hôpital’s Rule. How do you know when to use the rule
and when to stop? Give an example.
4. What are the hypotheses and conclusion of Rolle’s Theorem? Are
the hypotheses really necessary? Explain.
18. How can you sometimes handle limits that lead to indeterminate
forms q > q, q # 0, and q - q ? Give examples.
5. What are the hypotheses and conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem? What physical interpretations might the theorem have?
6. State the Mean Value Theorem’s three corollaries.
19. How can you sometimes handle limits that lead to indeterminate
forms 1q, 00, and qq ? Give examples.
7. How can you sometimes identify a function ƒ(x) by knowing ƒ′
and knowing the value of ƒ at a point x = x0? Give an example.
20. Describe Newton’s method for solving equations. Give an example.
What is the theory behind the method? What are some of the
things to watch out for when you use the method?
8. What is the First Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values? Give
examples of how it is applied.
21. Can a function have more than one antiderivative? If so, how are
the antiderivatives related? Explain.
9. How do you test a twice-differentiable function to determine
where its graph is concave up or concave down? Give examples.
22. What is an indefinite integral? How do you evaluate one? What
general formulas do you know for finding indefinite integrals?
10. What is an inflection point? Give an example. What physical significance do inflection points sometimes have?
23. How can you sometimes solve a differential equation of the form
dy>dx = ƒ(x)?
11. What is the Second Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values?
Give examples of how it is applied.
24. What is an initial value problem? How do you solve one? Give an
example.
12. What do the derivatives of a function tell you about the shape of
its graph?
25. If you know the acceleration of a body moving along a coordinate
line as a function of time, what more do you need to know to find
the body’s position function? Give an example.
13. List the steps you would take to graph a polynomial function.
Illustrate with an example.
Chapter
4
Practice Exercises
Extreme Values
1. Does ƒ(x) = x3 + 2x + tan x have any local maximum or minimum values? Give reasons for your answer.
6. Does ƒ(x) = 2ex >(1 + x2) have an absolute minimum value? An
absolute maximum? If so, find them or give reasons why they fail
to exist. List all critical points of ƒ.
2. Does g(x) = csc x + 2 cot x have any local maximum values?
Give reasons for your answer.
In Exercises 7 and 8, find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of ƒ over the interval.
3. Does ƒ(x) = (7 + x)(11 - 3x)1>3 have an absolute minimum
value? An absolute maximum? If so, find them or give reasons
why they fail to exist. List all critical points of ƒ.
4. Find values of a and b such that the function
ƒ(x) =
ax + b
x2 - 1
has a local extreme value of 1 at x = 3. Is this extreme value a
local maximum, or a local minimum? Give reasons for your
answer.
5. Does g(x) = ex - x have an absolute minimum value? An absolute maximum? If so, find them or give reasons why they fail to
exist. List all critical points of g.
7. ƒ(x) = x - 2 ln x, 1 … x … 3
8. ƒ(x) = (4>x) + ln x2, 1 … x … 4
9. The greatest integer function ƒ(x) = : x ; , defined for all values
of x, assumes a local maximum value of 0 at each point of 30, 1).
Could any of these local maximum values also be local minimum
values of ƒ? Give reasons for your answer.
10. a. Give an example of a differentiable function ƒ whose first
derivative is zero at some point c even though ƒ has neither a
local maximum nor a local minimum at c.
b. How is this consistent with Theorem 2 in Section 4.1? Give
reasons for your answer.
292
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
11. The function y = 1>x does not take on either a maximum or a
minimum on the interval 0 6 x 6 1 even though the function is
continuous on this interval. Does this contradict the Extreme
Value Theorem for continuous functions? Why?
that at some instant during that period the reservoir’s volume was
increasing at a rate in excess of 225,000 gal>min. (An acre-foot
is 43,560 ft3, the volume that would cover 1 acre to the depth of
1 ft. A cubic foot holds 7.48 gal.)
12. What are the maximum and minimum values of the function
y = 0 x 0 on the interval -1 … x 6 1? Notice that the interval is
not closed. Is this consistent with the Extreme Value Theorem for
continuous functions? Why?
20. The formula F(x) = 3x + C gives a different function for each
value of C. All of these functions, however, have the same derivative with respect to x, namely F′(x) = 3. Are these the only differentiable functions whose derivative is 3? Could there be any
others? Give reasons for your answers.
T 13. A graph that is large enough to show a function’s global behavior
may fail to reveal important local features. The graph of ƒ(x) =
(x8 >8) - (x6 >2) - x5 + 5x3 is a case in point.
a. Graph ƒ over the interval - 2.5 … x … 2.5. Where does the
graph appear to have local extreme values or points of inflection?
b. Now factor ƒ′(x) and show that ƒ has a local maximum at
3
x =2
5 ≈ 1.70998 and local minima at x = { 23 ≈
{1.73205.
c. Zoom in on the graph to find a viewing window that shows
3
the presence of the extreme values at x = 2
5 and x = 23.
The moral here is that without calculus the existence of two
of the three extreme values would probably have gone unnoticed.
On any normal graph of the function, the values would lie close
enough together to fall within the dimensions of a single pixel on
the screen.
(Source: Uses of Technology in the Mathematics Curriculum, by Benny Evans and Jerry Johnson, Oklahoma State University, published in 1990 under a grant from the National Science
Foundation, USE-8950044.)
21. Show that
even though
d
x
d
1
a
b =
ab
x + 1
dx x + 1
dx
x
1
≠ .
x + 1
x + 1
Doesn’t this contradict Corollary 2 of the Mean Value Theorem?
Give reasons for your answer.
22. Calculate the first derivatives of ƒ(x) = x2 >(x2 + 1) and g(x) =
- 1>(x2 + 1). What can you conclude about the graphs of these
functions?
Analyzing Graphs
In Exercises 23 and 24, use the graph to answer the questions.
23. Identify any global extreme values of ƒ and the values of x at
which they occur.
y
y = f (x)
T 14. (Continuation of Exercise 13.)
a. Graph ƒ(x) = (x8 >8) - (2>5)x5 - 5x - (5>x2) + 11 over
the interval -2 … x … 2. Where does the graph appear to
have local extreme values or points of inflection?
7
b. Show that ƒ has a local maximum value at x = 25 ≈ 1.2585
3
and a local minimum value at x = 22 ≈ 1.2599.
c. Zoom in to find a viewing window that shows the presence of
7
3
the extreme values at x = 2
5 and x = 2
2.
The Mean Value Theorem
15. a. Show that g(t) = sin2 t - 3t decreases on every interval in its
domain.
b. How many solutions does the equation sin2 t - 3t = 5 have?
Give reasons for your answer.
16. a. Show that y = tan u increases on every open interval in its
domain.
b. If the conclusion in part (a) is really correct, how do you
explain the fact that tan p = 0 is less than tan (p>4) = 1?
17. a. Show that the equation x4 + 2x2 - 2 = 0 has exactly one
solution on 30, 14 .
T b. Find the solution to as many decimal places as you can.
18. a. Show that ƒ(x) = x>(x + 1) increases on every open interval
in its domain.
b. Show that ƒ(x) = x3 + 2x has no local maximum or minimum values.
19. Water in a reservoir As a result of a heavy rain, the volume of
water in a reservoir increased by 1400 acre-ft in 24 hours. Show
(1, 1)
1
a2, 2b
x
0
24. Estimate the open intervals on which the function y = ƒ(x) is
a. increasing.
b. decreasing.
c. Use the given graph of ƒ′ to indicate where any local extreme
values of the function occur, and whether each extreme is a
relative maximum or minimum.
y
(2, 3)
y = f′(x)
(−3, 1)
x
−1
−2
Each of the graphs in Exercises 25 and 26 is the graph of the position
function s = ƒ(t) of an object moving on a coordinate line (t represents
time). At approximately what times (if any) is each object’s (a) velocity
equal to zero? (b) Acceleration equal to zero? During approximately
what time intervals does the object move (c) forward? (d) Backward?
Chapter 4 Practice Exercises
s
25.
69. lim (csc x - cot x)
s = f (t)
0
3
xS0
6
9
12 14
s
26.
t
2
4
6
8
72. lim a
x Sq
t
27. y = x2 - (x3 >6)
28. y = x3 - 3x2 + 3
77. lim
31. y = x3(8 - x)
32. y = x2(2x2 - 9)
33. y = x - 3x2>3
34. y = x1>3(x - 4)
xS0
29. y = - x3 + 6x2 - 9x + 3
30. y = (1>8)(x3 + 3x2 - 9x - 27)
35. y = x 23 - x
37. y = (x - 3) e
38. y = xe
39. y = ln (x2 - 4x + 3)
40. y = ln (sin x)
1
41. y = sin a x b
1
42. y = tan a x b
36. y = x 24 - x
2
-x2
-1
Each of Exercises 43– 48 gives the first derivative of a function
y = ƒ(x). (a) At what points, if any, does the graph of ƒ have a local
maximum, local minimum, or inflection point? (b) Sketch the general
shape of the graph.
43. y′ = 16 - x2
44. y′ = x2 - x - 6
45. y′ = 6x(x + 1)(x - 2)
46. y′ = x2(6 - 4x)
47. y′ = x4 - 2x2
48. y′ = 4x2 - x4
In Exercises 49–52, graph each function. Then use the function’s first
derivative to explain what you see.
49. y = x2>3 + (x - 1)1>3
50. y = x2>3 + (x - 1)2>3
51. y = x1>3 + (x - 1)1>3
52. y = x2>3 - (x - 1)1>3
Sketch the graphs of the rational functions in Exercises 53–60.
53. y =
x + 1
x - 3
54. y =
2x
x + 5
55. y =
x2 + 1
x
56. y =
x2 - x + 1
x
57. y =
x3 + 2
2x
58. y =
59. y =
x2 - 4
x2 - 3
x4 - 1
x2
x2
60. y = 2
x - 4
Using L’Hôpital’s Rule
Use l’Hôpital’s Rule to find the limits in Exercises 61–72.
x2 + 3x - 4
xa - 1
61. lim
62. lim b
S
S
x - 1
x 1
x 1x - 1
tan x
tan x
63. lim x
64. lim
xSp
x S 0 x + sin x
sin2 x
sin mx
65. lim
66. lim
x S 0 tan(x 2)
x S 0 sin nx
67.
lim sec 7x cos 3x
x S p>2-
x3
x3
b
- 2
x - 1 x + 1
2
Find the limits in Exercises 73–84.
10x - 1
3u - 1
73. lim
74. lim
x
u
xS0
uS0
75. lim
-1
1
1
- 2b
x4
x
x Sq
Graphs and Graphing
Graph the curves in Exercises 27– 42.
2 x
xS0
71. lim 1 2x2 + x + 1 - 2x2 - x 2
s = f (t)
0
70. lim a
293
68. lim+ 2x sec x
xS0
2sin x - 1
ex - 1
76. lim
xS0
5 - 5 cos x
- x - 1
t - ln (1 + 2t)
79. lim+
tS0
t2
t
e
1
81. lim+ a t - t b
tS0
x
xS0 e
b kx
83. lim a1 + x b
Sq
x
2-sin x - 1
ex - 1
4 - 4ex
xex
sin2 (px)
80. lim x - 4
S
x 4e
+ 3 - x
78. lim
xS0
82. lim+ e-1>y ln y
yS0
7
2
84. lim a1 + x + 2 b
x Sq
x
Optimization
85. The sum of two nonnegative numbers is 36. Find the numbers if
a. the difference of their square roots is to be as large as possible.
b. the sum of their square roots is to be as large as possible.
86. The sum of two nonnegative numbers is 20. Find the numbers
a. if the product of one number and the square root of the other
is to be as large as possible.
b. if one number plus the square root of the other is to be as
large as possible.
87. An isosceles triangle has its vertex at the origin and its base parallel to the x-axis with the vertices above the axis on the curve
y = 27 - x2. Find the largest area the triangle can have.
88. A customer has asked you to design an open-top rectangular
stainless steel vat. It is to have a square base and a volume of
32 ft3, to be welded from quarter-inch plate, and to weigh no
more than necessary. What dimensions do you recommend?
89. Find the height and radius of the largest right circular cylinder
that can be put in a sphere of radius 23.
90. The figure here shows two right circular cones, one upside down
inside the other. The two bases are parallel, and the vertex of the
smaller cone lies at the center of the larger cone’s base. What
values of r and h will give the smaller cone the largest possible
volume?
12′
r
h
6′
294
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
91. Manufacturing tires Your company can manufacture x hundred grade A tires and y hundred grade B tires a day, where
0 … x … 4 and
y =
109.
40 - 10x
.
5 - x
Your profit on a grade A tire is twice your profit on a grade B tire.
What is the most profitable number of each kind to make?
92. Particle motion The positions of two particles on the s-axis are
s1 = cos t and s2 = cos (t + p>4).
a. What is the farthest apart the particles ever get?
b. When do the particles collide?
T 93. Open-top box An open-top rectangular box is constructed from
a 10-in.-by-16-in. piece of cardboard by cutting squares of equal
side length from the corners and folding up the sides. Find analytically the dimensions of the box of largest volume and the
maximum volume. Support your answers graphically.
94. The ladder problem What is the approximate length (in feet)
of the longest ladder you can carry horizontally around the corner
of the corridor shown here? Round your answer down to the nearest foot.
y
(8, 6)
6
0
x
8
96. Let ƒ(x) = x4 - x3. Show that the equation ƒ(x) = 75 has a solution in the interval 33, 44 and use Newton’s method to find it.
Finding Indefinite Integrals
Find the indefinite integrals (most general antiderivatives) in Exercises 97–120. You may need to try a solution and then adjust your
guess. Check your answers by differentiation.
L
(x3 + 5x - 7) dx
4
99.
a3 2t + 2 b dt
t
L
98.
100.
101.
dr
2
L (r + 5)
102.
103.
L
104.
105.
L
3u 2u 2 + 1 du
x3(1 + x4)-1>4 dx
L
L
sec2
s
ds
10
csc 22u cot 22u du
x
111.
sin2 dx
4
L
112.
L
113.
L
115.
117.
119.
cos2
x
dx
2
L
csc2 ps ds
110.
L
sec
u
u
tan du
3
3
1 - cos 2u
a Hint: sin2 u =
b
2
3
a x - xb dx
114.
1
a et - e-t b dt
L 2
L
108.
116.
u 1 - p du
118.
3
dx
L 2x 2x2 - 1
120.
5
2
a 2 + 2
b dx
x + 1
L x
L
(5s + s5) ds
L
2p + r dr
du
L 216 - u 2
Initial Value Problems
Solve the initial value problems in Exercises 121–124.
dy x2 + 1
121.
=
, y(1) = - 1
dx
x2
dy
1 2
= ax + x b , y(1) = 1
122.
dx
3
d 2r
= 15 2t +
; r′(1) = 8, r (1) = 0
dt 2
2t
d 3r
124. 3 = - cos t; r″(0) = r′(0) = 0, r (0) = - 1
dt
123.
Newton’s Method
95. Let ƒ(x) = 3x - x3. Show that the equation ƒ(x) = -4 has a
solution in the interval 32, 34 and use Newton’s method to find it.
97.
107.
106.
L
a8t 3 -
L 2 2t
a
1
2
t
+ tb dt
2
-
3
b dt
t4
6 dr
L 1 r - 22 23
u
du
L 27 + u 2
L
(2 - x)3>5 dx
Applications and Examples
125. Can the integrations in (a) and (b) both be correct? Explain.
a.
b.
dx
= sin-1 x + C
L 21 - x2
dx
dx
= - = - cos-1 x + C
L 21 - x2
L 21 - x2
126. Can the integrations in (a) and (b) both be correct? Explain.
a.
b.
dx
dx
= - = -cos-1 x + C
L 21 - x2
L 21 - x2
dx
-du
=
L 21 - x2 L 21 - (- u)2
=
x = -u
dx = - du
- du
L 21 - u2
= cos-1 u + C
= cos-1 (- x) + C
u = -x
127. The rectangle shown here has one side on the positive y-axis,
one side on the positive x-axis, and its upper right-hand vertex
Chapter 4 Additional and Advanced Exercises
2
on the curve y = e-x . What dimensions give the rectangle its
largest area, and what is that area?
y
1
y = e−x
2
295
2
132. g(x) = e23 - 2x - x
T 133. Graph the following functions and use what you see to locate
and estimate the extreme values, identify the coordinates of the
inflection points, and identify the intervals on which the graphs
are concave up and concave down. Then confirm your estimates
by working with the functions’ derivatives.
a. y = (ln x)> 2x
2
x
0
128. The rectangle shown here has one side on the positive y-axis,
one side on the positive x-axis, and its upper right-hand vertex
on the curve y = (ln x)>x2. What dimensions give the rectangle
its largest area, and what is that area?
y
y=
0.2
ln x
x2
0.1
0
1
x
In Exercises 129 and 130, find the absolute maximum and minimum
values of each function on the given interval.
129. y = x ln 2x - x,
c
b. y = e-x
c. y = (1 + x)e-x
T 134. Graph ƒ(x) = x ln x. Does the function appear to have an absolute minimum value? Confirm your answer with calculus.
T 135. Graph ƒ(x) = (sin x)sin x over 30, 3p4. Explain what you see.
136. A round underwater transmission cable consists of a core of copper wires surrounded by nonconducting insulation. If x denotes
the ratio of the radius of the core to the thickness of the insulation, it is known that the speed of the transmission signal is
given by the equation y = x2 ln (1>x). If the radius of the core is
1 cm, what insulation thickness h will allow the greatest transmission speed?
Insulation
1 e
, d
2e 2
x= r
h
130. y = 10x(2 - ln x), (0, e2 4
Core
h
r
In Exercises 131 and 132, find the absolute maxima and minima of
the functions and say where they are assumed.
4
131. ƒ(x) = ex> 2x
Chapter
+1
4
Additional and Advanced Exercises
Functions and Derivatives
1. What can you say about a function whose maximum and minimum values on an interval are equal? Give reasons for your
answer.
2. Is it true that a discontinuous function cannot have both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum value on a closed interval? Give reasons for your answer.
3. Can you conclude anything about the extreme values of a continuous function on an open interval? On a half-open interval? Give
reasons for your answer.
4. Local extrema Use the sign pattern for the derivative
dƒ
= 6(x - 1)(x - 2)2(x - 3)3(x - 4)4
dx
to identify the points where ƒ has local maximum and minimum
values.
5. Local extrema
a. Suppose that the first derivative of y = ƒ(x) is
y′ = 6(x + 1)(x - 2)2.
At what points, if any, does the graph of ƒ have a local maximum, local minimum, or point of inflection?
b. Suppose that the first derivative of y = ƒ(x) is
y′ = 6x(x + 1)(x - 2).
At what points, if any, does the graph of ƒ have a local maximum, local minimum, or point of inflection?
6. If ƒ′(x) … 2 for all x, what is the most the values of ƒ can
increase on 30, 64 ? Give reasons for your answer.
7. Bounding a function Suppose that ƒ is continuous on 3a, b4
and that c is an interior point of the interval. Show that if
ƒ′(x) … 0 on 3a, c) and ƒ′(x) Ú 0 on (c, b4 , then ƒ(x) is never
less than ƒ(c) on 3a, b4 .
8. An inequality
a. Show that -1>2 … x>(1 + x2) … 1>2 for every value of x.
b. Suppose that ƒ is a function whose derivative is ƒ′(x) =
x>(1 + x2). Use the result in part (a) to show that
0 ƒ(b) - ƒ(a) 0 … 1 0 b - a 0
2
for any a and b.
296
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
9. The derivative of ƒ(x) = x2 is zero at x = 0, but ƒ is not a constant function. Doesn’t this contradict the corollary of the Mean
Value Theorem that says that functions with zero derivatives are
constant? Give reasons for your answer.
Tank kept full,
top open
y
h
10. Extrema and inflection points Let h = ƒg be the product of
two differentiable functions of x.
a. If ƒ and g are positive, with local maxima at x = a, and if ƒ′
and g′ change sign at a, does h have a local maximum at a?
b. If the graphs of ƒ and g have inflection points at x = a, does
the graph of h have an inflection point at a?
In either case, if the answer is yes, give a proof. If the answer is no,
give a counterexample.
11. Finding a function Use the following information to find the
values of a, b, and c in the formula ƒ(x) = (x + a)>
(bx2 + cx + 2).
i) The values of a, b, and c are either 0 or 1.
ii) The graph of ƒ passes through the point (- 1, 0).
iii) The line y = 1 is an asymptote of the graph of ƒ.
Exit velocity = " 64(h − y)
y
Ground
0
x
Range
16. Kicking a field goal An American football player wants to kick
a field goal with the ball being on a right hash mark. Assume that
the goal posts are b feet apart and that the hash mark line is a distance a 7 0 feet from the right goal post. (See the accompanying
figure.) Find the distance h from the goal post line that gives the
kicker his largest angle b. Assume that the football field is flat.
Goal posts
12. Horizontal tangent For what value or values of the constant k
will the curve y = x3 + kx2 + 3x - 4 have exactly one horizontal tangent?
b
Optimization
13. Largest inscribed triangle Points A and B lie at the ends of a
diameter of a unit circle and point C lies on the circumference. Is
it true that the area of triangle ABC is largest when the triangle is
isosceles? How do you know?
Goal post line
a
h
b u
14. Proving the second derivative test The Second Derivative
Test for Local Maxima and Minima (Section 4.4) says:
a. ƒ has a local maximum value at x = c if ƒ′(c) = 0 and
ƒ″(c) 6 0
b. ƒ has a local minimum value at x = c if ƒ′(c) = 0 and
ƒ″(c) 7 0.
To prove statement (a), let P = (1>2) 0 ƒ″(c) 0 . Then use the fact
that
ƒ″(c) = lim
hS0
ƒ′(c + h) - ƒ′(c)
ƒ′(c + h)
= lim
S
h
h
h 0
to conclude that for some d 7 0,
0 6 0h0 6 d
1
Football
17. A max-min problem with a variable answer Sometimes the
solution of a max-min problem depends on the proportions of the
shapes involved. As a case in point, suppose that a right circular
cylinder of radius r and height h is inscribed in a right circular
cone of radius R and height H, as shown here. Find the value of r
(in terms of R and H) that maximizes the total surface area of the
cylinder (including top and bottom). As you will see, the solution
depends on whether H … 2R or H 7 2R.
ƒ′(c + h)
6 ƒ″(c) + P 6 0.
h
Thus, ƒ′(c + h) is positive for -d 6 h 6 0 and negative for
0 6 h 6 d. Prove statement (b) in a similar way.
15. Hole in a water tank You want to bore a hole in the side of the
tank shown here at a height that will make the stream of water
coming out hit the ground as far from the tank as possible. If you
drill the hole near the top, where the pressure is low, the water
will exit slowly but spend a relatively long time in the air. If you
drill the hole near the bottom, the water will exit at a higher
velocity but have only a short time to fall. Where is the best place,
if any, for the hole? (Hint: How long will it take an exiting droplet of water to fall from height y to the ground?)
r
H
h
R
Chapter 4 Additional and Advanced Exercises
18. Minimizing a parameter Find the smallest value of the positive constant m that will make mx - 1 + (1>x) greater than or
equal to zero for all positive values of x.
Limits
19. Evaluate the following limits.
a. lim
xS0
2 sin 5x
3x
b.
c. lim x csc2 22x
d.
xS0
lim sin 5x cot 3x
xS0
lim (sec x - tan x)
x S p>2
x - sin x
e. lim x - tan x
xS0
f.
sin x2
x S 0 x sin x
sec x - 1
xS0
x2
h.
x3 - 8
x S 2 x2 - 4
g. lim
lim
lim
20. L’Hôpital’s Rule does not help with the following limits. Find
them some other way.
a. lim
x Sq
2x + 5
b.
2x + 5
lim
x Sq x
2x
+ 7 2x
Theory and Examples
21. Suppose that it costs a company y = a + bx dollars to produce x
units per week. It can sell x units per week at a price of
P = c - ex dollars per unit. Each of a, b, c, and e represents a
positive constant. (a) What production level maximizes the
profit? (b) What is the corresponding price? (c) What is the
weekly profit at this level of production? (d) At what price should
each item be sold to maximize profits if the government imposes
a tax of t dollars per item sold? Comment on the difference
between this price and the price before the tax.
22. Estimating reciprocals without division You can estimate the
value of the reciprocal of a number a without ever dividing by a if
you apply Newton’s method to the function ƒ(x) = (1>x) - a.
For example, if a = 3, the function involved is ƒ(x) = (1>x) - 3.
a. Graph y = (1>x) - 3. Where does the graph cross the
x-axis?
b. Show that the recursion formula in this case is
xn + 1 = xn(2 - 3xn),
so there is no need for division.
q
23. To find x = 2a, we apply Newton’s method to ƒ(x) = xq - a.
Here we assume that a is a positive real number and q is a positive integer. Show that x1 is a “weighted average” of x0 and
a>x0q - 1, and find the coefficients m0, m1 such that
x1 = m0 x0 + m1 a
a
b,
x0 q - 1
m0 7 0, m1 7 0,
m0 + m1 = 1.
What conclusion would you reach if x0 and a>x0 q - 1 were equal?
What would be the value of x1 in that case?
24. The family of straight lines y = ax + b (a, b arbitrary constants)
can be characterized by the relation y″ = 0. Find a similar relation satisfied by the family of all circles
(x - h)2 + (y - h)2 = r 2,
where h and r are arbitrary constants. (Hint: Eliminate h and r
from the set of three equations including the given one and two
obtained by successive differentiation.)
297
25. Free fall in the fourteenth century In the middle of the fourteenth century, Albert of Saxony (1316–1390) proposed a model
of free fall that assumed that the velocity of a falling body was
proportional to the distance fallen. It seemed reasonable to think
that a body that had fallen 20 ft might be moving twice as fast as
a body that had fallen 10 ft. And besides, none of the instruments
in use at the time were accurate enough to prove otherwise.
Today we can see just how far off Albert of Saxony’s model was
by solving the initial value problem implicit in his model. Solve
the problem and compare your solution graphically with the
equation s = 16t 2. You will see that it describes a motion that
starts too slowly at first and then becomes too fast too soon to be
realistic.
T 26. Group blood testing During World War II it was necessary to
administer blood tests to large numbers of recruits. There are two
standard ways to administer a blood test to N people. In method 1,
each person is tested separately. In method 2, the blood samples
of x people are pooled and tested as one large sample. If the test is
negative, this one test is enough for all x people. If the test is positive, then each of the x people is tested separately, requiring a
total of x + 1 tests. Using the second method and some probability theory it can be shown that, on the average, the total number
of tests y will be
1
y = N a1 - qx + x b.
With q = 0.99 and N = 1000, find the integer value of x that minimizes y. Also find the integer value of x that maximizes y. (This
second result is not important to the real-life situation.) The group
testing method was used in World War II with a savings of 80% over
the individual testing method, but not with the given value of q.
27. Assume that the brakes of an automobile produce a constant
deceleration of k ft>sec2. (a) Determine what k must be to bring
an automobile traveling 60 mi>hr (88 ft>sec) to rest in a distance
of 100 ft from the point where the brakes are applied. (b) With
the same k, how far would a car traveling 30 mi>hr go before
being brought to a stop?
28. Let ƒ(x), g(x) be two continuously differentiable functions satisfying the relationships ƒ′(x) = g(x) and ƒ″(x) = - ƒ(x). Let
h(x) = ƒ2(x) + g2(x). If h(0) = 5, find h(10).
29. Can there be a curve satisfying the following conditions? d 2y>dx2
is everywhere equal to zero and, when x = 0, y = 0 and
dy>dx = 1. Give a reason for your answer.
30. Find the equation for the curve in the xy-plane that passes through
the point (1, - 1) if its slope at x is always 3x2 + 2.
31. A particle moves along the x-axis. Its acceleration is a = - t 2. At
t = 0, the particle is at the origin. In the course of its motion, it
reaches the point x = b, where b 7 0, but no point beyond b.
Determine its velocity at t = 0.
32. A particle moves with acceleration a = 2t - 1 1> 2t 2. Assuming that the velocity y = 4>3 and the position s = - 4>15 when
t = 0, find
a. the velocity y in terms of t.
b. the position s in terms of t.
33. Given ƒ(x) = ax2 + 2bx + c with a 7 0. By considering the
minimum, prove that ƒ(x) Ú 0 for all real x if and only if
b2 - ac … 0.
298
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
34. Schwarz’s inequality
B
a. In Exercise 33, let
d2
ƒ(x) = (a1 x + b1)2 + (a2 x + b2)2 + g + (an x + bn)2,
and deduce Schwarz’s inequality:
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + g + an bn)2
… 1 a1 2 + a2 2 + g + an 2 21 b1 2 + b2 2 + g + bn 2 2.
b. Show that equality holds in Schwarz’s inequality only if there
exists a real number x that makes ai x equal -bi for every
value of i from 1 to n.
35. The best branching angles for blood vessels and pipes When
a smaller pipe branches off from a larger one in a flow system, we
may want it to run off at an angle that is best from some energysaving point of view. We might require, for instance, that energy
loss due to friction be minimized along the section AOB shown in
the accompanying figure. In this diagram, B is a given point to be
reached by the smaller pipe, A is a point in the larger pipe
upstream from B, and O is the point where the branching occurs.
A law due to Poiseuille states that the loss of energy due to friction in nonturbulent flow is proportional to the length of the path
and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the radius.
Thus, the loss along AO is (kd1)>R4 and along OB is (kd2)>r 4,
where k is a constant, d1 is the length of AO, d2 is the length of
OB, R is the radius of the larger pipe, and r is the radius of the
smaller pipe. The angle u is to be chosen to minimize the sum of
these two losses:
L = k
Chapter
4
b = d 2 sin u
u
A
d1
O
a
C
d 2 cos u
In our model, we assume that AC = a and BC = b are fixed.
Thus we have the relations
d1 + d2 cos u = a d2 sin u = b,
so that
d2 = b csc u,
d1 = a - d2 cos u = a - b cot u.
We can express the total loss L as a function of u:
L = ka
b csc u
a - b cot u
+
b.
R4
r4
a. Show that the critical value of u for which dL>du equals zero
is
uc = cos-1
r4
.
R4
b. If the ratio of the pipe radii is r>R = 5>6, estimate to the
nearest degree the optimal branching angle given in part (a).
d1
d2
+ k 4.
4
R
r
Technology Application Projects
Mathematica/Maple Modules:
Motion Along a Straight Line: Position u Velocity u Acceleration
You will observe the shape of a graph through dramatic animated visualizations of the derivative relations among the position, velocity, and
acceleration. Figures in the text can be animated.
Newton’s Method: Estimate P to How Many Places?
Plot a function, observe a root, pick a starting point near the root, and use Newton’s Iteration Procedure to approximate the root to a desired
accuracy. The numbers p, e, and 22 are approximated.
5
Integrals
OVERVIEW A great achievement of classical geometry was obtaining formulas for the
areas and volumes of triangles, spheres, and cones. In this chapter we develop a method to
calculate the areas and volumes of very general shapes. This method, called integration, is
a way to calculate much more than areas and volumes. The definite integral is the key tool
in calculus for defining and calculating many important quantities, such as areas, volumes,
lengths of curved paths, probabilities, averages, energy consumption, the weights of various objects, and the forces against a dam’s floodgates, just to mention a few. Many of
these applications are studied in subsequent chapters.
As with the derivative, the definite integral also arises as a limit, this time of increasingly fine approximations to the quantity of interest. The idea behind the integral is that
we can effectively compute such quantities by breaking them into small pieces, and then
summing the contributions from each piece. We then consider what happens when more
and more, smaller and smaller pieces are taken in the summation process. As the number
of terms contributing to the sum approaches infinity and we take the limit of these sums in
a way described in Section 5.3, the result is a definite integral. By considering the rate of
change of the area under a graph, we prove that definite integrals are connected to antiderivatives, a connection that gives one of the most important relationships in calculus.
5.1 Area and Estimating with Finite Sums
The basis for formulating definite integrals is the construction of appropriate approximations by finite sums. In this section we consider three examples of this construction process: finding the area under a graph, the distance traveled by a moving object, and the
average value of a function. Although we need to define precisely what we mean by the
area of a general region in the plane, or the average value of a function over a closed interval, we do have intuitive ideas of what these notions mean. So in this section we begin our
approach to integration by approximating these quantities with finite sums. We also consider what happens when we take more and more terms in the summation process. In subsequent sections we look at taking the limit of these sums as the number of terms goes to
infinity, which then leads to precise definitions of the quantities being approximated here.
y
1
y = 1 − x2
0.5
R
0
Area
0.5
1
x
FIGURE 5.1 The area of the
region R cannot be found by a simple
formula.
Suppose we want to find the area of the shaded region R that lies above the x-axis, below
the graph of y = 1 - x2, and between the vertical lines x = 0 and x = 1 (Figure 5.1).
Unfortunately, there is no simple geometric formula for calculating the areas of general
shapes having curved boundaries like the region R. How, then, can we find the area of R?
While we do not yet have a method for determining the exact area of R, we can
approximate it in a simple way. Figure 5.2a shows two rectangles that together contain the
299
300
Chapter 5: Integrals
y
1
y
y = 1 − x2
(0, 1)
1
Q2 , 4R
Q2 , 4R
1 3
1 3
0.5
y = 1 − x2
(0, 1) Q1 , 15R
4 16
Q4 , 16R
3
0.5
R
7
R
0
0.5
1
x
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
x
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 5.2 (a) We get an upper estimate of the area of R by using two rectangles
containing R. (b) Four rectangles give a better upper estimate. Both estimates overshoot
the true value for the area by the amount shaded in light red.
region R. Each rectangle has width 1>2 and they have heights 1 and 3>4, moving from left
to right. The height of each rectangle is the maximum value of the function ƒ in each subinterval. Because the function ƒ is decreasing, the height is its value at the left endpoint of
the subinterval of 3 0, 14 forming the base of the rectangle. The total area of the two rectangles approximates the area A of the region R,
A ≈ 1#
1 3#1 7
+
= = 0.875.
2 4 2 8
This estimate is larger than the true area A since the two rectangles contain R. We say that
0.875 is an upper sum because it is obtained by taking the height of each rectangle as the
maximum (uppermost) value of ƒ(x) for a point x in the base interval of the rectangle. In
Figure 5.2b, we improve our estimate by using four thinner rectangles, each of width 1>4,
which taken together contain the region R. These four rectangles give the approximation
A ≈ 1#
7 # 1 25
1 15 # 1 3 # 1
+
+
+
=
= 0.78125,
4 16 4 4 4 16 4 32
which is still greater than A since the four rectangles contain R.
Suppose instead we use four rectangles contained inside the region R to estimate the area,
as in Figure 5.3a. Each rectangle has width 1>4 as before, but the rectangles are shorter and
y
1
y
y = 1 − x2
15
Q14 , 16
R
1
63
Q18 , 64
R
55
Q38 , 64
R
y = 1 − x2
1 3
Q2 , 4R
39
Q58 , 64
R
7
Q34 , 16
R
0.5
0.5
15
Q78 , 64
R
0
0.25
0.5
(a)
0.75
1
x
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0.125
0.375
0.625
0.875
x
(b)
FIGURE 5.3 (a) Rectangles contained in R give an estimate for the area that undershoots the true value by the amount shaded in light blue. (b) The midpoint rule uses rectangles whose height is the value of y = ƒ(x) at the midpoints of their bases. The estimate
appears closer to the true value of the area because the light red overshoot areas roughly
balance the light blue undershoot areas.
5.1 Area and Estimating with Finite Sums
301
lie entirely beneath the graph of ƒ. The function ƒ(x) = 1 - x2 is decreasing on 3 0, 14 ,
so the height of each of these rectangles is given by the value of ƒ at the right endpoint of the
subinterval forming its base. The fourth rectangle has zero height and therefore contributes
no area. Summing these rectangles with heights equal to the minimum value of ƒ(x) for a
point x in each base subinterval gives a lower sum approximation to the area,
A ≈
15 # 1 3 # 1
7 #1
1 17
+
+
+ 0# =
= 0.53125.
4 32
16 4 4 4 16 4
This estimate is smaller than the area A since the rectangles all lie inside of the region R.
The true value of A lies somewhere between these lower and upper sums:
0.53125 6 A 6 0.78125.
y
By considering both lower and upper sum approximations, we get not only estimates
for the area, but also a bound on the size of the possible error in these estimates, since the
true value of the area lies somewhere between them. Here the error cannot be greater than
the difference 0.78125 - 0.53125 = 0.25.
Yet another estimate can be obtained by using rectangles whose heights are the values
of ƒ at the midpoints of their bases (Figure 5.3b). This method of estimation is called the
midpoint rule for approximating the area. The midpoint rule gives an estimate that is
between a lower sum and an upper sum, but it is not quite so clear whether it overestimates
or underestimates the true area. With four rectangles of width 1>4 as before, the midpoint
rule estimates the area of R to be
1
y = 1 − x2
1
0
x
(a)
63 # 1 55 # 1 39 # 1 15 # 1 172 # 1
+
+
+
=
= 0.671875.
64 4 64 4 64 4 64 4
64 4
In each of our computed sums, the interval 3 a, b4 over which the function ƒ is defined
was subdivided into n subintervals of equal width (also called length) ∆x = (b - a)>n,
and ƒ was evaluated at a point in each subinterval: c1 in the first subinterval, c2 in the second subinterval, and so on. The finite sums then all take the form
y
1
y = 1 − x2
ƒ(c1) ∆x + ƒ(c2) ∆x + ƒ(c3) ∆x + g + ƒ(cn) ∆x.
1
0
A ≈
x
(b)
FIGURE 5.4 (a) A lower sum using
16 rectangles of equal width ∆x = 1>16.
(b) An upper sum using 16 rectangles.
By taking more and more rectangles, with each rectangle thinner than before, it appears that
these finite sums give better and better approximations to the true area of the region R.
Figure 5.4a shows a lower sum approximation for the area of R using 16 rectangles of
equal width. The sum of their areas is 0.634765625, which appears close to the true area,
but is still smaller since the rectangles lie inside R.
Figure 5.4b shows an upper sum approximation using 16 rectangles of equal width.
The sum of their areas is 0.697265625, which is somewhat larger than the true area
because the rectangles taken together contain R. The midpoint rule for 16 rectangles gives
a total area approximation of 0.6669921875, but it is not immediately clear whether this
estimate is larger or smaller than the true area.
EXAMPLE 1
Table 5.1 shows the values of upper and lower sum approximations to
the area of R, using up to 1000 rectangles. In Section 5.2 we will see how to get an exact
value of the areas of regions such as R by taking a limit as the base width of each rectangle
goes to zero and the number of rectangles goes to infinity. With the techniques developed
there, we will be able to show that the area of R is exactly 2>3.
Distance Traveled
Suppose we know the velocity function y(t) of a car moving down a highway, without
changing direction, and want to know how far it traveled between times t = a and t = b.
The position function s(t) of the car has derivative y(t). If we can find an antiderivative F(t)
302
Chapter 5: Integrals
TABLE 5.1 Finite approximations for the area of R
Number of
subintervals
Lower sum
Midpoint sum
Upper sum
2
4
16
50
100
1000
0.375
0.53125
0.634765625
0.6566
0.66165
0.6661665
0.6875
0.671875
0.6669921875
0.6667
0.666675
0.66666675
0.875
0.78125
0.697265625
0.6766
0.67165
0.6671665
of y(t) then we can find the car’s position function s(t) by setting s(t) = F(t) + C. The
distance traveled can then be found by calculating the change in position,
s(b) - s(a) = F(b) - F(a). If the velocity function is known only by the readings at
various times of a speedometer on the car, then we have no formula from which to
obtain an antiderivative function for velocity. So what do we do in this situation?
When we don’t know an antiderivative for the velocity function y(t), we can approximate the distance traveled with finite sums in a way similar to our estimates for area discussed before. We subdivide the interval 3 a, b4 into short time intervals on each of which
the velocity is considered to be fairly constant. Then we approximate the distance traveled
on each time subinterval with the usual distance formula
distance = velocity * time
and add the results across 3 a, b4 .
Suppose the subdivided interval looks like
Δt
a
t1
Δt
Δt
t2
b
t3
t (sec)
with the subintervals all of equal length ∆t. Pick a number t1 in the first interval. If ∆t is
so small that the velocity barely changes over a short time interval of duration ∆t, then the
distance traveled in the first time interval is about y(t1) ∆t. If t2 is a number in the second
interval, the distance traveled in the second time interval is about y(t2) ∆t. The sum of the
distances traveled over all the time intervals is
D ≈ y(t1) ∆t + y(t2) ∆t + g + y(tn) ∆t,
where n is the total number of subintervals.
EXAMPLE 2
The velocity function of a projectile fired straight into the air is
ƒ(t) = 160 - 9.8t m>sec. Use the summation technique just described to estimate how
far the projectile rises during the first 3 sec. How close do the sums come to the exact
value of 435.9 m? (You will learn how to compute the exact value easily in Section 5.4.)
Solution
We explore the results for different numbers of intervals and different choices
of evaluation points. Notice that ƒ(t) is decreasing, so choosing left endpoints gives an
upper sum estimate; choosing right endpoints gives a lower sum estimate.
(a) Three subintervals of length 1, withƒ evaluated at left endpoints giving an upper sum:
t1
t2
t3
0
1
2
Δt
3
t
5.1 Area and Estimating with Finite Sums
303
With ƒ evaluated at t = 0, 1, and 2, we have
D ≈ ƒ(t1) ∆t + ƒ(t2) ∆t + ƒ(t3) ∆t
= 3 160 - 9.8(0) 4 (1) + 3 160 - 9.8(1) 4 (1) + 3 160 - 9.8(2) 4 (1)
= 450.6.
(b) Three subintervals of length 1, with ƒ evaluated at right endpoints giving a lower sum:
0
t1
t2
t3
1
2
3
t
Δt
With ƒ evaluated at t = 1, 2, and 3, we have
D ≈ ƒ(t1) ∆t + ƒ(t2) ∆t + ƒ(t3) ∆t
= 3 160 - 9.8(1) 4 (1) + 3 160 - 9.8(2) 4 (1) + 3 160 - 9.8(3) 4 (1)
= 421.2.
(c) With six subintervals of length 1>2, we get
t1 t 2 t 3 t 4 t 5 t 6
0
1
2
3
Δt
t
t1 t 2 t 3 t 4 t 5 t 6
0
1
2
3
t
Δt
These estimates give an upper sum using left endpoints: D ≈ 443.25; and a lower
sum using right endpoints: D ≈ 428.55. These six-interval estimates are somewhat
closer than the three-interval estimates. The results improve as the subintervals get
shorter.
As we can see in Table 5.2, the left-endpoint upper sums approach the true value
435.9 from above, whereas the right-endpoint lower sums approach it from below. The
true value lies between these upper and lower sums. The magnitude of the error in the
closest entries is 0.23, a small percentage of the true value.
Error magnitude = 0 true value - calculated value 0
= 0 435.9 - 435.67 0 = 0.23.
Error percentage =
0.23
≈ 0.05,.
435.9
It would be reasonable to conclude from the table’s last entries that the projectile rose
about 436 m during its first 3 sec of flight.
TABLE 5.2 Travel-distance estimates
Number of
subintervals
Length of each
subinterval
Upper
sum
Lower
sum
3
6
12
24
48
96
192
1
1>2
1>4
1>8
1>16
1>32
1>64
450.6
443.25
439.58
437.74
436.82
436.36
436.13
421.2
428.55
432.23
434.06
434.98
435.44
435.67
304
Chapter 5: Integrals
Displacement Versus Distance Traveled
If an object with position function s(t) moves along a coordinate line without changing
direction, we can calculate the total distance it travels from t = a to t = b by summing
the distance traveled over small intervals, as in Example 2. If the object reverses direction
one or more times during the trip, then we need to use the object’s speed 0 y(t) 0 , which is
the absolute value of its velocity function, y(t), to find the total distance traveled. Using
the velocity itself, as in Example 2, gives instead an estimate to the object’s displacement,
s(b) - s(a), the difference between its initial and final positions.
To see why using the velocity function in the summation process gives an estimate to
the displacement, partition the time interval 3 a, b4 into small enough equal subintervals ∆t
so that the object’s velocity does not change very much from time tk - 1 to tk. Then y(tk) gives
a good approximation of the velocity throughout the interval. Accordingly, the change in the
object’s position coordinate, which is its displacement during the time interval, is about
s
s(5)
Height (ft)
400
256
s=0
(+)
(−)
s(2)
s(8)
144
y(tk) ∆t.
The change is positive if y(tk) is positive and negative if y(tk) is negative.
In either case, the distance traveled by the object during the subinterval is about
0 y(tk) 0 ∆t.
The total distance traveled over the time interval is approximately the sum
0 y(t1) 0 ∆t + 0 y(t2) 0 ∆t + g + 0 y(tn) 0 ∆t.
s(0)
FIGURE 5.5 The rock in Example 3.
The height s = 256 ft is reached at t = 2
and t = 8 sec. The rock falls 144 ft from
its maximum height when t = 8.
TABLE 5.3 Velocity function
t
Y(t)
t
Y(t)
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
160
144
128
112
96
80
64
48
32
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
16
0
-16
-32
-48
-64
-80
-96
We revisit these ideas in Section 5.4.
EXAMPLE 3
In Example 4 in Section 3.4, we analyzed the motion of a heavy rock
blown straight up by a dynamite blast. In that example, we found the velocity of the rock
at any time during its motion to be y(t) = 160 - 32t ft>sec. The rock was 256 ft above
the ground 2 sec after the explosion, continued upward to reach a maximum height of
400 ft at 5 sec after the explosion, and then fell back down to reach the height of 256 ft
again at t = 8 sec after the explosion. (See Figure 5.5.)
If we follow a procedure like that presented in Example 2, and use the velocity function y(t) in the summation process over the time interval 3 0, 84 , we will obtain an estimate to the rock’s 256 ft height above the ground at t = 8. The positive upward motion
(which yields a positive distance change of 144 ft from the height of 256 ft to the maximum height) is canceled by the negative downward motion (giving a negative change of
144 ft from the maximum height down to 256 ft again), so the displacement or height
above the ground is estimated from the velocity function.
On the other hand, if the absolute value 0 y(t) 0 is used in the summation process, we
will obtain an estimate to the total distance the rock has traveled: the maximum height
reached of 400 ft plus the additional distance of 144 ft it has fallen back down from that
maximum when it again reaches the height of 256 ft at t = 8 sec. That is, using the absolute value of the velocity function in the summation process over the time interval 3 0, 84 ,
we obtain an estimate to 544 ft, the total distance up and down that the rock has traveled in
8 sec. There is no cancelation of distance changes due to sign changes in the velocity function, so we estimate distance traveled rather than displacement when we use the absolute
value of the velocity function (that is, the speed of the rock).
As an illustration of our discussion, we subdivide the interval 3 0, 84 into sixteen subintervals of length ∆t = 1>2 and take the right endpoint of each subinterval in our calculations. Table 5.3 shows the values of the velocity function at these endpoints.
Using y(t) in the summation process, we estimate the displacement at t = 8:
(144 + 128 + 112 + 96 + 80 + 64 + 48 + 32 + 16
1
+ 0 - 16 - 32 - 48 - 64 - 80 - 96) # = 192
2
Error magnitude = 256 - 192 = 64
5.1 Area and Estimating with Finite Sums
305
Using 0 y(t) 0 in the summation process, we estimate the total distance traveled over
the time interval 3 0, 84 :
(144 + 128 + 112 + 96 + 80 + 64 + 48 + 32 + 16
1
+ 0 + 16 + 32 + 48 + 64 + 80 + 96) # = 528
2
Error magnitude = 544 - 528 = 16
If we take more and more subintervals of 3 0, 84 in our calculations, the estimates to
the heights 256 ft and 544 ft improve, approaching them as shown in Table 5.4.
TABLE 5.4 Travel estimates for a rock blown straight up
Number of
subintervals
16
32
64
128
256
512
during the time interval 3 0, 8 4
Length of each
subinterval
Displacement
Total
distance
1>2
1>4
1>8
1>16
1>32
1>64
192.0
224.0
240.0
248.0
252.0
254.0
528.0
536.0
540.0
542.0
543.0
543.5
Average Value of a Nonnegative Continuous Function
The average value of a collection of n numbers x1, x2, c, xn is obtained by adding them
together and dividing by n. But what is the average value of a continuous functionƒon an
interval 3 a, b4? Such a function can assume infinitely many values. For example, the temperature at a certain location in a town is a continuous function that goes up and down
each day. What does it mean to say that the average temperature in the town over the
course of a day is 73 degrees?
When a function is constant, this question is easy to answer. A function with constant
value c on an interval 3 a, b4 has average value c. When c is positive, its graph over 3 a, b4
gives a rectangle of height c. The average value of the function can then be interpreted geometrically as the area of this rectangle divided by its width b - a (Figure 5.6a).
What if we want to find the average value of a nonconstant function, such as the function g in Figure 5.6b? We can think of this graph as a snapshot of the height of some water
y
y
0
y = g(x)
y=c
c
a
(a)
b
c
x
0
a
(b)
b
x
FIGURE 5.6 (a) The average value of ƒ(x) = c on 3a, b4 is the area of
the rectangle divided by b - a. (b) The average value of g(x) on 3a, b4 is
the area beneath its graph divided by b - a.
306
Chapter 5: Integrals
that is sloshing around in a tank between enclosing walls at x = a and x = b. As the
water moves, its height over each point changes, but its average height remains the same.
To get the average height of the water, we let it settle down until it is level and its height is
constant. The resulting height c equals the area under the graph of g divided by b - a. We
are led to define the average value of a nonnegative function on an interval 3 a, b4 to be
the area under its graph divided by b - a. For this definition to be valid, we need a precise
understanding of what is meant by the area under a graph. This will be obtained in Section
5.3, but for now we look at an example.
y
f (x) = sin x
1
0
p
2
p
x
FIGURE 5.7 Approximating the
area under ƒ(x) = sin x between
0 and p to compute the average
value of sin x over 30, p4, using
eight rectangles (Example 4).
TABLE 5.5 Average value of sin x
on 0 … x … p
Number of
subintervals
8
16
32
50
100
1000
Upper sum
estimate
0.75342
0.69707
0.65212
0.64657
0.64161
0.63712
EXAMPLE 4
3 0, p4 .
Estimate the average value of the function ƒ(x) = sin x on the interval
Solution Looking at the graph of sin x between 0 and p in Figure 5.7, we can see that its
average height is somewhere between 0 and 1. To find the average, we need to calculate
the area A under the graph and then divide this area by the length of the interval,
p - 0 = p.
We do not have a simple way to determine the area, so we approximate it with finite
sums. To get an upper sum approximation, we add the areas of eight rectangles of equal
width p>8 that together contain the region beneath the graph of y = sin x and above the
x-axis on 3 0, p4 . We choose the heights of the rectangles to be the largest value of sin x
on each subinterval. Over a particular subinterval, this largest value may occur at the left
endpoint, the right endpoint, or somewhere between them. We evaluate sin x at this point
to get the height of the rectangle for an upper sum. The sum of the rectangular areas then
estimates the total area (Figure 5.7):
p
3p
p
p
5p
3p
7p p
p
+ sin + sin
+ sin + sin + sin
+ sin
+ sin b #
8
8
8
8
8
4
2
2
4
p
p
≈ (.38 + .71 + .92 + 1 + 1 + .92 + .71 + .38) #
= (6.02) #
≈ 2.364.
8
8
A ≈ asin
To estimate the average value of sin x on 3 0, p4 we divide the estimated area by the
length p of the interval and obtain the approximation 2.364>p ≈ 0.753.
Since we used an upper sum to approximate the area, this estimate is greater than the
actual average value of sin x over 3 0, p4 . If we use more and more rectangles, with each
rectangle getting thinner and thinner, we get closer and closer to the true average value as
shown in Table 5.5. Using the techniques covered in Section 5.3, we will show that the
true average value is 2>p ≈ 0.63662.
As before, we could just as well have used rectangles lying under the graph of
y = sin x and calculated a lower sum approximation, or we could have used the midpoint
rule. In Section 5.3 we will see that in each case, the approximations are close to the true
area if all the rectangles are sufficiently thin.
Summary
The area under the graph of a positive function, the distance traveled by a moving object
that doesn’t change direction, and the average value of a nonnegative function over an
interval can all be approximated by finite sums constructed in a certain way. First we subdivide the interval into subintervals, treating some function ƒ as if it were constant over
each particular subinterval. Then we multiply the width of each subinterval by the value of
ƒ at some point within it, and add these products together. If the interval 3 a, b4 is subdivided into n subintervals of equal widths ∆x = (b - a)>n, and if ƒ(ck) is the value ofƒat
the chosen point ck in the kth subinterval, this process gives a finite sum of the form
ƒ(c1) ∆x + ƒ(c2) ∆x + ƒ(c3) ∆x + g + ƒ(cn) ∆x.
5.1 Area and Estimating with Finite Sums
307
The choices for the ck could maximize or minimize the value of ƒ in the kth subinterval, or
give some value in between. The true value lies somewhere between the approximations
given by upper sums and lower sums. The finite sum approximations we looked at
improved as we took more subintervals of thinner width.
Exercises
5.1
Area
In Exercises 1–4, use finite approximations to estimate the area under
the graph of the function using
a. a lower sum with two rectangles of equal width.
b. a lower sum with four rectangles of equal width.
c. an upper sum with two rectangles of equal width.
d. an upper sum with four rectangles of equal width.
1. ƒ(x) = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1.
2. ƒ(x) = x3 between x = 0 and x = 1.
Time
(min)
Velocity
(m , sec)
Time
(min)
Velocity
(m , sec)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1
1.2
1.7
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
35
40
45
50
55
60
1.2
1.0
1.8
1.5
1.2
0
3. ƒ(x) = 1>x between x = 1 and x = 5.
4. ƒ(x) = 4 - x2 between x = -2 and x = 2.
Using rectangles each of whose height is given by the value of
the function at the midpoint of the rectangle’s base (the midpoint
rule), estimate the area under the graphs of the following functions,
using first two and then four rectangles.
5. ƒ(x) = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1.
11. Length of a road You and a companion are about to drive a
twisty stretch of dirt road in a car whose speedometer works but
whose odometer (mileage counter) is broken. To find out how
long this particular stretch of road is, you record the car’s velocity
at 10-sec intervals, with the results shown in the accompanying
table. Estimate the length of the road using
a. left-endpoint values.
6. ƒ(x) = x3 between x = 0 and x = 1.
b. right-endpoint values.
7. ƒ(x) = 1>x between x = 1 and x = 5.
8. ƒ(x) = 4 - x2 between x = -2 and x = 2.
Distance
9. Distance traveled The accompanying table shows the velocity
of a model train engine moving along a track for 10 sec. Estimate
the distance traveled by the engine using 10 subintervals of length
1 with
a. left-endpoint values.
b. right-endpoint values.
Time
(sec)
Velocity
(in. , sec)
Time
(sec)
Velocity
(in. , sec)
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
12
22
10
5
13
6
7
8
9
10
11
6
2
6
0
10. Distance traveled upstream You are sitting on the bank of a
tidal river watching the incoming tide carry a bottle upstream. You
record the velocity of the flow every 5 minutes for an hour, with the
results shown in the accompanying table. About how far upstream
did the bottle travel during that hour? Find an estimate using
12 subintervals of length 5 with
a. left-endpoint values.
b. right-endpoint values.
Time
(sec)
Velocity
(converted to ft , sec)
(30 mi , h = 44 ft , sec)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
44
15
35
30
44
35
Time
(sec)
Velocity
(converted to ft , sec)
(30 mi , h = 44 ft , sec)
70
80
90
100
110
120
15
22
35
44
30
35
12. Distance from velocity data The accompanying table gives
data for the velocity of a vintage sports car accelerating from 0 to
142 mi > h in 36 sec (10 thousandths of an hour).
Time
(h)
Velocity
(mi , h)
Time
(h)
Velocity
(mi , h)
0.0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0
40
62
82
96
108
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
116
125
132
137
142
308
Chapter 5: Integrals
mi$hr
18. ƒ(t) = 1 - acos
160
pt 4
b
4
y
140
4
y = 1 − acos ptb
4
1
120
30, 44
on
100
80
0
1
2
3
4
t
60
Examples of Estimations
19. Water pollution Oil is leaking out of a tanker damaged at sea. The
damage to the tanker is worsening as evidenced by the increased
leakage each hour, recorded in the following table.
40
20
0
hours
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
a. Use rectangles to estimate how far the car traveled during the
36 sec it took to reach 142 mi > h.
b. Roughly how many seconds did it take the car to reach the
halfway point? About how fast was the car going then?
13. Free fall with air resistance An object is dropped straight down
from a helicopter. The object falls faster and faster but its acceleration (rate of change of its velocity) decreases over time because of
air resistance. The acceleration is measured in ft>sec2 and
recorded every second after the drop for 5 sec, as shown:
t
0
1
2
3
4
5
a
32.00
19.41
11.77
7.14
4.33
2.63
a. Find an upper estimate for the speed when t = 5.
b. Find a lower estimate for the speed when t = 5.
c. Find an upper estimate for the distance fallen when t = 3.
14. Distance traveled by a projectile An object is shot straight
upward from sea level with an initial velocity of 400 ft > sec.
a. Assuming that gravity is the only force acting on the object,
give an upper estimate for its velocity after 5 sec have elapsed.
Use g = 32 ft>sec2 for the gravitational acceleration.
b. Find a lower estimate for the height attained after 5 sec.
Average Value of a Function
In Exercises 15–18, use a finite sum to estimate the average value of ƒ
on the given interval by partitioning the interval into four subintervals
of equal length and evaluating ƒ at the subinterval midpoints.
15. ƒ(x) = x3
16. ƒ(x) = 1>x
on
on
30, 24
31, 94
17. ƒ(t) = (1>2) + sin2 pt
y
1.5
0
1
2
3
4
Leakage (gal , h)
50
70
97
136
190
Time (h)
Leakage (gal , h)
on
y = 1 + sin 2 pt
2
7
8
516
720
c. The tanker continues to leak 720 gal > h after the first 8 hours.
If the tanker originally contained 25,000 gal of oil, approximately how many more hours will elapse in the worst case
before all the oil has spilled? In the best case?
20. Air pollution A power plant generates electricity by burning oil.
Pollutants produced as a result of the burning process are removed
by scrubbers in the smokestacks. Over time, the scrubbers
become less efficient and eventually they must be replaced when
the amount of pollution released exceeds government standards.
Measurements are taken at the end of each month determining the
rate at which pollutants are released into the atmosphere, recorded
as follows.
Month
Pollutant
release rate
(tons > day)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
0.20
0.25
0.27
0.34
0.45
0.52
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
0.63
0.70
0.81
0.85
0.89
0.95
a. Assuming a 30-day month and that new scrubbers allow only
0.05 ton > day to be released, give an upper estimate of the
total tonnage of pollutants released by the end of June. What is
a lower estimate?
0.5
1
6
369
b. Repeat part (a) for the quantity of oil that has escaped after
8 hours.
Pollutant
release rate
(tons > day)
30, 24
5
265
a. Give an upper and a lower estimate of the total quantity of oil
that has escaped after 5 hours.
Month
1
0
Time (h)
2
t
b. In the best case, approximately when will a total of 125 tons
of pollutants have been released into the atmosphere?
309
5.2 Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums
21. Inscribe a regular n-sided polygon inside a circle of radius 1 and
compute the area of the polygon for the following values of n:
a. 4 (square)
b. 8 (octagon)
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
In Exercises 23–26, use a CAS to perform the following steps.
c. 16
a. Plot the functions over the given interval.
d. Compare the areas in parts (a), (b), and (c) with the area of the
circle.
b. Subdivide the interval into n = 100, 200, and 1000 subintervals of equal length and evaluate the function at the midpoint
of each subinterval.
22. (Continuation of Exercise 21.)
c. Compute the average value of the function values generated in
part (b).
a. Inscribe a regular n-sided polygon inside a circle of radius 1 and
compute the area of one of the n congruent triangles formed by
drawing radii to the vertices of the polygon.
d. Solve the equation ƒ(x) = (average value) for x using the average value calculated in part (c) for the n = 1000 partitioning.
b. Compute the limit of the area of the inscribed polygon as
n S q.
23. ƒ(x) = sin x
c. Repeat the computations in parts (a) and (b) for a circle of
radius r.
1
25. ƒ(x) = x sin x
on
on
30, p4
24. ƒ(x) = sin2 x
on
p
1
c , p d 26. ƒ(x) = x sin2 x on
4
30, p4
p
c , pd
4
5.2 Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums
In estimating with finite sums in Section 5.1, we encountered sums with many terms (up to
1000 in Table 5.1, for instance). In this section we introduce a more convenient notation
for sums with a large number of terms. After describing the notation and stating several of
its properties, we look at what happens to a finite sum approximation as the number of
terms approaches infinity.
Finite Sums and Sigma Notation
Sigma notation enables us to write a sum with many terms in the compact form
a ak = a1 + a2 + a3 + g + an - 1 + an .
n
k=1
The Greek letter Σ (capital sigma, corresponding to our letter S), stands for “sum.” The
index of summation k tells us where the sum begins (at the number below the Σ symbol)
and where it ends (at the number above Σ). Any letter can be used to denote the index, but
the letters i, j, and k are customary.
The index k ends at k = n.
n
The summation symbol
(Greek letter sigma)
ak
k=1
a k is a formula for the kth term.
The index k starts at k = 1.
Thus we can write
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 + 72 + 82 + 92 + 102 + 112 = a k 2,
11
k=1
and
ƒ(1) + ƒ(2) + ƒ(3) + g + ƒ(100) = a ƒ(i).
100
i=1
The lower limit of summation does not have to be 1; it can be any integer.
310
Chapter 5: Integrals
EXAMPLE 1
A sum in
sigma notation
The sum written out, one
term for each value of k
The value
of the sum
ak
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
15
k
a (- 1) k
(- 1)1(1) + (- 1)2(2) + (- 1)3(3)
-1 + 2 - 3 = - 2
2
k
ak + 1
k=1
2
1
+
1 + 1 2 + 1
1 2 7
+ =
2 3 6
52
42
+
4 - 1 5 - 1
16 25 139
+
=
3
4
12
5
k=1
3
k=1
5
k2
ak - 1
k=4
EXAMPLE 2
Express the sum 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 in sigma notation.
Solution The formula generating the terms changes with the lower limit of summation,
but the terms generated remain the same. It is often simplest to start with k = 0 or k = 1,
but we can start with any integer.
Starting with k = 0:
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = a (2k + 1)
Starting with k = 1:
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = a (2k - 1)
Starting with k = 2:
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = a (2k - 3)
Starting with k = -3:
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = a (2k + 7)
4
k=0
5
k=1
6
k=2
1
k = -3
When we have a sum such as
2
a (k + k )
3
k=1
we can rearrange its terms,
2
2
2
2
a (k + k ) = (1 + 1 ) + (2 + 2 ) + (3 + 3 )
3
k=1
= (1 + 2 + 3) + (12 + 22 + 32)
Regroup terms.
= a k + a k 2.
3
3
k=1
k=1
This illustrates a general rule for finite sums:
a (ak + bk) = a ak + a bk .
n
n
n
k=1
k=1
k=1
Four such rules are given below. A proof that they are valid can be obtained using mathematical induction (see Appendix 2).
5.2 Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums
311
Algebra Rules for Finite Sums
a (ak + bk) = a ak + a bk
n
n
n
k=1
k=1
k=1
n
n
n
k=1
k=1
1. Sum Rule:
a (ak - bk) = a ak - a bk
2. Difference Rule:
k=1
#
a cak = c a ak
(Any number c)
#
ac = n c
(c is any constant value.)
n
n
k=1
k=1
3. Constant Multiple Rule:
n
4. Constant Value Rule:
k=1
EXAMPLE 3
We demonstrate the use of the algebra rules.
2
2
a (3k - k ) = 3 a k - a k
n
(a)
(b)
(c)
n
n
k=1
k=1
Difference Rule and Constant
Multiple Rule
k=1
n
n
n
n
k=1
k=1
k=1
k=1
#
#
a (-ak) = a (-1) ak = -1 a ak = - a ak
Constant Multiple Rule
a (k + 4) = a k + a 4
Sum Rule
3
3
3
k=1
k=1
k=1
= (1 + 2 + 3) + (3 # 4)
= 6 + 12 = 18
Constant Value Rule
1
#1
an = n n = 1
n
(d)
Constant Value Rule
(1>n is constant)
k=1
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Carl Friedrich Gauss
(1777–1855)
Over the years people have discovered a variety of formulas for the values of finite sums.
The most famous of these are the formula for the sum of the first n integers (Gauss is said
to have discovered it at age 8) and the formulas for the sums of the squares and cubes of
the first n integers.
EXAMPLE 4
Show that the sum of the first n integers is
ak =
n
k=1
n(n + 1)
.
2
Solution The formula tells us that the sum of the first 4 integers is
(4)(5)
= 10.
2
Addition verifies this prediction:
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10.
To prove the formula in general, we write out the terms in the sum twice, once forward and
once backward.
1
n
+
+
2
(n - 1)
+
+
3
(n - 2)
+
+
g
g
+
+
n
1
If we add the two terms in the first column we get 1 + n = n + 1. Similarly, if we add
the two terms in the second column we get 2 + (n - 1) = n + 1. The two terms in any
column sum to n + 1. When we add the n columns together we get n terms, each equal to
n + 1, for a total of n(n + 1). Since this is twice the desired quantity, the sum of the first
n integers is (n)(n + 1)>2.
312
Chapter 5: Integrals
Formulas for the sums of the squares and cubes of the first n integers are proved using
mathematical induction (see Appendix 2). We state them here.
2
ak =
n
The first n squares:
k=1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
3
ak = a
n
The first n cubes:
k=1
n(n + 1) 2
b
2
Limits of Finite Sums
The finite sum approximations we considered in Section 5.1 became more accurate as the
number of terms increased and the subinterval widths (lengths) narrowed. The next example shows how to calculate a limiting value as the widths of the subintervals go to zero and
their number grows to infinity.
EXAMPLE 5
Find the limiting value of lower sum approximations to the area of the
region R below the graph of y = 1 - x2 and above the interval 3 0, 14 on the x-axis using
equal-width rectangles whose widths approach zero and whose number approaches infinity. (See Figure 5.4a.)
Solution We compute a lower sum approximation using n rectangles of equal width
∆x = (1 - 0)>n, and then we see what happens as n S q. We start by subdividing
3 0, 14 into n equal width subintervals
n - 1 n
1
1 2
c 0, n d , c n , n d , . . . , c n , n d .
Each subinterval has width 1>n. The function 1 - x2 is decreasing on 3 0, 14 , and its smallest value in a subinterval occurs at the subinterval’s right endpoint. So a lower sum is constructed with rectangles whose height over the subinterval 3 (k - 1)>n, k>n4 is ƒ(k>n) =
1 - (k>n)2, giving the sum
k
n
1
1
2
1
1
1
c ƒa n b d a n b + c ƒa n b d a n b + g + c ƒa n b d a n b + g + c ƒa n b d a n b .
We write this in sigma notation and simplify,
n
n
k 1
k 2 1
a ƒa n b a n b = a a1 - a n b b a n b
k=1
k=1
n
1 k2
= a an - 3 b
n
k=1
n
n
k2
1
= an - a 3
n
k=1
1 n
1
= n # n - 3 a k2
n k=1
1 (n)(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= 1 - a 3b
6
n
= 1 -
Difference Rule
k=1
2n3 + 3n2 + n
.
6n3
Constant Value and
Constant Multiple Rules
Sum of the First n Squares
Numerator expanded
5.2 Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums
313
We have obtained an expression for the lower sum that holds for any n. Taking the
limit of this expression as n S q, we see that the lower sums converge as the number of
subintervals increases and the subinterval widths approach zero:
lim a1 -
nS q
2n3 + 3n2 + n
2 2
b = 1 - = .
6 3
6n3
The lower sum approximations converge to 2>3. A similar calculation shows that the upper
n
sum approximations also converge to 2>3. Any finite sum approximation g k = 1 ƒ(ck)(1>n)
also converges to the same value, 2>3. This is because it is possible to show that any finite
sum approximation is trapped between the lower and upper sum approximations. For this
reason we are led to define the area of the region R as this limiting value. In Section 5.3 we
study the limits of such finite approximations in a general setting.
Riemann Sums
The theory of limits of finite approximations was made precise by the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann. We now introduce the notion of a Riemann sum, which underlies
the theory of the definite integral studied in the next section.
We begin with an arbitrary bounded function ƒ defined on a closed interval 3 a, b4 .
Like the function pictured in Figure 5.8, ƒ may have negative as well as positive values. We
subdivide the interval 3 a, b4 into subintervals, not necessarily of equal widths (or lengths),
and form sums in the same way as for the finite approximations in Section 5.1. To do so, we
choose n - 1 points 5x1, x2, x3, c, xn - 1 6 between a and b satisfying
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
(1826–1866)
a 6 x1 6 x2 6 g 6 xn - 1 6 b.
y
To make the notation consistent, we denote a by x0 and b by xn , so that
a = x0 6 x1 6 x2 6 g 6 xn - 1 6 xn = b.
y = f (x)
The set
0 a
b
FIGURE 5.8 A typical continuous
function y = ƒ(x) over a closed interval
3 a, b4 .
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Richard Dedekind
(1831–1916)
P = 5x0, x1, x2, c, xn - 1, xn 6
x
is called a partition of 3 a, b4 .
The partition P divides 3 a, b4 into n closed subintervals
3 x0, x1 4 , 3 x1, x2 4 , c, 3 xn - 1, xn 4 .
The first of these subintervals is 3 x0, x1 4 , the second is 3 x1, x2 4 , and the kth subinterval
of P is 3 xk - 1, xk 4 , for k an integer between 1 and n.
kth subinterval
x0 = a
x1
x2
...
x k−1
x
xk
...
x n−1
xn = b
The width of the first subinterval 3 x0, x1 4 is denoted ∆x1, the width of the second
3 x1, x2 4 is denoted ∆x2, and the width of the kth subinterval is ∆xk = xk - xk - 1. If all n
subintervals have equal width, then the common width ∆x is equal to (b - a)>n.
Δ x1
x0 = a
Δx 2
x1
Δ xn
Δx k
x2
...
x k−1
xk
...
x
xn−1
xn = b
In each subinterval we select some point. The point chosen in the kth subinterval
3 xk - 1, xk 4 is called ck. Then on each subinterval we stand a vertical rectangle that stretches
from the x-axis to touch the curve at (ck, ƒ(ck)). These rectangles can be above or below the
x-axis, depending on whether ƒ(ck) is positive or negative, or on the x-axis if ƒ(ck) = 0
(Figure 5.9).
314
Chapter 5: Integrals
y
y = f (x)
(cn, f (cn ))
(ck, f (ck ))
kth rectangle
c1
0 x0 = a
c2
x1
x2
cn
ck
xk
x k−1
x n−1
x
xn = b
(c1, f (c1))
(c 2, f (c 2))
FIGURE 5.9 The rectangles approximate the region between the graph of the function y = ƒ(x) and the x-axis. Figure 5.8 has been enlarged to enhance the partition of
3a, b4 and selection of points ck that produce the rectangles.
On each subinterval we form the product ƒ(ck) # ∆xk. This product is positive, negative,
or zero, depending on the sign of ƒ(ck). When ƒ(ck) 7 0, the product ƒ(ck) # ∆xk is the area
of a rectangle with height ƒ(ck) and width ∆xk . When ƒ(ck) 6 0, the product ƒ(ck) # ∆xk is
a negative number, the negative of the area of a rectangle of width ∆xk that drops from the
x-axis to the negative number ƒ(ck).
Finally we sum all these products to get
y
SP = a ƒ(ck) ∆xk .
n
y = f (x)
k=1
0 a
b
x
(a)
The sum SP is called a Riemann sum for ƒ on the interval 3a, b4. There are many such
sums, depending on the partition P we choose, and the choices of the points ck in the subintervals. For instance, we could choose n subintervals all having equal width
∆x = (b - a)>n to partition 3 a, b4 , and then choose the point ck to be the right-hand
endpoint of each subinterval when forming the Riemann sum (as we did in Example 5).
This choice leads to the Riemann sum formula
Sn = a ƒaa + k
y
n
k=1
y = f (x)
0 a
b
x
(b)
FIGURE 5.10 The curve of Figure 5.9
with rectangles from finer partitions of
3a, b4 . Finer partitions create collections
of rectangles with thinner bases that approximate the region between the graph of
ƒ and the x-axis with increasing accuracy.
(b - a) # b - a
n b a n b.
Similar formulas can be obtained if instead we choose ck to be the left-hand endpoint, or
the midpoint, of each subinterval.
In the cases in which the subintervals all have equal width ∆x = (b - a)>n, we can
make them thinner by simply increasing their number n. When a partition has subintervals
of varying widths, we can ensure they are all thin by controlling the width of a widest (longest) subinterval. We define the norm of a partition P, written } P } , to be the largest of all
the subinterval widths. If } P } is a small number, then all of the subintervals in the partition P have a small width. Let’s look at an example of these ideas.
EXAMPLE 6
The set P = 50, 0.2, 0.6, 1, 1.5, 26 is a partition of 3 0, 24 . There are
five subintervals of P: 3 0, 0.24 , 3 0.2, 0.64 , 3 0.6, 14 , 3 1, 1.54 , and 3 1.5, 24 :
Δ x1
0
Δ x2
0.2
Δx4
Δx3
0.6
1
Δx5
1.5
2
x
5.2 Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums
315
The lengths of the subintervals are ∆x1 = 0.2, ∆x2 = 0.4, ∆x3 = 0.4, ∆x4 = 0.5, and
∆x5 = 0.5. The longest subinterval length is 0.5, so the norm of the partition is } P } = 0.5.
In this example, there are two subintervals of this length.
Any Riemann sum associated with a partition of a closed interval 3 a, b4 defines rectangles that approximate the region between the graph of a continuous function ƒ and the
x-axis. Partitions with norm approaching zero lead to collections of rectangles that approximate this region with increasing accuracy, as suggested by Figure 5.10. We will see in the
next section that if the function ƒ is continuous over the closed interval 3 a, b4 , then no
matter how we choose the partition P and the points ck in its subintervals to construct a
Riemann sum, a single limiting value is approached as the subinterval widths, controlled
by the norm of the partition, approach zero.
Exercises
5.2
Sigma Notation
Write the sums in Exercises 1–6 without sigma notation. Then evaluate them.
2. a
2
6k
1. a
k=1 k + 1
3
k - 1
k
k=1
3. a cos kp
5. a (-1)
3
k+1
k=1
k
k=1
7. Which of the following express 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 in
sigma notation?
a. a 2k - 1
b. a 2k
6
c. a 2k + 1
5
k=1
4
k=0
k = -1
8. Which of the following express 1 - 2 + 4 - 8 + 16 - 32 in
sigma notation?
a. a (-2)k - 1
b. a (- 1)k 2k
6
5
k=1
k=0
c. a (- 1)k + 1 2k + 2
3
k = -2
9. Which formula is not equivalent to the other two?
4 (-1)k - 1
2 (-1)k
1 (- 1)k
a. a
b. a
c. a
k=2 k - 1
k=0 k + 1
k = -1 k + 2
10. Which formula is not equivalent to the other two?
a. a (k - 1)2
4
k=1
b. a (k + 1)2
3
k = -1
c. a k 2
-1
k = -3
Express the sums in Exercises 11–16 in sigma notation. The form of
your answer will depend on your choice of the lower limit of summation.
11. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6
13.
1
1 1 1
+ + +
2 4 8 16
15. 1 -
1 1 1 1
+ - +
2 3 4 5
12. 1 + 4 + 9 + 16
14. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10
16. -
Values of Finite Sums
1 2 3 4 5
+ - + 5 5 5 5 5
17. Suppose that a ak = - 5 and a bk = 6. Find the values of
n
n
k=1
k=1
n
k=1
e. a (bk - 2ak)
d. a (ak - bk)
k=1
a. a 8ak
n
k=1
k=1
b. a 250bk
n
6. a (- 1) cos kp
4
n
c. a (ak + bk)
18. Suppose that a ak = 0 and a bk = 1. Find the values of
k=1
p
sin
k
n
n
5
k=1
k=1
n b
k
b. a
k=1 6
n
k=1
4. a sin kp
4
a. a 3ak
n
k=1
k=1
d. a (bk - 1)
c. a (ak + 1)
n
n
k=1
k=1
Evaluate the sums in Exercises 19–32.
19. a. a k
b. a k 2
c. a k 3
20. a. a k
b. a k 2
c. a k 3
10
10
k=1
10
k=1
13
k=1
13
k=1
13
k=1
k=1
21. a (- 2k)
5
pk
22. a
k = 1 15
23. a (3 - k 2)
24. a (k 2 - 5)
25. a k(3k + 5)
26. a k(2k + 1)
7
k=1
6
6
k=1
k=1
5
7
k=1
k=1
k
27. a
+ a a kb
k = 1 225
k=1
5
3
5
3
7
2
7
k3
28. a a kb - a
k=1
k=1 4
29. a. a 3
b. a 7
30. a. a k
b. a k 2
c. a k(k - 1)
31. a. a 4
b. a c
c. a (k - 1)
1
32. a. a a n + 2nb
c
b. a n
n
k
c. a 2
k=1 n
7
k=1
36
k=9
n
k=1
n
k=1
500
k=1
17
k=3
n
k=1
n
k=1
c. a 10
264
k=3
71
k = 18
n
k=1
316
Chapter 5: Integrals
Riemann Sums
In Exercises 33–36, graph each function ƒ(x) over the given interval.
Partition the interval into four subintervals of equal length. Then add
to your sketch the rectangles associated with the Riemann sum
Σ 4k = 1ƒ(ck) ∆xk , given that ck is the (a) left-hand endpoint, (b) righthand endpoint, (c) midpoint of the kth subinterval. (Make a separate
sketch for each set of rectangles.)
33. ƒ(x) = x2 - 1,
34. ƒ(x) = - x2,
35. ƒ(x) = sin x,
30, 24
39. ƒ(x) = 1 - x2 over the interval 30, 14 .
40. ƒ(x) = 2x over the interval 30, 34 .
41. ƒ(x) = x2 + 1 over the interval 30, 34 .
30, 14
42. ƒ(x) = 3x2 over the interval 30, 14 .
3- p, p4
36. ƒ(x) = sin x + 1,
Limits of Riemann Sums
For the functions in Exercises 39–46, find a formula for the Riemann
sum obtained by dividing the interval 3a, b4 into n equal subintervals
and using the right-hand endpoint for each ck . Then take a limit of these
sums as n S q to calculate the area under the curve over 3a, b4 .
3- p, p4
37. Find the norm of the partition P = 50, 1.2, 1.5, 2.3, 2.6, 36.
38. Find the norm of the partition P = 5- 2, -1.6, - 0.5, 0, 0.8, 16 .
43. ƒ(x) = x + x2 over the interval 30, 14 .
44. ƒ(x) = 3x + 2x2 over the interval 30, 14 .
45. ƒ(x) = 2x3 over the interval 30, 14 .
46. ƒ(x) = x2 - x3 over the interval 3-1, 04 .
5.3 The Definite Integral
In Section 5.2 we investigated the limit of a finite sum for a function defined over a closed
interval 3 a, b4 using n subintervals of equal width (or length), (b - a)>n. In this section
we consider the limit of more general Riemann sums as the norm of the partitions of
3 a, b4 approaches zero. For general Riemann sums, the subintervals of the partitions need
not have equal widths. The limiting process then leads to the definition of the definite integral of a function over a closed interval 3 a, b4 .
Definition of the Definite Integral
The definition of the definite integral is based on the idea that for certain functions, as the
norm of the partitions of 3 a, b4 approaches zero, the values of the corresponding Riemann
sums approach a limiting value J. What we mean by this limit is that a Riemann sum will
be close to the number J provided that the norm of its partition is sufficiently small (so that
all of its subintervals have thin enough widths). We introduce the symbol P as a small
positive number that specifies how close to J the Riemann sum must be, and the symbol d
as a second small positive number that specifies how small the norm of a partition must be
in order for convergence to happen. We now define this limit precisely.
DEFINITION Let ƒ(x) be a function defined on a closed interval 3 a, b4 . We say
that a number J is the definite integral of ƒ over 3a, b4 and that J is the limit of
the Riemann sums g nk = 1 ƒ(ck) ∆xk if the following condition is satisfied:
Given any number P 7 0 there is a corresponding number d 7 0 such that
for every partition P = 5x0, x1, c , xn 6 of 3 a, b4 with } P } 6 d and any choice
of ck in 3 xk - 1, xk 4 , we have
2
2
a ƒ(ck) ∆xk - J 6 P.
n
k=1
The definition involves a limiting process in which the norm of the partition goes to zero.
We have many choices for a partition P with norm going to zero, and many choices of
points ck for each partition. The definite integral exists when we always get the same limit
J, no matter what choices are made. When the limit exists we write it as the definite integral
J = lim a ƒ(ck) ∆xk .
00 P 00 S 0
n
k=1
5.3 The Definite Integral
317
The limit of any Riemann sum is always taken as the norm of the partitions approaches
zero and the number of subintervals goes to infinity.
Leibniz introduced a notation for the definite integral that captures its construction as
n
a limit of Riemann sums. He envisioned the finite sums g k = 1 ƒ(ck) ∆xk becoming an infinite sum of function values ƒ(x) multiplied by “infinitesimal” subinterval widths dx. The
sum symbol g is replaced in the limit by the integral symbol 1 , whose origin is in the
letter “S.” The function values ƒ(ck) are replaced by a continuous selection of function
values ƒ(x). The subinterval widths ∆xk become the differential dx. It is as if we are summing all products of the form ƒ(x) # dx as x goes from a to b. While this notation captures
the process of constructing an integral, it is Riemann’s definition that gives a precise
meaning to the definite integral.
The symbol for the number J in the definition of the definite integral is
b
ƒ(x) dx,
La
which is read as “the integral from a to b of ƒ of x dee x” or sometimes as “the integral from a
to b of ƒ of x with respect to x.” The component parts in the integral symbol also have names:
Upper limit of integration
Integral sign
L
a
b
The function is the integrand.
x is the variable of integration.
f(x) dx
Lower limit of integration
Integral of f from a to b
When you find the value
of the integral, you have
evaluated the integral.
When the condition in the definition is satisfied, we say that the Riemann sums of ƒ on
b
3 a, b4 converge to the definite integral J = 1a ƒ(x) dx and that ƒ is integrable over 3 a, b4 .
In the cases where the subintervals all have equal width ∆x = (b - a)>n, we can
form each Riemann sum as
Sn = a ƒ(ck) ∆xk = a ƒ(ck)a
n
n
k=1
k=1
b - a
n b,
∆xk = ∆x = (b - a)>n for all k
where ck is chosen in the kth subinterval. When the limit of these Riemann sums as
n S q exists and is equal to J, then J is the definite integral ofƒover 3 a, b4 , so
J =
La
b
ƒ(x) dx = lim a ƒ(ck)a
n Sq
n
k=1
b - a
n b
} P } S 0 means n S q.
If we pick the point ck at the right endpoint of the kth subinterval, so ck = a + k ∆x =
a + k(b - a)>n, then the formula for the definite integral becomes
La
b
ƒ(x) dx = lim a ƒaa + k
nS q
n
k=1
(b - a) b - a
n ba n b
(1)
Equation (1) gives one explicit formula that can be used to compute definite integrals.
Other choices of partitions and locations of points ck result in the same value for the definite integral when we take the limit as n S q provided that the norm of the partition
approaches zero.
318
Chapter 5: Integrals
The value of the definite integral of a function over any particular interval depends on
the function, not on the letter we choose to represent its independent variable. If we decide
to use t or u instead of x, we simply write the integral as
b
b
b
ƒ(x) dx.
La
La
La
No matter how we write the integral, it is still the same number that is defined as a limit of
Riemann sums. Since it does not matter what letter we use, the variable of integration is
called a dummy variable representing the real numbers in the closed interval 3 a, b4.
ƒ(t) dt
or
ƒ(u) du
instead of
Integrable and Nonintegrable Functions
Not every function defined over the closed interval 3 a, b4 is integrable there, even if the
function is bounded. That is, the Riemann sums for some functions may not converge to
the same limiting value, or to any value at all. A full development of exactly which functions defined over 3 a, b4 are integrable requires advanced mathematical analysis, but fortunately most functions that commonly occur in applications are integrable. In particular,
every continuous function over 3 a, b4 is integrable over this interval, and so is every function having no more than a finite number of jump discontinuities on 3 a, b4 . (See Figures
1.9 and 1.10. The latter functions are called piecewise-continuous functions, and they are
defined in Additional Exercises 11–18 at the end of this chapter.) The following theorem,
which is proved in more advanced courses, establishes these results.
THEOREM 1—Integrability of Continuous Functions If a function ƒ is continuous over the interval 3 a, b4 , or if ƒ has at most finitely many jump discontib
nuities there, then the definite integral 1a ƒ(x) dx exists and ƒ is integrable over
3 a, b4 .
The idea behind Theorem 1 for continuous functions is given in Exercises 86 and 87.
Briefly, when ƒ is continuous we can choose each ck so that ƒ(ck) gives the maximum
value of ƒ on the subinterval 3 xk - 1, xk 4 , resulting in an upper sum. Likewise, we can
choose ck to give the minimum value of ƒ on 3 xk - 1, xk 4 to obtain a lower sum. The upper
and lower sums can be shown to converge to the same limiting value as the norm of the
partition P tends to zero. Moreover, every Riemann sum is trapped between the values of
the upper and lower sums, so every Riemann sum converges to the same limit as well.
Therefore, the number J in the definition of the definite integral exists, and the continuous
function ƒ is integrable over 3 a, b4 .
For integrability to fail, a function needs to be sufficiently discontinuous that the
region between its graph and the x-axis cannot be approximated well by increasingly thin
rectangles. Our first example shows a function that is not integrable over a closed interval.
EXAMPLE 1
The function
ƒ(x) = e
1,
0,
if x is rational
if x is irrational
has no Riemann integral over 3 0, 14 . Underlying this is the fact that between any two
numbers there is both a rational number and an irrational number. Thus the function jumps
up and down too erratically over 3 0, 14 to allow the region beneath its graph and above
the x-axis to be approximated by rectangles, no matter how thin they are. We show, in fact,
that upper sum approximations and lower sum approximations converge to different limiting values.
5.3 The Definite Integral
319
If we pick a partition P of 3 0, 14 and choose ck to be the point giving the maximum
value for ƒ on 3 xk - 1, xk 4 then the corresponding Riemann sum is
U = a ƒ(ck) ∆xk = a (1) ∆xk = 1,
n
n
k=1
k=1
since each subinterval 3 xk - 1, xk 4 contains a rational number where ƒ(ck) = 1. Note that
n
the lengths of the intervals in the partition sum to 1, g k = 1 ∆xk = 1. So each such Riemann sum equals 1, and a limit of Riemann sums using these choices equals 1.
On the other hand, if we pick ck to be the point giving the minimum value for ƒ on
3 xk - 1, xk 4 , then the Riemann sum is
L = a ƒ(ck) ∆xk = a (0) ∆xk = 0,
n
n
k=1
k=1
since each subinterval 3 xk - 1, xk 4 contains an irrational number ck where ƒ(ck) = 0. The
limit of Riemann sums using these choices equals zero. Since the limit depends on the
choices of ck , the function ƒ is not integrable.
Theorem 1 says nothing about how to calculate definite integrals. A method of calculation will be developed in Section 5.4, through a connection to knowing an antiderivative
of the integrand function ƒ.
Properties of Definite Integrals
In defining 1a ƒ(x) dx as a limit of sums g k = 1 ƒ(ck) ∆xk , we moved from left to right
across the interval 3 a, b4 . What would happen if we instead move right to left, starting
with x0 = b and ending at xn = a? Each ∆xk in the Riemann sum would change its sign,
with xk - xk - 1 now negative instead of positive. With the same choices of ck in each subinterval, the sign of any Riemann sum would change, as would the sign of the limit, the
a
integral 1b ƒ(x) dx. Since we have not previously given a meaning to integrating backward, we are led to define
b
n
a
b
ƒ(x) dx.
Lb
La
Although we have only defined the integral over an interval 3 a, b4 when a 6 b, it is
convenient to have a definition for the integral over 3 a, b4 when a = b, that is, for the
integral over an interval of zero width. Since a = b gives ∆x = 0, whenever ƒ(a) exists
we define
ƒ(x) dx = -
a
ƒ(x) dx = 0.
La
Theorem 2 states basic properties of integrals, given as rules that they satisfy, including the two just discussed. These rules, listed in Table 5.6, become very useful in the process of computing integrals. We will refer to them repeatedly to simplify our calculations.
Rules 2 through 7 have geometric interpretations, shown in Figure 5.11. The graphs in
these figures are of positive functions, but the rules apply to general integrable functions.
THEOREM 2 When ƒ and g are integrable over the interval 3 a, b4 , the definite integral satisfies the rules in Table 5.6.
While Rules 1 and 2 are definitions, Rules 3 to 7 of Table 5.6 must be proved. The following is a proof of Rule 6. Similar proofs can be given to verify the other properties in
Table 5.6.
320
Chapter 5: Integrals
TABLE 5.6 Rules satisfied by definite integrals
1. Order of Integration:
2. Zero Width Interval:
3. Constant Multiple:
4. Sum and Difference:
Lb
a
La
a
La
b
La
b
ƒ(x) dx = -
La
b
kƒ(x) dx = k ƒ(x) dx
La
(ƒ(x) { g(x)) dx =
La
b
La
ƒ(x) dx {
b
g(x) dx
c
ƒ(x) dx
La
Lb
La
If ƒ has maximum value max ƒ and minimum value min
ƒ on 3 a, b4 , then
La
b
ƒ(x) dx =
ƒ(x) dx … max ƒ # (b - a).
ƒ(x) Ú g(x) on 3 a, b4 1
7. Domination:
ƒ(x) Ú 0 on 3 a, b4 1
y
Any constant k
c
min ƒ # (b - a) …
y
A definition
A definition when
ƒ(a) exists
ƒ(x) dx +
6. Max-Min Inequality:
ƒ(x) dx
ƒ(x) dx = 0
b
5. Additivity:
b
La
La
b
La
ƒ(x) dx Ú
b
g(x) dx
b
ƒ(x) dx Ú 0
(Special case)
y
y = 2 f (x)
y = f (x) + g(x)
y = f (x)
y = g(x)
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
0
x
a
0
b
a
0 a
La
y
y = f (x)
L
a
0
L
b
b
a
ƒ(x) dx +
f (x) dx
FIGURE 5.11
c
ƒ(x) dx =
La
b
ƒ(x) dx +
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
min f
y = g(x)
b
Lb
(ƒ(x) + g(x)) dx =
y
c
c
(d) Additivity for Definite Integrals:
b
b
max f
f (x) dx
x
b
(c) Sum: (areas add)
b
kƒ(x) dx = k
ƒ(x) dx
La
La
ƒ(x) dx = 0
y
La
b
(b) Constant Multiple: (k = 2)
(a) Zero Width Interval:
La
a
x
La
c
ƒ(x) dx
x
0 a
b
x
(e) Max-Min Inequality:
min ƒ # (b - a) …
b
ƒ(x) dx
La
… max ƒ # (b - a)
Geometric interpretations of Rules 2–7 in Table 5.6.
0 a
b
(f ) Domination:
ƒ(x) Ú g(x) on 3a, b4
1
La
b
ƒ(x) dx Ú
La
b
g(x) dx
x
La
b
g(x) dx
5.3 The Definite Integral
321
Proof of Rule 6
Rule 6 says that the integral of ƒ over 3 a, b4 is never smaller than
the minimum value of ƒ times the length of the interval and never larger than the maximum value of ƒ times the length of the interval. The reason is that for every partition of
3 a, b4 and for every choice of the points ck ,
min ƒ # (b - a) = min ƒ # a ∆xk
n
k=1
a ∆xk = b - a
n
k=1
= a min ƒ # ∆xk
Constant Multiple Rule
… a ƒ(ck) ∆xk
min ƒ … ƒ(ck)
… a max ƒ # ∆xk
ƒ(ck) … max ƒ
= max ƒ # a ∆xk
Constant Multiple Rule
n
k=1
n
k=1
n
k=1
n
k=1
= max ƒ # (b - a).
In short, all Riemann sums for ƒ on 3 a, b4 satisfy the inequality
min ƒ # (b - a) … a ƒ(ck) ∆xk … max ƒ # (b - a).
n
k=1
Hence their limit, the integral, does too.
EXAMPLE 2
To illustrate some of the rules, we suppose that
1
L-1
ƒ(x) dx = 5,
L1
4
1
ƒ(x) dx = -2, and
L-1
h(x) dx = 7.
Then
1.
L4
1
ƒ(x) dx = -
L1
4
ƒ(x) dx = -(-2) = 2
1
2.
1
1
3 2ƒ(x) + 3h(x) 4 dx = 2 ƒ(x) dx + 3 h(x) dx
L-1
L-1
L-1
= 2(5) + 3(7) = 31
4
3.
Rule 1
L-1
1
ƒ(x) dx =
EXAMPLE 3
L-1
ƒ(x) dx +
L1
Rules 3 and 4
4
ƒ(x) dx = 5 + (-2) = 3
Rule 5
Show that the value of 10 21 + cos x dx is less than or equal to 22.
1
Solution The Max-Min Inequality for definite integrals (Rule 6) says that min ƒ # (b - a)
b
is a lower bound for the value of 1a ƒ(x) dx and that max ƒ # (b - a) is an upper bound.
The maximum value of 21 + cos x on 3 0, 14 is 21 + 1 = 22, so
L0
1
#
21 + cos x dx … 22 (1 - 0) = 22.
322
Chapter 5: Integrals
Area Under the Graph of a Nonnegative Function
We now return to the problem that started this chapter, that of defining what we mean by
the area of a region having a curved boundary. In Section 5.1 we approximated the area
under the graph of a nonnegative continuous function using several types of finite sums of
areas of rectangles capturing the region—upper sums, lower sums, and sums using the
midpoints of each subinterval—all being cases of Riemann sums constructed in special
ways. Theorem 1 guarantees that all of these Riemann sums converge to a single definite
integral as the norm of the partitions approaches zero and the number of subintervals goes
to infinity. As a result, we can now define the area under the graph of a nonnegative integrable function to be the value of that definite integral.
DEFINITION If y = ƒ(x) is nonnegative and integrable over a closed interval
3 a, b4 , then the area under the curve y = ƒ(x) over 3a, b4 is the integral of
ƒ from a to b,
A =
La
b
ƒ(x) dx.
For the first time we have a rigorous definition for the area of a region whose boundary is the graph of any continuous function. We now apply this to a simple example, the
area under a straight line, where we can verify that our new definition agrees with our
previous notion of area.
EXAMPLE 4
y
3 0, b4 , b 7 0.
b
y=x
b
Solution The region of interest is a triangle (Figure 5.12). We compute the area in two ways.
b
0
Compute 10 x dx and find the area A under y = x over the interval
b
x
FIGURE 5.12 The region in
Example 4 is a triangle.
(a) To compute the definite integral as the limit of Riemann sums, we calculate
n
lim 00 P 00 S 0 g k = 1 ƒ(ck) ∆xk for partitions whose norms go to zero. Theorem 1 tells us that
it does not matter how we choose the partitions or the points ck as long as the norms approach zero. All choices give the exact same limit. So we consider the partition P that
subdivides the interval 3 0, b4 into n subintervals of equal width ∆x = (b - 0)> n =
b>n, and we choose ck to be the right endpoint in each subinterval. The partition is
nb
b 2b 3b
kb
P = e 0, n , n , n , g, n f and ck = n . So
n
n
kb # b
a ƒ(ck) ∆x = a n n
k=1
k=1
ƒ(ck) = ck
n
kb2
= a 2
k=1 n
=
b2 n
k
n2 ka
=1
Constant Multiple Rule
=
b2 # n(n + 1)
2
n2
Sum of First n Integers
=
b2
1
a1 + n b .
2
5.3 The Definite Integral
323
As n S q and } P } S 0, this last expression on the right has the limit b2 >2. Therefore,
y
b
L0
y=x
a
a
a
b−a
b2
.
2
that 10 x dx = b2 >2.
Example 4 can be generalized to integrate ƒ(x) = x over any closed interval
3 a, b4 , 0 6 a 6 b.
b
x
b
x dx =
(b) Since the area equals the definite integral for a nonnegative function, we can quickly
derive the definite integral by using the formula for the area of a triangle having base
length b and height y = b. The area is A = (1>2) b # b = b2 >2. Again we conclude
b
0
b
(a)
La
y
b
x dx =
La
0
x dx +
L0
a
a
x
0
x dx
L0
L0
a2 b2
= + .
2
2
= -
b
b
y=x
Rule 5
b
x dx +
x dx
Rule 1
Example 4
In conclusion, we have the following rule for integrating ƒ(x) = x:
(b)
La
y
y=x
a
0
b
x
(c)
FIGURE 5.13 (a) The area of this
trapezoidal region is A = ( b2 - a2 ) >2.
(b) The definite integral in Equation
(2) gives the negative of the area of this
trapezoidal region. (c) The definite integral in Equation (2) gives the area of
the blue triangular region added to the
negative of the area of the tan
triangular region.
b
x dx =
b2 a2
- ,
2
2
a 6 b
(2)
This computation gives the area of the trapezoid in Figure 5.13a. Equation (2) remains
valid when a and b are negative, but the interpretation of the definite integral changes.
When a 6 b 6 0, the definite integral value (b2 - a2)>2 is a negative number, the negative of the area of a trapezoid dropping down to the line y = x below the x-axis (Figure
5.13b). When a 6 0 and b 7 0, Equation (2) is still valid and the definite integral gives
the difference between two areas, the area under the graph and above 3 0, b4 minus the
area below 3 a, 04 and over the graph (Figure 5.13c).
The following results can also be established using a Riemann sum calculation similar
to that in Example 4 (Exercises 63 and 65).
La
b
c dx = c(b - a),
La
b
x2 dx =
c any constant
(3)
a 6 b
(4)
b3 a3
- ,
3
3
Average Value of a Continuous Function Revisited
In Section 5.1 we introduced informally the average value of a nonnegative continuous
function ƒ over an interval 3 a, b4 , leading us to define this average as the area under the
graph of y = ƒ(x) divided by b - a. In integral notation we write this as
b
Average =
1
ƒ(x) dx.
b - a La
We can use this formula to give a precise definition of the average value of any continuous
(or integrable) function, whether positive, negative, or both.
324
Chapter 5: Integrals
y
y = f (x)
(ck, f (ck ))
x1
0 x0 = a
x
ck
Alternatively, we can use the following reasoning. We start with the idea from arithmetic that the average of n numbers is their sum divided by n. A continuous function ƒ on
3 a, b4 may have infinitely many values, but we can still sample them in an orderly way.
We divide 3 a, b4 into n subintervals of equal width ∆x = (b - a)>n and evaluate ƒ at a
point ck in each (Figure 5.14). The average of the n sampled values is
ƒ(c1) + ƒ(c2) + g + ƒ(cn) 1 n
= n a ƒ(ck)
n
xn = b
k=1
=
FIGURE 5.14 A sample of values of a
function on an interval 3a, b4 .
y
2
2 f (x) = "4 − x
y=p
2
1
−2
1
−1
2
FIGURE 5.15 The average
value of ƒ(x) = 24 - x2 on
3-2, 2] is p>2 (Example 5). The
area of the rectangle shown here is
4 # (p>2) = 2p, which is also the
area of the semicircle.
=
∆x n
ƒ(ck)
b - a ka
=1
n
1
ƒ(c ) ∆x.
a
b - a k=1 k
∆x =
b - a
∆x
1
n , so n = b - a
Constant Multiple Rule
The average is obtained by dividing a Riemann sum for ƒ on 3 a, b4 by (b - a). As we
increase the size of the sample and let the norm of the partition approach zero, the average
b
approaches (1>(b - a)) 1a ƒ(x) dx. Both points of view lead us to the following definition.
DEFINITION If ƒ is integrable on 3 a, b4 , then its average value on 3a, b4 ,
also called its mean, is
b
av(ƒ) =
1
ƒ(x) dx.
b - a La
x
EXAMPLE 5
Find the average value of ƒ(x) = 24 - x2 on 3 -2, 24 .
Solution We recognize ƒ(x) = 24 - x2 as a function whose graph is the upper semicircle of radius 2 centered at the origin (Figure 5.15).
Since we know the area inside a circle, we do not need to take the limit of Riemann
sums. The area between the semicircle and the x-axis from -2 to 2 can be computed using
the geometry formula
1
1
Area = # pr 2 = # p(2)2 = 2p.
2
2
Because ƒ is nonnegative, the area is also the value of the integral of ƒ from -2 to 2,
2
L-2
Therefore, the average value of ƒ is
24 - x2 dx = 2p.
2
av(ƒ) =
p
1
1
24 - x2 dx = (2p) = .
2 - (-2) L-2
4
2
Notice that the average value of ƒ over 3 -2, 24 is the same as the height of a rectangle over
3 -2, 24 whose area equals the area of the upper semicircle (see Figure 5.15).
5.3
Exercises
Interpreting Limits of Sums as Integrals
Express the limits in Exercises 1–8 as definite integrals.
1.
2.
}P} S 0 ka
=1
n
lim
ck ∆xk , where P is a partition of 30, 24
2
2ck 3 ∆xk , where P is a partition of 3-1, 04
lim
}P} S 0 a
n
k=1
3. lim a (ck 2 - 3ck) ∆xk , where P is a partition of 3-7, 54
00 P 00 S 0
n
k=1
4.
n
1
lim a a c b ∆xk , where P is a partition of 31, 44
k
}P} S 0
k=1
n
1
∆xk , where P is a partition of 32, 34
5. lim a
00 P 00 S 0 k = 1 1 - ck
325
5.3 The Definite Integral
6. lim a 24 - ck 2 ∆xk , where P is a partition of 30, 14
00 P 00 S 0
n
7.
8.
k=1
n
}P} S 0 ka
=1
lim
(sec ck) ∆xk , where P is a partition of 3- p>4, 04
(tan ck) ∆xk , where P is a partition of 30, p>44
lim
}P} S 0 a
n
k=1
Using the Definite Integral Rules
9. Suppose that ƒ and g are integrable and that
L1
2
ƒ(x) dx = -4,
L1
5
L1
ƒ(x) dx = 6,
c.
L2
2
L1
2
b.
g(x) dx
d.
3ƒ(x) dx
L5
1
L2
5
g(x) dx = 8.
ƒ(x) dx
c.
e.
L1
9
9
L7
ƒ(x) dx = 5,
L7
9
L1
7
-2ƒ(x) dx
b.
32ƒ(x) - 3h(x) 4 dx
d.
ƒ(x) dx
f.
L7
9
L9
1
9
h(x) dx = 4.
L9
7
3h(x) - ƒ(x) 4 dx
2
a.
c.
L1
L2
1
b.
ƒ(u) du
d.
ƒ(t) dt
L1
2
L1
2
0
L0
-3
g(t) dt
0
c.
L-3
L-3
g(u) du
0
3- g(x) 4 dx
23ƒ(z) dz
0
b.
d.
g(r)
L-3 22
dr
13. Suppose that ƒ is integrable and that 10 ƒ(z) dz = 3 and
4
10 ƒ(z) dz = 7. Find
a.
L3
3
4
ƒ(z) dz
b.
L4
3
ƒ(t) dt
14. Suppose that h is integrable and that 1-1 h(r) dr = 0 and
3
1-1 h(r) dr = 6. Find
1
a.
L1
3
h(r) dr
b. -
L-1
L3
(-2x + 4) dx
0
29 - x2 dx
18.
0 x 0 dx
20.
L-4
1
L-1
216 - x2 dx
(1 - 0 x 0 ) dx
1
(2 - 0 x 0 ) dx
L-1
22.
x
dx, b 7 0
L0 2
La
27. ƒ(x) = 24 - x2
1
h(u) du
L0
24.
11
+ 21 - x2 2 dx
b
4x dx, b 7 0
b
2s ds, 0 6 a 6 b
25.
3t dt, 0 6 a 6 b
La
on a. 3-2, 24 , b. 30, 24
26.
28. ƒ(x) = 3x + 21 - x2 on a. 3-1, 04 , b. 3-1, 14
Evaluating Definite Integrals
Use the results of Equations (2) and (4) to evaluate the integrals in
Exercises 29–40.
29.
32.
35.
38.
3-ƒ(x) 4 dx
12. Suppose that 1-3 g(t) dt = 22. Find
a.
3ƒ(x) + h(x) 4 dx
ƒ(x) dx
11. Suppose that 11 ƒ(x) dx = 5. Find
2
1
L1>2
16.
b
Use the rules in Table 5.6 to find
a.
L-2
3>2
x
+ 3b dx
2
b
3ƒ(x) - g(x) 4 dx
f.
34ƒ(x) - g(x) 4 dx
L1
L1
10. Suppose that ƒ and h are integrable and that
L7
19.
23.
5
ƒ(x) dx = -1,
L-3
a
Use known area formulas to evaluate the integrals in Exercises 23–28.
g(x) dx
e.
L1
L-2
3
17.
21.
5
9
4
15.
1
5
Use the rules in Table 5.6 to find
a.
Using Known Areas to Find Integrals
In Exercises 15–22, graph the integrands and use known area formulas to
evaluate the integrals.
L1
22
2.5
30.
x dx
522
L22
r dr
33.
t 2 dt
36.
L0
1>2
La
23a
x dx
39.
L0.5
2p
31.
x dx
3
L0
27
L0
p>2
L0
2b
x2 dx
34.
u 2 du
37.
3
x2 dx
40.
Lp
u du
L0
0.3
La
2a
L0
3b
s2 ds
x dx
x2 dx
Use the rules in Table 5.6 and Equations (2)–(4) to evaluate the integrals
in Exercises 41–50.
41.
43.
45.
47.
49.
L3
1
L0
2
L2
1
L1
2
L0
2
7 dx
42.
(2t - 3) dt
44.
a1 +
3u2 du
z
b dz
2
(3x2 + x - 5) dx
46.
L0
2
L0
22
L3
0
5x dx
1t
- 22 2 dt
(2z - 3) dz
1
48.
50.
L1>2
L1
24u2 du
0
(3x2 + x - 5) dx
Finding Area by Definite Integrals
In Exercises 51–54, use a definite integral to find the area of the region
between the given curve and the x-axis on the interval 30, b4 .
51. y = 3x2
53. y = 2x
52. y = px2
x
54. y = + 1
2
326
Chapter 5: Integrals
Finding Average Value
In Exercises 55–62, graph the function and find its average value over
the given interval.
3 0, 23 4
55. ƒ(x) = x2 - 1 on
56. ƒ(x) = -
2
x
2
57. ƒ(x) = - 3x2 - 1
58. ƒ(x) = 3x - 3
on
2
on
59. ƒ(t) = (t - 1)
2
60. ƒ(t) = t - t
on
61. g(x) = 0 x 0 - 1
62. h(x) = - 0 x 0
30, 14
on
2
on
on
30, 14
65.
La
b
30, 34
3-2, 14
a. 3- 1, 14, b. 31, 34 , and c. 3-1, 34
a. 3- 1, 04, b. 30, 14 , and c. 3-1, 14
La
b
69.
L-1
La
L0
2
(2x + 1) dx
0
2
2
67.
64.
c dx
x dx, a 6 b
66.
( 3x2 - 2x + 1 ) dx
68.
L-1
2
(x - x ) dx
1
b
x3 dx, a 6 b
70.
L-1
L0
x3 dx
1
(3x - x3) dx
Theory and Examples
71. What values of a and b maximize the value of
La
b
( x - x2 ) dx?
(Hint: Where is the integrand positive?)
72. What values of a and b minimize the value of
La
b
( x4 - 2x2 ) dx?
73. Use the Max-Min Inequality to find upper and lower bounds for
the value of
1
1
dx.
2
L0 1 + x
74. (Continuation of Exercise 73.) Use the Max-Min Inequality to
find upper and lower bounds for
L0
0.5
1
1
1
dx and
dx.
1 + x2
1
+
x2
L0.5
Add these to arrive at an improved estimate of
1
76. Show that the value of 10 2x + 8 dx lies between 2 22 ≈ 2.8
and 3.
1
ƒ(x) Ú 0 on
Definite Integrals as Limits of Sums
Use the method of Example 4a or Equation (1) to evaluate the definite
integrals in Exercises 63–70.
63.
1
77. Integrals of nonnegative functions Use the Max-Min Inequality
to show that if ƒ is integrable then
30, 34
on
75. Show that the value of 10 sin (x2) dx cannot possibly be 2.
1
dx.
2
L0 1 + x
3a, b4
La
1
78. Integrals of nonpositive functions
then
ƒ(x) … 0 on
3a, b4
b
ƒ(x) dx Ú 0.
Show that if ƒ is integrable
La
1
b
ƒ(x) dx … 0.
79. Use the inequality sin x … x, which holds for x Ú 0, to find an
1
upper bound for the value of 10 sin x dx.
80. The inequality sec x Ú 1 + (x2 >2) holds on (- p>2, p>2). Use
1
it to find a lower bound for the value of 10 sec x dx.
81. If av(ƒ) really is a typical value of the integrable function ƒ(x) on
3a, b4 , then the constant function av(ƒ) should have the same
integral over 3a, b4 as ƒ. Does it? That is, does
La
b
av(ƒ) dx =
La
b
ƒ(x) dx?
Give reasons for your answer.
82. It would be nice if average values of integrable functions obeyed
the following rules on an interval 3a, b4 .
a. av(ƒ + g) = av(ƒ) + av(g)
b. av(kƒ) = k av(ƒ)
(any number k)
c. av(ƒ) … av(g) if ƒ(x) … g(x) on
3a, b4 .
Do these rules ever hold? Give reasons for your answers.
83. Upper and lower sums for increasing functions
a. Suppose the graph of a continuous function ƒ(x) rises steadily
as x moves from left to right across an interval 3a, b4 . Let P
be a partition of 3a, b4 into n subintervals of equal length
∆x = (b - a)>n. Show by referring to the accompanying figure that the difference between the upper and lower sums for
ƒ on this partition can be represented graphically as the area
of a rectangle R whose dimensions are 3ƒ(b) - ƒ(a) 4 by ∆x.
(Hint: The difference U - L is the sum of areas of rectangles
whose diagonals Q0 Q1, Q1 Q2, c, Qn - 1Qn lie approximately
along the curve. There is no overlapping when these rectangles are shifted horizontally onto R.)
b. Suppose that instead of being equal, the lengths ∆xk of the
subintervals of the partition of 3a, b4 vary in size. Show that
U - L … 0 ƒ(b) - ƒ(a) 0 ∆xmax,
where ∆xmax is the norm of P, and hence that lim }P} S 0
(U - L) = 0.
5.3 The Definite Integral
y
327
y
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
f (b) − f (a)
Q3
Q1
R
Q2
Δx
0 x 0 = a x1 x 2
xn = b
0
x
a
x1
x2
x3
x k−1 x k
x n−1
b
x
y
84. Upper and lower sums for decreasing functions (Continuation of Exercise 83.)
a. Draw a figure like the one in Exercise 83 for a continuous
function ƒ(x) whose values decrease steadily as x moves from
left to right across the interval 3a, b4 . Let P be a partition of
3a, b4 into subintervals of equal length. Find an expression
for U - L that is analogous to the one you found for U - L
in Exercise 83a.
0
b. Suppose that instead of being equal, the lengths ∆xk of the
subintervals of P vary in size. Show that the inequality
a
xk
x k+1
b
a
xk
x k+1
b
x
y
U - L … 0 ƒ(b) - ƒ(a) 0 ∆xmax
of Exercise 83b still holds and hence that lim }P} S 0
(U - L) = 0.
85. Use the formula
sin h + sin 2h + sin 3h + g + sin mh
=
cos (h>2) - cos ((m + (1>2))h)
2 sin (h>2)
0
to find the area under the curve y = sin x from x = 0 to
x = p>2 in two steps:
a. Partition the interval 30, p>24 into n subintervals of equal
length and calculate the corresponding upper sum U; then
b. Find the limit of U as n S q and ∆x = (b - a)>n S 0.
86. Suppose that ƒ is continuous and nonnegative over 3a, b4 , as in
the accompanying figure. By inserting points
x1, x2, c, xk - 1, xk, c, xn - 1
as shown, divide 3a, b4 into n subintervals of lengths ∆x1 = x1 - a,
∆x2 = x2 - x1, c, ∆xn = b - xn - 1, which need not be equal.
a. If mk = min 5ƒ(x) for x in the kth subinterval6 , explain the
connection between the lower sum
L = m1 ∆x1 + m2 ∆x2 + g + mn ∆xn
and the shaded regions in the first part of the figure.
b. If Mk = max 5ƒ(x) for x in the kth subinterval6, explain the
connection between the upper sum
U = M1 ∆x1 + M2 ∆x2 + g + Mn ∆xn
and the shaded regions in the second part of the figure.
c. Explain the connection between U - L and the shaded
regions along the curve in the third part of the figure.
x
P
b−a
87. We say ƒ is uniformly continuous on 3a, b4 if given any P 7 0,
there is a d 7 0 such that if x1, x2 are in 3a, b4 and
0 x1 - x2 0 6 d, then 0 ƒ(x1) - ƒ(x2) 0 6 P. It can be shown that a
continuous function on 3a, b4 is uniformly continuous. Use this
and the figure for Exercise 86 to show that if ƒ is continuous and
P 7 0 is given, it is possible to make U - L … P # (b - a) by
making the largest of the ∆xk >s sufficiently small.
88. If you average 30 mi > h on a 150-mi trip and then return over the
same 150 mi at the rate of 50 mi > h, what is your average speed
for the trip? Give reasons for your answer.
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
If your CAS can draw rectangles associated with Riemann sums, use
it to draw rectangles associated with Riemann sums that converge to
the integrals in Exercises 89–94. Use n = 4, 10, 20, and 50 subintervals of equal length in each case.
89.
L0
1
(1 - x) dx =
1
2
328
90.
92.
94.
Chapter 5: Integrals
L0
1
L0
p>4
L1
2
(x2 + 1) dx =
p
4
3
91.
L-p
cos x dx = 0
1
x dx
93.
L-1
30, p4
95. ƒ(x) = sin x on
1
sec2 x dx = 1
d. Solve the equation ƒ(x) = (average value) for x using the average value calculated in part (c) for the n = 1000 partitioning.
0 x 0 dx = 1
(The integral’s value is about 0.693.)
In Exercises 95–102, use a CAS to perform the following steps:
a. Plot the functions over the given interval.
b. Partition the interval into n = 100, 200, and 1000 subintervals of equal length, and evaluate the function at the midpoint
of each subinterval.
c. Compute the average value of the function values generated in
part (b).
2
30, p4
96. ƒ(x) = sin x on
1
97. ƒ(x) = x sin x on
p
c , pd
4
1
98. ƒ(x) = x sin2 x on
99. ƒ(x) = xe-x
100. ƒ(x) = e
on
ln x
101. ƒ(x) = x
on
102. ƒ(x) =
30, 14
on
-x2
p
c , pd
4
30, 14
32, 54
1
on
21 - x2
1
c 0, d
2
5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
In this section we present the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which is the central theorem
of integral calculus. It connects integration and differentiation, enabling us to compute integrals using an antiderivative of the integrand function rather than by taking limits of Riemann
sums as we did in Section 5.3. Leibniz and Newton exploited this relationship and started
mathematical developments that fueled the scientific revolution for the next 200 years.
Along the way, we present an integral version of the Mean Value Theorem, which is
another important theorem of integral calculus and is used to prove the Fundamental
Theorem. We also find that the net change of a function over an interval is the integral of
its rate of change, as suggested by Example 3 in Section 5.1.
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Sir Isaac Newton
(1642–1727)
y
y = f(x)
f(c), average
height
0
a
c
b−a
b
x
FIGURE 5.16 The value ƒ(c) in the
Mean Value Theorem is, in a sense,
the average (or mean) height of ƒ on
3a, b4. When ƒ Ú 0, the area of the
rectangle is the area under the graph of
ƒ from a to b,
ƒ(c)(b - a) =
La
b
ƒ(x) dx.
Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals
In the previous section we defined the average value of a continuous function over a
b
closed interval 3 a, b4 as the definite integral 1a ƒ(x) dx divided by the length or width
b - a of the interval. The Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals asserts that this
average value is always taken on at least once by the function ƒ in the interval.
The graph in Figure 5.16 shows a positive continuous function y = ƒ(x) defined over
the interval 3 a, b4 . Geometrically, the Mean Value Theorem says that there is a number c in
3 a, b4 such that the rectangle with height equal to the average value ƒ(c) of the function and
base width b - a has exactly the same area as the region beneath the graph of ƒ from a to b.
THEOREM 3—The Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals
ous on 3 a, b4, then at some point c in 3 a, b4,
If ƒ is continu-
b
ƒ(c) =
1
ƒ(x) dx.
b - a La
Proof
If we divide both sides of the Max-Min Inequality (Table 5.6, Rule 6) by (b - a),
we obtain
b
min ƒ …
1
ƒ(x) dx … max ƒ.
b - a La
5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
y
y = f (x)
1
Average value 1$2
not assumed
1
2
0
1
x
2
FIGURE 5.17 A discontinuous function
need not assume its average value.
329
Since ƒ is continuous, the Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions (Section
2.5) says that ƒ must assume every value between min ƒ and max ƒ. It must therefore
b
assume the value (1>(b - a)) 1a ƒ(x) dx at some point c in 3 a, b4 .
The continuity of ƒ is important here. It is possible that a discontinuous function
never equals its average value (Figure 5.17).
EXAMPLE 1
Show that if ƒ is continuous on 3 a, b4 , a ≠ b, and if
La
then ƒ(x) = 0 at least once in 3 a, b4 .
Solution
b
ƒ(x) dx = 0,
The average value of ƒ on 3 a, b4 is
b
1
1 #
ƒ(x) dx =
0 = 0.
b - a La
b - a
By the Mean Value Theorem, ƒ assumes this value at some point c ∊ 3 a, b4 .
av(ƒ) =
Fundamental Theorem, Part 1
y
It can be very difficult to compute definite integrals by taking the limit of Riemann sums. We
now develop a powerful new method for evaluating definite integrals, based on using antiderivatives. This method combines the two strands of calculus. One strand involves the idea of taking
the limits of finite sums to obtain a definite integral, and the other strand contains derivatives and
antiderivatives. They come together in the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. We begin by considering how to differentiate a certain type of function that is described as an integral.
If ƒ(t) is an integrable function over a finite interval I, then the integral from any fixed
number a ∊ I to another number x ∊ I defines a new function F whose value at x is
area = F(x)
y = f (t)
x
0
a
x
b
t
FIGURE 5.18 The function F(x)
defined by Equation (1) gives the area
under the graph of ƒ from a to x when
ƒ is nonnegative and x 7 a.
y
y = f (t)
f (x)
0
a
x x+h
b
FIGURE 5.19 In Equation (1),
F(x) is the area to the left of x. Also,
F(x + h) is the area to the left of
x + h. The difference quotient
3F(x + h) - F(x) 4 >h is then approximately equal to ƒ(x), the height
of the rectangle shown here.
t
ƒ(t) dt.
(1)
La
For example, if ƒ is nonnegative and x lies to the right of a, then F(x) is the area under the
graph from a to x (Figure 5.18). The variable x is the upper limit of integration of an integral,
but F is just like any other real-valued function of a real variable. For each value of the input
x, there is a well-defined numerical output, in this case the definite integral of ƒ from a to x.
Equation (1) gives a way to define new functions (as we will see in Section 7.1), but
its importance now is the connection it makes between integrals and derivatives. If ƒ is
any continuous function, then the Fundamental Theorem asserts that F is a differentiable
function of x whose derivative is ƒ itself. At every value of x, it asserts that
d
F(x) = ƒ(x).
dx
To gain some insight into why this result holds, we look at the geometry behind it.
If ƒ Ú 0 on 3 a, b4 , then the computation of F′(x) from the definition of the derivative means taking the limit as h S 0 of the difference quotient
F(x + h) - F(x)
.
h
For h 7 0, the numerator is obtained by subtracting two areas, so it is the area under the
graph of ƒ from x to x + h (Figure 5.19). If h is small, this area is approximately equal to the
area of the rectangle of height ƒ(x) and width h, which can be seen from Figure 5.19. That is,
F(x + h) - F(x) ≈ hƒ(x).
Dividing both sides of this approximation by h and letting h S 0, it is reasonable to expect that
F(x + h) - F(x)
F′(x) = lim
= ƒ(x).
h
S
h 0
F(x) =
This result is true even if the function ƒ is not positive, and it forms the first part of the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
330
Chapter 5: Integrals
THEOREM 4—The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 If ƒ is continux
ous on 3 a, b4 , then F(x) = 1a ƒ(t) dt is continuous on 3 a, b4 and differentiable
on (a, b) and its derivative is ƒ(x):
x
d
ƒ(t) dt = ƒ(x).
dxLa
F′(x) =
(2)
Before proving Theorem 4, we look at several examples to gain a good understanding
of what it says. In each example, notice that the independent variable appears in a limit of
integration, possibly in a formula.
EXAMPLE 2
(a) y =
(c) y =
La
x
L1
x2
Use the Fundamental Theorem to find dy>dx if
(t 3 + 1) dt
(b) y =
Lx
5
3t sin t dt
4
(d) y =
cos t dt
L1 + 3x
2
1
dt
2 + et
Solution We calculate the derivatives with respect to the independent variable x.
(a)
(b)
x
dy
d
=
(t 3 + 1) dt = x3 + 1
dx dx La
Eq. (2) with ƒ(t) = t 3 + 1
5
x
dy
d
d
=
3t sin t dt =
a- 3t sin t dtb
dx dx Lx
dx L5
Table 5.6, Rule 1
x
= -
d
3t sin t dt
dxL5
= -3x sin x
Eq. (2) with ƒ(t) = 3t sin t
(c) The upper limit of integration is not x but x2. This makes y a composite of the two
functions,
u
cos t dt
and
u = x2.
L1
We must therefore apply the Chain Rule when finding dy>dx.
dy
dy du
#
=
dx du dx
y =
u
= a
d
du
cos t dtb #
duL1
dx
# du
dx
= cos(x2) # 2x
= cos u
= 2x cos x2
4
d
d
1
(d)
dt = adxL1 + 3x2 2 + et
dx L4
d
= dxL4
1 + 3x2
1 + 3x2
1
dtb
2 + et
1
dt
2 + et
d
1
( 1 + 3x2 )
2
2 + e(1 + 3x ) dx
6x
= 2
2 + e(1 + 3x )
= -
Rule 1
Eq. (2) and the
Chain Rule
5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
331
Proof of Theorem 4
We prove the Fundamental Theorem, Part 1, by applying the
definition of the derivative directly to the function F(x), when x and x + h are in (a, b).
This means writing out the difference quotient
F(x + h) - F(x)
(3)
h
and showing that its limit as h S 0 is the number ƒ(x) for each x in (a, b). Doing so, we find
F′(x) = lim
hS0
F(x + h) - F(x)
h
1
= lim c
h S 0 h La
1
h S 0 h Lx
x+h
ƒ(t) dt -
La
x
x+h
= lim
ƒ(t) dt d
ƒ(t) dt.
Table 5.6, Rule 5
According to the Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals, the value before taking
the limit in the last expression is one of the values taken on by ƒ in the interval between x
and x + h. That is, for some number c in this interval,
1
h Lx
x+h
ƒ(t) dt = ƒ(c).
(4)
As h S 0, x + h approaches x, forcing c to approach x also (because c is trapped between
x and x + h). Since ƒ is continuous at x, ƒ(c) approaches ƒ(x):
lim ƒ(c) = ƒ(x).
(5)
hS0
In conclusion, we have
1
h S 0 h Lx
x+h
F′(x) = lim
ƒ(t) dt
= lim ƒ(c)
Eq. (4)
= ƒ(x).
Eq. (5)
hS0
If x = a or b, then the limit of Equation (3) is interpreted as a one-sided limit with h S 0+
or h S 0- , respectively. Then Theorem 1 in Section 3.2 shows that F is continuous over
3 a, b4 . This concludes the proof.
Fundamental Theorem, Part 2 (The Evaluation Theorem)
We now come to the second part of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. This part describes
how to evaluate definite integrals without having to calculate limits of Riemann sums. Instead
we find and evaluate an antiderivative at the upper and lower limits of integration.
THEOREM 4 (Continued)—The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2
If ƒ is continuous over 3 a, b4 and F is any antiderivative of ƒ on 3 a, b4 , then
La
Proof
b
ƒ(x) dx = F(b) - F(a).
Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem tells us that an antiderivative of ƒ exists, namely
G(x) =
La
x
ƒ(t) dt.
Thus, if F is any antiderivative of ƒ, then F(x) = G(x) + C for some constant C for
a 6 x 6 b (by Corollary 2 of the Mean Value Theorem for Derivatives, Section 4.2).
332
Chapter 5: Integrals
Since both F and G are continuous on 3 a, b4 , we see that F(x) = G(x) + C also holds
when x = a and x = b by taking one-sided limits (as x S a+ and x S b-).
Evaluating F(b) - F(a), we have
F(b) - F(a) = 3 G(b) + C4 - 3 G(a) + C4
= G(b) - G(a)
=
=
=
La
b
La
b
La
b
ƒ(t) dt -
La
a
ƒ(t) dt
ƒ(t) dt - 0
ƒ(t) dt.
The Evaluation Theorem is important because it says that to calculate the definite
integral of ƒ over an interval 3 a, b4 we need do only two things:
1. Find an antiderivative F of ƒ, and
b
2. Calculate the number F(b) - F(a), which is equal to 1a ƒ(x) dx.
This process is much easier than using a Riemann sum computation. The power of the
theorem follows from the realization that the definite integral, which is defined by a complicated process involving all of the values of the function ƒ over 3 a, b4 , can be found by
knowing the values of any antiderivative F at only the two endpoints a and b. The usual
notation for the difference F(b) - F(a) is
F(x) R
b
b
or
a
JF(x) R ,
a
depending on whether F has one or more terms.
EXAMPLE 3
We calculate several definite integrals using the Evaluation Theorem,
rather than by taking limits of Riemann sums.
(a)
L0
p
cos x dx = sin x d
p
d
sin x = cos x
dx
0
= sin p - sin 0 = 0 - 0 = 0
0
(b)
L-p>4
4
(c)
sec x tan x dx = sec x d
0
d
sec x = sec x tan x
dx
-p>4
p
= sec 0 - sec a- b = 1 - 22
4
4
3
4
4
a 1x - 2 b dx = c x3>2 + x d
x
L1 2
1
= c (4)3>2 +
1
4
4
d - c (1)3>2 + d
4
1
= 3 8 + 14 - 3 54 = 4
1
dx
(d)
= ln 0 x + 1 0 d
x
+ 1
L0
0
= ln 2 - ln 1 = ln 2
1
(e)
1
dx
= tan-1 x d
2
L0 x + 1
0
= tan-1 1 - tan-1 0 =
3
d 3>2
4
4
ax + x b = x1>2 - 2
2
dx
x
d
1
ln 0 x + 1 0 =
dx
x + 1
d
1
tan-1 x = = 2
dx
x + 1
p
p
- 0 = .
4
4
5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
333
Exercise 82 offers another proof of the Evaluation Theorem, bringing together the
ideas of Riemann sums, the Mean Value Theorem, and the definition of the definite integral.
The Integral of a Rate
We can interpret Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem in another way. If F is any antiderivative of ƒ, then F′ = ƒ. The equation in the theorem can then be rewritten as
b
F′(x) dx = F(b) - F(a).
La
Now F′(x) represents the rate of change of the function F(x) with respect to x, so the last
equation asserts that the integral of F′ is just the net change in F as x changes from a to b.
Formally, we have the following result.
THEOREM 5—The Net Change Theorem The net change in a differentiable
function F(x) over an interval a … x … b is the integral of its rate of change:
F(b) - F(a) =
EXAMPLE 4
La
b
F′(x) dx.
(6)
Here are several interpretations of the Net Change Theorem.
(a) If c(x) is the cost of producing x units of a certain commodity, then c′(x) is the mar-
ginal cost (Section 3.4). From Theorem 5,
x2
c′(x) dx = c(x2) - c(x1),
Lx1
which is the cost of increasing production from x1 units to x2 units.
(b) If an object with position function s(t) moves along a coordinate line, its velocity is
y(t) = s′(t). Theorem 5 says that
t2
y(t) dt = s(t2) - s(t1),
Lt1
so the integral of velocity is the displacement over the time interval t1 … t … t2. On
the other hand, the integral of the speed 0 y(t) 0 is the total distance traveled over the
time interval. This is consistent with our discussion in Section 5.1.
If we rearrange Equation (6) as
b
F′(x) dx,
La
we see that the Net Change Theorem also says that the final value of a function F(x) over
an interval 3 a, b4 equals its initial value F(a) plus its net change over the interval. So if
y(t) represents the velocity function of an object moving along a coordinate line, this
means that the object’s final position s(t2) over a time interval t1 … t … t2 is its initial
position s(t1) plus its net change in position along the line (see Example 4b).
F(b) = F(a) +
EXAMPLE 5
Consider again our analysis of a heavy rock blown straight up from the
ground by a dynamite blast (Example 3, Section 5.1). The velocity of the rock at any time
t during its motion was given as y(t) = 160 - 32t ft>sec.
(a) Find the displacement of the rock during the time period 0 … t … 8.
(b) Find the total distance traveled during this time period.
334
Chapter 5: Integrals
Solution
(a) From Example 4b, the displacement is the integral
L0
8
8
(160 - 32t) dt = 3 160t - 16t 2 4 0
L0
= (160)(8) - (16)(64) = 256.
8
y(t) dt =
This means that the height of the rock is 256 ft above the ground 8 sec after the explosion, which agrees with our conclusion in Example 3, Section 5.1.
(b) As we noted in Table 5.3, the velocity function y(t) is positive over the time interval
3 0, 54 and negative over the interval 3 5, 84 . Therefore, from Example 4b, the total
distance traveled is the integral
L0
8
0 y(t) 0 dt =
=
L0
5
L0
5
0 y(t) 0 dt +
0 y(t) 0 dt
(160 - 32t) dt -
3 160t
=
L5
8
- 16t 2 4 0 -
L5
8
(160 - 32t) dt
3 160t
5
- 16t 2 4 5
8
= 3(160)(5) - (16)(25)4 - 3(160)(8) - (16)(64) - ((160)(5) - (16)(25))4
= 400 - (-144) = 544.
Again, this calculation agrees with our conclusion in Example 3, Section 5.1. That is,
the total distance of 544 ft traveled by the rock during the time period 0 … t … 8 is
(i) the maximum height of 400 ft it reached over the time interval 3 0, 54 plus (ii) the
additional distance of 144 ft the rock fell over the time interval 3 5, 84 .
The Relationship Between Integration and Differentiation
The conclusions of the Fundamental Theorem tell us several things. Equation (2) can be
rewritten as
y
−2
−1
0
x
1
2
d
ƒ(t) dt = ƒ(x),
dxLa
x
−1
which says that if you first integrate the function ƒ and then differentiate the result, you
get the function ƒ back again. Likewise, replacing b by x and x by t in Equation (6) gives
−2
x
f (x) = x 2 − 4
−3
−4
y
4
g(x) = 4 − x 2
3
F′(t) dt = F(x) - F(a),
La
so that if you first differentiate the function F and then integrate the result, you get the
function F back (adjusted by an integration constant). In a sense, the processes of integration and differentiation are “inverses” of each other. The Fundamental Theorem also says
that every continuous function ƒ has an antiderivative F. It shows the importance of finding antiderivatives in order to evaluate definite integrals easily. Furthermore, it says that
the differential equation dy>dx = ƒ(x) has a solution (namely, any of the functions
y = F(x) + C) for every continuous function ƒ.
2
Total Area
1
−2
−1
0
1
2
x
FIGURE 5.20 These graphs
enclose the same amount of area
with the x-axis, but the definite
integrals of the two functions over
3-2, 24 differ in sign (Example 6).
Area is always a nonnegative quantity. The Riemann sum contains terms such as ƒ(ck) ∆xk
that give the area of a rectangle when ƒ(ck) is positive. When ƒ(ck) is negative, then the
product ƒ(ck) ∆xk is the negative of the rectangle’s area. When we add up such terms for a
negative function, we get the negative of the area between the curve and the x-axis. If we
then take the absolute value, we obtain the correct positive area.
EXAMPLE 6
Figure 5.20 shows the graph of ƒ(x) = x2 - 4 and its mirror image
g(x) = 4 - x reflected across the x-axis. For each function, compute
2
5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
335
(a) the definite integral over the interval 3 -2, 24 , and
(b) the area between the graph and the x-axis over 3 -2, 24 .
Solution
2
(a)
L-2
and
ƒ(x) dx = c
2
8
x3
8
32
- 4x d = a - 8b - a- + 8b = - ,
3
3
3
3
-2
2
L-2
g(x) dx = c 4x -
x3 2
32
d =
.
3 -2
3
(b) In both cases, the area between the curve and the x-axis over 3 -2, 24 is 32>3 square
units. Although the definite integral of ƒ(x) is negative, the area is still positive.
To compute the area of the region bounded by the graph of a function y = ƒ(x) and
the x-axis when the function takes on both positive and negative values, we must be careful to break up the interval 3 a, b4 into subintervals on which the function doesn’t change
sign. Otherwise we might get cancelation between positive and negative signed areas,
leading to an incorrect total. The correct total area is obtained by adding the absolute value
of the definite integral over each subinterval where ƒ(x) does not change sign. The term
“area” will be taken to mean this total area.
EXAMPLE 7
y
1
y = sin x
Area = 2
0
−1
p
Area =
0−2 0 = 2
2p
x
FIGURE 5.21 The total area
between y = sin x and the x-axis for
0 … x … 2p is the sum of the absolute
values of two integrals (Example 7).
Figure 5.21 shows the graph of the function ƒ(x) = sin x between
x = 0 and x = 2p. Compute
(a) the definite integral of ƒ(x) over 3 0, 2p4 .
(b) the area between the graph of ƒ(x) and the x-axis over 3 0, 2p4 .
Solution
(a) The definite integral for ƒ(x) = sin x is given by
2p
2p
= - 3 cos 2p - cos 04 = - 3 1 - 14 = 0.
L0
0
The definite integral is zero because the portions of the graph above and below the
x-axis make canceling contributions.
(b) The area between the graph of ƒ(x) and the x-axis over 3 0, 2p4 is calculated by
breaking up the domain of sin x into two pieces: the interval 3 0, p4 over which it is
nonnegative and the interval 3 p, 2p4 over which it is nonpositive.
sin x dx = -cos x d
L0
2p
p
sin x dx = -cos x d
2p
p
0
= - 3 cos p - cos 04 = - 3 -1 - 14 = 2
= - 3 cos 2p - cos p4 = - 3 1 - (-1)4 = -2
p
Lp
The second integral gives a negative value. The area between the graph and the axis is
obtained by adding the absolute values,
Area = 0 2 0 + 0 -2 0 = 4.
sin x dx = -cos x d
Summary:
To find the area between the graph of y = ƒ(x) and the x-axis over the interval 3 a, b4 :
1. Subdivide 3 a, b4 at the zeros of ƒ.
2. Integrate ƒ over each subinterval.
3. Add the absolute values of the integrals.
336
Chapter 5: Integrals
EXAMPLE 8
Find the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of
ƒ(x) = x3 - x2 - 2x, -1 … x … 2.
y
Area = 5
12
y = x 3 − x 2 − 2x
Solution First find the zeros of ƒ. Since
0
−1
8
Area = P – P
3
=8
3
x
2
ƒ(x) = x3 - x2 - 2x = x ( x2 - x - 2 ) = x(x + 1)(x - 2),
the zeros are x = 0, -1, and 2 (Figure 5.22). The zeros subdivide 3 -1, 24 into two subintervals: 3 -1, 04 , on which ƒ Ú 0, and 3 0, 24 , on which ƒ … 0. We integrate ƒ over each
subinterval and add the absolute values of the calculated integrals.
0
L-1
FIGURE 5.22 The region between the
curve y = x3 - x2 - 2x and the x-axis
(Example 8).
L0
(x3 - x2 - 2x) dx = c
2
(x3 - x2 - 2x) dx = c
0
5
x4 x3
1 1
- x2 d = 0 - c + - 1 d =
3
3
4
4
12
-1
2
8
x4 x3
8
- x2 d = c 4 - - 4 d - 0 = 3
3
3
4
0
The total enclosed area is obtained by adding the absolute values of the calculated integrals.
Total enclosed area =
Exercises
5.4
Evaluating Integrals
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1–34.
1.
L0
2
5.
7.
9.
x(x - 3) dx
2.
3
dx
4
L-2 (x + 3)
4.
L1
4
L0
1
L0
p>3
a3x2 -
1 x2
x3
b dx
4
+ 1x 2 dx
2 sec2 x dx
Lp>4
csc u cot u du
6.
8.
10.
12.
0
13.
15.
17.
19.
1 + cos 2t
dt
2
Lp>2
L0
p>4
L0
p>8
L1
-1
L22
14.
16.
sin 2x dx
18.
(r + 1)2 dr
20.
a
(x2 - 2x + 3) dx
1
L-1
L-2
( x3 - 2x + 3 ) dx
29.
L1
L0
p
L0
p>3
x-6>5 dx
31.
(1 + cos x) dx
L-p>3
L0
33.
sin u
4
du
cos2 u
p>6
(sec x + tan x)2 dx
u7
1
- 5 b du
2
u
L-p>3
23
L- 23
-1
22.
L-3
a4 sec2 t +
p
b dt
t2
(t + 1) ( t 2 + 4 ) dt
y5 - 2y
dy
y3
24.
sin 2x
dx
Lp>2 2 sin x
26.
L-4
L1
8
L0
p>3
( x1>3 + 1 )( 2 - x2>3 )
x1>3
dx
(cos x + sec x)2 dx
p
0 x 0 dx
L0
ln 2
L0
1>2
L2
4
e3x dx
4
dx
21 - x2
xp - 1 dx
28.
30.
32.
1
(cos x + 0 cos x 0 ) dx
L0 2
L1
2
L0
1> 13
1
a x - e - x b dx
dx
1 + 4x2
0
34.
L-1
px - 1 dx
In Exercises 35–38, guess an antiderivative for the integrand function.
Validate your guess by differentiation and then evaluate the given
definite integral. (Hint: Keep in mind the Chain Rule in guessing an
antiderivative. You will learn how to find such antiderivatives in the
next section.)
sin2 t dt
-p>4
s2 + 2s
ds
s2
4
27.
32
L1
22
p
25.
x299 dx
p>3
tan2 x dx
1
21.
L-1
3
3p>4
11.
23.
1
2
3.
5
37
8
+ 2- 2 =
3
12
12
35.
L0
1
2
xex dx
36.
5
37.
x dx
L2 21 + x2
38.
L1
2
L0
p>3
ln x
x dx
sin2 x cos x dx
Derivatives of Integrals
Find the derivatives in Exercises 39–44.
a. by evaluating the integral and differentiating the result.
b. by differentiating the integral directly.
337
5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
39.
d
dxL0
1x
cos t dt
d
dxL1
sin x
40.
d
duL0
tan u
42.
4
t
41.
d
1u du
dtL0
x3
d
43.
e - t dt
dx L0
3t 2 dt
d
44.
dt L0
2t
L0
x
0
47. y =
L1x
46. y =
sin ( t 2 ) dt
51. y =
sin ( t 3 ) dt
x
L0
L0
x
(t 3 + 1)10 dtb
sin x
dt
,
21 - t 2
dt
2
Ltan x 1 + t
L2x
L-1
0x0 6
55. y =
L0
L0
sin-1 x
1
2t
dt
cos t dt
58. y = 3x2 - 3, - 2 … x … 2
59. y = x3 - 3x2 + 2x, 0 … x … 2
60. y = x1>3 - x, - 1 … x … 8
Find the areas of the shaded regions in Exercises 61–64.
y
x=p
0
62.
p
b. y =
L-1
L0
x
sec t dt + 4
x
sec t dt + 4
dy 1
= x , y(p) = -3
dx
d. y =
1
dt - 3
Lp t
66. y′ = sec x, y(-1) = 4
1
68. y′ = x , y(1) = - 3
dy
= 21 + x2, y(1) = -2
dx
Theory and Examples
71. Archimedes’ area formula for parabolic arches Archimedes
(287–212 b.c.), inventor, military engineer, physicist, and the
greatest mathematician of classical times in the Western world,
discovered that the area under a parabolic arch is two-thirds the
base times the height. Sketch the parabolic arch y = h - (4h>b2)x2,
-b>2 … x … b>2, assuming that h and b are positive. Then use
calculus to find the area of the region enclosed between the arch
and the x-axis.
72. Show that if k is a positive constant, then the area between the
x-axis and one arch of the curve y = sin kx is 2>k.
74. Revenue from marginal revenue Suppose that a company’s
marginal revenue from the manufacture and sale of eggbeaters is
dr
= 2 - 2>(x + 1)2,
dx
y = sin x
p
6
1
dt - 3
L1 t
dollars. Find c(100) - c(1), the cost of printing posters 2–100.
x
y
1
t
73. Cost from marginal cost The marginal cost of printing a poster
when x posters have been printed is
dc
1
=
dx 2 1x
y=2
y = 1 + cos x
1
Express the solutions of the initial value problems in Exercises 69 and
70 in terms of integrals.
dy
69.
= sec x, y(2) = 3
dx
70.
t dt
0
Initial Value Problems
Each of the following functions solves one of the initial value problems in Exercises 65–68. Which function solves which problem? Give
brief reasons for your answers.
67. y′ = sec x, y(0) = 4
2
ex
57. y = - x2 - 2x, - 3 … x … 2
2
1
y = sec 2 t
p
−
4
−"2
65.
p
2
53. y =
3
sin
u
p
4
x
2t dt
-1
0
y = 1 − t2
c. y =
Area
In Exercises 57–60, find the total area between the region and the x-axis.
61.
p
4
x
x1>p
56. y =
−
a. y =
3
1
54. y =
L2
x2
t2
t2
dt dt
2
L3 t + 4
L-1 t + 4
0
52. y =
3
ax +
b dx
21 - x2
2
50. y = a
y = sec u tan u
4
1
dt, x 7 0
L1 t
48. y = x
x
49. y =
2
"2
x
21 + t 2 dt
y
64.
sec2 y dy
Find dy>dx in Exercises 45–56.
45. y =
y
63.
5p
6
x
where r is measured in thousands of dollars and x in thousands of
units. How much money should the company expect from a production run of x = 3 thousand eggbeaters? To find out, integrate
the marginal revenue from x = 0 to x = 3.
338
Chapter 5: Integrals
75. The temperature T (°F) of a room at time t minutes is given by
T = 85 - 3 225 - t for 0 … t … 25.
83. Suppose that ƒ is the differentiable function shown in the accompanying graph and that the position at time t (sec) of a particle
moving along a coordinate axis is
a. Find the room’s temperature when t = 0, t = 16, and t = 25.
s =
b. Find the room’s average temperature for 0 … t … 25.
76. The height H (ft) of a palm tree after growing for t years is given by
H = 2t + 1 + 5t 1>3 for 0 … t … 8.
y
b. Find the tree’s average height for 0 … t … 8.
77.
78.
4
(3, 3)
3
(2, 2)
2
1
(1, 1)
+ 1. Find ƒ(x).
79. Find the linearization of
ƒ(x) = 2 -
L2
x+1
y = f (x)
(5, 2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x
a. What is the particle’s velocity at time t = 5?
80. Find the linearization of
g(x) = 3 +
0
−1
−2
9
dt
1 + t
at x = 1.
ƒ(x) dx
meters. Use the graph to answer the following questions. Give
reasons for your answers.
a. Find the tree’s height when t = 0, t = 4, and t = 8.
x
Suppose that 11 ƒ(t) dt = x2 - 2x
x
Find ƒ(4) if 10 ƒ(t) dt = x cos px.
L0
t
L1
b. Is the acceleration of the particle at time t = 5 positive, or
negative?
x2
sec (t - 1) dt
at x = -1.
81. Suppose that ƒ has a positive derivative for all values of x and
that ƒ(1) = 0. Which of the following statements must be true of
the function
g(x) =
c. What is the particle’s position at time t = 3?
d. At what time during the first 9 sec does s have its largest
value?
L0
x
ƒ(t) dt?
f. When is the particle moving toward the origin? Away from
the origin?
g. On which side of the origin does the particle lie at time t = 9?
84. Find lim
x Sq
Give reasons for your answers.
a. g is a differentiable function of x.
b. g is a continuous function of x.
c. The graph of g has a horizontal tangent at x = 1.
d. g has a local maximum at x = 1.
e. g has a local minimum at x = 1.
f. The graph of g has an inflection point at x = 1.
g. The graph of dg>dx crosses the x-axis at x = 1.
82. Another proof of the Evaluation Theorem
a. Let a = x0 6 x1 6 x2 g 6 xn = b be any partition of 3a, b4,
and let F be any antiderivative of ƒ. Show that
F(b) - F(a) = a 3F(xi) - F(xi-1) 4.
n
i=1
b. Apply the Mean Value Theorem to each term to show that
F(xi) - F(xi-1) = ƒ(ci)(xi - xi-1) for some ci in the interval
(xi-1, xi). Then show that F(b) - F(a) is a Riemann sum for ƒ
on 3a, b4 .
c. From part (b) and the definition of the definite integral, show
that
F(b) - F(a) =
e. Approximately when is the acceleration zero?
La
b
ƒ(x) dx.
x
2x L1 2t
1
dt
.
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
x
In Exercises 85–88, let F(x) = 1a ƒ(t) dt for the specified function ƒ
and interval 3a, b4 . Use a CAS to perform the following steps and
answer the questions posed.
a. Plot the functions ƒ and F together over 3a, b4 .
b. Solve the equation F′(x) = 0. What can you see to be true about
the graphs of ƒ and F at points where F′(x) = 0? Is your observation borne out by Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem coupled
with information provided by the first derivative? Explain your
answer.
c. Over what intervals (approximately) is the function F increasing
and decreasing? What is true about ƒ over those intervals?
d. Calculate the derivative ƒ′ and plot it together with F. What can
you see to be true about the graph of F at points where ƒ′(x) = 0?
Is your observation borne out by Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem? Explain your answer.
85. ƒ(x) = x3 - 4x2 + 3x,
30, 44
86. ƒ(x) = 2x4 - 17x3 + 46x2 - 43x + 12,
x
87. ƒ(x) = sin 2x cos , 30, 2p4
3
88. ƒ(x) = x cos px, 30, 2p4
9
c 0, d
2
5.5 Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method
In Exercises 89–92, let F(x) = 1a ƒ(t) dt for the specified a, u, and
ƒ. Use a CAS to perform the following steps and answer the questions
posed.
u(x)
a. Find the domain of F.
b. Calculate F′(x) and determine its zeros. For what points in its
domain is F increasing? Decreasing?
c. Calculate F″(x) and determine its zero. Identify the local extrema
and the points of inflection of F.
d. Using the information from parts (a)–(c), draw a rough handsketch of y = F(x) over its domain. Then graph F(x) on your
CAS to support your sketch.
339
89. a = 1, u(x) = x2, ƒ(x) = 21 - x2
90. a = 0, u(x) = x2, ƒ(x) = 21 - x2
91. a = 0, u(x) = 1 - x, ƒ(x) = x2 - 2x - 3
92. a = 0, u(x) = 1 - x2, ƒ(x) = x2 - 2x - 3
In Exercises 93 and 94, assume that ƒ is continuous and u(x) is twicedifferentiable.
u(x)
93. Calculate
d
dxLa
94. Calculate
d2
dx2La
ƒ(t) dt and check your answer using a CAS.
u(x)
ƒ(t) dt and check your answer using a CAS.
5.5 Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus says that a definite integral of a continuous function can be computed directly if we can find an antiderivative of the function. In Section
4.8 we defined the indefinite integral of the function ƒ with respect to x as the set of all
antiderivatives of ƒ, symbolized by 1 ƒ(x) dx. Since any two antiderivatives of ƒ differ by
a constant, the indefinite integral 1 notation means that for any antiderivative F of ƒ,
L
ƒ(x) dx = F(x) + C,
where C is any arbitrary constant. The connection between antiderivatives and the definite
integral stated in the Fundamental Theorem now explains this notation:
La
b
ƒ(x) dx = F(b) - F(a) =
3 F(x)
+ C4a = c
b
L
b
ƒ(x) dx d .
a
When finding the indefinite integral of a function ƒ, remember that it always includes an
arbitrary constant C.
We must distinguish carefully between definite and indefinite integrals. A definite
b
integral 1a ƒ(x) dx is a number. An indefinite integral 1 ƒ(x) dx is a function plus an arbitrary constant C.
So far, we have only been able to find antiderivatives of functions that are clearly recognizable as derivatives. In this section we begin to develop more general techniques for
finding antiderivatives of functions we can’t easily recognize as a derivative.
Substitution: Running the Chain Rule Backwards
If u is a differentiable function of x and n is any number different from -1, the Chain Rule
tells us that
d un + 1
du
a
b = un .
dx n + 1
dx
From another point of view, this same equation says that un + 1 >(n + 1) is one of the antiderivatives of the function un(du>dx). Therefore,
L
un
un + 1
du
dx =
+ C.
n + 1
dx
(1)
340
Chapter 5: Integrals
The integral in Equation (1) is equal to the simpler integral
L
un + 1
+ C,
n + 1
un du =
which suggests that the simpler expression du can be substituted for (du>dx) dx when
computing an integral. Leibniz, one of the founders of calculus, had the insight that indeed
this substitution could be done, leading to the substitution method for computing integrals.
As with differentials, when computing integrals we have
du
dx.
dx
du =
EXAMPLE 1
Solution
L
Find the integral
(x3 + x)5(3x2 + 1) dx.
We set u = x3 + x. Then
du =
du
dx = (3x2 + 1) dx,
dx
so that by substitution we have
L
(x3 + x)5(3x2 + 1) dx =
EXAMPLE 2
Find
L
L
u5 du
Let u = x3 + x, du = (3x2 + 1) dx.
=
u6
+ C
6
Integrate with respect to u.
=
(x3 + x)6
+ C
6
Substitute x3 + x for u.
22x + 1 dx.
Solution The integral does not fit the formula
L
un du,
with u = 2x + 1 and n = 1>2, because
du
dx = 2 dx
dx
is not precisely dx. The constant factor 2 is missing from the integral. However, we can
introduce this factor after the integral sign if we compensate for it by a factor of 1>2 in
front of the integral sign. So we write
du =
L
22x + 1 dx =
1
22x + 1 # 2 dx
2L (+)+* ()*
u
du
=
1
u1>2 du
2L
Let u = 2x + 1, du = 2 dx.
=
1 u3>2
+ C
2 3>2
Integrate with respect to u.
=
1
(2x + 1)3>2 + C
3
Substitute 2x + 1 for u.
The substitutions in Examples 1 and 2 are instances of the following general rule.
5.5 Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method
341
THEOREM 6—The Substitution Rule If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval I, and ƒ is continuous on I, then
L
ƒ(g(x))g′(x) dx =
L
ƒ(u) du.
Proof
By the Chain Rule, F(g(x)) is an antiderivative of ƒ(g(x)) # g′(x) whenever F is
an antiderivative of ƒ:
d
F(g(x)) = F′(g(x)) # g′(x)
dx
= ƒ(g(x)) # g′(x).
Chain Rule
F′ = ƒ
If we make the substitution u = g(x), then
L
d
F(g(x)) dx
L dx
= F(g(x)) + C
Theorem 8 in Chapter 4
= F(u) + C
u = g(x)
ƒ(g(x))g′(x) dx =
=
L
F′(u) du
Theorem 8 in Chapter 4
=
L
ƒ(u) du.
F′ = ƒ
The use of the variable u in the Substitution Rule is traditional (sometimes it is referred
to as u-substitution), but any letter can be used, such as y, t, u and so forth. The rule provides a method for evaluating an integral of the form 1 ƒ(g(x))g′(x) dx given that the conditions of Theorem 6 are satisfied. The primary challenge is deciding what expression involving x you want to substitute for in the integrand. Our examples to follow give helpful ideas.
The Substitution Method to evaluate 1ƒ(g(x)) g′(x) dx
1. Substitute u = g(x) and du = (du/dx) dx = g′(x) dx to obtain 1 ƒ(u) du.
2. Integrate with respect to u.
3. Replace u by g(x).
EXAMPLE 3
Find
L
sec2 (5x + 1) # 5 dx
Solution We substitute u = 5x + 1 and du = 5 dx. Then,
L
sec2 (5x + 1) # 5 dx =
sec2 u du
L
= tan u + C
= tan (5x + 1) + C.
EXAMPLE 4
Find
L
cos (7u + 3) du.
Let u = 5x + 1, du = 5 dx.
d
tan u = sec2 u
du
Substitute 5x + 1 for u.
342
Chapter 5: Integrals
Solution We let u = 7u + 3 so that du = 7 du. The constant factor 7 is missing from
the du term in the integral. We can compensate for it by multiplying and dividing by 7,
using the same procedure as in Example 2. Then,
L
1
cos (7u + 3) # 7 du
7L
Place factor 1>7 in front of integral.
=
1
cos u du
7L
Let u = 7u + 3, du = 7 du.
=
1
sin u + C
7
Integrate.
=
1
sin (7u + 3) + C.
7
Substitute 7u + 3 for u.
cos (7u + 3) du =
There is another approach to this problem. With u = 7u + 3 and du = 7 du as
before, we solve for du to obtain du = (1>7) du. Then the integral becomes
L
L
cos (7u + 3) du =
cos u #
1
du
7
Let u = 7u + 3, du = 7 du, and du = (1>7) du.
=
1
sin u + C
7
Integrate.
=
1
sin (7u + 3) + C.
7
Substitute 7u + 3 for u.
We can verify this solution by differentiating and checking that we obtain the original
function cos (7u + 3).
EXAMPLE 5
Sometimes we observe that a power of x appears in the integrand that is
one less than the power of x appearing in the argument of a function we want to integrate.
This observation immediately suggests we try a substitution for the higher power of x.
This situation occurs in the following integration.
L
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
George David Birkhoff
(1884–1944)
x2ex dx =
L
ex # x2 dx
=
L
eu
=
1
eu du
3L
=
1 u
e + C
3
Integrate with respect to u.
=
1 x3
e + C
3
Replace u by x3.
3
3
#
1
du
3
Let u = x3, du = 3x2 dx,
(1>3) du = x2 dx.
It may happen that an extra factor of x appears in the integrand when we try a substitution u = g(x). In that case, it may be possible to solve the equation u = g(x) for x in
terms of u. Replacing the extra factor of x with that expression may then allow for an integral we can evaluate. Here’s an example of this situation.
5.5 Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method
EXAMPLE 6
Evaluate
L
343
x 22x + 1 dx.
Solution Our previous integration in Example 2 suggests the substitution u = 2x + 1
with du = 2 dx. Then,
22x + 1 dx =
1
2u du.
2
However, in this case the integrand contains an extra factor of x multiplying the term
12x + 1. To adjust for this, we solve the substitution equation u = 2x + 1 to obtain
x = (u - 1)>2, and find that
x 22x + 1 dx =
1
1
(u - 1) # 2u du.
2
2
The integration now becomes
L
x 22x + 1 dx =
=
=
=
1
1
(u - 1) 2u du =
(u - 1)u1>2 du
4L
4L
Substitute.
1
( u3>2 - u1>2 ) du
4L
Multiply terms.
1 2 5>2 2 3>2
a u - u b + C
3
4 5
Integrate.
1
1
(2x + 1)5>2 - (2x + 1)3>2 + C.
10
6
Replace u by 2x + 1.
EXAMPLE 7
Sometimes we can use trigonometric identities to transform integrals
we do not know how to evaluate into ones we can evaluate using the Substitution Rule.
(a)
L
sin2 x dx =
L
1 - cos 2x
dx
2
=
1
(1 - cos 2x) dx
2L
=
x
sin 2x
1 sin 2x
1
x + C = + C
2
2 2
2
4
(b)
L
cos2 x dx =
L
1 + cos 2x
x
sin 2x
dx = +
+ C
2
2
4
(c)
L
tan x du =
L
sin x
cos x dx =
L
-du
u
= -ln 0 u 0 + C = -ln 0 cos x 0 + C
= ln
1
+ C = ln 0 sec x 0 + C
0 cos x 0
sin2 x =
1 - cos 2x
2
cos2 x =
1 + cos 2x
2
u = cos x, du = - sin x dx
Reciprocal Rule
344
Chapter 5: Integrals
EXAMPLE 8
An integrand may require some algebraic manipulation before the substitution method can be applied. This example gives two integrals obtained by multiplying
the integrand by an algebraic form equal to 1, leading to an appropriate substitution.
(a)
dx
ex dx
-x =
2x
Le + e
Le + 1
=
(b)
Multiply by (ex >ex) = 1.
x
L
du
2
u
L + 1
Let u = ex, u2 = e2x,
du = ex dx.
= tan-1u + C
Integrate with respect to u.
= tan-1(ex) + C
Replace u by ex.
sec x dx =
L
(sec x)(1) dx =
L
sec x #
=
sec2 x + sec x tan x
dx
L sec x + tan x
=
L
sec x + tan x
dx
sec x + tan x
du
u
sec x + tan x
is equal to 1.
sec x + tan x
u = tan x + sec x,
du = (sec2 + sec x tan x) dx
= ln 0 u 0 + C = ln 0 sec x + tan x 0 + C.
The integrals of cot x and csc x are found in a way similar to those used for finding the
integrals of tan x and sec x in Examples 7c and 8b (see Exercises 71 and 72). We summarize the results for these four basic trigonometric integrals here.
Integrals of the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions
L
L
tan x dx = ln 0 sec x 0 + C
cot x dx = ln 0 sin x 0 + C
L
L
sec x dx = ln 0 sec x + tan x 0 + C
csc x dx = -ln 0 csc x + cot x 0 + C
Trying Different Substitutions
The success of the substitution method depends on finding a substitution that changes an
integral we cannot evaluate directly into one that we can. Finding the right substitution
gets easier with practice and experience. If the first substitution fails, try another substitution, possibly coupled with other algebraic or trigonometric simplifications to the integrand. Several of these more complicated substitutions are studied in Chapter 8.
EXAMPLE 9
Evaluate
2z dz
.
L 2z2 + 1
3
Solution We can use the substitution method of integration as an exploratory tool:
Substitute for the most troublesome part of the integrand and see how things work out.
For the integral here, we might try u = z2 + 1 or we might even press our luck and take
u to be the entire cube root. Here is what happens in each case, and both substitutions
are successful.
5.5 Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method
345
Method 1: Substitute u = z2 + 1.
2z dz
du
=
1>3
L 2z2 + 1 L u
Let u = z2 + 1,
du = 2z dz.
3
In the form 1 un du
=
L
=
u2>3
+ C
2>3
=
3 2>3
u + C
2
=
3 2
(z + 1)2>3 + C
2
u-1>3 du
Integrate.
Replace u by z2 + 1.
3 2
Method 2: Substitute u = 2
z + 1 instead.
2z dz
3u2 du
=
u
L 2z2 + 1 L
3 2
Let u = 2
z + 1,
3
2
u = z + 1, 3u2 du = 2z dz.
3
= 3 u du
L
= 3#
=
Exercises
L
2.
L
3.
L
4.
4x3
dx, u = x4 + 1
4
(x
+ 1)2
L
5.
L
(3x + 2)(3x + 4x) dx, u = 3x + 4x
6.
L
7.
L
11
sin 3x dx, u = 3x
9.
L
sec 2t tan 2t dt, u = 2t
2(2x + 4)5 dx, u = 2x + 4
13.
7 27x - 1 dx, u = 7x - 1
14.
2x(x2 + 5)-4 dx, u = x2 + 5
2
+ 2x 21>3
15.
4
2
dx, u = 1 + 2x
8.
11.
12.
1.
10.
Integrate.
3 2
( z + 1 ) 2>3 + C
2
Replace u by (z2 + 1)1>3.
5.5
Evaluating Indefinite Integrals
Evaluate the indefinite integrals in Exercises 1–16 by using the given
substitutions to reduce the integrals to standard form.
2x
u2
+ C
2
L
9r 2 dr
, u = 1 - r3
L 21 - r 3
L
L
12(y4 + 4y2 + 1)2(y3 + 2y) dy, u = y4 + 4y2 + 1
1x sin2 (x3>2 - 1) dx,
u = x3>2 - 1
1
1
1
cos2 a x b dx, u = - x
2
Lx
csc2 2u cot 2u du
L
a. Using u = cot 2u
dx
16.
L 25x + 8
a. Using u = 5x + 8
b. Using u = csc 2u
b. Using u = 25x + 8
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 17–66.
x sin (2x2) dx, u = 2x2
t 2
t
t
a1 - cos b sin dt, u = 1 - cos
2
2
2
L
17.
L
19.
L
21.
1
ds
L 25s + 4
23 - 2s ds
18.
4
u2
1 - u 2 du
20.
L
22.
L
1
dx
L 2x 1 1 + 2x 22
3y 27 - 3y2 dy
2sin x cos3 x dx
346
Chapter 5: Integrals
23.
L
sec2 (3x + 2) dx
25.
L
sin5
27.
L
29.
L
30.
L
31.
r2 a
x
x
cos dx
3
3
5
r3
- 1b dr
18
37.
39.
csc a
45.
26.
L
tan7
x
x
sec2 dx
2
2
63.
28.
L
y - p
y - p
b cot a
b dy
2
2
sin (2t + 1)
dt
2
cos
(2t + 1)
L
1
1
1
sin cos du
2
u
u
u
L
x
dx
L 21 + x
1
1
2 - x dx
2
Lx A
x3 - 3
dx
41.
11
LA x
43.
61.
32.
34.
36.
38.
40.
r 4 a7 -
r5 3
b dr
10
L 2sec z
sec z tan z
L 2t
1
cos 1 2t + 3 2 dt
1 x2 - 1
dx
3
2
Lx A x
L
L
(x + 1)2(1 - x)5 dx
46.
x3 2x2 + 1 dx
48.
L
L
68.
x 24 - x dx
(x + 5)(x - 5)1>3 dx
69.
70.
51.
L
52.
L
75.
59.
2
(sin 2u) esin u du
1
sec2 ( e2x + 1 ) dx
L 2xe - 2x
76.
1 1>x
e sec (1 + e1>x) tan (1 + e1>x) dx
2
Lx
5
dr
9
+
4r 2
L
60.
77.
L 2e2u - 1
1
21 + sin2 (x - 1) sin (x - 1) cos (x - 1) dx
L
a. u = x - 1, followed by y = sin u, then by w = 1 + y2
L
(2r - 1) cos 23(2r - 1)2 + 6
23(2r - 1)2 + 6
dr
sin 2u
du
L 2u cos3 1u
Initial Value Problems
Solve the initial value problems in Exercises 73–78.
ds
= 12t (3t 2 - 1)3, s(1) = 3
73.
dt
74.
dx
58.
L x 2x4 - 1
18 tan2 x sec2 x
dx
L ( 2 + tan3 x ) 2
a. u = tan x, followed by y = u3, then by w = 2 + y
72. Find the integral of csc x by multiplying by an appropriate form
equal to 1, as in Example 8b.
x
dx
L (2x - 1)2>3
dz
57.
z
L1 + e
L (sin y) 21 - y2
71. Find the integral of cot x using a substitution like that in Example 7c.
50.
ln 2t
dt
56.
L t
dy
-1
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 69 and 70.
x
dx
2
(x
4)3
L
3x5 2x3 + 1 dx
dx
55.
L x ln x
1 + x2
b. u = sin (x - 1), followed by y = 1 + u2
49.
54.
66.
L
2tan-1 x dx
c. u = 2 + tan3 x
L
53.
dy
-1
(tan
y)(1
+ y 2)
L
64.
b. u = tan3 x, followed by y = 2 + u
47.
(cos x) esin x dx
2
c. u = 1 + sin2 (x - 1)
x4
42.
dx
3
L Ax - 1
44.
( sin-1 x ) 2 dx
L 21 - x
ecos x dx
L 21 - x2
-1
62.
If you do not know what substitution to make, try reducing the integral step by step, using a trial substitution to simplify the integral a bit
and then another to simplify it some more. You will see what we
mean if you try the sequences of substitutions in Exercises 67 and 68.
dz
x - 1
dx
A
x5
L
x(x - 1)10 dx
65.
67.
cos 2u
du
L 2u sin2 2u
L
esin x dx
L 21 - x2
-1
x1>2 sin ( x3>2 + 1 ) dx
1
1
cos a t - 1b dt
33.
2
t
L
35.
L
tan2 x sec2 x dx
24.
78.
dy
= 4x (x2 + 8)-1>3, y(0) = 0
dx
ds
p
= 8 sin2 at +
b, s(0) = 8
12
dt
p
dr
p
= 3 cos2 a - ub, r(0) =
4
8
du
d 2s
p
= -4 sin a2t - b, s′(0) = 100, s(0) = 0
2
dt 2
d 2y
= 4 sec2 2x tan 2x, y′(0) = 4, y(0) = - 1
dx2
79. The velocity of a particle moving back and forth on a line is
y = ds>dt = 6 sin 2t m>sec for all t. If s = 0 when t = 0, find
the value of s when t = p>2 sec.
du
80. The acceleration of a particle moving back and forth on a line is
a = d 2s>dt 2 = p2 cos pt m>sec2 for all t. If s = 0 and y =
8 m/sec when t = 0, find s when t = 1 sec.
5.6 Definite Integral Substitutions and the Area Between Curves
347
5.6 Definite Integral Substitutions and the Area Between Curves
There are two methods for evaluating a definite integral by substitution. One method is to
find an antiderivative using substitution and then to evaluate the definite integral by applying the Evaluation Theorem. The other method extends the process of substitution directly
to definite integrals by changing the limits of integration. We apply the new formula introduced here to the problem of computing the area between two curves.
The Substitution Formula
The following formula shows how the limits of integration change when the variable of
integration is changed by substitution.
THEOREM 7—Substitution in Definite Integrals If g′ is continuous on the
interval 3 a, b4 and ƒ is continuous on the range of g(x) = u, then
La
Proof
b
ƒ(g(x)) # g′(x) dx =
g(b)
Lg(a)
ƒ(u) du.
Let F denote any antiderivative of ƒ. Then,
La
b
ƒ(g(x)) # g′(x) dx = F(g(x)) d
x=b
x=a
d
F(g(x))
dx
= F′(g(x))g′(x)
= ƒ(g(x))g′(x)
= F(g(b)) - F(g(a))
u = g(b)
= F(u) d
u = g(a)
=
ƒ(u) du.
g(b)
Lg(a)
Fundamental
Theorem, Part 2
To use the formula, make the same u-substitution u = g(x) and du = g′(x) dx you
would use to evaluate the corresponding indefinite integral. Then integrate the transformed
integral with respect to u from the value g(a) (the value of u at x = a) to the value g(b)
(the value of u at x = b).
1
3x2 2x3 + 1 dx.
L-1
We have two choices.
EXAMPLE 1
Solution
Evaluate
Method 1: Transform the integral and evaluate the transformed integral with the transformed limits given in Theorem 7.
1
L-1
2
3
3x 2x + 1 dx
=
=
=
L0
Let u = x3 + 1, du = 3x2 dx.
When x = - 1, u = (- 1)3 + 1 = 0.
When x = 1, u = (1)3 + 1 = 2.
2
2u du
2
2 3>2
u d
3
0
Evaluate the new definite integral.
2
2 3>2
3 2 - 03>2 4 = 32 3 2 22 4 = 4 2
3
3
348
Chapter 5: Integrals
Method 2: Transform the integral as an indefinite integral, integrate, change back to x,
and use the original x-limits.
L
3x2 2x3 + 1 dx =
2u du
Let u = x3 + 1, du = 3x2 dx.
=
2 3>2
u + C
3
Integrate with respect to u.
=
2 3
(x + 1)3>2 + C
3
Replace u by x3 + 1.
1
L-1
L
3x2 2x3 + 1 dx =
=
=
1
2 3
(x + 1)3>2 d
3
-1
Use the integral just found, with
limits of integration for x.
2
3 ((1)3 + 1)3>2 - ((-1)3 + 1)3>2 4
3
2
2 3>2
3 2 - 03>2 4 = 32 3 2 22 4 = 4 2
3
3
Which method is better—evaluating the transformed definite integral with transformed limits using Theorem 7, or transforming the integral, integrating, and transforming
back to use the original limits of integration? In Example 1, the first method seems easier,
but that is not always the case. Generally, it is best to know both methods and to use
whichever one seems better at the time.
EXAMPLE 2
We use the method of transforming the limits of integration.
p>2
(a)
Lp>4
2
cot u csc u du =
L1
= -
= -c
p>4
L-p>4
p>4
tan x dx =
L-p>4
= -
Let u = cot u, du
- du
When u = p>4, u
When u = p>2, u
u # (-du)
L1
= -c
(b)
0
0
=
=
=
=
- csc2 u du,
csc2 u du.
cot (p>4) = 1.
cot (p>2) = 0.
u du
u2 0
d
2 1
(0)2 (1)2
1
d =
2
2
2
sin x
cos x dx
22>2
L22>2
= -ln 0 u 0 d
Let u = cos x, du = - sin x dx.
When x = - p>4, u = 22>2.
When x = p>4, u = 22>2.
du
u
22>2
22>2
= 0
Integrate, zero width interval
Definite Integrals of Symmetric Functions
The Substitution Formula in Theorem 7 simplifies the calculation of definite integrals of
even and odd functions (Section 1.1) over a symmetric interval 3 -a, a4 (Figure 5.23).
5.6 Definite Integral Substitutions and the Area Between Curves
y
349
THEOREM 8 Let ƒ be continuous on the symmetric interval 3 -a, a4 .
a
(a) If ƒ is even, then
a
ƒ(x) dx = 2 ƒ(x) dx.
L-a
L0
a
(b) If ƒ is odd, then
−a
0
ƒ(x) dx = 0.
x
a
(a)
Proof of Part (a)
y
0
a
L-a
0
−a
L-a
L-a
= -
x
a
ƒ(x) dx =
= (b)
=
FIGURE 5.23 (a) For ƒ an even function, the integral from - a to a is twice the
integral from 0 to a. (b) For ƒ an odd function, the integral from -a to a equals 0.
=
ƒ(x) dx +
L0
-a
L0
a
L0
a
L0
a
L0
a
L0
ƒ(x) dx +
a
ƒ(-u)(-du) +
ƒ(-u) du +
ƒ(u) du +
L0
L0
Additivity Rule for
Definite Integrals
ƒ(x) dx
ƒ(x) dx
Order of Integration Rule
a
Let u = - x, du = - dx.
When x = 0, u = 0.
When x = - a, u = a.
L0
ƒ(x) dx
a
ƒ(x) dx
a
ƒ(x) dx
ƒ is even, so
ƒ(- u) = ƒ(u).
a
= 2 ƒ(x) dx
L0
The proof of part (b) is entirely similar and you are asked to give it in Exercise 114.
The assertions of Theorem 8 remain true when ƒ is an integrable function (rather than
having the stronger property of being continuous).
2
EXAMPLE 3
Evaluate
L-2
( x4 - 4x2 + 6 ) dx.
Solution Since ƒ(x) = x4 - 4x2 + 6 satisfies ƒ(-x) = ƒ(x), it is even on the symmetric interval 3 -2, 24 , so
2
2
(x4 - 4x2 + 6) dx = 2 (x4 - 4x2 + 6) dx
L-2
L0
= 2c
y
Upper curve
y = f (x)
a
b
x
Lower curve
y = g(x)
FIGURE 5.24 The region between
the curves y = ƒ(x) and y = g(x)
and the lines x = a and x = b.
2
x5 4 3
- x + 6x d
3
5
0
= 2a
232
32 32
+ 12b =
.
3
5
15
Areas Between Curves
Suppose we want to find the area of a region that is bounded above by the curve y = ƒ(x),
below by the curve y = g(x), and on the left and right by the lines x = a and x = b (Figure 5.24). The region might accidentally have a shape whose area we could find with
geometry, but if ƒ and g are arbitrary continuous functions, we usually have to find the
area with an integral.
350
Chapter 5: Integrals
y
To see what the integral should be, we first approximate the region with n vertical
rectangles based on a partition P = 5x0, x1, c, xn 6 of 3 a, b4 (Figure 5.25). The area of
the kth rectangle (Figure 5.26) is
y = f (x)
a = x 0 x1
x n−1
x2
∆Ak = height * width = 3 ƒ(ck) - g(ck)4 ∆xk.
x
We then approximate the area of the region by adding the areas of the n rectangles:
b = xn
A ≈ a ∆Ak = a 3 ƒ(ck) - g(ck)4 ∆xk.
y = g(x)
n
n
k=1
k=1
As } P } S 0, the sums on the right approach the limit 1a 3 ƒ(x) - g(x) 4 dx because ƒ
and g are continuous. We take the area of the region to be the value of this integral. That is,
FIGURE 5.25 We approximate
the region with rectangles perpendicular to the x-axis.
A = lim a 3 ƒ(ck) - g(ck)4 ∆xk =
}P} S 0
n
y
k=1
(ck , f (ck ))
Δ Ak
ck
b
La
b
b
3 ƒ(x) - g(x) 4 dx.
DEFINITION If ƒ and g are continuous with ƒ(x) Ú g(x) throughout 3 a, b4 ,
then the area of the region between the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) from
a to b is the integral of (ƒ - g) from a to b:
f (ck ) − g(ck )
a
Riemann sum
x
A =
(ck , g(ck ))
Δxk
FIGURE 5.26 The area ∆Ak of the
kth rectangle is the product of its height,
ƒ(ck) - g(ck), and its width, ∆xk.
La
b
3 ƒ(x) - g(x) 4 dx.
When applying this definition it is helpful to graph the curves. The graph reveals which curve
is the upper curve ƒ and which is the lower curve g. It also helps you find the limits of integration if they are not given. You may need to find where the curves intersect to determine the
limits of integration, and this may involve solving the equation ƒ(x) = g(x) for values of x.
Then you can integrate the function ƒ - g for the area between the intersections.
EXAMPLE 4
Find the area of the region bounded above by the curve y = 2e-x + x,
below by the curve y = ex >2 , on the left by x = 0, and on the right by x = 1.
Solution Figure 5.27 displays the graphs of the curves and the region whose area we
want to find. The area between the curves over the interval 0 … x … 1 is given by
y
2
(x, f (x))
y = 2e−x + x
A =
0.5
0
(x, g(x))
y = 1 ex
2
1
L0
1
c (2e-x + x) -
= a-2e-1 +
1 1
1
- eb - a-2 + 0 - b
2 2
2
e
2
= 3 - e - ≈ 0.9051.
2
x
FIGURE 5.27 The region in Example 4
with a typical approximating rectangle.
1 x
1
1 1
e d dx = c -2e-x + x2 - ex d
2
2
2 0
EXAMPLE 5
the line y = -x.
Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola y = 2 - x2 and
Solution First we sketch the two curves (Figure 5.28). The limits of integration are found
by solving y = 2 - x2 and y = -x simultaneously for x.
2 - x2
x2 - x - 2
(x + 1)(x - 2)
x = -1,
x
=
=
=
=
-x
0
0
2.
Equate ƒ(x) and g(x).
Rewrite.
Factor.
Solve.
The region runs from x = -1 to x = 2. The limits of integration are a = -1, b = 2.
5.6 Definite Integral Substitutions and the Area Between Curves
The area between the curves is
y
(x, f (x))
A =
y = 2 − x2
(−1, 1)
La
Δx
0
−1
351
2
1
=
x
2
(x, g(x))
y = −x
2
b
L-1
3 ƒ(x) - g(x) 4 dx =
3 (2 - x2) - (-x)4 dx
(2 + x - x2) dx = c 2x +
= a4 +
(2, −2)
L-1
x2 x3 2
- d
3 -1
2
9
4 8
1 1
- b - a-2 + + b = .
2 3
2 3
2
If the formula for a bounding curve changes at one or more points, we subdivide the
region into subregions that correspond to the formula changes and apply the formula for
the area between curves to each subregion.
FIGURE 5.28 The region in
Example 5 with a typical approximating rectangle.
EXAMPLE 6
Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded above
by y = 2x and below by the x-axis and the line y = x - 2.
L
2
Area =
y
2
L
0
4
(" x − x + 2) dx
2
Area = " x dx
y = "x
(x, f (x))
(4, 2)
B
(x, f (x))
2x = x - 2
y=x−2
1
A
y=0 2
0
Solution The sketch (Figure 5.29) shows that the region’s upper boundary is the graph of
ƒ(x) = 2x. The lower boundary changes from g(x) = 0 for 0 … x … 2 to g(x) = x - 2
for 2 … x … 4 (both formulas agree at x = 2). We subdivide the region at x = 2 into subregions A and B, shown in Figure 5.29.
The limits of integration for region A are a = 0 and b = 2. The left-hand limit for
region B is a = 2. To find the right-hand limit, we solve the equations y = 2x and
y = x - 2 simultaneously for x:
(x, g(x))
4
x
(x, g(x))
FIGURE 5.29 When the formula for a
bounding curve changes, the area integral
changes to become the sum of integrals to
match, one integral for each of the shaded
regions shown here for Example 6.
x
2
x - 5x + 4
(x - 1)(x - 4)
x
=
=
=
=
Equate ƒ(x) and g(x).
(x - 2)2 = x2 - 4x + 4
0
0
1,
x = 4.
Square both sides.
Rewrite.
Factor.
Solve.
Only the value x = 4 satisfies the equation 2x = x - 2. The value x = 1 is an extraneous root introduced by squaring. The right-hand limit is b = 4.
For 0 … x … 2:
ƒ(x) - g(x) = 2x - 0 = 2x
For 2 … x … 4:
ƒ(x) - g(x) = 2x - (x - 2) = 2x - x + 2
We add the areas of subregions A and B to find the total area:
Total area =
L0
2
2x dx +
(++)++*
area of A
L2
4
1 2x
- x + 2 2 dx
(+++++)+++++*
area of B
2
4
x2
2
2
= c x3>2 d + c x3>2 + 2x d
3
3
2
0
2
=
=
2 3>2
2
2
(2) - 0 + a (4)3>2 - 8 + 8b - a (2)3>2 - 2 + 4b
3
3
3
10
2
(8) - 2 =
.
3
3
352
Chapter 5: Integrals
Integration with Respect to y
If a region’s bounding curves are described by functions of y, the approximating rectangles are horizontal instead of vertical and the basic formula has y in place of x.
For regions like these:
y
y
d
y
d
x = f(y)
x = f(y)
d x = g(y)
Δ(y)
Δ (y)
x = g(y)
x = g(y)
Δ(y)
c
c
x
0
x
0
c
x = f(y)
x
0
use the formula
A =
Lc
d
3 ƒ(y) - g(y) 4 dy.
In this equation ƒ always denotes the right-hand curve and g the left-hand curve, so
ƒ(y) - g(y) is nonnegative.
y
2
1
0
EXAMPLE 7
(g(y), y)
x=y+2
Δy
f (y) − g(y)
y=0
(4, 2)
x = y2
2
( f (y), y)
4
x
Find the area of the region in Example 6 by integrating with respect to y.
Solution We first sketch the region and a typical horizontal rectangle based on a partition of an interval of y-values (Figure 5.30). The region’s right-hand boundary is the line
x = y + 2, so ƒ(y) = y + 2. The left-hand boundary is the curve x = y2, so g(y) = y2.
The lower limit of integration is y = 0. We find the upper limit by solving x = y + 2 and
x = y2 simultaneously for y:
y + 2 = y2
FIGURE 5.30 It takes two integrations to find the area of this region if
we integrate with respect to x. It takes
only one if we integrate with respect to
y (Example 7).
y2 - y - 2 = 0
Rewrite.
( y + 1)( y - 2) = 0
y = -1,
Equate ƒ( y) = y + 2 and g(y) = y2.
Factor.
y = 2
Solve.
The upper limit of integration is b = 2. (The value y = -1 gives a point of intersection
below the x-axis.)
The area of the region is
A =
Lc
d
3 ƒ(y) - g(y)4 dy =
=
L0
2
L0
2
3 y + 2 - y2 4 dy
3 2 + y - y2 4 dy
= c 2y +
= 4 +
This is the result of Example 6, found with less work.
y2 y3 2
- d
3 0
2
4 8 10
- =
.
3
2 3
353
5.6 Definite Integral Substitutions and the Area Between Curves
Although it was easier to find the area in Example 6 by integrating with respect to y
rather than x (just as we did in Example 7), there is an easier way yet. Looking at Figure
5.31, we see that the area we want is the area between the curve y = 2x and the x-axis
for 0 … x … 4, minus the area of an isosceles triangle of base and height equal to 2. So by
combining calculus with some geometry, we find
y
(4, 2)
2
y = "x
1
2
y=x−2
Area = 2
2
0
y=0
2
4
Area =
x
FIGURE 5.31 The area of the blue
region is the area under the parabola
y = 2x minus the area of the
triangle.
Exercises
=
=
1. a.
2. a.
3. a.
4. a.
5. a.
6. a.
L0
L0
1
L0
p>4
0
2y + 1 dy
b.
2
r 21 - r dr
2
tan x sec x dx
b.
L0
L0
1
L0
27
b.
3 cos2 x sin x dx
t 3 ( 1 + t 4 ) 3 dt
t ( t 2 + 1 ) 1>3 dt
b.
10 2y
dy
(
1
+ y3>2 ) 2
L0
23
1
4x
dx
2x2 + 1
x3
dx
10. a.
4
L0 2x + 9
11. a.
12. a.
L0
1
L0
p>6
4
2 3>2
x d - 2
3
0
10
2
(8) - 0 - 2 =
.
3
3
r 21 - r dr
tan x sec x dx
L-p>4
t 24 + 5t dt
(1 - cos 3t) sin 3t dt
15.
17.
2
L2p
b.
L-1
19.
3 cos2 x sin x dx
21.
t 3 ( 1 + t 4 ) 3 dt
22.
L- 27
t(t 2 + 1)1>3 dt
23.
1
5r
b.
dr
(
4
+
r2 )2
L0
4
b.
L1 ( 1 + y3>2 ) 2
10 2y
dy
23
4x
b.
dx
L- 23 2x2 + 1
25.
b.
29.
L1
L0
L0
p>6
L0
p
L0
1
L0
1
L0
2p2
L0
p>4
L1
33.
Lp>6
(1 - cos 3t) sin 3t dt
35.
L-p 24 + 3 sin z
cos z
dz
p>2
4
2t 5 + 2t (5t 4 + 2) dt
16.
dy
L1 2 2y 1 1 + 2y 22
3p>2
cos-3 2u sin 2u du
5(5 - 4 cos t)1>4 sin t dt
18.
20.
Lp
L0
u
u
cot5 a b sec2 a b du
6
6
p>4
(1 - sin 2t)3>2 cos 2t dt
(4y - y2 + 4y3 + 1)-2>3 (12y2 - 2y + 4) dy
(y3 + 6y2 - 12y + 9)-1>2 (y2 + 4y - 4) dy
3
-1>2
2u cos2 ( u 3>2 ) du
24.
(1 + etan u) sec2 u du
26.
2
28.
30.
dx
2
L2 x (ln x)
32.
L0
L0
p>3
tan
x
dx
2
tan2 u cos u du
Lp>4
L0
1
t -2 sin2 a1 + t b dt
(1 + ecot u) csc2 u du
p>3
4 sin u
du
1 - 4 cos u
4
2 ln x
x dx
p>2
L-1
p>2
sin t
dt
2
cos t
L0
p>3
b.
b.
4
31.
9
t 24 + 5t dt
24 + 3 sin z
p
dz
p
27.
0
x3
b.
dx
4
L-1 2x + 9
cos z
t
t
t
t
a2 + tan b sec2 dt b.
a2 + tan b sec2 dt
2
2
2
2
L-p>2
L-p>2
1
0
b.
L0
2p
0
1
1
L0
L-1
2
3p
5r
7. a.
dr
(
4
+
r2 )2
L-1
9. a.
2y + 1 dy
0
1
8. a.
L-1
13. a.
14. a.
1
p
1
(2)(2)
2
2x dx -
5.6
Evaluating Definite Integrals
Use the Substitution Formula in Theorem 7 to evaluate the integrals in
Exercises 1–46.
3
L0
4
dx
x
L2 ln x
16
dx
L2 2x 2ln x
p>2
34.
36.
Lp>4
L0
cot t dt
p>12
6 tan 3x dx
354
Chapter 5: Integrals
p>2
37.
39.
p>4
2 cos u du
2
1
L-p>2 + (sin u)
L0
ln 23
38.
ex dx
1 + e2x
40.
1
4 ds
41.
L0 24 - s2
2
43.
45.
L22
42.
sec (sec x) dx
44.
x 2x2 - 1
- 22>2
L-1
L1
ep>4
L0
2 2>4
4 dt
t(1 + ln2 t)
46.
2
y 24y - 1
L2> 23
ds
29 - 4s2
0
55.
y
1
x 2x2 - 1
0
56.
0
49.
x
p
0
x
−p
p −1
−
2
−3
1
0
−1
x
0
1
59.
y
y=1
2
60.
2
5
1
y = cos 2 x
x
p
p
−
3
0
(−3, −3)
p
3
t
61.
4
−4
(2, 8)
y = x 4 − 2x 2
NOT TO SCALE
2
x
x
2
(−2, −10)
−10
(1, −3)
−4
62.
y
6
y = 4 − x2
1 2 3
(3, 6)
3
y= x −x
3
y= x
3
x
y = −x + 2
y = 2x 2
−5
y y = −x 2 + 3x
(2, 2)
y = 2x 3 − x 2 − 5x
x
1
y = −x 2 − 2x
2
−2 −1
1
x
2
1
−2 −1
y
(−2, 4)
y
0
−3
y = 1 sec2 t
2
y = −4 sin2 t
−2 −1−1
1
x
y = x2 − 4
52.
8
2
y
(−3, 5)
y
(−2, 8)
2
y= x
4
x
x+y=2
y = x2
y = 3(sin x)" 1 + cos x
53.
1
y
1
−2
p
2
y=1
1
−2
50. y = p (cos x)(sin(p + psin x))
2
y
−1
0
y=x
y = −2x 4
0
−2 −1
y
0
58.
1
57.
y
−1
x
2
y
51.
x
y = (1 − cos x) sin x
0
−p
1
1 y = x2
y
y = x"4 − x 2
−2
x = 12y 2 − 12y 3
x = 2y 2 − 2y
y dy
L0 25y + 1
48.
y
x
1
Area
Find the total areas of the shaded regions in Exercises 47–62.
47.
(1, 1)
x = y2
cos (sec-1 x) dx
3
dy
x = y3
1
3
2
-1
2
Lp>6
y
54.
csc2 x dx
1 + (cot x)2
(3, −5)
(3, 1)
−2
0
3
x
2
a−2, − b
3
Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the lines and curves in
Exercises 63–72.
63. y = x2 - 2 and y = 2
64. y = 2x - x2 and y = - 3
65. y = x4 and y = 8x
66. y = x2 - 2x and y = x
5.6 Definite Integral Substitutions and the Area Between Curves
100. Find the area of the “triangular” region in the first quadrant that
is bounded above by the curve y = ex>2, below by the curve
y = e-x>2, and on the right by the line x = 2 ln 2.
67. y = x2 and y = - x2 + 4x
68. y = 7 - 2x
2
2
and y = x + 4
69. y = x4 - 4x2 + 4 and y = x2
70. y = x 2a2 - x2, a 7 0, and y = 0
71. y = 2 0 x 0 and 5y = x + 6 (How many intersection points
are there?)
72. y = 0 x2 - 4 0
and y = (x2 >2) + 4
Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the lines and curves in
Exercises 73–80.
74. x = y2 and x = y + 2
75. y2 - 4x = 4 and 4x - y = 16
76. x - y2 = 0 and x + 2y2 = 3
78. x - y2>3 = 0 and x + y4 = 2
2
80. x = y3 - y2 and x = 2y
Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the curves in Exercises 81–84.
81. 4x2 + y = 4 and x4 - y = 1
82. x3 - y = 0 and 3x2 - y = 4
83. x + 4y2 = 4 and x + y4 = 1, for x Ú 0
2
102. Find the area of the region between the curve y = 21 - x and the
interval - 1 … x … 1 of the x-axis.
103. The region bounded below by the parabola y = x2 and above by
the line y = 4 is to be partitioned into two subsections of equal
area by cutting across it with the horizontal line y = c.
b. Find c by integrating with respect to y. (This puts c in the
limits of integration.)
77. x + y2 = 0 and x + 3y2 = 2
79. x = y - 1 and x = 0 y 0 21 - y
101. Find the area of the region between the curve y = 2x>(1 + x2)
and the interval - 2 … x … 2 of the x-axis.
a. Sketch the region and draw a line y = c across it that looks
about right. In terms of c, what are the coordinates of the
points where the line and parabola intersect? Add them to
your figure.
73. x = 2y2, x = 0, and y = 3
2
355
2
84. x + y = 3 and 4x + y = 0
Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the lines and curves in Exercises 85–92.
c. Find c by integrating with respect to x. (This puts c into the
integrand as well.)
104. Find the area of the region between the curve y = 3 - x2 and
the line y = - 1 by integrating with respect to a. x, b. y.
105. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded on the
left by the y-axis, below by the line y = x>4, above left by the
curve y = 1 + 2x, and above right by the curve y = 2> 2x.
106. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded on the
left by the y-axis, below by the curve x = 2 2y, above left by
the curve x = (y - 1)2, and above right by the line x = 3 - y.
y
85. y = 2 sin x and y = sin 2x, 0 … x … p
2
86. y = 8 cos x and y = sec x, - p>3 … x … p>3
x = (y − 1)2
2
x=3−y
87. y = cos (px>2) and y = 1 - x2
88. y = sin (px>2) and y = x
1
89. y = sec2 x, y = tan2 x, x = - p>4, and x = p>4
x = 2"y
90. x = tan2 y and x = - tan2 y, - p>4 … y … p>4
91. x = 3 sin y 2cos y and x = 0, 0 … y … p>2
92. y = sec2 (px>3) and y = x1>3, - 1 … x … 1
Area Between Curves
93. Find the area of the propeller-shaped region enclosed by the
curve x - y3 = 0 and the line x - y = 0.
0
1
96. Find the area of the “triangular” region in the first quadrant
bounded on the left by the y-axis and on the right by the curves
y = sin x and y = cos x.
97. Find the area between the curves y = ln x and y = ln 2x from
x = 1 to x = 5.
98. Find the area between the curve y = tan x and the x-axis from
x = - p>4 to x = p>3.
99. Find the area of the “triangular” region in the first quadrant that is
bounded above by the curve y = e2x, below by the curve y = ex,
and on the right by the line x = ln 3.
x
107. The figure here shows triangle AOC inscribed in the region cut
from the parabola y = x2 by the line y = a2. Find the limit of
the ratio of the area of the triangle to the area of the parabolic
region as a approaches zero.
94. Find the area of the propeller-shaped region enclosed by the
curves x - y1>3 = 0 and x - y1>5 = 0.
95. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded by the
line y = x, the line x = 2, the curve y = 1>x2, and the x-axis.
2
y
y = x2
C y = a2
(a, a 2)
A
(−a,
a 2)
−a
O
a
x
108. Suppose the area of the region between the graph of a positive
continuous function ƒ and the x-axis from x = a to x = b is
4 square units. Find the area between the curves y = ƒ(x) and
y = 2ƒ(x) from x = a to x = b.
356
Chapter 5: Integrals
109. Which of the following integrals, if either, calculates the area of
the shaded region shown here? Give reasons for your answer.
1
a.
L-1
L-1
xy
(x - (-x)) dx =
L-1
2x dx
The Shift Property for Definite Integrals A basic property of definite integrals is their invariance under translation, as expressed by the
equation
1
(-x - (x)) dx =
L-1
- 2x dx
La
y
y = −x
y=x
1
y
1
1
dt =
dt.
Lx t
L1 t
1
1
b.
116. By using a substitution, prove that for all positive numbers x and y,
b-c
b
ƒ(x) dx =
La - c
ƒ(x + c) dx.
(1)
The equation holds whenever ƒ is integrable and defined for the necessary values of x. For example in the accompanying figure, show that
1
−1
x
−1
-1
L-2
(x + 2)3 dx =
L0
1
x3 dx
because the areas of the shaded regions are congruent.
y
110. True, sometimes true, or never true? The area of the region
between the graphs of the continuous functions y = ƒ(x) and
y = g(x) and the vertical lines x = a and x = b (a 6 b) is
y = ( x + 2)3
b
y = x3
3ƒ(x) - g(x) 4 dx.
La
Give reasons for your answer.
Theory and Examples
111. Suppose that F(x) is an antiderivative of ƒ(x) = (sin x)>x,
x 7 0. Express
L1
3
sin 2x
x dx
in terms of F.
112. Show that if ƒ is continuous, then
L0
1
L0
ƒ(x) dx =
1
ƒ(1 - x) dx.
1
ƒ(x) dx = 3.
Find
0
L-1
if a. ƒ is odd,
ƒ(x) dx
b. ƒ is even.
114. a. Show that if ƒ is odd on 3- a, a4, then
a
L-a
ƒ(x) dx = 0.
b. Test the result in part (a) with ƒ(x) = sin x and a = p>2.
115. If ƒ is a continuous function, find the value of the integral
a
I =
−1
0
1
x
117. Use a substitution to verify Equation (1).
118. For each of the following functions, graph ƒ(x) over 3a, b4 and
ƒ(x + c) over 3a - c, b - c4 to convince yourself that Equation
(1) is reasonable.
a. ƒ(x) = x2, a = 0, b = 1, c = 1
b. ƒ(x) = sin x, a = 0, b = p, c = p>2
c. ƒ(x) = 2x - 4, a = 4, b = 8, c = 5
113. Suppose that
L0
−2
ƒ(x) dx
ƒ(x)
+ ƒ(a - x)
L0
by making the substitution u = a - x and adding the resulting
integral to I.
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
In Exercises 119–122, you will find the area between curves in the
plane when you cannot find their points of intersection using simple
algebra. Use a CAS to perform the following steps:
a. Plot the curves together to see what they look like and how
many points of intersection they have.
b. Use the numerical equation solver in your CAS to find all the
points of intersection.
c. Integrate 0 ƒ(x) - g(x) 0 over consecutive pairs of intersection
values.
d. Sum together the integrals found in part (c).
119. ƒ(x) =
x2
x3
1
- 2x + , g(x) = x - 1
3
2
3
120. ƒ(x) =
x4
- 3x3 + 10, g(x) = 8 - 12x
2
121. ƒ(x) = x + sin (2x), g(x) = x3
122. ƒ(x) = x2 cos x, g(x) = x3 - x
Chapter 5 Practice Exercises
Chapter
5
Questions to Guide Your Review
1. How can you sometimes estimate quantities like distance traveled,
area, and average value with finite sums? Why might you want to
do so?
2. What is sigma notation? What advantage does it offer? Give
examples.
3. What is a Riemann sum? Why might you want to consider such a
sum?
4. What is the norm of a partition of a closed interval?
5. What is the definite integral of a function ƒ over a closed interval
3a, b4 ? When can you be sure it exists?
6. What is the relation between definite integrals and area? Describe
some other interpretations of definite integrals.
7. What is the average value of an integrable function over a closed
interval? Must the function assume its average value? Explain.
8. Describe the rules for working with definite integrals (Table 5.6).
Give examples.
Chapter
5
9. What is the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus? Why is it so
important? Illustrate each part of the theorem with an example.
10. What is the Net Change Theorem? What does it say about the
integral of velocity? The integral of marginal cost?
11. Discuss how the processes of integration and differentiation can
be considered as “inverses” of each other.
12. How does the Fundamental Theorem provide a solution to
the initial value problem dy>dx = ƒ(x), y(x0) = y0 , when ƒ is
continuous?
13. How is integration by substitution related to the Chain Rule?
14. How can you sometimes evaluate indefinite integrals by substitution? Give examples.
15. How does the method of substitution work for definite integrals?
Give examples.
16. How do you define and calculate the area of the region between
the graphs of two continuous functions? Give an example.
Practice Exercises
Finite Sums and Estimates
1. The accompanying figure shows the graph of the velocity (ft > sec)
of a model rocket for the first 8 sec after launch. The rocket accelerated straight up for the first 2 sec and then coasted to reach its
maximum height at t = 8 sec.
Velocity (m/sec)
5
200
Velocity (ft/sec)
357
4
3
2
1
150
0
100
4
6
Time (sec)
8
10
3. Suppose that a ak = -2 and a bk = 25. Find the value of
50
0
2
2
4
6
8
Time after launch (sec)
ak
a. a
k=1 4
10
10
k=1
k=1
10
10
c. a ( ak + bk - 1 )
10
a. Assuming that the rocket was launched from ground level,
about how high did it go? (This is the rocket in Section 3.3,
Exercise 17, but you do not need to do Exercise 17 to do the
exercise here.)
b. Sketch a graph of the rocket’s height above ground as a function of time for 0 … t … 8.
2. a. The accompanying figure shows the velocity (m > sec) of a
body moving along the s-axis during the time interval from
t = 0 to t = 10 sec. About how far did the body travel during those 10 sec?
b. Sketch a graph of s as a function of t for 0 … t … 10, assuming s(0) = 0.
b. a ( bk - 3ak )
k=1
k=1
10
5
d. a a - bk b
k=1 2
4. Suppose that a ak = 0 and a bk = 7. Find the values of
a. a 3ak
20
20
k=1
k=1
20
k=1
20
1 2bk
b
c. a a 7
2
k=1
b. a ( ak + bk )
20
k=1
d. a (ak - 2)
20
k=1
358
Chapter 5: Integrals
Definite Integrals
In Exercises 5–8, express each limit as a definite integral. Then evaluate the integral to find the value of the limit. In each case, P is a partition of the given interval and the numbers ck are chosen from the subintervals of P.
5.
6.
y
x 3 + " y = 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
1
lim
(2ck - 1)-1>2 ∆xk , where P is a partition of 31, 54
}P} S 0 a
n
k=1
n
}P} S 0 ka
=1
lim
ck(ck 2 - 1)1>3 ∆xk , where P is a partition of 31, 34
ck
7. lim a acos a b b ∆xk , where P is a partition of 3- p, 04
2
}P} S 0 k = 1
n
8.
18. x3 + 2y = 1, x = 0, y = 0, for 0 … x … 1
}P} S 0 ka
=1
n
lim
2
1-2
(sin ck)(cos ck) ∆xk , where P is a partition of 30, p>24
5
1-2 ƒ(x)
3ƒ(x) dx = 12,
9. If
the values of the following.
dx = 6, and
2
a.
c.
L-2
L5
-2
L-2
a
L2
g(x) dx = 2, find
5
d.
L-2
10. If 10 ƒ(x) dx = p, 10 7g(x) dx = 7, and 10 g(x) dx = 2, find
the values of the following.
2
a.
c.
e.
L0
2
L2
0
L0
2
2
1
b.
g(x) dx
d.
ƒ(x) dx
L1
2
L0
2
g(x) dx
22 ƒ(x) dx
(g(x) - 3ƒ(x)) dx
20. x = 4 - y2, x = 0
2
21. y = 4x, y = 4x - 2
22. y2 = 4x + 4, y = 4x - 16
23. y = sin x, y = x, 0 … x … p>4
24. y = 0 sin x 0 , y = 1, - p>2 … x … p>2
27. Find the area of the “triangular” region bounded on the left by
x + y = 2, on the right by y = x2, and above by y = 2.
28. Find the area of the “triangular” region bounded on the left by
y = 2x, on the right by y = 6 - x, and below by y = 1.
29. Find the extreme values of ƒ(x) = x3 - 3x2 and find the area of
the region enclosed by the graph of ƒ and the x-axis.
30. Find the area of the region cut from the first quadrant by the curve
x1>2 + y1>2 = a1>2.
31. Find the total area of the region enclosed by the curve x = y2>3 and
the lines x = y and y = - 1.
32. Find the total area of the region between the curves y = sin x and
y = cos x for 0 … x … 3p>2.
33. Area Find the area between the curve y = 2(ln x)>x and the
x-axis from x = 1 to x = e.
Area
In Exercises 11–14, find the total area of the region between the graph
of ƒ and the x-axis.
34. a. Show that the area between the curve y = 1>x and the x-axis
from x = 10 to x = 20 is the same as the area between the
curve and the x-axis from x = 1 to x = 2.
b. Show that the area between the curve y = 1>x and the x-axis
from ka to kb is the same as the area between the curve and the
x-axis from x = a to x = b (0 6 a 6 b, k 7 0).
11. ƒ(x) = x2 - 4x + 3, 0 … x … 3
12. ƒ(x) = 1 - (x2 >4), - 2 … x … 3
13. ƒ(x) = 5 - 5x2>3, - 1 … x … 8
14. ƒ(x) = 1 - 2x, 0 … x … 4
Initial Value Problems
Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the curves and lines in Exercises 15–26.
15. y = x, y = 1>x2, x = 2
x
35. Show that y = x2 +
1
dt solves the initial value problem
L1 t
d2 y
1
= 2 - 2 ; y′(1) = 3, y(1) = 1.
dx2
x
16. y = x, y = 1> 2x, x = 2
36. Show that y = 10 1 1 + 2 2sec t 2 dt solves the initial value
problem
17. 2x + 2y = 1, x = 0, y = 0
x
y
1
d 2y
= 2sec x tan x; y′(0) = 3, y(0) = 0.
dx2
"x + "y = 1
0
19. x = 2y2, x = 0, y = 3
x
26. y = 8 cos x, y = sec2 x, - p>3 … x … p>3
(-pg(x)) dx
ƒ(x) + g(x)
b dx
5
1
25. y = 2 sin x, y = sin 2x, 0 … x … p
ƒ(x) dx
5
g(x) dx
5
e.
b.
ƒ(x) dx
5
1-2
0
1
x
Express the solutions of the initial value problems in Exercises 37
and 38 in terms of integrals.
dy sin x
37.
= x , y(5) = - 3
dx
Chapter 5 Practice Exercises
dy
= 22 - sin2 x , y(-1) = 2
dx
Solve the initial value problems in Exercises 39–42.
dy
1
39.
=
, y(0) = 0
dx
21 - x2
38.
dy
1
=
- 1, y(0) = 1
40.
dx x2 + 1
dy
1
41.
=
, x 7 1; y(2) = p
dx x 2x2 - 1
dy
1
2
=
, y(0) = 2
42.
dx 1 + x2
21 - x2
43.
L
45.
L
2(cos x)-1>2 sin x dx
44.
L
51.
L
ex sec2 ( ex - 7 ) dx
L
ey csc ( ey + 1 ) cot ( ey + 1 ) dy
L
( sec2 x ) etan x dx
52.
53.
2t sin ( 2t 3>2 ) dt
50.
54.
56.
4
2t
57.
dt
2
t
25
L0
(ln x)-3
59.
x dx
L
61.
L
x2
x3 dx
3 dr
63.
L 21 - 4(r - 1)2
65.
dx
2
L 2 + (x - 1)
58.
60.
62.
L
(tan x)-3>2 sec2 x dx
(sec u tan u) 21 + sec u du
L1
L
tan (ln y)
dy
y
L
1 2
r csc (1 + ln r) dr
2ln x
66.
-1
71.
L 2tan - 1y (1 + y2)
101.
2
sec x dx
dx
2
L 1 + (3x + 1)
L1>8
x-1>3 ( 1 - x2>3 ) 3>2 dx
82.
sin2 5r dr
84.
L0
p
L0
p>3
Lp
2
x
dx
6
88.
sec x tan x dx
90.
5(sin x)3>2 cos x dx
92.
L0
L0
p>2
L1
4
L0
L1
e
L1
8
3 sin x cos x
dx
21 + 3 sin2 x
x
1
+ b dx
8 2x
94.
96.
er(3er + 1)-3>2 dr
100.
1
-1>3
dx
x (1 + 7 ln x)
102.
log4 u
du
u
6 dx
2
9
- 4x2
L-3>4
3 dt
2
L-2 4 + 3t
1
109.
+ 2u 21>2
2u
du
dr
3
L0 2
(7 - 5r)2
L0
1>2
L0
p>4
x3(1 + 9x4)-3>2 dx
cos2 a4t -
Lp>4
L0
csc2 x dx
p
tan2
Lp>4
p
b dt
4
u
du
3
csc z cot z dz
L1> 23 y 24y2 - 1
dy
L22>3 0 y 0 29y2 - 1
L0
p>4
L1
8
a
L-ln 2
L0
15 sin4 3x cos 3x dx
sec2 x
dx
(1 + 7 tan x)2>3
8
2
- b dx
3x x2
e2w dw
ln 9
eu(eu - 1)1>2 du
3
(ln (y + 1))2
dy
y + 1
L1
e
8 ln 3 log3 u
104.
du
u
L1
1>5
106.
L-1>5 24 - 25x2
6 dx
3
108.
dy
L-p>2
0
98.
2
107.
11
p>2
e-(x + 1) dx
ln 5
L1
4
x-4>3 dx
3p>4
p>2
2>3
2sin-1 x dx
86.
L-p>3
L-2
L1
27
(8s3 - 12s2 + 5) ds
3p>4
sec2 u du
cot2
a
L0
1
1
80.
3>4
105.
111.
L 21 - x
(tan-1 x)2 dx
72.
2
L 1 + x
70.
99.
103.
2
36 dx
3
L0 (2x + 1)
-1
dx
6 dr
64.
L 24 - (r + 1)2
dx
68.
L (x + 3) 2(x + 3)2 - 25
esin 2x dx
L 2 2x - x2
dy
91.
97.
e
L
L1 t 2t
78.
0
89.
( csc2 x ) ecot x dx
tan x
76.
dt
3p
87.
95.
dx
67.
L (2x - 1) 2(2x - 1)2 - 4
69.
83.
85.
x
4
dy
2
L1 y
1
81.
93.
1
dx
55.
3x
- 4
L-1
L
74.
1
1
+ 2 sec2 (2u - p)b du
L 22u - p
(t + 1)2 - 1
2
2
48.
dt
47.
at - t b at + t b dt
t4
L
L
L
L-1
(3x2 - 4x + 7) dx
2
75.
79.
(2u + 1 + 2 cos (2u + 1)) du
49.
1
73.
4
a
46.
Evaluating Definite Integrals
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 73–112.
77.
Evaluating Indefinite Integrals
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 43–72.
359
110.
112.
dt
2
L23 3 + t
8
24 dy
L422 y 2y2 - 16
- 26> 25
L-2> 25
dy
0 y 0 25y2 - 3
Average Values
113. Find the average value of ƒ(x) = mx + b
a. over 3- 1, 14
b. over 3- k, k4
114. Find the average value of
a. y = 23x over 30, 34
b. y = 2ax over 30, a4
360
Chapter 5: Integrals
115. Let ƒ be a function that is differentiable on 3a, b4 . In Chapter 2
we defined the average rate of change of ƒ over 3a, b4 to be
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
b - a
and the instantaneous rate of change of ƒ at x to be ƒ′(x). In this
chapter we defined the average value of a function. For the new definition of average to be consistent with the old one, we should have
ƒ(b) - ƒ(a)
= average value of ƒ′ on 3a, b4.
b - a
Is this the case? Give reasons for your answer.
116. Is it true that the average value of an integrable function over an
interval of length 2 is half the function’s integral over the interval? Give reasons for your answer.
117. a. Verify that 1 ln x dx = x ln x - x + C.
b. Find the average value of ln x over 31, e4 .
118. Find the average value of ƒ(x) = 1>x on 31, 24 .
Theory and Examples
129. Is it true that every function y = ƒ(x) that is differentiable on
3a, b4 is itself the derivative of some function on 3a, b4 ? Give
reasons for your answer.
130. Suppose that ƒ(x) is an antiderivative of ƒ(x) = 21 + x4.
Express 10 21 + x4 dx in terms of F and give a reason for
your answer.
1
131. Find dy>dx if y = 1x 21 + t 2 dt. Explain the main steps in
your calculation.
1
132. Find dy>dx if y = 1cos x ( 1> ( 1 - t 2 ) ) dt. Explain the main
steps in your calculation.
0
133. A new parking lot To meet the demand for parking, your
town has allocated the area shown here. As the town engineer,
you have been asked by the town council to find out if the lot
can be built for $10,000. The cost to clear the land will be $0.10
a square foot, and the lot will cost $2.00 a square foot to pave.
Can the job be done for $10,000? Use a lower sum estimate to
see. (Answers may vary slightly, depending on the estimate
used.)
T 119. Compute the average value of the temperature function
ƒ(x) = 37 sin a
2p
(x - 101)b + 25
365
for a 365-day year. (See Exercise 98, Section 3.6.) This is one
way to estimate the annual mean air temperature in Fairbanks,
Alaska. The National Weather Service’s official figure, a numerical average of the daily normal mean air temperatures for the
year, is 25.7°F, which is slightly higher than the average value
of ƒ(x).
0 ft
36 ft
54 ft
51 ft
49.5 ft
Vertical spacing = 15 ft
T 120. Specific heat of a gas Specific heat Cy is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one mole (gram molecule) of
a gas with constant volume by 1°C. The specific heat of oxygen
depends on its temperature T and satisfies the formula
64.4 ft
67.5 ft
42 ft
Cy = 8.27 + 10-5 ( 26T - 1.87T 2 ) .
Ignored
Find the average value of Cy for 20° … T … 675°C and the
temperature at which it is attained.
Differentiating Integrals
In Exercises 121–128, find dy>dx.
121. y =
L2
x
22 + cos3 t dt
122. y =
1
123. y =
6
dt
4
Lx 3 + t
127. y =
Lln x2
ecos t dt
L0
sin-1 x
dt
21 - 2t 2
22 + cos3 t dt
2
124. y =
0
125. y =
L2
7x2
126. y =
1
dt
2
Lsec x t + 1
L1
e 2x
ln (t 2 + 1) dt
p>4
128. y =
Ltan-1x
e2t dt
54 ft
134. Skydivers A and B are in a helicopter hovering at 6400 ft. Skydiver A jumps and descends for 4 sec before opening her parachute. The helicopter then climbs to 7000 ft and hovers there.
Forty-five seconds after A leaves the aircraft, B jumps and
descends for 13 sec before opening his parachute. Both skydivers descend at 16 ft > sec with parachutes open. Assume that the
skydivers fall freely (no effective air resistance) before their
parachutes open.
a. At what altitude does A’s parachute open?
b. At what altitude does B’s parachute open?
c. Which skydiver lands first?
Chapter 5 Additional and Advanced Exercises
5
Chapter
Additional and Advanced Exercises
9. Finding a curve Find the equation for the curve in the xy-plane
that passes through the point (1, - 1) if its slope at x is always
3x2 + 2.
Theory and Examples
1. a. If
b. If
L0
1
L0
1
7ƒ(x) dx = 7, does
L0
1
ƒ(x) dx = 1?
10. Shoveling dirt You sling a shovelful of dirt up from the bottom
of a hole with an initial velocity of 32 ft > sec. The dirt must rise
17 ft above the release point to clear the edge of the hole. Is that
enough speed to get the dirt out, or had you better duck?
ƒ(x) dx = 4 and ƒ(x) Ú 0, does
1
2ƒ(x) dx = 24 = 2?
L0
Give reasons for your answers.
2
2. Suppose
L-2
ƒ(x) dx = 4,
L2
5
5
ƒ(x) dx = 3,
L-2
g(x) dx = 2.
Piecewise Continuous Functions
Although we are mainly interested in continuous functions, many
functions in applications are piecewise continuous. A function ƒ(x) is
piecewise continuous on a closed interval I if ƒ has only finitely
many discontinuities in I, the limits
lim ƒ(x)
Which, if any, of the following statements are true?
2
5
(ƒ(x) + g(x)) = 9
L5
L-2
c. ƒ(x) … g(x) on the interval - 2 … x … 5
ƒ(x) dx = -3
a.
b.
3. Initial value problem
1
y = a
Show that
L0
x
ƒ(t) sin a(x - t) dt
solves the initial value problem
d 2y
+ a2y = ƒ(x),
dx2
(Hint: sin (ax - at) = sin ax cos at - cos ax sin at.)
y
1
dt.
x =
2
1
+ 4t 2
L0
Show that d 2y/dx2 is proportional to y and find the constant of
proportionality.
x2
ƒ(t) dt = x cos px
b.
L0
and
1 - x,
ƒ(x) = c x2,
- 1,
(Figure 5.32) over 3- 1, 34 is
3
L-1
0
ƒ(x) dx =
L-1
(1 - x) dx +
3
a2
a
p
+ sin a + cos a.
2
2
2
7. The area of the region in the xy-plane enclosed by the x-axis, the
curve y = ƒ(x), ƒ(x) Ú 0, and the lines x = 1 and x = b is
equal to 2b2 + 1 - 22 for all b 7 1. Find ƒ(x).
2
x
L0
L0 L0
(Hint: Express the integral on the right-hand side as the difference of two integrals. Then show that both sides of the equation
have the same derivative with respect to x.)
ƒ(t) dtb du =
ƒ(u)(x - u) du.
L2
3
(- 1) dx
4
i) ƒ is positive and continuous.
u
x2 dx +
y
t 2 dt = x cos px.
ii) The area under the curve y = ƒ(x) from x = 0 to x = a is
a
L0
2
19
3 8
+ - 1 =
.
2 3
6
6. Find ƒ(p/2) from the following information.
x
-1 … x 6 0
0 … x 6 2
2 … x … 3
3
x3 2
x2 0
d + c d + c -x d
2 -1
3 0
2
= cx -
ƒ(x)
8. Prove that
lim ƒ(x)
xSc +
exist and are finite at every interior point of I, and the appropriate onesided limits exist and are finite at the endpoints of I. All piecewise
continuous functions are integrable. The points of discontinuity subdivide I into open and half-open subintervals on which ƒ is continuous,
and the limit criteria above guarantee that ƒ has a continuous extension to the closure of each subinterval. To integrate a piecewise continuous function, we integrate the individual extensions and add the
results. The integral of
=
5. Find ƒ(4) if
L0
x S c-
dy
= 0 and y = 0 when x = 0.
dx
4. Proportionality Suppose that x and y are related by the equation
a.
361
y=1−x
−1
y = x2
1
0
−1
1
2
3
y = −1
x
FIGURE 5.32 Piecewise continuous
functions like this are integrated piece by
piece.
362
Chapter 5: Integrals
The Fundamental Theorem applies to piecewise continuous funcx
tions with the restriction that (d>dx) 1a ƒ(t) dt is expected to equal ƒ(x)
only at values of x at which ƒ is continuous. There is a similar restriction on Leibniz’s Rule (see Exercises 31–38).
Graph the functions in Exercises 11–16 and integrate them over
their domains.
11. ƒ(x) = e
12. ƒ(x) = e
13. g(t) = e
14. h(z) = e
x2>3,
- 4,
is the limit of the upper sums
Sn =
=
-8 … x 6 0
0 … x … 3
2- x,
x2 - 4,
0 … t 6 1
1 … t … 2
t,
sin pt,
21 - z,
(7z - 6)
-1>3
0 … z 6 1
1 … z … 2
,
-1 … r 6 0
0 … r 6 1
1 … r … 2
0
1
1
2
n
n−1 1
n
x
2
Root sum = 21 + 22 + g + 2n = Sn # n3>2 ≈ n3>2.
3
y
0
1
n
Therefore, when n is large, Sn will be close to 2>3 and we will have
17. Find the average value of the function graphed in the accompanying figure.
x
2
18. Find the average value of the function graphed in the accompanying figure.
The following table shows how good the approximation can be.
n
Root sum
(2 , 3)n3,2
Relative error
10
50
100
1000
22.468
239.04
671.46
21,097
21.082
235.70
666.67
21,082
1.386>22.468 ≈ 6,
1.4%
0.7%
0.07%
23. Evaluate
lim
y
n Sq
15 + 25 + 35 + g + n5
n6
by showing that the limit is
1
0
1
2
b
dx
L0 21 - x2
3
1
20. lim x
x Sq
1
x5 dx
and evaluating the integral.
24. See Exercise 23. Evaluate
L0
x
tan-1 t dt
1
1
1
+
+
+
b
n + 1 n + 2 g 2n
1
22. lim n 1 e1>n + e2>n + g + e(n - 1)>n + en>n 2
n Sq
Approximating Finite Sums with Integrals
In many applications of calculus, integrals are used to approximate
finite sums—the reverse of the usual procedure of using finite sums to
approximate integrals.
For example, let’s estimate the sum of the square roots of the
first n positive integers, 21 + 22 + g + 2n. The integral
1
L0
x
Limits
Find the limits in Exercises 19–22.
n Sq
.
y = "x
r,
16. h(r) = c 1 - r 2,
1,
21. lim a
n3>2
-4 … x 6 0
0 … x … 3
-2 … x 6 - 1
-1 … x 6 1
1 … x … 2
bS1
21 + 22 + g + 2n
y
1,
15. ƒ(x) = c 1 - x2,
2,
19. lim-
n#1
1#1
2#1
+
+ g+
An n
An n
An n
1
2
2
2x dx = x3>2 d =
3
3
L0
0
lim
n Sq
1 3
( 1 + 23 + 33 + g + n3 ) .
n4
25. Let ƒ(x) be a continuous function. Express
n
1
1
2
lim n c ƒ a n b + ƒ a n b + g + ƒ a n b d
n Sq
as a definite integral.
26. Use the result of Exercise 25 to evaluate
1
a. lim 2 (2 + 4 + 6 + g + 2n),
n Sq n
1
b. lim 16 ( 115 + 215 + 315 + g + n15 ) ,
n Sq n
p
2p
3p
np
1
c. lim n asin n + sin n + sin n + g + sin n b.
n Sq
Chapter 5 Additional and Advanced Exercises
363
What can be said about the following limits?
1 15
( 1 + 215 + 315 + g + n15 )
n17
1
e. lim 15 ( 115 + 215 + 315 + g + n15 )
n Sq n
27. a. Show that the area An of an n-sided regular polygon in a circle
of radius r is
d. lim
n Sq
An =
Leibniz’s Rule
If ƒ is continuous on 3 a, b4 and if u(x) and y(x) are
differentiable functions of x whose values lie in
3 a, b4 , then
y(x)
d
du
dy
- ƒ(u(x)) .
ƒ(t) dt = ƒ(y(x))
dx Lu(x)
dx
dx
2p
nr 2
sin n .
2
b. Find the limit of An as n S q. Is this answer consistent with
what you know about the area of a circle?
To prove the rule, let F be an antiderivative of ƒ on 3a, b4 . Then
y(x)
Lu(x)
28. Let
(n - 1)2
12
22
.
Sn = 3 + 3 + g +
n
n
n3
Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to x gives the
equation we want:
To calculate limn Sq Sn , show that
2
y(x)
2
2
n - 1
2
1 1
Sn = n c a n b + a n b + g + a n b d
d
d
ƒ(t) dt =
3F(y(x)) - F(u(x)) 4
dxLu(x)
dx
dy
du
- F′(u(x))
dx
dx
dy
du
= ƒ(y(x))
- ƒ(u(x)) .
dx
dx
= F′(y(x))
and interpret Sn as an approximating sum of the integral
L0
1
x2 dx.
(Hint: Partition 30, 14 into n intervals of equal length and write
out the approximating sum for inscribed rectangles.)
Defining Functions Using the Fundamental Theorem
29. A function defined by an integral The graph of a function ƒ
consists of a semicircle and two line segments as shown. Let
x
g(x) = 11 ƒ(t) dt.
33. g(y) =
3
37. y =
1
−1
−1
sin x
x
31. ƒ(x) =
35. y =
y = f(x)
1
3
x
a. Find g(1).
b. Find g(3).
c. Find g(- 1).
d. Find all values of x on the open interval (- 3, 4) at which g has
a relative maximum.
e. Write an equation for the line tangent to the graph of g at x = -1.
f. Find the x-coordinate of each point of inflection of the graph
of g on the open interval (- 3, 4).
g. Find the range of g.
30. A differential equation Show that both of the following condip
tions are satisfied by y = sin x + 1x cos 2t dt + 1:
i) y″ = -sin x + 2 sin 2x
ii) y = 1 and y′ = - 2 when x = p.
Leibniz’s Rule In applications, we sometimes encounter functions
defined by integrals that have variable upper limits of integration and
variable lower limits of integration at the same time. We can find the
derivative of such an integral by a formula called Leibniz’s Rule.
Chain Rule
Use Leibniz’s Rule to find the derivatives of the functions in
Exercises 31–38.
1
dt
L1>x t
22y
L2y
32. ƒ(x) =
Lx2>2
L0
1
dt
2
Lcos x 1 - t
y2
2
34. g(y) =
sin t dt
et
dt
L2y t
3
x2
y
−3
ƒ(t) dt = F(y(x)) - F(u(x)).
36. y =
ln 2t dt
2x
L2x
ln t dt
e2x
ln x
t
38. y =
sin e dt
Le42x
ln t dt
Theory and Examples
39. Use Leibniz’s Rule to find the value of x that maximizes the value
of the integral
Lx
x+3
t(5 - t) dt.
x
40. For what x 7 0 does x(x ) = (xx)x? Give reasons for your answer.
41. Find the areas between the curves y = 2(log2 x)>x and y =
2(log4 x)>x and the x-axis from x = 1 to x = e. What is the ratio
of the larger area to the smaller?
42. a. Find df > dx if
ƒ(x) =
L1
ex
2 ln t
t dt.
b. Find ƒ(0).
c. What can you conclude about the graph of ƒ? Give reasons for
your answer.
x
43. Find ƒ′(2) if ƒ(x) = eg(x) and g(x) =
t
dt.
1
+
t4
L2
364
Chapter 5: Integrals
44. Use the accompanying figure to show that
L0
b. y
y = 1x
1
p>2
sin x dx =
p
sin-1 x dx.
2
L0
y
p
2
0
y = sin−1 x
1
p
2
1
x
46. Bound on an integral Let ƒ be a continuously differentiable
b
function on 3a, b4 satisfying 1a ƒ(x) dx = 0.
a. If c = (a + b)>2, show that
La
45. Napier’s inequality
Here are two pictorial proofs that
ln b - ln a
1
1
b 7 a 7 0 1
6
6 a.
b
b - a
Explain what is going on in each case.
a.
y
y = ln x
0
a
b
b
xƒ(x) dx =
c
La
(x - c)ƒ(x) dx +
Lc
b
(x - c)ƒ(x) dx.
b. Let t = 0 x - c 0 and / = (b - a)>2. Show that
La
L3
L2
x
b
(Source: Roger B. Nelson, College Mathematics Journal, Vol. 24,
No. 2, March 1993, p. 165.)
y = sin x
0
a
b
xƒ(x) dx =
L0
/
t(ƒ(c + t) - ƒ(c - t)) dt.
c. Apply the Mean Value Theorem from Section 4.2 to part (b)
to prove that
x
L1
2
La
b
xƒ(x) dx 2 …
(b - a)3
M,
12
where M is the absolute maximum of ƒ′ on 3a, b4 .
Chapter
5
Technology Application Projects
Mathematica/Maple Modules:
Using Riemann Sums to Estimate Areas, Volumes, and Lengths of Curves
Visualize and approximate areas and volumes in Part I.
Riemann Sums, Definite Integrals, and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Parts I, II, and III develop Riemann sums and definite integrals. Part IV continues the development of the Riemann sum and definite integral using
the Fundamental Theorem to solve problems previously investigated.
Rain Catchers, Elevators, and Rockets
Part I illustrates that the area under a curve is the same as the area of an appropriate rectangle for examples taken from the chapter. You will
compute the amount of water accumulating in basins of different shapes as the basin is filled and drained.
Motion Along a Straight Line, Part II
You will observe the shape of a graph through dramatic animated visualizations of the derivative relations among position, velocity, and acceleration. Figures in the text can be animated using this software.
Bending of Beams
Study bent shapes of beams, determine their maximum deflections, concavity, and inflection points, and interpret the results in terms of a beam’s
compression and tension.
6
Applications of Definite
Integrals
OVERVIEW In Chapter 5 we saw that a continuous function over a closed interval has a
definite integral, which is the limit of any Riemann sum for the function. We proved that
we could evaluate definite integrals using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. We also
found that the area under a curve and the area between two curves could be defined and
computed as definite integrals.
In this chapter we extend the applications of definite integrals to defining and finding
volumes, lengths of plane curves, and areas of surfaces of revolution. We also use integrals
to solve physical problems involving the work done by a force, and to find the location of
an object’s center of mass. Each application comes from a process leading to an approximation by a Riemann sum, and then taking a limit to obtain an appropriate definite integral.
These applications are important to mathematics, science, and engineering. We also use
integrals to compute probabilities and their applications to the life sciences in Chapter 8.
6.1 Volumes Using Cross-Sections
y
Px
Cross-section S(x)
with area A(x)
S
In this section we define volumes of solids using the areas of their cross-sections. A crosssection of a solid S is the plane region formed by intersecting S with a plane (Figure 6.1). We
present three different methods for obtaining the cross-sections appropriate to finding the
volume of a particular solid: the method of slicing, the disk method, and the washer method.
Suppose we want to find the volume of a solid S like the one in Figure 6.1. We begin
by extending the definition of a cylinder from classical geometry to cylindrical solids with
arbitrary bases (Figure 6.2). If the cylindrical solid has a known base area A and height h,
then the volume of the cylindrical solid is
Volume = area * height = A # h.
0
a
x
b
x
FIGURE 6.1 A cross-section S(x) of
the solid S formed by intersecting S with
a plane Px perpendicular to the x-axis
through the point x in the interval 3a, b4.
This equation forms the basis for defining the volumes of many solids that are not cylinders, like the one in Figure 6.1. If the cross-section of the solid S at each point x in the
interval 3 a, b4 is a region S(x) of area A(x), and A is a continuous function of x, we can
A = base area
Plane region whose
area we know
h = height
Cylindrical solid based on region
Volume = base area × height = Ah
FIGURE 6.2 The volume of a cylindrical solid is always defined
to be its base area times its height.
365
366
Chapter 6: Applications of Definite Integrals
define and calculate the volume of the solid S as the definite integral of A(x). We now
show how this integral is obtained by the method of slicing.
y
Slicing by Parallel Planes
S
0
We partition 3 a, b4 into subintervals of width (length) ∆xk and slice the solid, as we
would a loaf of bread, by planes perpendicular to the x-axis at the partition points
a = x0 6 x1 6 g 6 xn = b. The planes Pxk , perpendicular to the x-axis at the partition
points, slice S into thin “slabs” (like thin slices of a loaf of bread). A typical slab is shown in
Figure 6.3. We approximate the slab between the plane at xk - 1 and the plane at xk by a cylindrical solid with base area A(xk) and height ∆xk = xk - xk - 1 (Figure 6.4). The volume Vk of this
cylindrical solid is A(xk) # ∆xk , which is approximately the same volume as that of the slab:
a
xk−1
xk
b
FIGURE 6.3
solid S.
x
Volume of the k th slab ≈ Vk = A(xk) ∆xk .
A typical thin slab in the
The volume V of the entire solid S is therefore approximated by the sum of these cylindrical volumes,
V ≈ a Vk = a A(xk) ∆xk.
y
Plane at xk−1
Approximating
cylinder based
on S(xk) has height
Δ xk = xk − xk−1
n
n
k=1
k=1
This is a Riemann sum for the function A(x) on 3 a, b4 . We expect the approximations
from these sums to improve as the norm of the partition of 3 a, b4 goes to zero. Taking a
partition of 3 a, b4 into n subintervals with 7 P 7 S 0 gives
n S q ka
=1
n
lim
A(xk) ∆xk =
La
b
A(x) dx.
So we define the limiting definite integral of the Riemann sum to be the volume of the solid S.
0
xk−1
Plane at xk
xk
The cylinder’s base
is the region S(xk)
with area A(xk)
x
NOT TO SCALE
FIGURE 6.4 The solid thin slab in
Figure 6.3 is shown enlarged here. It is
approximated by the cylindrical solid with
base S(xk) having area A(xk) and height
∆xk = xk - xk - 1.
DEFINITION The volume of a solid of integrable cross-sectional area A(x) from
x = a to x = b is the integral of A from a to b,
V =
La
b
A(x) dx.
This definition applies whenever A(x) is integrable, and in particular when it is continuous. To apply the definition to calculate the volume of a solid using cross-sections
perpendicular to the x-axis, take the following steps:
Calculating the Volume of a Solid
1. Sketch the solid and a typical cross-section.
2. Find a formula for A(x), the area of a typical cross-section.
3. Find the limits of integration.
4. Integrate A(x) to find the volume.
EXAMPLE 1
A pyramid 3 m high has a square base that is 3 m on a side. The crosssection of the pyramid perpendicular to the altitude x m down from the vertex is a square
x m on a side. Find the volume of the pyramid.
Solution
1. A sketch. We draw the pyramid with its altitude along the x-axis and its vertex at the
origin and include a typical cross-section (Figure 6.5).
6.1 Volumes Using Cross-Sections
2.
y
367
A formula for A(x). The cross-section at x is a square x meters on a side, so its area is
A(x) = x2.
Typical cross-section
3.
4.
x
0
The limits of integration. The squares lie on the planes from x = 0 to x = 3.
Integrate to find the volume:
3
x
V =
x
3
x (m)
3
FIGURE 6.5 The cross-sections of the
pyramid in Example 1 are squares.
2"9 − x2
x
x
0
−3
3
A(x) dx =
L0
3
x2 dx =
x3 3
d = 9 m3.
3 0
EXAMPLE 2
A curved wedge is cut from a circular cylinder of radius 3 by two
planes. One plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The second plane crosses the
first plane at a 45° angle at the center of the cylinder. Find the volume of the wedge.
Solution We draw the wedge and sketch a typical cross-section perpendicular to the
x-axis (Figure 6.6). The base of the wedge in the figure is the semicircle with x Ú 0 that
is cut from the circle x2 + y2 = 9 by the 45° plane when it intersects the y-axis.
For any x in the interval 3 0, 34 , the y-values in this semicircular base vary from
y = - 29 - x2 to y = 29 - x2. When we slice through the wedge by a plane perpendicular to the x-axis, we obtain a cross-section at x which is a rectangle of height x whose
width extends across the semicircular base. The area of this cross-section is
A(x) = (height)(width) = (x)1 2 29 - x2 2
y
45°
x
L0
3
= 2x 29 - x2 .
The rectangles run from x = 0 to x = 3, so we have
V =
La
b
A(x) dx =
L0
3
2x 29 - x2 dx
3
2
= - (9 - x2)3>2 d
3
0
ax, −"9 − x2b
FIGURE 6.6 The wedge of Example 2,
sliced perpendicular to the x-axis. The
cross-sections are rectangles.
= 0 +
Let u = 9 - x2,
du = - 2x dx , integrate,
and substitute back.
2 3>2
(9)
3
= 18.
EXAMPLE 3
Cavalieri’s principle says that solids with equal altitudes and identical
cross-sectional areas at each height have the same volume (Figure 6.7). This follows
immediately from the definition of volume, because the cross-sectional area function A(x)
and the interval 3 a, b4 are the same for both solids.
b
Same volume
HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Bonaventura Cavalieri
(1598–1647)
a
Same cross-section
area at every level
FIGURE 6.7 Cavalieri’s principle: These solids have the
same volume, which can be illustrated with stacks of coins.
368
Chapter 6: Applications of Definite Integrals
Solids of Revolution: The Disk Method
y
The solid generated by rotating (or revolving) a plane region about an axis in its plane is
called a solid of revolution. To find the volume of a solid like the one shown in Figure 6.8,
we need only observe that the cross-sectional area A(x) is the area of a disk of radius R(x),
the distance of the planar region’s boundary from the axis of revolution. The area is then
y = "x
R(x) = "x
0
A(x) = p(radius)2 = p3 R(x) 4 2.
x
4
x
(a)
So the definition of volume in this case gives
y
Volume by Disks for Rotation About the x-axis
y = "x
R(x) = "x
V =
0
La
b
A(x) dx =
La
b
p3 R(x) 4 2 dx.
x
4
x
This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is often called the disk
method because a cross-section is a circular disk of radius R(x).
Disk
EXAMPLE 4
(b)
FIGURE 6.8 The region (a) and solid of
revolution (b) in Example 4.
The region between the curve y = 2x, 0 … x … 4, and the x-axis is
revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find its volume.
Solution We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the generated solid
(Figure 6.8). The volume is
V =
=
La
b
L0
4
p3 R(x) 4 2 dx
Radius R(x) = 2x for
rotation around x-axis.
p 3 2x 4 dx
2
4
EXAMPLE 5
(4)2
x2 4
= p
x dx = p d = p
= 8p.
2 0
2
L0
The circle
x 2 + y 2 = a2
is rotated about the x-axis to generate a sphere. Find its volume.
Solution We imagine the sphere cut into thin slices by planes perpendicular to the x-axis
(Figure 6.9). The cross-sectional area at a typical point x between -a and a is
A(x) = py2 = p(a2 - x2).
R(x) = 2a2 - x2 for
rotation around x-axis.
Therefore, the volume is
a
V =
L-a
a
A(x) dx =
L-a
p(a2 - x2) dx = pc a2x -
x3 a
4
d = pa3.
3 -a 3
The axis of revolution in the next example is not the x-axis, but the rule for calculating
the volume is the same: Integrate p(radius)2 between appropriate limits.
EXAMPLE 6
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded
by y = 2x and the lines y = 1, x = 4 about the line y = 1.
369
6.1 Volumes Using Cross-Sections
y
(x, y)
x 2 + y2 = a2
A(x) = p(a2 − x2)
x 2 + y2 = a2
−a
x
x
a
x
Δx
FIGURE 6.9 The sphere generated by rotating the
circle x2 + y2 = a2 about the x-axis. The radius is
R(x) = y = 2a2 - x2 (Example 5).
Solution We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the generated solid
(Figure 6.10). The volume is
V =
=
L1
4
L1
4
p3 R(x) 4 2 dx
= p
L1
= pc
Radius R(x) = 2x - 1
for rotation around y = 1.
p 3 2x - 1 4 dx
4
3x
2
- 2 2x + 1 4 dx
Expand integrand.
4
7p
x2
2
.
- 2 # x3>2 + x d =
3
2
6
1
Integrate.
y
R(x) = " x − 1
(x, " x)
y
y = "x
R(x) = " x − 1
y=1
1
0
y = "x
1
0
1
x
4
(x, 1)
1
y=1
x
x
4
x
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 6.10 The region (a) and solid of revolution (b) in Example 6.
To find the volume of a solid generated by revolving a region between the y-axis and a
curve x = R(y), c … y … d, about the y-axis, we use the same method with x replaced by y.
In this case, the area of the circular cross-section is
A(y) = p3 radius 4 2 = p3 R(y)4 2,
and the definition of volume gives
370
Chapter 6: Applications of Definite Integrals
Volume by Disks for Rotation About the y-axis
V =
Lc
d
A(y) dy =
Lc
d
p3 R(y) 4 2 dy.
y
EXAMPLE 7
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between
the y-axis and the curve x = 2>y, 1 … y … 4, about the y-axis.
4
Solution We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the generated solid
(Figure 6.11). The volume is
x = 2y
y
V =
1
R(y) = 2y
0
2
=
x
L1
4
L1
4
p3 R(y) 4 2 dy
2
Radius R(y) = y for
rotation around y-axis.
2 2
pa y b dy
4
4
3
4
1
= p
dy
=
4pc
d
y = 4pc 4 d = 3p.
2
L1 y
1
(a)
y
4
EXAMPLE 8
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between
the parabola x = y2 + 1 and the line x = 3 about the line x = 3.
x = 2y
Solution We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the generated solid
(Figure 6.12). Note that the cross-sections are perpendicular to the line x = 3 and have
y-coordinates from y = - 22 to y = 22. The volume is
2
ay , yb
y
1
V =
0
2
R(y) = 2y
=
x
(b)
22
L- 22
22
L- 22
y = { 22 when x = 3
p3 R(y) 4 2 dy
Radius R(y) = 3 - (y2 + 1)
for rotation around axis x = 3.
p3 2 - y2 4 2 dy
22
= p
3 4 - 4y2 + y4 4 dy
L- 22
FIGURE 6.11 The region (a) and part
of the solid of revolution (b) in Example 7.
= pc 4y =
y
R(y) = 3 − (y2 + 1)
= 2 − y2
−"2
y
1
3
x = y2 + 1
(a)
R(y) = 2 − y2
"2
y
5
(3, −"2)
Integrate.
x=3
(3, "2)
"2
y
0
64p 22
.
15
5
4 3 y 22
y + d
3
5 - 22
Expand integrand.
x
0
−"2
1
3
x = y2 + 1
(b)
FIGURE 6.12 The region (a) and solid of revolution (b) in Example 8.
5
x
371
6.1 Volumes Using Cross-Sections
y
y
(x, R(x))
y
(x, r(x))
0
0
y = R(x)
0
a
x
x
y = r(x)
x
b
x
x
x
Washer
FIGURE 6.13
b
1a A(x)
The cross-sections of the solid of revolution generated here are washers, not disks, so the integral
dx leads to a slightly different formula.
Solids of Revolution: The Washer Method
If the region we revolve to generate a solid does not border on or cross the axis of revolution, the solid has a hole in it (Figure 6.13). The cross-sections perpendicular to the axis of
revolution are washers (the purplish circular surface in Figure 6.13) instead of disks. The
dimensions of a typical washer are
y
Outer radius:
Inner radius:
(−2, 5)
R(x) = −x + 3
y = −x + 3
r(x) = x2 + 1
−2
Interval of
integration
The washer’s area is
A(x) = p3 R(x)4 2 - p3 r(x)4 2 = p(3 R(x) 4 2 - 3 r(x)4 2).
(1, 2)
y = x2 + 1
x 0
1
R(x)
r(x)
Consequently, the definition of volume in this case gives
x
Volume by Washers for Rotation About the x-axis
(a)
V =
y
La
b
A(x) dx =
La
b
p ( 3 R(x) 4 2 - 3 r(x) 4 2 ) dx.
(−2, 5)
R(x) = −x + 3
(1, 2)
r(x) = x 2 + 1
x
x
Washer cross-section
Outer radius: R(x) = −x + 3
Inner radius: r(x) = x 2 + 1
(b)
FIGURE 6.14 (a) The region in
Example 9 spanned by a line segment
perpendicular to the axis of revolution.
(b) When the region is revolved about
the x-axis, the line segment generates a
washer.
This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is called the washer
method because a thin slab of the solid resembles a circular washer of outer radius R(x)
and inner radius r(x).
EXAMPLE 9
The region bounded by the curve y = x2 + 1 and the line y = -x + 3
is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Solution We use the four steps for calculating the volume of a solid as discussed early in
this section.
1.
2.
Draw the region and sketch a line segment across it perpendicular to the axis of revolution (the red segment in Figure 6.14a).
Find the outer and inner radii of the washer that would be swept out by the line segment if it were revolved about the x-axis along with the region.
These radii are the distances of the ends of the line segment from the axis of revolution (Figure 6.14).
Outer radius:
Inner radius:
R(x) = -x + 3
r(x) = x2 + 1
372
Chapter 6: Applications of Definite Integrals
3.
4.
Find the limits of integration by finding the x-coordinates of the intersection points of
the curve and line in Figure 6.14a.
x2 + 1
x2 + x - 2
(x + 2)(x - 1)
x
Evaluate the volume integral.
V =
La
b
1
y
=
Interval of integration
y
2
p ( 3 R(x) 4 2 - 3 r(x) 4 2 ) dx
y = 2x or
y
x=
2
y = x 2 or
x = "y
2
x
(a)
r(y) =
y
y
2
Rotation around x-axis
Values from Steps 2
and 3
p((-x + 3)2 - (x2 + 1)2) dx
= pc 8x - 3x2 -
y
0
Limits of integration
= p (8 - 6x - x2 - x4) dx
L-2
(2, 4)
r(y) =
-x + 3
0
0
-2, x = 1
1
R(y) = " y
4
L-2
=
=
=
=
Simplify algebraically.
x3 x5 1
117p
- d =
3
5 -2
5
Integrate.
To find the volume of a solid formed by revolving a region about the y-axis, we use
the same procedure as in Example 9, but integrate with respect to y instead of x. In this
situation the line segment sweeping out a typical washer is perpendicular to the y-axis (the
axis of revolution), and the outer and inner radii of the washer are functions of y.
EXAMPLE 10
The region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line y = 2x in the
first quadrant is revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the
solid.
R(y) = " y
4
Solution First we sketch the region and draw a line segment across it perpendicular to
the axis of revolution (the y-axis). See Figure 6.15a.
The radii of the washer swept out by the line segment are R(y) = 2y, r(y) = y>2
(Figure 6.15).
The line and parabola intersect at y = 0 and y = 4, so the limits of integration are
c = 0 and d = 4. We integrate to find the volume:
y
x=
y
2
x = "y
0
2
V =
x
(b)
FIGURE 6.15 (a) The region being
rotated about the y-axis, the washer radii,
and limits of integration in Example 10.
(b) The washer swept out by the line
segment in part (a).
Lc
d
4
=
p ( 3 R(y) 4 2 - 3 r(y) 4 2 ) dy
y 2
pa 3 2y 4 2 - c d b dy
2
L0
4
y2
y2
y3 4 8
= p
ay - b dy = pc d = p.
4
2
12 0 3
L0
Rotation around y-axis
Substitute for radii and
limits of integration.
6.1 Volumes Using Cross-Sections
Exercises
373
6.1
Volumes by Slicing
Find the volumes of the solids in Exercises 1–10.
1. The solid lies between planes perpendicular to the x-axis at x = 0
and x = 4. The cross-sections perpendicular to the axis on the
interval 0 … x … 4 are squares whose diagonals run from the
parabola y = - 2x to the parabola y = 2x.
2. The solid lies between planes perpendicular to the x-axis at
x = -1 and x = 1. The cross-sections perpendicular to the
x-axis are circular disks whose diameters run from the parabola
y = x2 to the parabola y = 2 - x2.
y
2
0
y = x2
y = 2 − x2
x
8. The base of a solid is the region bounded by the graphs of
y = 2x and y = x>2. The cross-sections perpendicular to the
x-axis are
a. isosceles triangles of height 6.
b. semicircles with diameters running across the base of the solid.
9. The solid lies between planes perpendicular to the y-axis at y = 0
and y = 2. The cross-sections perpendicular to the y-axis are circular disks with diameters running from the y-axis to the parabola
x = 25y2.
10. The base of the solid is the disk x2 + y2 … 1. The cross-sections
by planes perpendicular to the y-axis between y = -1 and y = 1
are isosceles right triangles with one leg in the disk.
y
3. The solid lies between planes perpendicular to the x-axis at
x = -1 and x = 1. The cross-sections perpendicular to the
x-axis between these planes are squares whose bases run from the
semicircle y = - 21 - x2 to the semicircle y = 21 - x2.
4. The solid lies between planes perpendicular to the x-axis at
x = - 1 and x = 1. The cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis
between these planes are squares whose diagonals run from the
semicircle y = - 21 - x2 to the semicircle y = 21 - x2.
0
x2 + y2 = 1
1
x
11. Find the volume of the given right tetrahedron. (Hint: Consider
slices perpendicular to one of the labeled edges.)
3
5. The base of a solid is the region between the curve y = 2 2sin x
and the interval 30, p4 on the x-axis. The cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis are
4
y
5
a. equilateral triangles with bases running from the x-axis to the
curve as shown in the accompanying figure.
y
x
y = 2"sin x
12. Find the volume of the given pyramid, which has a square base of
area 9 and height 5.
0
p
x
b. squares with bases running from the x-axis to the curve.
5
6. The solid lies between planes perpendicular to the x-axis at
x = - p>3 and x = p>3. The cross-sections perpendicular to
the x-axis are
a. circular disks with diameters running from the curve
y = tan x to the curve y = sec x.
b. squares whose bases run from the curve y = tan x to the
curve y = sec x.
7. The base of a solid is the region bounded by the graphs of
y = 3x, y = 6, and x = 0. The cross-sections perpendicular to
the x-axis are
y
3
x
3
13. A twisted solid A square of side length s lies in a plane perpendicular to a line L. One vertex of the square lies on L. As this square
moves a distance h along L, the square turns one revolution about L
to generate a corkscrew-like column with square cross-sections.
a. rectangles of height 10.
a. Find the volume of the column.
b. rectangles of perimeter 20.
b. What will the volume be if the square turns twice instead of
once? Give reasons for your answer.
374
Chapter 6: Applications of Definite Integrals
14. Cavalieri’s principle A solid lies between planes perpendicular
to the x-axis at x = 0 and x = 12. The cross-sections by planes
perpendicular to the x-axis are circular disks whose diameters run
from the line y = x>2 to the line y = x as shown in the accompanying figure. Explain why the solid has the same volume as a
right circular cone with base radius 3 and height 12.
30. The region in the first quadrant bounded above by the line y = 2,
below by the curve y = 2 sin x, 0 … x … p>2, and on the left by
the y-axis, about the line y = 2
Find the volumes of the solids generated by revolving the regions
bounded by the lines and curves in Exercises 31–36 about the y-axis.
31. The region enclosed by x = 25y2, x = 0, y = - 1, y = 1
y
32. The region enclosed by x = y3>2, x = 0, y = 2
y=x
33. The region enclosed by x = 22 sin 2y, 0 … y … p>2, x = 0
34. The region enclosed by x = 2cos (py>4), - 2 … y … 0,
x = 0
35. x = 2> 2y + 1, x = 0, y = 0, y = 3
y= x
2
36. x = 22y>( y2 + 1), x = 0, y = 1
0
12
x
Volumes by the Disk Method
In Exercises 15–18, find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the shaded region about the given axis.
15. About the x-axis
37. The x-axis
16. About the y-axis
y
x=
x + 2y = 2
2
17. About the y-axis
x
3
0
x
y=1
x = tan y
−p
2
0
p
2
x
0
1
x
Find the volumes of the solids generated by revolving the regions
bounded by the lines and curves in Exercises 39–44 about the x-axis.
y
1
2
p
4
3y
2
18. About the x-axis
y
y
y = " cos x
2
0
38. The y-axis
y
y
1
1
Volumes by the Washer Method
Find the volumes of the solids generated by revolving the shaded
regions in Exercises 37 and 38 about the indicated axes.
y = sin x cos x
39. y = x, y = 1, x = 0
x = tan Qp yR
4
40. y = 2 2x, y = 2, x = 0
41. y = x2 + 1, y = x + 3
0
x
0
p
2
x
Find the volumes of the solids generated by revolving the regions
bounded by the lines and curves in Exercises 19–28 about the x-axis.
19. y = x2, y = 0, x = 2
20. y = x3, y = 0, x = 2
21. y = 29 - x2, y = 0
22. y = x - x2, y = 0
23. y = 2cos x, 0 … x … p>2, y = 0, x = 0
24. y = sec x, y = 0, x = - p>4, x = p>4
25. y = e-x, y = 0, x = 0,
x = 1
26. The region between the curve y = 2cot x and the x-axis from
x = p>6 to x = p>2
42. y = 4 - x2, y = 2 - x
43. y = sec x, y = 22, - p>4 … x … p>4
44. y = sec x, y = tan x, x = 0, x = 1
In Exercises 45–48, find the volume of the solid generated by revolving each region about the y-axis.
45. The region enclosed by the triangle with vertices (1, 0), (2, 1),
and (1, 1)
46. The region enclosed by the triangle with vertices (0, 1), (1, 0),
and (1, 1)
47. The region in the first quadrant bounded above by the parabola
y = x2, below by the x-axis, and on the right by the line x = 2
27. The region between the curve y = 1> 1 2 2x 2 and the x-axis from
x = 1>4 to x = 4
28. y = ex - 1, y = 0, x = 1, x = 3
48. The region in the first quadrant bounded on the left by the circle
x2 + y2 = 3, on the right by the line x = 23, and above by the
line y = 23
In Exercises 29 and 30, find the volume of the solid generated by
revolving the region about the given line.
In Exercises 49 and 50, find the volume of the solid generated by
revolving each region about the given axis.
29. The region in the first quadrant bounded above by the line
y = 22, below by the curve y = sec x tan x, and on the left by
the y-axis, about the line y = 22
49. The region in the first quadrant bounded above by the curve
y = x2, below by the x-axis, and on the right by the line x = 1,
about the line x = -1
375
6.1 Volumes Using Cross-Sections
50. The region in the second quadrant bounded above by the curve
y = - x3, below by the x-axis, and on the left by the line x = -1,
about the line x = -2
Volumes of Solids of Revolution
51. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
bounded by y = 2x and the lines y = 2 and x = 0 about
a. the x-axis.
b. the y-axis.
c. the line y = 2.
d. the line x = 4.
52. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the triangular
region bounded by the lines y = 2x, y = 0, and x = 1 about
a. the line x = 1.
60. Designing a plumb bob Having been asked to design a brass
plumb bob that will weigh in the neighborhood of 190 g, you
decide to shape it like the solid of revolution shown here. Find the
plumb bob’s volume. If you specify a brass that weighs 8.5 g>cm3,
how much will the plumb bob weigh (to the nearest gram)?
y (cm)
y = x "36 − x2
12
0
6
b. the line x = 2.
x (cm)
53. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line y = 1 about
a. the line y = 1.
b. the line y = 2.
c. the line y = - 1.
54. By integration, find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the triangular region with vertices (0, 0), (b, 0), (0, h) about
a. the x-axis.
b. the y-axis.
Theory and Applications
55. The volume of a torus The disk x2 + y2 … a2 is revolved
about the line x = b (b 7 a) to generate a solid shaped like a
doughnut and called a torus. Find its volume. (Hint:
a
2
2
2
1-a 2a - y dy = pa >2, since it is the area of a semicircle of
radius a.)
61. Designing a wok You are designing a wok frying pan that will
be shaped like a spherical bowl with handles. A bit of experimentation at home persuades you that you can get one that holds
about 3 L if you make it 9 cm deep and give the sphere a radius of
16 cm. To be sure, you picture the wok as a solid of revolution, as
shown here, and calculate its volume with an integral. To the
nearest cubic centimeter, what volume do you really get?
(1 L = 1000 cm3)
y (cm)
x2 + y2 = 162 = 256
56. Volume of a bowl A bowl has a shape that can be generated by
revolving the graph of y = x2 >2 between y = 0 and y = 5 about
the y-axis.
0
a. Find the volume of the bowl.
b. Related rates If we fill the bowl with water at a constant
rate of 3 cubic units per second, how fast will the water level
in the bowl be rising when the water is 4 units deep?
57. Volume of a bowl
a. A hemispherical bowl of radius a contains water to a depth h.
Find the volume of water in the bowl.
b. Related rates Water runs into a sunken concrete hemispherical bowl of radius 5 m at the rate of 0.2 m3 >sec. How
fast is the water level in the bowl rising when the water is
4 m deep?
58. Explain how you could estimate the volume of a solid of revolution by measuring the shadow cast on a table parallel to its axis of
revolution by a light shining directly above it.
59. Volume of a hemisphere Derive the formula V = (2>3)pR3
for the volume of a hemisphere of radius R by comparing its
cross-sections with the cross-sections of a solid right circular cylinder of radius R and height R from which a solid right circular
cone of base radius R and height R has been removed, as suggested by the accompanying figure.
x (cm)
−7
9 cm deep
−16
62. Max-min The arch y = sin x, 0 … x … p, is revolved about
the line y = c, 0 … c … 1, to generate the solid in the accompanying figure.
a. Find the value of c that minimizes the volume of the solid.
What is the minimum volume?
b. What value of c in 30, 14 maximizes the volume of the solid?
T c. Graph the solid’s volume as a function of c, first for
0 … c … 1 and then on a larger domain. What happens to
the volume of the solid as c moves away from 30, 14 ? Does
this make sense physically? Give reasons for your answers.
y
y = sin x
"R2 − h2
h
h
R
h
0
y=c
R
p
x
376
Chapter 6: Applications of Definite Integrals
63. Consider the region R bounded by the graphs of y = ƒ(x) 7 0,
x = a 7 0, x = b 7 a, and y = 0 (see accompanying figure).
If the volume of the solid formed by revolving R about the x-axis
is 4p, and the volume of the solid formed by revolving R about
the line y = -1 is 8p, find the area of R.
64. Consider the region R given in Exercise 63. If the volume of the
solid formed by revolving R around the x-axis is 6p, and the volume of the solid formed by revolving R around the line y = -2 is
10p, find the area of R.
y
y = f (x)
R
0
a
b
x
6.2 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells
In Section 6.1 we defined the volume of a solid as the definite integral V = 1a A(x) dx,
where A(x) is an integrable cross-sectional area of the solid from x = a to x = b. The
area A(x) was obtained by slicing through the solid with a plane perpendicular to the
x-axis. However, this method of slicing is sometimes awkward to apply, as we will illustrate in our first example. To overcome this difficulty, we use the same integral definition
for volume, but obtain the area by slicing through the solid in a different way.
b
Slicing with Cylinders
Suppose we slice through the solid using circular cylinders of increasing radii, like cookie
cutters. We slice straight down through the solid so that the axis of each cylinder is parallel
to the y-axis. The vertical axis of each cylinder is the same line, but the radii of the cylinders increase with each slice. In this way the solid is sliced up into thin cylindrical shells
of constant thickness that grow outward from their common axis, like circular tree rings.
Unrolling a cylindrical shell shows that its volume is approximately that of a rectangular
slab with area A(x) and thickness ∆x. This slab interpretation allows us to apply the same
integral definition for volume as before. The following example provides some insight
before we derive the general method.
EXAMPLE 1
The region enclosed by the x-axis and the parabola y = ƒ(x) = 3x - x2
is revolved about the vertical line x = -1 to generate a solid (Figure 6.16). Find the volume of the solid.
Solution Using the washer method from Section 6.1 would be awkward here because
we would need to express the x-values of the left and right sides of the parabola in
Figure 6.16a in terms of y. (These x-values are the inner and outer radii for a typical
washer, requiring us to solve y = 3x - x2 for x, which leads to complicated formulas.)
Instead of rotating a horizontal strip of thickness ∆y, we rotate a vertical strip of thickness ∆x. This rotation produces a cylindrical shell of height yk above a point xk within
the base of the vertical strip and of thickness ∆x. An example of a cylindrical shell is
shown as the orange-shaded region in Figure 6.17. We can think of the cylindrical shell
shown in the figure as approximating a slice of the solid obtained by cutting straight
down through it, parallel to the axis of revolution, all the way around close to the inside
hole. We then cut another cylindrical slice around the enlarged hole, then another, and so
on, obtaining n cylinders. The radii of the cylinders gradually increase, and the heights
of the cylinders follow the contour of the parabola: shorter to taller, then back to shorter
(Figure 6.16a).
377
6.2 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells
y
y
y = 3x −
2
x2
1
−2 −1
0
1
2
x
3
0
3
x
−1
Axis of
revolution
x = −1
Axis of
revolution
x = −1
−2
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 6.16 (a) The graph of the region in Example 1, before revolution.
(b) The solid formed when the region in part (a) is revolved about the
axis of revolution x = -1.
y
yk
−3
0
xk
3
x = −1
FIGURE 6.17 A cylindrical shell of
height yk obtained by rotating a vertical
strip of thickness ∆xk about the line
x = -1. The outer radius of the cylinder
occurs at xk , where the height of the
parabola is yk = 3xk - xk2 (Example 1).
x
Each slice is sitting over a subinterval of the x-axis of length (width) ∆xk . Its radius is
approximately (1 + xk), and its height is approximately 3xk - xk 2. If we unroll the cylinder at xk and flatten it out, it becomes (approximately) a rectangular slab with thickness
∆xk (Figure 6.18). The outer circumference of the kth cylinder is 2p # radius = 2p(1 + xk),
and this is the length of the rolled-out rectangular slab. Its volume is approximated by that
of a rectangular solid, the area of the rectangle times its thickness,
∆Vk = circumference * height * thickness
= 2p(1 + xk) # 1 3xk - xk 2 2 # ∆xk .
Summing together the volumes ∆Vk of the individual cylindrical shells over the interval
3 0, 34 gives the Riemann sum
2
a ∆Vk = a 2p(xk + 1)1 3xk - xk 2 ∆xk .
n
n
k=1
k=1
Δxk
Outer circumference = 2p • radius = 2p(1 + xk)
Radius = 1 + xk
(3xk − xk2)
h = (3xk − xk2)
Δxk = thickness
l = 2p(1 + xk)
FIGURE 6.18 Cutting and unrolling a cylindrical shell gives a
nearly rectangular solid (Example 1).
378
Chapter 6: Applications of Definite Integrals
Taking the limit as the thickness ∆xk S 0 and n S q gives the volume integral
V = lim a 2p(xk + 1)1 3xk - xk2 2 ∆xk
n Sq
n
k=1
=
=
L0
3
L0
3
2p(x + 1)(3x - x2) dx
2p(3x2 + 3x - x3 - x2) dx
3
= 2p
(2x2 + 3x - x3) dx
L0
3
3
45p
2
1
= 2pc x3 + x2 - x4 d =
.
3
2
4
2
0
We now generalize the procedure used in Example 1.
The Shell Method
The volume of a cylindrical shell of
height h with inner radius r and outer
radius R is
R + r
pR2h - pr 2h = 2pa
b(h)(R - r).
2
Suppose the region bounded by the graph of a nonnegative continuous function y = ƒ(x)
and the x-axis over the finite closed interval 3 a, b4 lies to the right of the vertical line
x = L (Figure 6.19a). We assume a Ú L, so the vertical line may touch the region, but
not pass through it. We generate a solid S by rotating this region about the vertical
line L.
Let P be a partition of the interval 3 a, b4 by the points a = x0 6 x1 6 g 6 xn = b,
and let ck be the midpoint of the kth subinterval 3 xk - 1, xk 4 . We approximate the region in
Figure 6.19a with rectangles based on this partition of 3 a, b4 . A typical approximating
rectangle has height ƒ(ck) and width ∆xk = xk - xk - 1. If this rectangle is rotated about the
vertical line x = L, then a shell is swept out, as in Figure 6.19b. A formula from geometry
tells us that the volume of the shell swept out by the rectangle is
∆Vk = 2p * average shell radius * shell height * thickness
= 2p # (ck - L) # ƒ(ck) # ∆xk .
R = xk - L and r = xk - 1 - L
Vertical axis
of revolution
Vertical axis
of revolution
y = f(x)
y = f (x)
Δxk
ck
a
a
x=L
xk−1
ck
(a)
xk
b
x
xk−1
b
Δ xk
(b)
xk
Rectangle
height = f(ck )
x
FIGURE 6.19 When the region shown in (a) is revolved about the vertical line
x = L, a solid is produced which can be sliced into cylindrical shells. A typical
shell is shown in (b).
6.2 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells
379
We approximate the volume of the solid S by summing the volumes of the shells swept out
by the n rectangles based on P:
V ≈ a ∆Vk .
n
k=1
The limit of this Riemann sum as each ∆xk S 0 and n S q gives the volume of the solid
as a definite integral:
V = lim a ∆Vk =
nS q
n
k=1
=
La
b
La
b
2p(shell radius)(shell height) dx
2p(x - L)ƒ(x) dx.
We refer to the variable of integration, here x, as the thickness variable. We use the
first integral, rather than the second containing a formula for the integrand, to emphasize the process of the shell method. This will allow for rotations about a horizontal
line L as well.
Shell Formula for Revolution About a Vertical Line
The volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the x-axis and
the graph of a continuous function y = ƒ(x) Ú 0, L … a … x … b, about a vertical line x = L is
V =
La
b
2pa
shell
shell
ba
b dx.
radius height
EXAMPLE 2
The region bounded by the curve y = 2x, the x-axis, and the line
x = 4 is revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Solution Sketch the region and draw a line segment across it parallel to the axis of revolution (Figure 6.20a). Label the segment’s height (shell height) and distance from the axis
of revolution (shell radius). (We drew the shell in Figure 6.20b, but you need not do that.)
Shell radius
y
y
Shell radius
2
x
y = "x
4
x
Interval of integration
(a)
" x = Shell height
x
2
Shell
height
x
4
x
f(x) = "x
0
y = "x
(4, 2)
Interval of
integration
0
x
–4
(b)
FIGURE 6.20 (a) The region, shell dimensions, and interval of integration in Example 2. (b) The shell
swept out by the vertical segment in part (a) with a width ∆x.
Chapter 6: Applications of Definite Integrals
The shell thickness variable is x, so the limits of integration for the shell formula are
a = 0 and b = 4 (Figure 6.20). The volume is then
V =
=
La
b
L0
4
2pa
shell
shell
ba
b dx
radius height
2p(x)1 2x 2 dx
4
4
128p
2
= 2p
x3>2 dx = 2pc x5>2 d =
.
5
5
L0
0
So far, we have used vertical axes of revolution. For horizontal axes, we replace the
x’s with y’s.
EXAMPLE 3
The region bounded by the curve y = 2x, the x-axis, and the line
x = 4 is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid by the
shell method.
Solution This is the solid whose volume was found by the disk method in Example 4 of
Section 6.1. Now we find its volume by the shell method. First, sketch the region and draw
a line segment across it parallel to the axis of revolution (Figure 6.21a). Label the segment’s length (shell height) and distance from the axis of revolution (shell radius). (We
drew the shell in Figure 6.21b, but you need not do that.)
In this case, the shell thickness variable is y, so the limits of integration for the shell
formula method are a = 0 and b = 2 (along the y-axis in Figure 6.21). The volume of the
solid is
V =
=
La
b
L0
2
2pa
shell
shell
ba
b dy
radius height
2p( y)(4 - y2) dy
2
= 2p (4y - y3) dy
L0
= 2pc 2y2 -
y4 2
d = 8p.
4 0
y
Shell height
2
y
2
Interval of
integration
380
y
4 − y2
(4, 2)
y = "x
4 − y2
Shell height
0
(4, 2)
x = y2
y
4
y
y Shell radius
0
4
(a)
Shell
radius
x
(b)
FIGURE 6.21 (a) The region, shell dimensions, and interval of integration in Example 3.
(b) The shell swept out by the horizontal segment in part (a) with a width ∆y.
x
381
6.2 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells
Summary of the Shell Method
Regardless of the position of the axis of revolution (horizontal or vertical), the
steps for implementing the shell method are these.
1. Draw the region and sketch a line segment across it parallel to the axis of
revolution. Label the segment’s height or length (shell height) and distance
from the axis of revolution (shell radius).
2. Find the limits of integration for the thickness variable.
3. Integrate the product 2p (shell radius) (shell height) with respect to the
thickness variable (x or y) to find the volume.
The shell method gives the same answer as the washer method when both are used to
calculate the volume of a region. We do not prove that result here, but it is illustrated in
Exercises 37 and 38. (Exercise 45 outlines a proof.) Both volume formulas are actually
special cases of a general volume formula we will look at when studying double and triple
integrals in Chapter 15. That general formula also allows for computing volumes of solids
other than those swept out by regions of revolution.
6.2
Exercises
Revolution About the Axes
In Exercises 1–6, use the shell method to find the volumes of the
solids generated by revolving the shaded region about the indicated
axis.
1.
y
2
5
y=
9x
"x 3 + 9
y = "x 2 + 1
y
1
2
y=1+ x
4
2
0
0
x
2
0
3.
2
x
y
y = "2
"3
x = y2
x
0
x
0
7. y = x, y = - x>2, x = 2
8. y = 2x, y = x>2, x = 1
y = "3
9. y = x2, y = 2 - x, x = 0, for x Ú 0
10. y = 2 - x2, y = x2, x = 0
x = 3 − y2
2
"3
3
3
x
Revolution About the y-Axis
Use the shell method to find the volumes of the solids generated by
revolving the regions bounded by the curves and lines in Exercises
7–12 about the y-axis.
4.
y
x = "3
2
y=2− x
4
1
0
6. The y-axis
y
2.
y
"2
5. The y-axis
x
11. y = 2x - 1, y = 2x, x = 0
12. y = 3> 1 2 2x 2, y = 0, x = 1, x = 4
382
Chapter 6: Applications of Definite Integrals
13. Let ƒ(x) = e
26. y = x4, y = 4 - 3x2
(sin x)>x, 0 6 x … p
1,
x = 0
a. The line x = 1
a. Show that xƒ(x) = sin x, 0 … x … p.
b. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the
shaded region about the y-axis in the accompanying figure.
In Exercises 27 and 28, use the shell method to find the volumes of
the solids generated by revolving the shaded regions about the indicated axes.
b. The line y = 1
27. a. The x-axis
y
y=
1
c. The line y = 8>5
sin x , 0 < x ≤ p
x
x=0
1,
0
14. Let g(x) = e
b. The x@axis
p
d. The line y = -2>5
y
x
1
x = 12(y 2 − y 3)
(tan x)2 >x, 0 6 x … p>4
0,
x = 0
a. Show that x g(x) = (tan x)2, 0 … x … p>4.
b. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the
shaded region about the y-axis in the accompanying figure.
y
4
p
0
b. The line y = 2
28. a. The x-axis
p
tan2 x ,
0<x ≤ 4
x
y=
0,
x=0
0
x
p
4
Revolution About the x-Axis
Use the shell method to find the volumes of the solids generated by
revolving the regions bounded by the curves and lines in Exercises
15–22 about the x-axis.
15. x = 2y, x = - y, y = 2
16. x = y2, x = - y, y = 2, y Ú 0
17. x = 2y - y2, x = 0
18. x = 2y - y2, x = y
19. y = 0 x 0 , y = 1
20. y = x, y = 2x, y = 2
21. y = 2x, y = 0, y = x - 2
22. y = 2x, y = 0, y = 2 - x
Revolution About Horizontal and Vertical Lines
In Exercises 23–26, use the shell method to find the volumes of the
solids generated by revolving the regions bounded by the given curves
about the given lines.
23. y = 3x, y = 0, x = 2
a. The y-axis
b. The line x = 4
c. The line x = -1
d. The x@axis
e. The line y = 7
f. The line y = - 2
x
1
c. The line y = 5
d. The line y = - 5>8
y
2
x=
y4
y2
−
4
2
(2, 2)
x=
0
y2
2
1
2
Choosing the Washer Method or Shell Method
For some regions, both the washer and shell methods work well for
the solid generated by revolving the region about the coordinate axes,
but this is not always the case. When a region is revolved about the
y-axis, for example, and washers are used, we must integrate with
respect to y. It may not be possible, however, to express the integrand
in terms of y. In such a case, the shell method allows us to integrate
with respect to x instead. Exercises 29 and 30 provide some insight.
29. Compute the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
bounded by y = x and y = x2 about each coordinate axis using
a. the shell method.
b. the washer method.
30. Compute the volume of the solid generated by revolving the triangular region bounded by the lines 2y = x + 4, y = x, and
x = 0 about
a. the x-axis using the washer method.
24. y = x3, y = 8, x = 0
b. the y-axis using the shell method.
a. The y-axis
b. The line x = 3
c. The line x = -2
d. The x@axis
c. the line x = 4 using the shell method.
f. The line y = - 1
d. the line y = 8 using the washer method.
e. The line y = 8
x
25. y = x + 2, y = x2
a. The line x = 2
b. The line x = - 1
c. The x@axis
d. The line y = 4
In Exercises 31–36, find the volumes of the solids generated by
revolving the regions about the given axes. If you think it would be
better to use washers in any given instance, feel free to do so.
6.2 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells
31. The triangle with vertices (1, 1), (1, 2), and (2, 2) about
a. the x-axis
b. the y-axis
c. the line x = 10>3
d. the line y = 1
32. The region bounded by y = 2x, y = 2, x = 0 about
a. the x-axis
b. the y-axis
c. the line x = 4
d. the line y = 2
33. The region in the first quadrant bounded by the curve x = y - y3
and the y-axis about
b. the line y = 1
a. the x-axis
34. The region in the first quadrant bounded by x = y - y3, x = 1,
and y = 1 about
a. the x-axis
b. the y-axis
c. the line x = 1
d. the line y = 1
35. The region bounded by y = 2x and y = x2 >8 about
a. the x-axis
b. the y-axis
36. The region bounded by y = 2x - x2 and y = x about
b. the line x = 1
a. the y-axis
37. The region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by the
curve y = 1>x1>4, on the left by the line x = 1>16, and below by
the line y = 1 is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid.
Find the volume of the solid by
a. the washer method.
b. the shell method.
38. The region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by the
curve y = 1> 2x, on the left by the line x = 1>4, and below by
the line y = 1 is revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid.
Find the volume of the solid by
a. the washer method.
b. the shell method.
Theory and Examples
39. The region shown here is to be revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Which of the methods (disk, washer, shell) could you
use to find the volume of the solid? How many integrals would be
required in each case? Explain.
y
x = 3y2 − 2
(1, 1)
1
x = y2
0
−2
x
1
40. The region shown here is to be revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid. Which of the methods (disk, washer, shell) could you
use to find the volume of the solid? How many integrals would be
required in each case? Give reasons for your answers.
y
y = x2
1
0
y = −x 4
−1
41. A bead is formed from a sphere of radius 5 by drilling through a
diameter of the sphere with a drill bit of radius 3.
a. Find the volume of the bead.
b. Find the volume of the removed portion of the sphere.
42. A Bundt cake, well known for having a ringed shape, is formed
by revolving around the y-axis the region bounded by the graph
of y = sin (x2 - 1) and the x-axis over the interval 1 … x …
21 + p. Find the volume of the cake.
43. Derive the formula for the volume of a right circular cone of
height h and radius r using an appropriate solid of revolution.
44. Derive the equation for the volume of a sphere of radius r using
the shell method.
45. Equivalence of the washer and shell methods for finding volume Let ƒ be differentiable and increasing on the interval
a … x … b, with a 7 0, and suppose that ƒ has a differentiable
inverse, ƒ -1. Revolve about the y-axis the region bounded by the
graph of ƒ and the lines x = a and y = ƒ(b) to generate a solid.
Then the values of the integrals given by the washer and shell
methods for the volume have identical values:
ƒ(b)
Lƒ(a)
p((ƒ -1(y))2 - a2) dy =
x
La
b
2px(ƒ(b) - ƒ(x)) dx.
To prove this equality, define
ƒ(t)
W(t) =
S(t) =
Lƒ(a)
La
p((ƒ -1(y))2 - a2) dy
t
2px(ƒ(t) - ƒ(x)) dx.
Then show that the functions W and S agree at a point of 3a, b4
and have identical derivatives on 3a, b4 . As you saw in Section
4.8, Exercise 128, this will guarantee W(t) = S(t) for all t in
3a, b4 . In particular, W(b) = S(b). (Source: “Disks and Shells
Revisited” by Walter Carlip, in American Mathematical Monthly,
Feb. 1991, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 154–156.)
46. The region between the curve y = sec-1 x and the x-axis from
x = 1 to x = 2 (shown here) is revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
y
p
3
0
1
383
y = sec−1 x
1
2
x
47. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
2
enclosed by the graphs of y = e - x , y = 0, x = 0, and x = 1
about the y-axis.
48. F