CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.
Coursebook answers
Chapter 1
Science in context:
Lord of the rings
1
2
Jupiter and Saturn are the biggest of the
planets in our solar system and are made of
hydrogen and helium in the gaseous state.
There is a progression outwards from the Sun
in terms of the structure of the planets. Those
nearest the Sun are rocky and relatively small;
beyond Mars the planets are gaseous.
Hydrogen molecules are the smallest of all
the elements and therefore the forces between
them are very small. The gas needs to be
highly compressed (so that the molecules are
close together) and at a very low temperature
(so that the molecules are moving slowly) in
order for it to condense into a liquid.
Questions
1
2
3
1
4
a
freezing
b
boiling
c
condensation
a
methane
b
ethanol and mercury; they have melting
points below room temperature, but
boiling points above room temperature
c
the impurity lowers the freezing point of
the liquid
a
a volatile liquid is one that evaporates
easily; it has a low boiling point
b
ethanol > water > ethanoic acid;
ethanol is the most volatile, ethanoic acid
is the least volatile
c
B; both the melting point and boiling
point are above room temperature;
therefore, it is a solid
a
if heated strongly then the temperature
rises very quickly, the melting and boiling
points are close together, the liquid stage
is not seen as it boils quickly
b
you would need to heat the solid slowly so
that the temperature rise is not too quick;
you could use an electrical heater so you
can control temperature more carefully;
you could use an oil bath to heat the solid
and carefully control the temperature so it
is kept between the melting point (114 °C)
and boiling point (184 °C) of iodine
Experimental skills 1.1
1
Substance B is a pure substance as the curve is
flat while the substance melts. Substance A is
a mixture as there is no single melting point –
that region of the curve is sloped.
2
Take temperature readings at shorter time
intervals (e.g. every 30 s); use of a digital
thermometer would give more accurate
readings / use of a temperature sensor linked
to a computer would enable the readings to be
taken continuously and enable the graph to be
plotted as the readings were being taken. The
samples can be re-heated and cooled again,
allowing duplicate sets of data to be collected.
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Chapter 1 continued
10 In a the liquid levels are the same as there is
air both inside and outside the porous pot
cylinder; in b hydrogen diffuses into the pot
faster than air molecules diffuse out because
hydrogen molecules have less mass than the air
molecules; this produces an increase in pressure
inside the pot and so the liquid level is pushed
down on the left (and up on the right).
Questions
Temperature / °C
5
80
liquid
freezing
0
solid
–20
Time
6
A = solid; B = energy released;
C = energy absorbed
7
A = solid; B = liquid; C = liquid and gas
(vapour); D = gas
Experimental skills 1.2
1
silver iodide
2
silver nitrate + potassium iodide →
silver iodide + potassium nitrate
3
the rates of diffusion of silver and iodide ions
4
because the rates of diffusion of the ions are
not the same – silver ions are less heavy and so
diffuse slightly more quickly
Questions
8
9
2
Exam-style questions
1
6
7
8
9
Evaporation of bromine takes place as
molecules escape from the surface of the
liquid, the gaseous bromine molecules then
spread throughout the gas jar to completely
fill the container, there are collisions with
air molecules, bromine molecules move
from a region of high concentration to
low concentration and so are completely
mixed with the air and at the same
concentration throughout.
a
Methylamine molecules have a greater
mass than ammonia molecules and so
diffuse more slowly; the white smoke ring
will be more central than for ammonia/
hydrogen chloride, slightly to the right of
centre as methylamine diffuses slightly
faster than hydrogen chloride.
b
hydrogen bromide (from hydrobromic acid)
or hydrogen iodide (from hydroiodic acid)
B [1] ; 2 D [1] ; 3 C [1] ; 4 B [1] ; 5 A [1] ;
a Moving slowly [1] ; close to each other [1] ;
b
They vibrate more quickly ;
[1]
c
evaporation ;
[1]
d
changing from liquid to solid ;
[1]
a
evaporation of the liquid [1] ; and
diffusion of the gas particles [1] ;
b
particles moved more slowly [1] ; because
the temperature was lower [1] ;
a
a solid [1] ; is cooling down [1] ;
b
they are moving more slowly [1] ; and
closer together [1] ;
c
heat comes from the formation of bonds
(interactive forces) between the particles [1] ;
a
ammonia, which is alkaline, reached the
indicator first to change its colour [1] ;
because it moved faster [1] ; because it
was lighter [1] ;
b
C 50 s ;
[1]
rate of diffusion is inversely related to the
molecular mass ; heavier molecules, such
as HCl here, diffuse more slowly than
lighter molecules
Answers A and D are too short ; answer
B too long. Simple proportion would
suggest about 73 s, but the rate of
diffusion is inversely related to the square
root of the molecular mass. Ammonia
molecules diffuse 1.46 times as fast as
hydrogen chloride molecules. ;
[1]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 2
Getting started
1
2
‘H’ and ‘O’ are the chemical symbols for
a hydrogen atom and an oxygen atom,
respectively. Water consists of two hydrogen
atoms chemically bonded to one oxygen atom.
When atoms join together like this, they form
a molecule. A molecule must have more than
one atom in it.
You may have heard of protons, neutrons and
electrons; these are subatomic particles, and
they come together to make the many different
types of atom.
Science in context:
Seeing is believing
1
2
The rings are made up of carbon atoms
(not many elements can form rings like
this); carbon is the basis of the molecules
of life because it can form so many
different structures.
There are 19 atoms in all (count all the
corners); arranged in five hexagonal rings.
4
Protons are positively charged and would
therefore repel each other / the presence of the
neutrons counteracts this repulsion and means
that the nucleus can hold together.
5
B
6
21 protons and neutrons; protons and
neutrons are both nucleons
7
Chlorine-37 has two more neutrons in
the nucleus.
8
A nitrogen atom has 7 protons and 7 electrons
and therefore is electrically neutral. All atoms
are electrically neutral.
Worked example 2.1
1
relative atomic mass of iridium is 192
Ar = (191 × 37.3) + (193 × 62.7) / 100 = 192.3
Answer corrected to three significant figures as
this is the accuracy of the data given.
2
That the proportions of the two isotopes
are 50:50 (1:1) as the relative atomic mass is
exactly midway between the masses of the
two isotopes.
Experimental skills 2.1
1
The metal present is responsible for
determining the colour seen in the flame.
The non-metal present is the same in all cases
and so cannot be responsible for the change.
2
It is a physical change.
3
It will be the salt which gave the bluest colour
flame. The results will depend on which salts
you tested.
Questions
1
proton = 1, neutron = 1, electron = 0
(or 1 / 1840)
2
15 protons, 16 neutrons, 15 electrons
3
An element is a substance that cannot be
broken down into anything simpler by
chemical means.
Atoms are the particles that make up all
substances; they are the smallest particle
of an element that shows the properties
of that element; they can join together to
make molecules.
Each element has its own type of atom – the
atoms of an element all have the same number
of protons and electrons.
3
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Chapter 2 continued
4
Questions
9
a
first shell, maximum 2: second shell,
maximum 8
b
2,8,8,2
c
8 in both cases
10 6 in both cases
11 a
5
a
C has more neutrons in the nucleus ;
it has 8 neutrons compared with
6 in 12C
[3]
b
2,6 ;
[1]
c
i
4;
[1]
ii
4;
[1]
a
It is the outer electrons of an atom that
give rise to its chemical properties.
Same number of electrons in
outer shell ;
[2]
b
(70 × 63) + (30 × 65) / 100 = 63.6 ;
A and C, they have 4 electrons in their
outer shells
b
D, has 8 electrons in its outer shell
c
B, has 7 outer electrons
d
C and D, they have electrons in 3
energy levels
e
14; there are a total of 14 electrons in
the atom, therefore there must be 14
protons in the nucleus as an atom must be
electrically neutral
14
[1 mark for partial working. Answer
alone 2 marks]
[2]
Exam-style questions
1
C;
[1]
2
A;
[1]
3
a
b
the number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom ;
mass number is protons + neutrons
[2]
argon has 2 more neutrons ;
c
[1]
particle
charge
mass
position in
atom
proton
+
1
in the
nucleus
neutron
0
1
in the
nucleus
electron
−
1/1840 orbiting the
nucleus
[5]
4
d
hydrogen ;
[1]
e
they both have full/complete
outer shells ;
[1]
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Chapter 3
c
Science in context:
Exploiting the properties
of graphene
1
2
There are two forms of carbon that have been
known for some time: diamond and graphite.
In more recent times the following forms
of carbon have been discovered: fullerenes
(such as C60 and C70), which are sometimes
referred to as bucky balls. This research was
extended to discover tubular forms referred to
as nanotubes. Most recently, the single-layered
form of carbon known as graphene has been
isolated. Many of these recently discovered
forms show a close relationship to graphite in
terms of their properties.
Graphite is a layered structure, with each layer
being a covalently bonded macromolecule.
These layers are very strong and so are very
resistant to forces applied at right angles to the
layer. However, the layers can slide over each
other so a force applied from the side causes
the layers to slip. The strength of graphite
depends on its orientation.
Mg 2+
2
D
3
C
4
C
5
C
6
a
7
A
8
A
9
C
10 D
Exam-style questions
1
A;
2
a
C;
b
the structure shown is of an ionic
compound ; potassium bromide is the
only ionic compound in the list ;
[2]
a
potassium has lost an electron ;
chlorine has gained an electron ;
3
Li +
[1]
4
2−
Na
Na +
+
Na2O
O
5
[2]
diagram showing one shared pair of
electrons between atoms / 3 pairs
non-bonding electrons on each atom ; [2]
Cl
c
covalent ;
d
KCl high melting point / Cl2 low
melting point (or b.p.) ; OR KCl is a solid
at room temperature and Cl2 a gas
[1]
a
in calcium chloride solution the mobile
ions carry the charge in solution / the
ions are fixed in position in the solid ; [2]
b
by melting it ;
c
ionic bonds are strong electrostatic
forces / intermolecular forces in water
are weak interactions ;
[2]
a
graphite has strong covalent bonds
between the atoms in the layers /
delocalised electrons between the
layers of atoms are free to move ;
LiF
F
b
5
[1]
Cl
–
–
Cl
b
All the atoms of an element contain the same
number of protons (and the same number
of electrons).
MgCl2
Cl
Questions
1
–
[1]
[1]
[2]
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Chapter 3 continued
6
b
graphite has layers which can slide over
each other ;
diamond has a three-dimensional lattice
in which all the atoms are bonded ;
[2]
c
i
ionic solids have oppositely charged
ions that attract each other strongly
but when layers are pushed out of
line the ions repel each other ; in
metals, the metal ions are attracted
to a mobile cloud of electrons and
so the layers of ions can move ;
[2]
ii
the charged particles in an ionic solid
are fixed in position
the electrons in a metal lattice are
free to move ;
[2]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 4
Science in context:
What’s in a name?
1
Lv = livermorium / Fl = flerovium /
Cn = copernicium
3
f
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
a
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
b
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
c
Mg + ZnCl2 → MgCl2 + Zn
4
Fl named after the Flerov Laboratory of
Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia, where
the element was discovered in 1998; (honours
the Russian physicist, Georgy Flyorov)
Solid sodium carbonate reacts with
hydrochloric acid solution to give sodium
chloride solution and carbon dioxide gas.
Water, a liquid, is also produced.
5
a
Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → AgCl(s)
b
Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s)
a
HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) → KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Cm = curium and Mt = meitnerium are the
only two elements named after women.
6
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)
b
176 neutrons
Atoms are only very short-lived and so not
easy to determine the mass number definitively
– may be a number of isotopes.
Study of the chemistry and physics of the
nucleus – structure of the nucleus and
possibility of reaching a zone of more
stable elements.
2HCl(aq) + CuCO3(s) →
CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2H+(aq) + CO32−(s) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Worked examples
4.5 Mass of hydrated magnesium sulfate crystals
= 22.50 − 10.20 = 12.30 g
Mass of dehydrated crystals
= 16.20 − 10.20 = 6.00 g
Worked examples
4.1 a
CH4
b
NCl3
Mass of water combined in crystals
= 12.30 − 6.00 = 6.30 g
4.2 a
MgI2
b
AlBr3
4.6 4.5 g (4.48 rounded to one decimal place)
4.3 a
K3PO4
b
NH4NO3
4.4 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
1
2
Questions
7
Questions
7
2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3
Lv named in recognition of the Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory in the
United States.
Cn named after the Polish
astronomer, Copernicus
2
e
a
iron + oxygen → iron(III) oxide
b
sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid →
sodium sulfate + water
c
sodium + water →
sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
8
a
covalent
b
ionic
c
CH4, NaI, C3H6, ICl3, BrF5, HBr
a
32
b
17
c
98
a
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
d
119
b
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
e
188
c
4Na + O2 → 2Na2O
a
100
d
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
b
6g
9
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Chapter 4 continued
Exam-style questions
1
A;
[1]
2
a
H3PO4 (order of elements not critical) ; [1]
b
magnesium carbonate (s) + phosphoric
acid (aq) → magnesium phosphate (aq) +
carbon dioxide (g) + water (l)
([1] for substances and [1] for
state symbols ;)
c
24 + 12 + (3 × 16) = 84
(partially correct calculation = [1] ;)
[2]
d
Relative formula mass is the sum of the
relative atomic masses of the elements
in a compound. ;
[1]
e
(1.2/6) × 21 = 4.2 g
(partial calculation = [1] ;)
[2]
3
C;
[1]
4
a
C2H4O ;
[1]
b
88 ;
[1]
c
Mg(s) + 2C3H7COOH(aq) →
Mg(C3H7COO)2(aq) + H2(g) ;
(state symbols [1] ; formula of
magnesium butanoate [1] ; balancing [1] ;
correct substances [1] ;)
d
The sum of the relative atomic masses
of the elements in the compound ;
[2]
[1 mark if only the simpler terms,
masses or atomic masses are used.]
e
8
magnesium butanoate (or any ionic
compound) is not made up of molecules
and so cannot have a molecular mass ; [1]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 5
5.3 mol Mg = 4/24 = 0.167 mol
Getting started
mol acid = 5.48/36.5 = 0.15 mol
The balloons will all contain the same number
of characteristic particles (atoms for B and D /
molecules for A and C).
from equation 1 mol Mg reacts with 2 mol acid
therefore 0.167 mol would react with
0.3 mol acid
Balloon B will fall fastest; the constituent particles
of the gas have the heaviest mass.
Science in context:
Chemical accountancy and
atom economy
HCl is the limiting reagent.
5.4 from equation 2 mol Al gives 2 mol aluminium
chloride (1 : 1 ratio)
mol Al = 4.5/27 = 0.167 mol
1
Other costs: energy costs / safety costs in terms
of the physical plant / level of manpower
needed / cost of unwanted by-products
2
Marketing should consider uses for the
by-products and then convincingly ‘sell’
their usefulness
0.167 mol aluminium chloride = 22.29 g
% purity = (17.8/22.29) × 100 = 79.9%
5.5 Percentage by mass of N = 21.2%
5.6 Percentage by mass of water = 62.9%
Questions
Worked example
4
a
5.1 1
5
The mole is that amount of substance that
contains 6.02 × 1023 constituent particles (e.g.
atoms, molecules). It is equal to the relative
formula mass (relative molecular mass) of a
substance in grams.
6
The percentage yield of a product from a
reaction is the proportion of the theoretical
yield that is actually obtained. The percentage
purity of the product of a reaction is a
measure of how contaminated the product is.
2
18 g/mol
0.125 mol
Questions
1
2
a
0.4 mol
b
2.41 × 10 formula units / 2.41 × 10 Na
ions and 2.41 × 1023 OH– ions
23
23
+
molar ratio of Cu : Fe : S is 1 : 1 : 2
empirical formula = CuFeS2
3
a
molar ratio of C : H : O is 1 : 3 : 1
empirical formula = CH3O
b
molar mass of CH3O = 31
so actual formula is C2H6O2
c
HO
H
H
C
C
H
H
OH
b 18.7%
Worked examples
5.7 a
22 g of carbon dioxide = 0.5 mol
volume of gas = 12 dm3
b
number of moles nitrogen = 1.5 mol
mass of nitrogen = 28 × 1.5 = 42 g
5.8 Molar concentration = 0.1 mol/dm3
5.9 a
mol acid used
= (0.2/1000) × 25 = 0.005 (5 × 10−3) mol
Worked examples
b
molar ratio 1 : 2, so mol NaOH = 0.01 mol
5.2 1
c
0.01 mol NaOH in 10 cm3
32 g methane = 2 mol methane
reacting ratio of methane : oxygen is 1 : 2
reacts with 4 mol oxygen = 64 g of oxygen
9
28.2%
concentration of NaOH solution
= (0.01/10) × 1000 = 1 mol/dm3
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Chapter 5 continued
5
Questions
7
8
9
a
0.02 moles
b
2 moles
c
0.07 moles
a
36 000 cm3
b
1440 cm3
c
12 000 cm3
a
2 mol/dm3
b
0.2 mol/dm3
c
1 mol/dm3
d
0.8 g of NaOH = 0.2 moles; 0.2 mol/dm3
a
0.12/24 = 0.005 mol
[1]
b
0.005 mol
[1]
c
1 mol BaCO3 = 137 + 12 + (16 × 3)
= 197 g
[1]
mass of barium carbonate =
0.005 × 197 = 0.985 g
[1]
% purity = (0.985/1.23) × 100 = 80%
[1]
d
e
Exam-style questions
1
D;
2
a
b
c
3
4
[1]
40/12, 53.3/16, 6.7/1 = 3.33 : 3.33 : 6.7
empirical formula = COH2
([1] for each step) ;
[3]
molecular formula
= (COH2) × 2 = C2O2H4 ;
[1]
12/60 = 0.2 mol in 250 cm3 /
concentration = 0.2 × 4 = 0.8 mol/dm3 ; [2]
([1] for units)
[3]
a
potassium carbonate ;
[1]
b
0.005, 0.005, 0.42 g ;
[3]
c
(0.35/0.42) × 100 = 83.3% ;
[2]
a
C3H8
+ 5O2
→ 3CO2 + 4H2O ; [2]
([1] for correct formulae, [1] for balancing)
10
b
volume ratio of propane to carbon
[2]
dioxide is 1 : 3 ; 100 × 3 = 300 cm3 ;
(Wrong answer to part a can be carried
through to gain marks here.)
c
50 cm3 of methane forms 50 cm3 of
carbon dioxide ;
water condenses at room temperature and
pressure so not counted ;
excess of oxygen is 50 cm3 so total
is 100 cm3 ;
[3]
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Chapter 6
3
Getting started
1
Wiring is most often made of copper (due to
high conductivity and flexibility).
2
Wiring is usually covered in plastic coating to
insulate the wires to ensure that the electricity
is conducted to where it is intended to go.
Plastic is used as the insulator as it is generally
flexible which is helpful as it can be easily
manipulated and will not crack.
3
Liquid metals do conduct electricity. Other
liquids that conduct include molten and
aqueous solutions of ionic substances.
Experimental skills 6.1
1
Depends on the equipment available but a
reliable power pack to adjust the voltage
applied is useful / use of an ammeter rather
than a light bulb to detect flow of current.
2
The electrodes would need to be thoroughly
cleaned with sandpaper / washed in propanone
and then dried / weigh the electrodes on as
accurate a balance as is available.
Science in context:
The hydrogen economy
1
2
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
Questions
The reaction is exothermic, generating
electrical energy.
4
The fuel cell is considered to be environmentally
advantageous as the only emissions are
water vapour. However, to be considered
carbon-neutral involves a broader range of
considerations. These include the origins of the
raw materials – particularly the hydrogen and
the energy source used to generate it. There is
‘grey hydrogen’ obtained by steam-reforming
natural gas, or from electrolysis of water where
the electricity is produced by fossil fuel power
stations. ‘Green hydrogen’ is hydrogen from the
electrolysis of water using electricity generated
by solar or wind power.
Questions
1
2
11
When a metal conducts electricity it is the
delocalised electrons present in the structure
that move through the metal to carry the
charge / in aqueous solutions of ionic
compounds it is the ions present that move to
carry the charge.
a
potassium at cathode and chlorine
at anode
b
hydrogen at cathode and chlorine
at anode
5
metal is formed at the cathode and a
non-metal at the anode
6
a
the object to be plated is made
the cathode
b
copper(II) sulfate solution
a
2Br−(l) → Br2(g) + 2e−
b
because the lead ions have
gained electrons
7
8
steam-reforming of methane (natural gas)
electrolysis of water using electricity generated
by solar or wind power
a
i, iii, iv and v conduct electricity.
9
b
iii and v are electrolytes (aqueous
solutions of ionic compounds).
10 2H2(g) → 4H+(aq) + 4e−
a
The ionic solid does not conduct as the
ions present cannot move about (they can
only vibrate at fixed positions).
b
Melt it or dissolve it in water.
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Chapter 6 continued
Exam-style questions
1
C;
[1]
2
A;
[1]
3
a
B;
b
E;
c
F;
d
D;
e
C;
a
i
cathode ;
[1]
ii
electrolyte ;
[1]
4
5
b
arrows pointing (clockwise) away from
negative and towards positive ;
[1]
c
dilute sulfuric acid ;
[1]
d
carbon or platinum ;
[1]
a
i
cathode gains in mass ;
[1]
ii
anode does not change ;
[1]
b
the blue colour would fade to colourless ; [1]
c
4OH− → O2 + 2H2O + 4e−
(correct product [1] ;
balanced equation [1] ;)
d
i
the anode would lose mass [1] ; /
copper anode dissolves to form ions
[1] ; cathode increases in mass [1] ; /
copper deposited on cathode [1] ;
ii
the solution colour would not change
[1] ; / concentration of copper ions in
solution remains the same [1] ;
e
12
[5]
movement of copper ions [1] ; from anode
to cathode [1] ;
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Chapter 7
Science in context: Keeping cool!
1
2
CFCs were very stable compounds and
were not degraded (broken down) until they
reached the upper atmosphere where they
released chlorine free radicals. These radicals
reacted with the ozone layer protecting
the Earth from harmful UV radiation.
‘Holes’ appeared in the upper atmosphere,
particularly over the Earth’s poles. CFCs were
banned by the Montreal Protocol. CFCs are
also greenhouse gases.
Use of refrigerants greatly improved food
storage and preservation and allowed for
the long-distance transportation of foods.
Air-conditioning made the workplace much
more comfortable in regions of intense or
extreme climate.
8
bonds made = (4 × 464) + (1 × 498)
enthalpy of reaction
= bonds broken – bonds made = −210 kJ/mol
reaction is exothermic
9
2
a
physical
b
chemical
c
physical
d
physical
a
exothermic
b
exothermic
c
exothermic
d
endothermic
1
B;
2
a
increase [1] ;
b
physical [1] ;
c
increase [1] ;
d
chemical [1] ;
e
chemical [1] ;
a
effervescence/fizzing/bubbles ;
[1]
b
bubbling stops ;
[1]
c
endothermic [1] ; because the
temperature goes down [1] ;
d
exothermic [1] ; products have less
energy than the reactants [1] ;
a
energy to break bonds = 2253 kJ/mol [1] ;
energy forming bonds = 2346 kJ/mol [1] ;
3
3
A new substance(s) has been formed.
4
an endothermic reaction
For a reaction to take place some bonds in
the reacting substances must first be broken.
Bond breaking is an endothermic process
and therefore there is always a need for some
energy to be supplied by the surroundings to
start off a reaction.
Exam-style questions
Questions
1
bonds broken = (4 × 464) + (2 × 144)
4
difference = 93 kJ/mol [1] ;
correct sign (−) [1] ;
5
Energy / kJ
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq)
ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
[1]
b
+93 kJ/mol ;
[2]
c
[1] for each correct label
(see Figure 7.15) ;
[2]
made activation energy EA lower ;
[1]
d
Progress of reaction
13
6
The energy of the reactants is lower than the
energy of the products / upwards arrow.
7
Bond breaking is endothermic.
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Chapter 8
Science in context:
Studying incredibly fast reactions
b
There will be more surface area of
the solid exposed to the reactant and
therefore more frequent collisions.
1
c
Greater concentration means there are more
reactant molecules present and so there will
be a greater frequency of collision.
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
The photosynthesis reaction maintains
the level of oxygen in the atmosphere and
removes carbon dioxide. The two biochemical
processes of photosynthesis and respiration
maintain the balance between these two gases
that are important for life. Other important
reactions include those involved in the making
of proteins and the copying of DNA.
2
Exam-style questions
1
B;
2
a
The keys factors in industry are achieving
sufficient product in as economic a way as
possible. The reaction processes used must
give a yield at a reasonable rate as time is
an economic cost. The product must also
be achieved in a system that is safe and
environmentally sustainable.
14
a
rate increases
b
rate increases
c
rate increases
3
2
The reactions that would spoil the food are
slowed down at the lower temperature.
3
at the beginning
4
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction but is not itself used up in
the course of the reaction.
5
biological catalyst
6
manganese(IV) oxide
7
changes in temperature and pH
8
The presence of a catalyst decreases the
activation energy of a reaction.
9
a
An increased temperature means that
the particles are moving faster and will
therefore collide more frequently; when
they collide, more particles will have
energy greater than the activation energy
so there will be more collisions that result
in a reaction.
4
because the reaction is complete
(has stopped) ;
b
20/30 = 0.67 [1] ; unit cm3/s [1] ;
c
gas syringe ;
d
any two from:
Questions
1
[1]
a
[1]
[1]
•
increase temperature ;
•
smaller pieces of calcium carbonate ;
•
more concentrated acid ;
the rate of reaction is inversely
proportional to the time for the cross
to disappear ;
[2]
[1]
b
as the temperature increases the cross
is obscured (becomes hidden) in a
shorter time / the reaction rate
increases with temperature so the
cross becomes hidden faster ;
[2]
c
the reaction rate increases with an increase
in temperature because the particles
are moving faster and so collide more
frequently [1] ; / the particles have more
kinetic energy and so more collisions
involve energy greater than the activation
energy [1] ; / more collisions produce
a reaction [1] ;
a
smaller particles have a larger surface area
[1] so there are more collisions [1] ;
b
collisions are more frequent [1] ; and
a higher proportion have sufficient energy
to react [1] ;
c
copper acts as a catalyst [1] ; catalysts are
not consumed by the reaction [1] ;
d
hydrogen is a very light gas [1] ; so
the change in mass is not sufficient to
be detected [1] ;
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 9
Getting started
1
A crop is a plant that is grown on a large scale
in order to sell it.
2
This answer will depend on where learners
live but could include a type of cereal, fruits
or vegetables.
3
Crops need sunlight and water but
also nutrients.
4
A fertiliser contains the nutrients that plants
need. It can be added to soil to improve
plant growth.
5
Increasing the temperature favours the
endothermic process, so the equilibrium
position will move to the right. / The
equilibrium counteracts the external
change in conditions so the endothermic
process absorbs the heat being supplied.
a
Hydrogen is obtained by the steamreforming of methane:
CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)
b
burning sulfur or the roasting of metal
sulfide ores such as zinc sulfide
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
An organic fertiliser is made of a natural
product such as manure. An artificial fertiliser
is manufactured.
Science in context:
Revolutionising food production
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
6
c
the air
a
450 °C / iron catalyst / 20 000 kPa pressure
b
Increased pressure would produce
more ammonia.
1
Iron is a much more readily available metal
and more economically suitable.
c
Increased temperature would yield
less ammonia.
2
Apart from cost, there are environmental
issues involved in mining for the rarer metals
as such mining often involves development in
environmentally sensitive areas.
d
The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are
recirculated so that they can further react
to give more ammonia / so that they react
the second time around (saves producing
more raw materials).
a
to replace nutrients that have been lost
from the soil by plant growth / to increase
crop yield
b
because these are the three elements
needed by plants, which can become used
up in soil
a
nitric acid and ammonia
(ammonium hydroxide)
b
phosphoric acid and ammonia
(ammonium hydroxide)
c
sulfuric acid and ammonia
(ammonium hydroxide)
Questions
1
a
The white powder turns blue.
b
as a test for the presence of water
c
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) → CuSO4.5H2O(s)
2
Test to see that it boils at 100 °C.
3
The reverse reaction to form the anhydrous
salt requires heat (is endothermic); therefore,
the reaction to add water back must give out
heat (exothermic).
4
15
5
b
a
i
There is no effect as there are the
same number of moles of gas on both
sides of the equation.
ii
Increasing pressure will move the
position of the equilibrium to the
right, more NO2
7
8
9
They are washed off fields by rain and end
up in streams and rivers / algal growth /
eutrophication / acidification of soils by
excessive use of nitrates.
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Chapter 9 continued
Exam-style questions
1
reversible reaction ;
b
turns green/blue [1] ; and gets hot [1] ;
c
anhydrous [1] ; cobalt chloride
turns pink [1] ;
[1]
2
B;
[1]
3
C;
[1]
4
a
advantage: increases rate [1] ;
disadvantage: causes decomposition
of ethanol [1] ;
b
makes particles closer together (more
collisions) [1] ; moves equilibrium to the
right (forward) [1] ;
c
to speed it up ;
[1]
d
none ;
[1]
e
ethanol is constantly removed from the
reactor [1] , which draws reaction to the
right (so reverse reaction doesn’t happen)
[1] ;
a
nitrogen from the air [1] ; hydrogen from
methane/water [1] ;
b
A higher temperature would make the
reaction faster [1] ; but would also move
equilibrium position to the left (move
reaction backwards) [1] ;
c
Higher pressure is costly to produce ;
d
The catalyst becomes poisoned / doesn’t
work as efficiently ;
[1]
e
The catalyst is finely divided or pelleted
to increase the surface area so that more
of the reactant gases can attach and
react together. ;
[1]
5
16
a
[1]
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Chapter 10
Getting started
•
Oxygen is the gas in the air that is involved in
burning magnesium and hydrogen popping
when ignited.
•
Reduction is the loss of oxygen.
7
Science in context:
Fuelling the international
space programme
1
2
Redox reactions are usually used to drive
an engine or as an explosive reaction. Very
fast reactions / producing a large amount
of energy / rapid expansion in volume. The
products of an explosive reaction are likely
to be gaseous.
1
A, B and D
2
A and B
3
reduction
4
a
b
6
17
9
N2H4(g) + O2(g) → N2(g) + 2H2O(g)
1
An oxidising agent is a substance that
will oxidise (add oxygen to) another
substance and is itself reduced during
a redox reaction. Examples: oxygen /
hydrogen peroxide / chlorine /
potassium manganate(VII)
A reducing agent is an element or
compound that will reduce (remove
oxygen from) another substance and is
itself oxidised during a redox reaction.
Examples: hydrogen / carbon / carbon
monoxide / a reactive metal
Reduction is the gain of electrons; oxidation
is the loss of electrons. During a redox
reaction the oxidising agent gains electrons;
the oxidising agent is itself reduced during
the reaction.
a
No, even in a reaction such as the burning
of magnesium the magnesium is obviously
oxidised, but the oxygen has been reduced
in that it is no longer the free element.
a
+3
b
+5
c
0
d
+3
e
+6
a
Zn2+ ions
b
Br2
c
MnO4−
b colourless to yellow-brown / c purple
to colourless
Exam-style questions
Questions
5
8
b
The definition involving gain or loss of
oxygen is the more straightforward to
understand; but that based on electrons
includes more reactions, and is more
useful in that sense.
a
C;
[1]
b
B;
[1]
2
B;
3
a
F;
[1]
b
A;
[1]
c
C;
[1]
d
B or F ;
[1]
e
D;
[1]
f
E;
[1]
g
F;
[1]
a
potassium manganate(VII) [1] ;
b
iron(II) sulfate [1] ;
c
Fe3+ [1] ;
d
Chlorine is an oxidising agent and so
oxidises iodide ions to iodine molecules
(electrons have been lost). The chlorine
molecules are reduced to chloride ions
(electrons have been gained). ;
[2]
4
[1]
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Chapter 10 continued
5
18
a
+2 ;
[1]
b
−2 ;
[1]
c
0;
[1]
d
+4 ;
[1]
e
−3 ;
[1]
f
+6 ;
[1]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 11
Science in context:
The significance of language
1
2
Many of these terms come from what
was an impressive age of Islamic science
and mathematics centred around the
Mediterranean (including southern Spain).
Modern terms such as algebra have an Arabic
origin. The period was linked to the practice
of alchemy, which included some truly
experimental science together with the more
mystical aspects and practices.
Strong alkali needs to be removed from soap
as it causes skin burns and can be particularly
dangerous for the eyes. Modern soaps do have
an interestingly wide range of pH. Most are
not actually neutral (pH = 7.0). It is worth
investigating; same are slightly acidic, while
others are mildly alkaline.
6
potassium hydroxide and
ammonium hydroxide
7
a
blue
b
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
c
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
8
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) →
2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l)
9
2
a
A corrosive substance ‘eats’ things away.
b
citric acid
c
ethanoic acid
a
It changes its colour depending on
whether it is in an acidic or alkaline
solution.
b
alkaline
ii
neutral
iii
alkaline
iv
acidic
3
pH 1 is more acidic (1000 times more acidic
than pH 4).
4
a
H2SO4
b
HCl
a
They are equal.
b
hydroxide ion, OH−
c
i
hydrogen ions and nitrate ions
ii
calcium ions and hydroxide ions
iii
ammonium ions and hydroxide ions
5
19
i
zinc hydroxide or aluminium hydroxide
zinc hydroxide + sodium hydroxide →
sodium zincate + water
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) →
Na2ZnO2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Questions
1
An amphoteric oxide is one that will neutralise
both an acid and an alkali to give a salt and
water only.
or aluminium hydroxide + sodium hydroxide
→ sodium aluminate + water
Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq) →
NaAlO2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Experimental skills 11.1
1
You need to consider the effectiveness of the
whole tablet and then the mass of powder
used. You need to work out a value for how
much acid has been neutralised per unit mass
of the tablet.
2
For example:
magnesium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid →
magnesium chloride + water
calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid →
calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water
Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
3
To make the solid more accessible to the acid
and to speed up the reaction.
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Chapter 11 continued
Questions
10 An acid is a proton donor; a base is a
proton acceptor.
11 a
b
12 a
b
i
CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) →
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
ii
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn has lost electrons and H+ ions
have gained electrons; Zn atoms have
been oxidised.
b
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) +
H+(aq) ([1] ; for equation, [1] ; for
reversible arrow) ;
c
Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
([1] ; for compounds, [1] ; for balancing)
d
Amphoteric ;
e
marking points as follows:
•
aluminium hydroxide is insoluble
in water ;
•
aluminium hydroxide dissolves in
sodium hydroxide solution /
it is amphoteric ;
•
the reaction is reversible ;
•
hydrochloric acid makes the reaction
go backwards / equilibrium shifts
to left ;
[Max. 3]
HCl(g) + aq → H (aq) + Cl (aq)
+
−
Hydrochloric acid is fully dissociated into
ions (it is a strong acid); ethanoic acid is a
weak acid (only partially dissociated into
ions); so, there will be more ions present
in the hydrochloric acid solution and the
electrical conductivity will be higher.
[1]
Exam-style questions
1
B;
[1]
2
D;
[1]
3
a
red ;
b
calcium carbonate (s) + hydrochloric acid
(aq) → calcium chloride (aq) + water (l) +
carbon dioxide (g)
([1] ; for compounds, [1] ;
for state symbols. ;)
c
limewater turns milky/cloudy ;
[1]
d
carbon dioxide is an acidic oxide (or
simply acidic) ;
[1]
4
20
[1]
e
metal oxides are basic [1] ; non-metal
oxides are acidic [1] ;
f
test with universal indicator [1] ; note
colour change [1] ; compare with colour
chart to find pH value [1] ;
a
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
([1] ; for substances, [1] ; for state
symbols, allow H2SO4(l) and equations
involving water molecules as long as they
are balanced. ;)
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 12
2
Getting started
•
It is sometimes called table salt because people
add salt to their food. The salt is placed in a
container on the table.
•
Salt is necessary for the regulation of many
bodily functions including maintaining the
body’s overall balance of fluid.
•
1
2
2
3
Salt (sodium chloride) is present in the body
and is soluble in water. Loss of salt produces
muscle cramps. It is replaced by drinking
isotonic drinks (isotonic means the same ion
concentration as in our cells).
5
6
7
a
magnesium chloride
b
calcium nitrate
c
zinc sulfate
a
to make sure all the acid is reacted/used up
b
filtration
c
pipette, burette
d
yellow
e
If heated too strongly, the salt could
dehydrate (lose water of crystallisation) or
even decompose.
a
method B
b
sulfuric acid
c
zinc + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + water
a
Precipitation is the sudden formation of a
solid when two solutions are mixed, or a
gas passed into a solution.
b
A method in which an acid solution and
an alkali are reacted precisely to produce
a salt solution; the salt can be crystallised
from the solution produced.
c
An ionic equation includes just those ions
and molecules that actually take part in
the reaction.
a
sulfuric acid
b
nitric acid
c
carbonic acid
a
sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
b
calcium hydroxide and nitric acid
c
ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) and
sulfuric acid
a
nitric acid
8
A and C / silver iodide and lead(II) chloride
b
potassium sulfate and ammonium nitrate
9
a
sodium sulfate
b
white
c
Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s)
Experimental skills 12.1
1
4
To preserve food / to add flavour (saltiness is
one of the basic human senses) / some cultures
use soy sauce, fish sauce or oyster sauce to
flavour food rather than table salt.
Questions
1
Questions
Salt may be found dissolved in seas and
oceans. Salt can also be found in rocks
(rock salt).
Science in context:
The significance of salt
That the copper oxide was present in
excess / this makes sure that all the acid is
reacted / this is important as the solution is
concentrated by heating after filtration, and
hot, concentrated acid is dangerous.
copper(II) oxide + sulfuric acid → copper(II)
sulfate + water
CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O
21
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Chapter 12 continued
Exam-style questions
1
B;
2
a
sodium chloride or copper sulfate ;
sodium too reactive and so unsafe /
copper does not react with dilute acids [1]
b
sodium chloride ;
[1]
c
barium sulfate ;
[1]
d
potassium carbonate ;
[1]
a
bubbles / effervescence / fizzing ;
[1]
b
to ensure all the sulfuric acid was
reacted / used up ;
[1]
fizzing would stop, or excess
solid remained ;
[1]
3
c
d
filter [1] ; heat to crystallisation
point [1] ; separate/dry crystals [1] ;
4
A;
5
a
lead nitrate [1] ; sodium, potassium or
other soluble chloride [1] ;
b
mix solutions of the substances [1] ;
filter and keep the residue [1] ;
wash the residue [1] ;
dry the residue [1] ;
a
insoluble calcium sulfate [1] ; stops the
acid reaching the carbonate [1] ;
b
use hydrochloric or nitric acid instead ; [1]
c
sodium, potassium, copper
or magnesium ;
6
22
[1]
[1]
[1]
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Chapter 13
Science in context:
The women behind the
Periodic Table
1
Discuss the historic social and religious
attitudes to the role of women in society in
different parts of the world – their role and
access to education; and opportunity to
pursue an independent career.
2
Consider the modern situation in different
cultures and the development of attitudes,
opportunities and perceptions.
1
potassium hydroxide
2
lithium + water → lithium hydroxide +
hydrogen
a
b
chlorine of the ones available in a school lab
(and fluorine)
5
They all have 8 electrons in their outer shell,
except for helium in the first period, which has
the maximum possible of 2.
7
23
Rubidium will react more strongly with
water than potassium.
a
C
b
PH3
sodium, Na
b
silicon, Si
Alkali metals are soft, transition metals
are hard / alkali metals have low density,
transition metals have high density / alkali
metals have just one valency (oxidation
number), transition metals show variable
oxidation number / alkali metal compounds
are white solids, transition metal compounds
are coloured.
10 D
1
D;
[1]
2
B;
[1]
3
a
iodine ;
[1]
b
lithium ;
[1]
c
bromine ;
[1]
d
potassium [1] ; chlorine [1] ;
a
false ;
[1]
b
false ;
[1]
c
true ;
[1]
d
true ;
[1]
e
true ;
[1]
a
they have coloured compounds [1] ;
they act as catalysts [1] ;
they have variable oxidation states [1] ;
b
CrO is ionically bonded [1] ;
CrO3 is covalently bonded [1] ;
c
amphoteric ;
approximately 40 °C (note that the
difference between one element and the
next is getting smaller as we go down
the group)
4
6
9
a
Exam-style questions
Questions
3
8
4
5
The elements move from metallic character in
the first two or three groups to non-metallic
character; the non-metallic elements in the
centre of the period are giant covalent solids,
moving to simple molecular gases on the right
of the period.
[1]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 14
Science in context: Smart alloys
remember that shape!
8
1
9
2
The name is made up of the chemical symbols
of the elements in the alloy: nickel (Ni) and
titanium (Ti), and the initials of the Naval
Ordnance Laboratory (NOL).
They are good conductors of heat and
electricity / flexible without breaking /
corrosion resistant / biocompatible.
2
3
a
24
b
plastic
a
any two from iron, chromium and nickel
b
hardness and corrosion resistance
Exam-style questions
1
C;
[1]
2
D;
[1]
can be beaten into sheets / gives a ringing
sound when hit / conducts heat well /
conducts electricity well
b
is an insulator / has a dull surface
a
graphite
b
sodium and potassium
c
mercury
d
diamond
Metals conduct electricity / metals are
malleable and ductile.
4
The fact that there are mobile, delocalised
electrons in the structure of a metal means
that they conduct electricity. Metallic bonding
means that the layers of metal ions in the
structure can move over each other without
the bonding breaking; therefore they are
malleable and ductile.
4
B
5
copper and silver
6
a
metal + water → metal hydroxide +
hydrogen
b
metal + steam → metal oxide + hydrogen
c
i
Mg + H2O → MgO + H2
ii
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
7
copper
3
Questions
1
a
a
D
b
brass or steel
5
Property
Metals
Non-metals
They conduct
electricity
True
False
They react with
oxygen in the air
True
True
They are brittle
False
True
They can easily be
bent and shaped
True
False
They have high
melting points
True
False
[1 mark for each row correct] ;
[5]
a
Its low density ;
[1]
b
Its resistance to corrosion ;
[1]
c
Because of its low density ;
[1]
d
Copper [1] ; Because it is a
better conductor [1] ;
e
Alloy ; Conductor ; Metal ; Mixture ;
[1 mark for each correct answer]
f
It does not rust/corrode [1] ;
it is an alloy containing chromium
and nickel [1] ;
a
layers of atoms / ions can slide over
each other ;
[4]
[1]
b
the larger atoms prevent layers sliding
over each other. ;
[1]
c
Yes [1] ; Electrons are still free to move
around the metal ions [1] ;
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Chapter 15
Science in context: The search for
longer-lasting battery power
6
1
7
2
Modern batteries depend increasingly on
relatively rare metals such as cobalt. This
means that there is pressure to exploit
mineral deposits in environmentally sensitive
areas, e.g. Alaska. These resources will be
depleted rapidly if batteries continue to be
used disposably.
Graphite rods are used in batteries.
Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)
D
2
a
hydrogen
b
3
1
C;
2
a
bubbles/fizzing/effervescence [1] ; /
magnesium dissolves [1] ;
b
no reaction (accept very
slow bubbles) ;
2
[1]
iron, unknown metal, magnesium,
calcium [2] ; (one out of order [1] ;)
potassium hydroxide
d
zinc ;
c
sodium + water → sodium hydroxide +
hydrogen
e
burning splint [1] ; pops [1] ;
(glowing splint pops = [1]) ;
d
2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
a
aqueous copper sulfate ;
[1]
a
strong and has a low density
b
iron ;
[1]
b
Aluminium is coated with a very thin
oxide layer that protects it from corrosion.
c
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) →
Cu(NO3)2(aq)+ 2Ag(s) ;
c
copper
3
Carry out the experiments in polystyrene
cups to prevent heat loss or lag the boiling
tube with cotton wool / take more frequent
temperature readings to find the maximum
temperature reached more accurately.
d
4
copper becomes coated with silver
coating ; solution changes from
colourless to blue
[2]
e
zinc is more reactive than copper ;
[1]
a
zinc is the reducing agent / it removes
oxygen from CuO ;
[2]
zinc atoms lose electrons to become
Zn2+ ions / Cu2+ ions gain electrons to
become copper atoms ;
[2]
b
c
4
magnesium + copper(II) sulfate → magnesium
sulfate + copper
5
Magnesium becomes coated with a layer of
copper / the colour of the blue solution fades.
[1]
[1 mark for substances, 1 mark for
balancing, 1 mark for state symbol] [3]
The reaction would be exothermic, but the
rise in temperature would not be as great as
that observed when zinc reacts with copper(II)
sulfate solution.
Questions
25
[1]
c
Experimental skills 15.1
1
This question is speculative – look at the first
letters of the metals in order and see if you
can think of a phrase or sentence!
Exam-style questions
Questions
1
Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
magnesium is more reactive than zinc
/ it is more ready to form positive
ions than zinc / so it removes oxygen
from copper(II) oxide more readily
than zinc ;
[2]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 16
Science in context:
Mining the ocean floor
1
2
The metallic nodules are rich in the metals in
demand and it would be relatively easy to extract
the required metals. There are various different
sites in different regions of the ocean floor. The
damage to the ocean floor itself through what is
effectively open-cast mining would be significant,
as would the damage to the habitat of marine
species about which we know relatively little.
The dependence on a single land-based source
is open to political and economic dangers;
and could lead to exploitation of the local
population and create socio-economic tensions.
9
Exam-style questions
1
D;
[1]
2
B;
[1]
3
a
hematite ;
[1]
b
carbon monoxide ;
[1]
c
because of the high temperature in
the furnace ;
[1]
Experimental skills 16.1
1
The formation of red-brown copper metal.
2
2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2
4
Questions
1
carbon monoxide
iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide → iron +
carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
3
silicon(IV) oxide + calcium oxide → calcium
silicate
SiO2 + CaO → CaSiO3
4
26
d
calcium oxide/carbonate [1] ; reacting
with impurities in the ore [1] ;
a
the air ;
[1]
b
it produces the heat needed in
the furnace ; the carbon dioxide is
then reduced in the furnace to give
carbon monoxide
[2]
To combine with the silicon(IV) oxide (sand)
and remove it as slag
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2
Zinc is more effective because if the surface
layer is broken the zinc will still protect the
steel beneath as it is more reactive than iron
(sacrificial protection) / chromium will not
protect if the layer is broken as it is less
reactive than iron.
Because of the high cost of electricity, which
is needed in large quantities / also the carbon
anodes need replacing regularly.
5
The cryolite lowers the melting point of the
electrolyte / because this makes the temperature
needed to melt the aluminium oxide much lower.
6
Because the oxygen produced at the anode
causes the graphite anodes to burn away as
carbon dioxide.
7
water and air (oxygen) / salt water or acid rain
8
painting / greasing / covering with plastic
5
c
from oxygen ions [1] ; discharged at
the anode [1] ;
d
The carbon anode burns away [1] ;
and so has to be replaced [1] ;
e
It reacts with the silica (silicon dioxide)
impurity in the ore [1] ;
forming calcium silicate slag [1] ;
a
galvanisation ;
[1]
b
it is more resistant to damage but
still protects even if the zinc layer is
scratched or broken ;
[1]
c
the zinc or magnesium is more reactive
than iron [1] ; these metals more readily
form positive ions than iron [1] ; so
they are corroded rather than the iron /
sacrificial protection [1] ;
d
Aluminium does not corrode because it
has a natural surface layer of aluminium
oxide. [1] ; This protects the metal by
preventing it coming into contact
with air. [1] ;
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 17
Science in context: The growing
problem of air pollution
1
2
Possible reasons include population density
(the greater the number of people, the higher
the levels of pollution will tend to be),
presence of particular types of industry (living
closer to large factories will generally mean
poorer air quality), impact of events such as
forest/bush fires, government initiatives to
reduce levels of airborne pollution, etc.
Factors that might encourage more
environmentally friendly options include
education (an understanding of the problems
caused to the environment), tax incentives
(reducing the cost of more environmentally
friendly solutions), cost savings (switching
off electrical equipment when not in use is
both good for the environment and saves
money), etc. Factors that might prevent more
environmentally friendly options include cost
(too expensive), habit (used to always using
the car / not walking), inconvenience (easier
to drive on a wet day than walk), lack of
education, etc.
Questions
1
nitrogen 78%, argon 0.9% and oxygen 21%
2
Harmful to life both on land and in the water /
Increased acidity levels in lakes can kill fish
and other aquatic life / Can kill forests (many
plants are extremely sensitive to pH) / Some
building materials will be damaged/corroded.
3
4
27
8
a
methane + oxygen → carbon monoxide +
water
b
2C6H14 + 13O2 → 12CO + 14H2O
Oxides of nitrogen are formed when nitrogen
from the air reacts with oxygen at a high
temperature (e.g. in a car engine). They are
linked to the formation of acid rain and
photochemical smog.
5
2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 + N2
6
Carbon dioxide: product of the combustion
of fossil fuels. Methane: waste product from
livestock (cattle) and landfill sites.
7
Increased use of fossil fuels.
Rising sea levels so increased flooding and
faster rates of coastal erosion / changes to the
life cycles and migratory patterns of animals
and birds / more severe droughts and crop
failure / drying out of grasslands increases
the frequency and severity of wildfires / more
frequent and severe weather patterns.
Strategies include reducing use of fossil fuels
for transportation and electricity generation
(e.g. by using renewable sources of energy
such as wind and solar) / phasing out of diesel
and petrol cars and replacing with electric cars /
remove CO2 from the atmosphere / reduce
meat consumption / better separation of
household waste.
9
Greenhouse gases absorb and re-emit the
longer wavelength radiation reflected from the
Earth’s surface.
10 Cobalt chloride paper: colour change from
blue to pink. Alternatively, anhydrous
copper(II) sulfate: colour change from white
to blue.
11 Measure melting or boiling point. For pure
water, the melting point is 0 °C and the boiling
point 100 °C.
12 When nitrates and phosphates enter
waterways there is rapid growth of algae.
This can block out sunlight and lead to the
death of aquatic plants, which will reduce
levels of oxygen in the water and so also kill
aquatic animals.
13 Useful metals include calcium (supports the
health of teeth and bones) and iron (needed
for the production of haemoglobin in red
blood cells). Problem metals include lead
(which can cause liver and kidney damage)
and mercury (which has been linked to
damage of the nervous system).
14 The majority of current plastics are not
biodegradable and are creating pollution,
especially in waterways. Biodegradable plastics
will break down naturally.
15 Microplastics removed by filtration using a
fine sand filter. Dissolved organic compounds
removed by an activated carbon filter.
Microbes are removed by disinfection
using chlorine.
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Chapter 17 continued
Exam-style questions
1
C;
2
a
78% ;
[1]
b
Any two from argon, carbon dioxide,
other noble gases (neon, krypton
and helium) ;
[2]
i
B;
[1]
ii
A;
[1]
iii
C and D ;
[2]
iv
C;
[1]
c
3
[1]
a
desulfurisation / scrubbing [1] ; using
calcium oxide [1] ;
b
the air [1] ;
c
oxides of nitrogen and sulfur cause acid
rain [1] ; this causes acidic lakes / rivers [1] ;
d
i
ii
e
Not enough oxygen / air for
complete combustion ;
[1]
It is toxic ;
[1]
The toxic gases produced in the engine are
converted into less harmful gases before
they are emitted into the atmosphere. The
process uses a transition metal catalyst [1] ;
2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 + N2 ; [1 mark,
other balanced equations showing
correct substances are acceptable] [1]
4
B;
5
a
[1]
photosynthesis [1] ;
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 ;
[1 mark for substances, 1 mark
for balancing]
28
[2]
b
methane [1] ; livestock or landfill [1] ;
c
They are greenhouse gases [1] ; /
Heat from the Sun passes through the
atmosphere [1] ; / Greenhouse gases
prevent some of it from escaping back
into space [1] ; / The global
temperature increases [1] ; [Max. 3 marks]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 18
7
Science in context:
Building a space elevator
2
The advantages of a space elevator are seen in
terms of the ease of transfer of astronauts and
goods to the space station without the need
for rocket launches from the Earth. Indeed,
subsequent exploration from the space station
would be easier since there would be no
need for the technology to escape the
Earth’s gravity.
These different forms of carbon all conduct
electricity because of the mobile, delocalised
electrons associated with the layered structure
(see Chapter 3).
H
H
C
H
H
H
methane
3
H
H
H
c
propanol
d
butanoic acid
a
CH3CH(OH)CH3
b
CH3CH=CHCH3
c
CH3COOC3H7
Structural isomerism is a property of
compounds that have the same molecular
formula but different structural formulae;
the individual compounds are known as
structural isomers.
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
150
H
100
C
H
The bromine water is decolourised from
orange-brown to colourless. There would be
no change if ethane was bubbled into bromine
water. The test is for unsaturation (a C=C):
ethene is unsaturated, but ethane is saturated.
a
a carbon–carbon double bond, C=C
b
a hydroxyl group, –OH
c
a carboxylic acid group, –COOH
50
H
H
C
C
H
H
C
1
B;
2
a
C;
[1]
b
A and E ;
[2]
c
a carbon–carbon double bond ;
[1]
d
molecule must contain at least one
carbon–carbon double or triple bond ; [1]
e
C3H6 and CH2 ;
O
O
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of carbon atoms
Exam-style questions
C2H5COOH
H
29
H
H
H
6
H
butane
C
5
propene
methane, ethane, propane, butane /
CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10
2
4
9
b
10 There is a steady increase in the boiling point
of the alcohols with increasing chain length.
Questions
1
8
butane
Boiling point / °C
1
a
H
3
B;
[1]
[2]
[1]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 18 continued
4
a
i
H
H
H
H
C
CC
H
HH HH
H
CC
CC HC
H
HH
HH HH HH
H
H
H
H
H
but-1-ene
but-1-ene
b
but-2-ene
but-2-ene
butane and 2-methylpropane ;
CH3CH(CHCH
)CH
CH(CH3)CH3
3
3 3
H
H
H
H
HH HH
H
C
CH CC CC HC
C
H
H
HH HH
H
butane
H
H
H
H
butane
H
H
C
HH
HH
C
H
H
C
CH CC HC
C
H
H
HH
H
H
H
2-methylpropane
2-methylpropane
[2 marks for names, 2 marks
for displayed formulae]
30
[4]
cyclobutane is not an alkene as it
does not contain a carbon–carbon
double bond ;
[1]
CH3CH2CHCH
CH3CH
CH2CH3
2
3
2
H
H
H
H
[2 marks for names, 2 marks
for displayed formulae]
ii
H
CH CC CC CC HC
H
[4]
[1]
c
CnH2n + 2 ;
d
they contain the same functional group
[1] and have similar chemical properties
[1] ; / a consistent trend in certain physical
properties with increasing chain length [1] ;
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 19
4
Science in context:
Molecular envelopes
1
2
The fullerenes, despite the fact that they
contain 60 or 70 carbon atoms per molecule,
are considered to be simple molecular
substances. The forces between these large
simple molecules are relatively weak compared
to covalent bonds.
The nanotubes are enclosed cylinders that can
contain the molecules of medicinal drugs –
protecting the drug molecules from the
environment as they move to the target organ.
The nanotubes are stable, biocompatible
polymers and can be tailored to form
containers that package the drug and carry
it across tissue barriers to the target site. The
nanotubes have free electrons at their surfaces.
The walls of the nanotubes can be modified
to provided water-liking or membrane-liking
surfaces to match the different environments
in the body and the drug involved.
H
5
2
3
Br
C
C
H
H
H
ethane → ethene + hydrogen
6
a
propene + hydrogen → propane
b
C4H8 + H2O → C4H9OH
7
Ethanol is a renewable resource / can reduce
dependence on petroleum imports / can reduce
carbon monoxide emissions / can reduce
environmental pollution, etc.
8
a
yeast, carbohydrate source, water
b
carbon dioxide
c
H
H
H
C
C
H
H
O
H
d
oxidation
a
ethyl ethanoate
b
ethanol + ethanoic acid → ethyl ethanoate
+ water
a
propane + oxygen → carbon dioxide
+ water
b
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
a
methane + oxygen → carbon monoxide
+ water
Exam-style questions
b
CO
1
B;
c
It binds to red blood cells (to the
haemoglobin) and interferes with the
transport of oxygen in the body.
2
a
B;
[1]
b
C and D ;
[2]
c
A;
[1]
a
a compound that contains carbon
and hydrogen only ;
[1]
b
no colour change as no reaction ;
[1]
c
ethene and steam are compressed
to 6000 kPa and passed over a
phosphoric acid catalyst at 300 °C ;
[2]
d
as a fuel and as a solvent ;
[2]
e
(addition) polymerisation ;
[1]
a
H
b
H
c
H
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H H
H Br
C
C
C
H
H
H
9
3
H
H or H
H
Br
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
The reaction requires light for it to
take place.
4
31
Br
C2H6 → C2H4 + H2
Questions
1
C2H4Br2
C;
[1]
[1]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 19 continued
5
a
a substitution reaction ;
[1]
b
1,2-dibromoethane ;
[1]
c
advantage: relatively cheap / materials
are renewable [1] ;
disadvantage: product needs
further purification [1] ;
d
acidified potassium manganate(VII) [1] ;
heat under reflux [1] ;
e
ethyl ethanoate ;
H
H
H
C
C
H
H
ethyl
H
O
C
O
C
H
H
ethanoate
[1 mark for name, 2 marks
for displayed formula, both
parts correct]
32
[3]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 20
b
Science in context:
Enzymes that recycle plastics
1
2
PET (a polyester) – the ester link
Use of resources from the petrochemical
industry / uncontrolled littering of the
environment – land, rivers and oceans –
dangers to wildlife / reliable and
environmentally sensitive methods of disposal.
Catalysts are reusable; enable reactions to
take place under milder conditions than
without; enzymes can be very specific and
can be designed/modified to improve reaction
conditions and specificity of product.
O
refinery gas, petrol (gasoline), naphtha,
paraffin (kerosene), diesel, bitumen
2
road surfacing, ships’ engines, car engines,
aircraft fuel (domestic heating)
C
9
C10H22 → C8H18 + C2H4
Addition polymerisation takes place when
many molecules of an unsaturated monomer
(e.g. ethene) join together to form a long-chain
polymer.
H
C
C
H
5
6
a
a
b
H
33
a
high pressure
heat, catalyst
H
H
C
C
H
H
n
O
O
C
C
O H
H O
O
O
O
C
C
+ H2O
O
the amide link (or peptide link)
O
O
C
C
N
N
H
H
O
O
C
C
N
N
H
H
Proteins are made from 20 different amino
acid monomers; nylon is made from just
two monomers.
10 Simply burning plastic can produce toxic
fumes such as hydrochloric acid from burning
PVC / other toxic compounds can be formed
(e.g. dioxins) / incineration at a precise
temperature range can be used to
destroy plastics.
11 Reuse means simply collecting the containers
and then cleaning and reusing them for the
same purpose / recycling involves shredding
the original article and then making new and
different items from the plastic.
12 Sorting the plastics into their different types /
cleaning the plastic / some plastics are difficult
to recycle because of the dyes that have been
used to give them colour.
H
H
Exam-style questions
C
C
C
1
D;
CH3
H
Cl
2
a
A;
[1]
b
A;
[1]
c
C;
[1]
H
H
C
H
b
a carbon–carbon double bond
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
C6H5 H
7
a
c
decane → octane + ethene
n
H
O
Catalytic cracking is the thermal decomposition
of a long-chain alkane to a shorter-chain alkane
and an alkene (or an alkene and hydrogen).
H
+
O
H
b
1
4
O
8
Questions
3
nylon – the amide link (or peptide link)
C6H5 H
[1]
C6H5 H
The monomers join together by a reaction
in which a small molecule (usually water)
is eliminated each time a link is made.
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 20 continued
3
4
a
alkanes ;
[1]
b
different boiling points ;
[1]
c
airplane fuel / heating systems ;
[1]
d
i
heat / catalyst ;
[2]
ii
hydrogen ;
[1]
e
C10H22 → C4H8 + 2C3H6 + H2 ;
a
can be broken down into harmless
substances [1] ; by bacteria /
fungi naturally [1] ;
b
they are buried underground / used
as landfill ;
c
they can harm sea life [1] ; /
be consumed by sea creatures and enter
the food chain [1] ;
d
they produce toxic gases when
they burn ;
5
C;
6
a
b
34
[2]
[1]
[1]
[1]
i
water ;
[1]
ii
condensation polymerisation ;
[1]
i
proteins ;
[1]
ii
they are made by biological cells ; [1]
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 21
Science in context:
Safe drinking water for all
Experimental skills 21.1
1
Residue
1
Portable distillation units. Strengths: Provide
access to distilled water in remote areas
without need for large/expensive equipment
/ May be powered by renewable sources.
Weaknesses: If using solar power, the unit
will only operate under certain conditions /
Produce limited amounts of clean water / May
be limited access to replacement parts if there
is a failure / Would need to be very robust if
used in the field / May require training in safe
use / Could be expensive.
2
It will enable the material to dissolve
more quickly.
3
Salt is ionic and dissolves well in water.
If the solution is concentrated by heat then the
excess solid can be crystallised out. This would
not be a good method for producing iodine
crystals for several reasons. Iodine is toxic and
unlike sodium chloride it has covalent rather
than ionic bonding. Iodine is only partially
soluble in water.
Desalination units. Strengths: Provide
access to drinking water in areas with access
to seawater but limited freshwater / Can
be run continuously / Proven technology.
Weaknesses: May be limited access to parts
if there is a failure / The waste product can
be toxic to marine and coastal ecosystems /
Energy intensive as require high temperature
and pressure / Require training / Could
be expensive.
Experimental skills 21.2
2
Boiling points.
2
100 °C
3
Distillation involves heating the liquid so
that components start to evaporate. As
they evaporate, they travel up through the
apparatus and into the condenser. In the
condenser the temperature is lower and so
the gas will condense. Different fractions
will separate at different temperatures due to
differences in their boiling points.
The filter straw needs to remove particles of
sand / silt / mud and harmful microbes such as
bacteria that can cause disease.
Questions
Questions
1
The temperature should be recorded either
with a thermometer or a digital temperature
probe and meter. The volumes could be
measured with a measuring cylinder or for
greater accuracy a fixed volume could be
measured using a volumetric pipette and a
variable volume by use of the burette.
4
If there are two or more dots in a vertical line
then the substance is a mixture.
5
A substance that remains on the baseline
is insoluble in the solvent used. To improve
the experiment the student needs to use an
alternative solvent, e.g. swapping from water
to ethanol.
The teacher was not correct. The data has
a narrow spread of results and so is precise;
however, it is not accurate as the average of
these results is not very close to the true value.
6
Rf = 2.3/2.8 = 0.82 (to 2 d.p.)
2
3
35
1
Error in the mass is 0.1/1.3 × 100% = 7.7%.
Error in volume is 0.5/10.0 × 100% = 5.0%.
The largest error is in the mass. Random
errors could be reduced by repeating the
experiment several times, checking for and
removing anomalies and then calculating a
mean average.
Rf = distance moved by sample/distance
moved by solvent front
Distance moved by sample
= Rf × distance moved by solvent front
Distance moved by sample
= 0.82 × 9.7 = 8.0 cm.
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
Chapter 21 continued
Processes for method 2:
Experimental skills 21.3
1
Step a: The baseline needs to be drawn in
pencil, not pen, as the pen could be soluble.
Step c: The solvent should fall between the
bottom of the paper and the baseline; it must
not cover the base line as the samples will
dissolve into the solvent and not travel up
through the paper.
Step d: The solvent should not travel all the
way up but must be stopped just before it gets
to the top of the paper. If this is not done then
samples will continue to travel up the paper.
2
4
heat crushed powder ;
•
forms copper oxide ;
•
heat with charcoal ;
•
wash with dilute acid ;
•
filter and dry ;
a
to be able to measure the volume of
the gas ;
[1]
not sufficiently accurate / can only
measure to nearest cm3 ;
[1]
open the air hole at the base of the
chimney fully ;
[1]
it is fractional distillation /
to know when to change
collecting vessel ;
[1]
b
To reduce the amount of solvent lost
through evaporation.
c
d
Exam-style questions
[1]
[Max. 6 marks]
1
C;
2
a
tripod [1] ; and evaporating dish/
basin [1] ; the arrow also suggests a
Bunsen burner [1] ;
b
A, C, F, D, B, E ;
c
blue ;
[1]
•
draw a pencil line on the paper ;
d
because copper oxide reacts with acid ; [1]
•
spot some of the solution on the line ;
[Each of the following scores 1 mark]
•
place in the solvent (water) ;
Common starting process:
•
leave until the solvent front reaches
a fixed point ;
•
use a locating agent to make the amino
acids visible ;
•
measure distance moved by the
different components ;
3
•
crush lump of malachite ;
•
with a pestle and mortar ;
e
[Max. 2 marks]
Processes in method 1:
36
•
5
when crystals form around the edge of
the solution / when crystals form on
a glass rod dipped in the solution ;
[1]
[Each of the following scores 1 mark]
•
dissolve in acid ;
•
named acid ;
•
calculate Rf values ;
•
filter ;
•
•
electrolyse filtrate ;
compare with reference values to identify ;
[Max. 6 marks]
•
recover copper from cathode ;
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Chapter 22
light green flame would indicate the presence
of barium ions. Barium sulfate is BaSO4.
Getting started
Criteria for a chemical test might include: It needs
to give a clear result (e.g. a colour change) /
It should be specific (i.e. works for only one
chemical) / Ideally it should be quick and simple
to use / Should not use hazardous chemicals
Reactions students might have seen include:
Standard tests for gases such as hydrogen, oxygen
and carbon dioxide / Standard test for a double
bond (bromine water) / Standard test for an acid
(addition of a carbonate) / Possible tests for the
presence of cations and anions
These tests might be needed by: Companies
monitoring the quality of air or water
/ Government bodies / Health and
safety committees
3
Tap water can contain dissolved ions and
may have given a false positive result, with
the colour being from the impurities and not
the sample. The experimental design can be
improved by using distilled water.
4
C and E
5
The use of state symbols in C shows that this
is a precipitation reaction.
6
AlCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) →
Al(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)
Experimental skills 22.1
1
A precipitate is an insoluble compound
produced during a precipitation reaction (the
reaction that produces an insoluble salt when
solutions of two soluble salts are mixed).
2
Iron(II) precipitates are green in colour;
iron(III) precipitates are brown in colour.
3
Ammonia is a base.
To ensure their conclusions were valid: To check
results are repeatable / To sample multiple times
Science in context:
Bottled water – finding a solution
to what ions it contains
1
2
Mineral water might be thought of as pure
because it has had no other chemicals added
to it and it has come from a natural source.
Chemically, mineral water is not pure. It is a
mixture, because it contains dissolved impurities.
Questions
7
Iron(II) chloride would initially produce a
green precipitate. Iron(III) chloride would
produce a brown precipitate.
One problem is to ensure that the water does
not contain harmful microbes (these would
normally be removed by disinfection using
chlorine). Another problem is the potential for
changes in composition that may result from
seasonal weather variations.
8
When sodium hydroxide solution is added
to copper(II) sulfate solution, a light blue
precipitate is formed. When dilute ammonia
solution is added to copper(II) sulfate
solution, initially a light blue precipitate is
formed but as more ammonia solution is
added this dissolves and produces a dark
blue solution.
9
A green precipitate could indicate the presence
of either iron(II) or chromium(III) ions and so
their conclusion was not valid. To produce a
valid result, the test should be repeated using
excess sodium hydroxide. If a green precipitate
forms but then redissolves, the sample
contains chromium(III).
Questions
37
1
The nichrome wire probe is cleaned by
placing it alternately in a roaring flame and
concentrated acid. Once clean it can be dipped
in the acid and then into the sample containing
the sodium ions. A positive test for sodium ions
will be the production of a yellow flame.
2
The lilac flame would indicate the presence of
potassium ions. Potassium sulfate is K2SO4.
The red flame would indicate the presence of
lithium ions. Lithium sulfate is Li2SO4. The
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Chapter 22 continued
10 Student A’s results would be valid as the
calcium ions would produce an orange-red
flame; no detectable flame colour would
be seen with the zinc or aluminium ions.
Student B’s results would not be valid as both
zinc or aluminium precipitates redissolve in
excess sodium hydroxide. To produce a valid
conclusion student B would need to repeat the
experiment using dilute ammonia solution.
Under these conditions the precipitate
containing zinc ions would redissolve but not
that containing either calcium or aluminium.
18 The pieces of glassware are a volumetric
pipette that adds an accurate, fixed volume of
liquid and a burette, which adds an accurate
but variable volume of liquid.
11 In general, the reaction of a carbonate
with any acid produces carbon dioxide.
Sodium carbonate solution reacts with acids
as follows:
Sodium + sulfuric → sodium + carbon + water
carbonate
acid
sulfate dioxide
21 The mean titre would only use the results
within 0.10 cm3: i.e. mean titre = (12.15 cm3 +
12.10 cm3 + 12.10 cm3)/3 = 12.12 cm3.
Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4 (aq) →
Na2SO4 (aq) + CO2(aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium + nitric → sodium + carbon + water
carbonate
acid
nitrate dioxide
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) →
2NaNO3 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
12 Acidified silver nitrate would produce a yellow
precipitate with the magnesium iodide and a
white precipitate with the magnesium chloride.
19 Methyl orange and thymolphthalein both
produce clear colour changes at the end-point,
universal indicator does not.
20 Swirling ensures everything is mixed and
also ensures liquid that might have splashed
onto the sides of the flask is returned to
the reaction.
Exam-style questions
1
D;
2
a
b
c
3
[1]
To separate the two components of
the mixture. ;
i
aluminium [1] ; sulfate [1] ;
ii
calcium [1] ; carbonate [1] ;
13 This would negate the results as the sulfuric
acid introduces sulfate ions and so a white
precipitate of barium sulfate is immediately
produced.
14 Al → Al3+ + 3e−
15 a
b
Carbon dioxide was present.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) →
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
[1]
aluminium sulfate ;
adding
acidified
silver
nitrate
salt
flame
test
slowly
adding
excess
aqueous
sodium
hydroxide
potassium
sulfate
lilac
colour
no reaction no
reaction
barium
bromide
green
colour
no reaction cream
precipitate
lithium
iodide
red
colour
no reaction yellow
precipitate
MgI2(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq) →
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2AgI(s)
MgCl2(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq) →
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2AgCl(s)
[1]
chromium(III) no colour green
white
chloride
produced precipitate, precipitate
redissolves
[1 mark for each answer, Max. 6 marks]
16 The gas is not carbon dioxide and it is
not oxygen.
17 a
b
38
Purple manganate(VII) ions are reduced
to very pale pink manganese(II) ions.
The sulfur is oxidised and the manganese
is reduced.
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Chapter 22 continued
4
a
i
add aqueous sodium hydroxide slowly
until in excess [1] ;
green precipitate which does
not redissolve [1] ;
ii
add acidified barium nitrate [1] ;
white precipitate [1] ;
These two tests can be given in
either order.
b
i
pass gas through lime water [1] ;
lime water turns milky [1] ;
ii
add acidified potassium
manganate(VII) [1] ;
turns colourless [1] ;
These two tests can be given in
either order.
5
39
[Each of the following scores 1 mark]
•
add named volume of first vinegar to
a flask ;
•
add a named indicator ;
•
slowly add from a burette ;
•
named alkali ;
•
note volume needed for neutralisation ;
•
repeat with same volume of
second vinegar ;
•
largest volume used (titre) =
most acid. ;
[Max. 6 marks]
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Workbook answers
Chapter 1
Exercise 1.1
1
Exercise 1.2
A solid has a fixed mass and volume / shape.
A liquid has a fixed mass but its shape changes
to that of the container in which it is placed.
A gas has no fixed shape or volume. A gas
completely fills the container that it is in.
100
90
80
70
Temperature / °C
2
6
60
50
40
30
20
solid solid solid
3
4
5
1
liquidliquidliquid
gas gas gas
a B
b C
c A
d D
A freezing (solidification)
B melting
C condensation
D evaporation or boiling
a radon
b radon and nitrogen
c nitrogen
d cobalt
e The sample of ethanoic acid is impure.
The presence of impurities raises the
boiling point of a substance.
10
0
7
8
9
1
2
3
Time / minutes
4
5
The student would need to use an oil bath (in
place of the water bath) so that the higher
temperature could be reached.
The substance is freezing (solidifying) /
turning from liquid to solid.
The temperature stays constant because
energy is being released as the substance
solidifies / the molecules are giving out heat
as they stop moving from place to place and
become organised in a structured lattice
arrangement / in the solid the molecules can
only vibrate about fixed points / the heat
released by the formation of new interactions
(forces) between the particles keeps the
temperature constant until all the substance
is solid.
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Chapter 1 continued
bubbles then rise to escape the liquid
and enter the gas phase (state) / the
boiling point of a liquid changes with
the atmospheric pressure / the lower the
atmospheric pressure, the easier it is for
the gas bubbles to form and the lower the
boiling point.
Temperature / °C
10 a
Time / minutes
b
11 a
b
c
d
e
12 a
b
c
2
The curve flattens but the temperature
does not stay constant while the wax
solidifies. This is because wax is a mixture
of substances, not a pure compound.
A solid
B solid and liquid (melting is taking place)
C liquid
D liquid and gas (boiling is taking place)
17 °C
115 °C
The temperature remains constant until
the change of state is complete.
The melting point and boiling point are
not those of water.
The carbon dioxide is under pressure in
the fire extinguisher.
Hoar frost is a powdery white frost caused
when solid ice forms from humid air. The
solid surface on which it is formed must
be colder than the surrounding air. Water
vapour is deposited on a surface as fine
ice crystals without going through the
liquid phase.
Evaporation: evaporation is a process
that can take place at any temperature /
it takes place at the surface of the liquid
only / particles with enough energy can
escape from the surface / these particles
have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome
the interactive forces between the particles
and break free from the surface into
the vapour (gas) phase / the rate of
evaporation increases with temperature
as the energy of the particles increases
with temperature.
Boiling: boiling takes place at a specific
temperature (the boiling point of the
liquid) / bubbles of gas form throughout
the liquid as particles gain sufficient
energy to form a gas bubble / the gas
Exercise 1.3
13 a
b
14 a
b
15 a
b
c
d
The purple crystals are soluble in water, so
the water begins to break up the crystals,
and particles (ions) from the solid move
into the water. This continues until all the
solid dissolves. The particles then move
through the liquid and spread out through
the liquid until the solution is evenly
coloured throughout.
A shorter time – if the temperature were
higher, the particles would be moving
faster, as they would have more energy /
the process of diffusion would take place
more quickly.
ammonium chloride ➞ ammonia +
hydrogen chloride
NH3(g) + HCl(g) ➞ NH4Cl(s)
The smoke ring forms closer to the
hydrochloric acid end of the tube because
ammonia molecules diffuse (move) faster
than hydrogen chloride molecules / this
is because ammonia molecules have a
lower relative molecular mass (Mr =
17) compared with hydrogen chloride
molecules (Mr = 36.5) / ammonia
molecules travel further in a given time.
approximately 30 cm / approximately
two-thirds of the way along the tube
hydrogen > methane > oxygen > chlorine
G must have a molecular mass greater
than that of methane, but less than that
of oxygen / it must have an Mr between 16
and 32.
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Chapter 1 continued
16 The kinetic model states that the particles in a
liquid and in a gas are constantly moving. In a
gas, the particles are far apart from each other
and their movement is said to be random. The
particles in a solid are held in fixed positions
in a regular lattice. In a solid, the particles can
only vibrate about their fixed positions.
Liquids and gases are fluids. When particles
move in a fluid, they can collide with each
other. When they collide, they bounce off
each other in different directions. If two gases
or liquids are mixed, the different types of
particle spread out and get mixed up. This
process is called diffusion.
In gases at the same temperature, particles
that have a lower mass move faster than those
with higher mass. This means that the lighter
particles will spread and mix more quickly.
The lighter particles are said to diffuse faster
than the heavier particles. When gaseous
molecules diffuse, the rate at which they do
so is inversely related to the relative molecular
mass (Mr) of the gas.
3
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Chapter 2
5
Exercise 2.1
1
2
3
4
4
Atoms are made up of three
different particles:
• protons, which are positively charged
• neutrons, which have no charge
• electrons, which are negatively charged.
The negatively charged particles are arranged
in different shells (energy levels) around the
nucleus of the atom. The particles with a
negligible mass are the electrons. All atoms of
the same element contain the same number
of protons and neutrons. Atoms of the same
element with different numbers of neutrons are
known as isotopes.
a 3
a
b
boron / 2,3
phosphorus / 2,8,5
6
Beryllium
2,2
Magnesium
2,8,2
Calcium
2,8,8,2
Exercise 2.2
7
a
Atom
Proton
number
Electronic configuration
A
2
2
1st
shell
2nd
shell
3rd
shell
b
4
B
5
2
3
c
7
C
13
2
8
3
D
15
2
8
5
E
19
2
8
8
d 37 Li
The electrons in an atom are arranged in a
series of shells around the central nucleus.
These shells are also called energy levels. In an
atom, the shell closest / nearest to the nucleus
fills first, then the next shell, and so on. There
is room for:
• up to two electrons in the first shell
• up to eight electrons in the second shell
• up to eight electrons in the third shell.
(There are 18 electrons in total when the three
shells are completely full.)
The elements in the Periodic Table are
organised in the same way as the electrons fill
the shells. Shells fill from left to right across
the rows of the Periodic Table.
• The first shell fills up first, from hydrogen
to helium.
• The second shell fills next, from lithium
to neon.
• Eight electrons go into the third shell,
from sodium to argon.
• Then the fourth shell starts to fill,
from potassium.
a Mg (magnesium)
b F (fluorine)
c K (potassium)
8
4th
shell
1
b
c
d
e
one (the atoms of element B)
B and C
3
a
b
c
d
e
38
53
78
137 – 55 = 82
Isotopes are different atoms of the
same element that have the same proton
number but different nucleon numbers.
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Chapter 2 continued
9
a
b
c
d
10 a
b
c
d
B
E
A and C
B and D
2 protons, 2 neutrons, +2
The gold atoms are packed together in a regular arrangement (lattice) / in layers / the
atoms can only vibrate about fixed positions.
This suggests that the atoms were largely empty space through which the
α-particles passed.
These α-particles had made direct hits on the nuclei of the gold atoms. They are
repelled backwards because the nucleus of the atom is positively charged and so are
the α-particles.
11 a
Isotope
b
c
Name of
element
Atomic
number
Mass
(nucleon)
number
Number of
protons
neutrons
electrons
12
6C
Carbon
6
12
6
6
6
14
6C
Carbon
6
14
6
8
6
1
1H
Hydrogen
1
1
1
0
1
3
1H
Hydrogen
(tritium)
1
3
1
2
1
31
15 P
Phosphorus
15
31
15
16
15
32
15 P
Phosphorus
15
32
15
17
15
127
53 I
Iodine
53
127
53
74
53
131
53 I
Iodine
53
131
53
78
53
The chemical properties of isotopes of the same element are the same because the
number and arrangement of electrons in the isotopes are the same / the atoms of the
isotopes all have the same number of outer electrons.
percentage of rhenium-187 in natural sample = 100 – 37.4 = 62.6%
Ar of rhenium =
(185 × 37.4) + (187 × 62.6)
100
=
6919 + 11 706.2 18 625.2
=
100
100
= 186.3
5
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Chapter 3
Exercise 3.1
Exercise 3.2
1
6
2
3
4
5
6
Compound
Mixture
The elements cannot
be separated by
physical methods.
The substances in it
can be separated by
physical methods.
The properties are
different from those
of the elements that
went to make it.
The substances
present still show the
properties that they
have when
by themselves.
The elements are
combined in a
definite proportion
by mass.
The substances can
be present in any
proportion by mass.
Name of
Formula
compound
Hydrogen
chloride
HCl
Water
H2O
Ammonia
Displayed
formula
H
Cl
O
H
H
N
NH3
H
H
H
H
a
compounds: distilled water, carbon
dioxide, sodium chloride, copper sulfate
b mixtures: brass, lemonade, seawater,
hydrochloric acid solution, air
A compound
B element
C mixture
D element
E compound
F mixture
sodium chloride is a white solid –
different from the elements
sodium chloride dissolves in water –
different from the elements,
particularly sodium
sodium chloride is neutral in solution –
again different from the two elements
a iron is magnetic; sulfur is non-magnetic /
iron is dark grey; sulfur is yellow / iron
reacts with hydrochloric acid; sulfur does
not react with acid
b the fact that the mixture continues to glow
with heat shows that a chemical reaction
is continuing to take place, and that it is
an exothermic reaction
c the product is no longer magnetic / the
product reacts with acid but gives a
different product to that produced by the
iron powder
Molecular
model
Methane
C
CH4
H
H
H
H
H
Ethene
C2H4
C
C
H
H
Carbon
dioxide
O
CO2
C
O
7
Molecule
Dot-and-cross
diagram
Ammonia
(NH3)
H
H
H
N
O
O
H
Hydrogen
chloride
(HCl)
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Water (H2O)
Ethane
(C2H6)
N
Displayed formula
Cl
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
Cl
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
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Chapter 3 continued
8
Molecule
Dot-and-cross diagram
Displayed formula
Nitrogen (N2)
N
N
N
N
Ethene (C2H4)
H
H
C
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
Methanol (CH3OH)
H
H
H
C
H
O
H
C
O
H
H
H
Ethanoic acid
(CH3COOH)
H
O
H
H
C
C
H
C
H
H
O
O
C
O
H
H
Note that in the answers to question 8, the
dot-and-cross diagrams are drawn differently to
those in question 7. Both methods are equally
acceptable, but the drawings here have the
advantage of showing the overlap between the
atoms in covalent bonding.
7
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Chapter 3 continued
11 a
Exercise 3.3
9
a
b
the sodium ion (2,8) has one less electron
than a sodium atom (2,8,1)
the chloride ion (2,8,8) has one more
electron than a chlorine atom (2,8,7)
positive metal ion
electron
c
+
Na
d
e
–
Cl
b
electrostatic forces of attraction between
ions with opposite charge
NaCl has a high melting point because the
forces between the ions are strong – it takes
a large amount of heat to disrupt them
i
ii
10
Property
Explanation
A solution of an
ionic compound
in water is a good
conductor of
electricity. These
ionic substances are
called electrolytes.
The ions in the giant
ionic structure always
have the same regular
arrangement (see
Figure 3.2).
Ionic crystals have
a regular shape.
The crystals of
each solid ionic
compound are the
same shape. The
angles between the
faces of the crystal
are always the
same, whatever the
size of the crystal.
Strong attraction
between the positive
and negative ions
holds the giant ionic
structure together.
A lot of energy is
needed to break
down the regular
arrangement of ions.
Ionic compounds
have relatively high
melting points.
In a molten ionic
compound, the
positive and negative
ions can move – the
ions can move to the
electrodes when a
voltage is applied.
A molten ionic
compound (i.e. an
ionic compound
heated above its
melting point) is a
good conductor of
electricity.
8
In a solution of an
ionic compound, the
positive metal ions
and the negative nonmetal ions can move
– these ions can move
to the electrodes when
a voltage is applied.
iii
the electrostatic forces between the
metal ions and the delocalised sea of
electrons are strong and so it needs a
strong heat to overcome them
the fact that the layers can slide over
each other without the bonding being
broken means that a metal can be
drawn out into wires
the layers of metal ions can move
over each other without the metallic
bonds being broken, therefore the
delocalised electrons between the ions
in the metallic structure are free to
move and can be made to flow in one
direction
Exercise 3.4
12
Observation
Explanation
Diamond is a very
hard substance …
… because all the
atoms in the structure
are joined by strong
covalent bonds.
Diamond does not
conduct electricity …
… because all the outer
electrons of the atoms
are involved in making
bonds.
Graphite is slippery …
… because the layers
in the structure are
only held together by
weak forces.
Graphite conducts
electricity …
… because there are
some free electrons
that are able to move
between the layers to
carry the current.
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Chapter 3 continued
13 a
b
14 a
b
c
d
e
f
9
Graphite conducts electricity because not
all of the outer electrons of the carbon
atoms are used in the covalent bonding
that holds the atoms together in the layers.
These ‘free’ electrons are able to move in
between the layers. They can be made to
move in one direction when a voltage
is applied.
Graphite acts as a lubricant because there
are only weak forces between the layers of
carbon atoms in the structure. The layers
can be made to move over each other if a
force is applied.
The strong bonds between the atoms are
covalent bonds.
In the crystal, there are two oxygen atoms
for every silicon atom, so the formula
is SiO2.
The atoms of the lattice are organised in
a tetrahedral arrangement like diamond,
with a silicon atom at the centre of each
tetrahedron (pyramid).
This is an example of a giant molecular
(covalent) structure.
Each oxygen atom forms two
covalent bonds.
Each silicon atom forms four
covalent bonds.
15 Silicon(IV) oxide occurs naturally as mud /
sand. It has a giant covalent / electrostatic
structure very similar to graphite /diamond.
Such a structure can also be described as a
giant molecular / ionic structure as all the
atoms in the crystal are joined together by
covalent bonds.
Each silicon atom is bonded to four / two
oxygen atoms, while each oxygen atom is
linked covalently to four / two silicon atoms.
The oxygen atoms are arranged hexagonally /
tetrahedrally around the silicon atoms.
The fact that all the atoms are bonded
together in a two-dimensional / threedimensional structure like graphite / diamond
means that silicon(IV) oxide has similar
physical properties to graphite / diamond.
Silica is very hard / slippery and has a low /
high melting point. All the outer electrons of
the atoms are used in making the covalent
bonds between the atoms. This means that
silicon(IV) oxide does / does not conduct
electricity. There are no electrons free to carry
the current through the crystal.
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Chapter 4
8
Exercise 4.1
1
a
b
c
d
a
2
1H; 1N; 3O
1Cu; 2N; 6O
2N; 8H; 1S; 4O
1K; 1Mn; 4O
H
1
Li
1
Na
1
K
1
3
4
5
6
7
Mg
2
Ca
2
B C
3 4
Al
3
transition elements Zn
variable valency
2
N O F Ne
3 2 1 0
S Cl
2 1
Br
1
b Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Zn, Al
c N, O, F, S, Cl, Br
d B, C
a H2S
b B2O3
c CS2
d NH3
12 carbon atoms + 22 hydrogen atoms
+ 11 oxygen atoms = 45
a PR2 (or R2P)
b QR (or RQ)
c Q2
i
ionic
ii ionic
iii covalent
a MgBr2 , Mg2+Br−
b Ca3N2, Ca2+N3−
c Al2O3, Al3+O2−
a molecular formula C2O2H4
b empirical formula COH2
Exercise 4.2
9
a
b
10 a
b
11
12
13
14
10
The formula of a simple molecular compound
shows exactly how many atoms are bonded
together in each molecule. For example,
ethane has two carbon and six hydrogen atoms,
so its formula is C2H6. This is the molecular
formula for ethane. This formula can be
simplified to CH3 by dividing through by 2.
CH3 is the empirical formula of ethane.
The formulae used for giant covalent and
ionic compounds are the simplest ratio of the
different atoms or ions in each compound.
These formulae are known as the empirical
formulae of these types of compounds.
c
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
a
b
c
a
b
methane + oxygen ➞ carbon dioxide
+ water
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ➞ CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
zinc + copper(II) sulfate ➞ zinc sulfate
+ copper
ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide
➞ ammonia + sodium chloride + water
iron + oxygen ➞ iron(III) oxide
2Na + Cl2 ➞ 2NaCl
2SO2 + 3O2 ➞ 2SO3
Fe2O3 + 3CO ➞ 2Fe + 3CO2
2PbO + C ➞ 2Pb + CO2
CuO
Na2CO3
ZnSO4
AgNO3
(NH4)2SO4
K3PO4
Fe(OH)3
CrCl3
1:1
1 : 3: 3
2:8:1:4
2:1
K2O
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Chapter 4 continued
15 a
18 5 tonnes zinc oxide ➞ 4 tonnes zinc
Cl –
Na+
Cl
–
Cl
Na+
Cl –
20
so 20 tonnes zinc oxide ➞ 4 × 5
= 16 tonnes zinc
–
4
or 5 = x / 20
+
Cl
Na
Na+
( )
Na+
20
so x = 4 × 5 = 16 tonnes of zinc
19 a Mass is conserved during a reaction, so
the mass of the products equals the mass
of reactants:
mass of reactants = 68 + 96 = 164 g
so, mass of water is 164 – 56 = 108 g
b in the reaction shown, 68 g of ammonia
is burnt. If the mass of ammonia burnt
is 17 g, this is
–
Na+
Cl –
b
–
+
Cl –
Na+
16 a
b
c
d
17 1
68 = 4
so, mass of water formed is
1 × 108
= 27 g
4
Cl2(g) + 2Br–(aq) ➞ 2Cl–(aq) + Br2(aq)
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) ➞ Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Fe2+(aq) + OH–(aq) ➞ Fe(OH)2(s)
Zn2+(aq) + Mg(s) ➞ Zn(s) + Mg2+(aq)
Exercise 4.3
17
One carbon atom is three
times as heavy as one
helium atom
H
He
1
2
3
4
One helium atom is four
times as heavy as one
hydrogen atom
C
5
6
7
Li
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
N
One nitrogen atom is
twice as heavy as one
lithium atom
Carbon-12 is used as the standard
for relative atomic mass.
11
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Chapter 4 continued
20
Molecule
Chemical formula
Number of atoms or
ions involved
Relative molecular
(or formula) mass
Oxygen
O2
2O
2 × 16 = 32
Carbon dioxide
CO2
1C and 2O
1 × 12 + 2 × 16 = 44
Water
H2O
2H and 1O
2 × 1 + 16 = 18
Ammonia
NH3
1N and 3H
Calcium carbonate
CaCO3
1Ca and 1CO
40 + 12 + 3 × 16 = 100
Magnesium oxide
MgO
1Mg and 1O
1 × 24 + 1 × 16 = 40
Ammonium nitrate
NH4NO3
1NH4+ and 1NO3–
2 × 14 + 4 × 1 + 3 × 16 = 80
Propanol
C3H7OH
3C, 8H and 1O
3 × 12 + 8 × 1 + 1 × 16 = 60
14 + 3 × 1 = 17
2+
2+
2–
3
2–
21 a
Mass of MgO / g
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
b
c
d
e
f
0
0.1
Mass of Mg / g
0.2
The mass of magnesium oxide produced
increases if more magnesium is used. The
increase is linear (directly proportional).
mass of MgO produced = 0.19 g
Note that your answer may differ slightly
because your line of best fit may be
slightly different.
0.19 − 0.12 = 0.07 g
0.07
× 24 = 14 g
0.12
from experiment: 0.12 g magnesium gives
0.19 g magnesium oxide
0.19
g magnesium oxide
0.12
0.19
× 3.5 =
therefore 3.5 g will produce
0.12
5.54 g of magnesium oxide
Magnesium is sufficiently reactive to
combine with nitrogen from the air to
produce magnesium nitride, Mg3N2
1.00 g will give
g
12
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Chapter 5
Exercise 5.1
1
Fe3O4
The formula of magnetite is
The atoms
present are
Fe Fe
Fe ...............
O O ...............
O
O ...............
The relative
56 + .............
56 + .............
56 + .............
16 + .............
16 + .............
16 + .............
16 = .............
232
atomic mass is .............
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
2
a
The relative formula mass of the iron
oxide (Fe3O4) = 232
In this formula, there are three atoms of
iron, Fe.
The relative mass of 3Fe = 168.
This means that in 232 g of Fe3O4 there
are 168 g of iron.
168
So 1 g of Fe3O4 contains 232= 0.724 g
of iron.
So 100 g of Fe3O4 contains 72.4 g of iron.
In other words, the percentage (%) of iron
in Fe3O4 = 72.4%.
Empirical formula of oxalic acid = CHO2
C
H
O
26.7
2.2
71.1
Moles in
100 g
26.7 = 2.23
12
2.2 = 2.2
1
71.1 = 4.44
16
Ratio of
moles
2.23
2.2
4.4
Whole
number
ratio
1
1
2
% by
mass
b
13
Mass of empirical formula =
12 + 1 + (2 × 16) = 45
But actual formula mass = 90
Therefore, actual molecular formula of
oxalic acid = C2H2O4
3
Empirical formula of compound = AsC3H9
As
C
H
62.5
30.0
7.5
Moles in
100 g
62.5 = 0.83
75
30.0 = 2.5
12
7.5 = 7.5
1
Ratio of
moles
0.83
2.5
7.5
Whole
number
ratio
1
3
9
% by
mass
Exercise 5.2
4
a
From equation: 1 mol Fe2O3 gives 2 mol Fe
100
= 1.79 mol
56 mol
1.79
mol of Fe2O3 needed =
= 0.895 mol
2
Mr of Fe2O3 = (56 × 2) + (16 × 3) = 160
mass of Fe2O3 needed = 0.895 × 160 =
143.2 g
100 g of iron is 1.79 moles of Fe, so
0.895 moles of Fe2O3 are needed for the
reaction, or 143.2 g of iron(III) oxide.
From above: 143.2 g Fe2O3 gives 100 g
of iron
so 143.2 tonnes Fe2O3 gives 100 tonnes
of Fe
Therefore 71.6 tonnes of Fe2O3 are needed
to produce 50 tonnes of Fe
100 g of Fe =
b
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Chapter 5 continued
c
5
a
b
c
106
=
mol Fe2O3 in 100 tonnes = 100 ×
160
625 000 or 6.25 × 105 mol
mol Fe expected = 625 000 × 2 = 1 250 000
or 1.25 × 106 mol
mass of Fe expected = 1 250 000 × 56 =
70 000 000 g or 70 tonnes
Fe actual yield = 7 tonnes
7 × 100
Therefore, percentage yield =
=
70
10%
CaCO3 ➞ CaO + CO2
1 mol CaCO3 gives 1 mol CaO (quicklime)
100 g CaCO3 gives 56 g CaO
or 100 tonnes CaCO3 gives 56 tonnes CaO
56
1 tonne CaCO3 gives
tonnes CaO
100
56
tonnes CaO = 0.56 tonnes
100
From above: 1 tonne CaCO3 gives
0.56 tonnes CaO
expected: 2.5 tonnes CaCO3 would give
(0.56 × 2.5) = 1.4 tonnes CaO
actual yield = 1.12 tonnes
1.12 × 100
therefore, percentage yield =
=
1.4
80%
The yield is not 100% because the
limestone may not be 100% calcium
carbonate – or other valid reason.
b
c
a
d
conical flask
14.60
First burette reading / cm3
0.20
Volume of NaOH(aq)
added / cm3
Exercise 5.3
6
Final burette reading / cm3
14.40 (P)
Stage 1:
• 14.40 cm3 of NaOH(aq) containing
0.50 moles in 1000 cm3 were used.
• Number of moles NaOH used =
0.50
× 14.40 = 7.20 × 10−3 moles
1000
(or 0.0072 moles)
Stage 2:
• Note that 1 mole of citric acid reacts
with 3 moles of sodium hydroxide.
• Number of moles citric acid in sample
7.20 × 10−3
=
= 2.40 × 10−3 moles
3
(or 0.0024 moles)
Stage 3:
• Relative formula mass of citric acid
(Mr of C6H8O7) = 192
• Mass of citric acid in sample =
2.40 × 10−3 × 192 = 0.46 g
• Percentage purity of sample =
0.46
0.48 × 100 = 95.8%
• (Note that you have a clue that you are
on the right lines in your calculation
because your value for the mass of
citric acid must be less than 0.48 g)
The citric acid can be further purified by
re-crystallisation.
Step 1
balance
00.48
colourless
A ..............................
solution
Step 2
14
burette
Step 3
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Chapter 5 continued
7
Number of moles of H2SO4 in 25 cm3 of
2
2 mol / dm3 solution =
× 25 = 0.05 moles
1000
Maximum number of moles of CuSO4.5H2O
that could be formed = 0.05 moles
Maximum mass of crystals, CuSO4.5H2O, that
could be formed = 0.05 × 250 = 12.5 g (The
mass of one mole of CuSO4.5H2O is 250 g.)
7.3
Percentage yield =
× 100 = 58.4%
12.5
10
moles
conc.
Solute
Volume Molar
Moles of
of
concentration solute
solution of solution /
present
mol/dm3
Sodium
chloride
1 dm3
0.5
0.5
Hydrochloric
acid
500 cm3
0.5
0.25
Sodium
hydroxide
2 dm3
0.5
1.00
Sulfuric acid
250 cm3
2
0.50
Sodium
thiosulfate
200 cm3
Mass / g
2
0.40
7.5 dm3
0.1
0.75
128
Copper(II)
sulfate
Exercise 5.4
8
mass
no. of
moles
Substance
molar
mass
Number of
moles
Cu
64
2
Mg
24
0.5
12
Cl2
71
0.5
35.5
H2
2
2
4
S8
256
2
512
O3
48
0.033
H2SO4
98
2.5
CO2
44
0.4
17.6
NH3
17
1.5
25.5
CaCO3
100
1
MgSO4.7H2O
246
0.333
9
a
b
15
Ar or Mr
volume
/ dm3
1.6
245
100
82
128 g Cu = 2 mol Cu
1 mol = 6.02 × 1023 atoms Cu
2 mol Cu = 2 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.20 × 1024
atoms of copper
4 g H2 = 2 mol H2 molecules
2 mol H2 molecules = 2 × 6.02 × 1023 =
1.20 × 1024 H2 molecules = 2.4 × 1024 H
atoms
Exercise 5.5
11
Experiment number
Volume of hydrogen
collected / cm3
1
85
2
79
3
82
Mean average
82
The three results are not equal because of the
difficulty in cutting exactly equal lengths of
magnesium ribbon. Also, the pieces of ribbon
may not be exactly the same thickness or
width, or gas may be lost as the magnesium
is allowed to fall into the flask, or there
may have been air in the measuring cylinder
before starting.
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Chapter 5 continued
12 From equation: 24 g of magnesium (1 mole) ➞
24 000 cm3 of hydrogen
24
so 1 cm3 of hydrogen produced from
=
24 000
0.001 g of magnesium
and 82 cm3 of hydrogen produced from 0.001
× 82 = 0.082 g
13 24 g of magnesium ➞ 120 g of
magnesium sulfate
120
so 0.082 g will give 24 × 0.082 = 0.41 g
The answers to 12 and 13 could be calculated
by other proportionality methods.
14 The key factor here is that 24 g of magnesium
will produce 120 g of dried anhydrous
magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)
(see the equation).
• Weigh out a known mass of
magnesium ribbon.
• React it with excess dilute sulfuric acid
until no more gas is given off and no
magnesium remains.
• Transfer the solution to a beaker of
known mass.
• Heat the solution to dryness, taking care
to avoid it spitting.
• Allow to cool and weigh the beaker
and residue.
• Filter, dry and weigh the crystals carefully.
• From the data above, calculate the mass
of crystals that 5 cm would have given.
Exercise 5.6
15
16
17
18
16
75 cm3
25 cm3
50 cm3
2NO
50 cm3
+
O2
25 cm3
➞
2NO2
50 cm3
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Chapter 6
4
Exercise 6.1
1
a
–
power supply
+
A
–
+
cathode
anode
electrolyte
heat if necessary
b
c
graphite and platinum
A–3, B–1, C–2, D–4
Exercise 6.3
2
Molten
electrolyte
Product Product at
at anode cathode (–)
(+)
Observations
of product
at anode
Lead(II)
iodide
iodine
lead
purple
vapour
given off
Magnesium
chloride
chlorine
magnesium
green gas
given off
zinc
red–brown
vapour
given off
calcium
colourless
gas given off
Zinc
bromide
Calcium
oxide
bromine
oxygen
Exercise 6.2
3
a
b
c
d
17
During electrolysis, ionic compounds are
decomposed by the passage of an electric
current. For this to happen, the compound
must be either molten or in solution in water.
Electrolysis can occur when an electric current
passes through a molten electrolyte. The two
rods dipping into the electrolyte are called
the electrodes. In this situation, metals are
deposited at the cathode and non-metals are
formed at the anode.
When the ionic compound is dissolved in
water, the electrolysis can be more complex.
Generally, during electrolysis, positive ions
move towards the cathode and negative ions
move towards the anode. At the negative
electrode (cathode) the metal or hydrogen
ions gain electrons and form metal atoms or
hydrogen molecules. At the positive electrode,
(anode) non-metals are formed as their ions or
hydroxide ions from the water lose electrons.
chromate ions
Chromate ions are negatively charged and
so move towards (are attracted to) the
positive electrode.
Anions: chromate (CrO42–) and
sulfate (SO42–)
Cations: potassium (K+) and
copper (Cu2+)
A blue colour moves towards negative
(Cu2+ ions), and a yellow colour moves
towards positive (CrO42– ions).
5
Substance
left in
solution at
the end of
electrolysis
Gas
given off
at the
anode
Gas given
off or
metal
deposited
at the
cathode
concentrated
potassium
bromide
bromine
hydrogen
potassium
hydroxide
copper(II)
nitrate
oxygen
copper
nitric acid
silver sulfate
oxygen
silver
sulfuric acid
sodium
nitrate
oxygen
hydrogen
sodium
nitrate
Solution
(electrolyte)
6
a
b
c
d
e
H2(g) ➞ 2H+(aq) + 2e–
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e– ➞ 2H2O(l)
2H2(g) + O2(g) ➞ 2H2O(l)
The only waste product is non-polluting
water / they do not need recharging / they
are more efficient than a petrol engine.
needs to be an increased availability of
hydrogen refuelling stations / needs to be
a move to ‘greener’ sustainable sources
of hydrogen rather than from a fossil
fuel source
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Chapter 6 continued
Exercise 6.4
7
a
d.c. power supply
+ –
A (anode)
C (cathode)
E (electrolyte)
b
c
d
e
8
a
b
c
9
a
b
c
18
copper
copper(II) sulfate (or copper(II) chloride /
copper(II) nitrate)
The anode dissolves away, and a sludge
forms below it.
To protect the object from corrosion /
for decorative purposes.
copper(II) chloride ➞ copper + chlorine
CuCl2(aq) ➞ Cu(s) + Cl2(g)
The gas will bleach moist litmus paper.
The reaction is endothermic / electrical
energy is being used to decompose
the compound.
i
cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e– ➞ Cu(s)
ii anode: Cu(s) ➞ Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
i
Change in mass at cathode: mass
increases as copper deposited
ii Change in mass at anode: mass
decreases as copper dissolves away
from anode
The blue colour is due to the copper ions
present in the solution / the copper ions
discharged at the cathode are replaced by
those dissolving into solution at the anode
/ so the colour does not fade.
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เคมีไฟฟา2
i
+
+
B
A
+1
+
B
O
Pl
/
cansion)
jie e
-
A
oxidation
~
~
8x
A
+
-
+
e
reaction
-
oor-
B
+
-
+
62
B
B
Re-by-o
~
Co N)
.
1
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Cros
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16
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26
27
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Chapter 7
b
c
Exercise 7.1
1
2
3
When a physical change takes place,
the substance undergoing the change is
unchanged chemically. When a chemical
change takes place, the substance or
substances formed are different to the starting
substance. Physical changes are easy to reverse
so that we can easily go back to the starting
substance. Chemical changes are difficult
to reverse, so it is more difficult to form the
starting substance again.
a Ice melting is a physical change, because
the ice and water are chemically the same /
both H2O. Melting is also easy to reverse.
b Magnesium burning in air is a chemical
change because a new compound,
magnesium oxide, is formed. Also, it is
difficult to reverse the change and lots of
energy is given out in the reaction.
c Salt dissolving in water is a physical
change because the salt and water are
unchanged chemically (the salt is just
dissolved) – it is sodium chloride still.
The dissolving can be reversed by
evaporation of the water.
a
d
e
ZnCO3 ➞ ZnO + CO2
Chemical – new substances, zinc oxide
and carbon dioxide, are formed from the
zinc carbonate.
The zinc carbonate is broken up
(decomposition) using heat (thermal).
When the zinc oxide cools down it
changes colour from yellow to white,
which is a physical change. This change is
easily reversed because when it is heated it
turns yellow again.
colourless
gas = carbon
dioxide
heat
solid zinc
carbonate
(ZnCO3)
cool
hot
solid (yellow)
zinc oxide
19
heat
cold
solid (white)
zinc oxide
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Chapter 7 continued
b
Exercise 7.2
4
Type of reaction
Statement/ Fact
The temperature
decreases.
Exothermic
Heat energy is
given out to the
surroundings.
8
Energy / kJ
The temperature
increases.
Endothermic
In an endothermic reaction, the reactants /
products have more thermal energy than
the reactants / products. This means
that energy is transferred to / from the
surroundings and the temperature of the
surroundings increases / decreases.
Combustion is an
example of this
type of reaction.
Heat energy is
taken in from the
surroundings.
c
d
6
a
b
exothermic
The chemicals might burst the container
and mix with the food/drink.
By leaving an empty space above
the chemicals.
calcium oxide + water ➞
calcium hydroxide
CaO + H2O ➞ Ca(OH)2
Advantage: can be used
anywhere instantly.
Disadvantage: cannot be re-used.
Use a known amount of water, measure
the temperature and then add a series
of known masses of ammonium
nitrate. Measure the temperature after
each addition. Plot a graph to show
temperature change against mass of
ammonium nitrate added. Use the graph
to determine the mass needed to reduce
the temperature to 5 °C. Other methods
are possible, but they must work.
Energy / kJ
a
b
endothermic
CaCO3
Progress of reaction
CH4 + 2O2
exothermic
CO2 + 2H2O
Progress of reaction
9
A reactants
B activation energy
C enthalpy of reaction
D products
a
b
Activation energy
= +2000 kJ / mol
Energy / kJ
5
CaO + CO2
N2 + 3H2
Enthalpy change
of reaction
= –92 kJ / mol
Exercise 7.3
7
20
a
2NH3
In an exothermic reaction, the reactants /
products have more thermal energy than
the reactants / products. This means
that thermal energy / potential energy is
transferred to / from the surroundings
and therefore the temperature of the
surroundings increases / decreases.
Progress of reaction
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Chapter 7 continued
f
Exercise 7.4
10 The bond energy is the energy required to
break one mole of covalent bonds. The energy
is measured in kilojoules. When bonds are
broken energy has to be added to the system
and the sign for ∆H is positive. When bonds
are made energy is given out by the system
and the sign for ∆H is negative. The enthalpy
change for the reaction is the difference
between the energy taken in when bonds are
broken and the energy given out when bonds
are made. If the overall change in enthalpy is
negative then the reaction is exothermic.
If it is positive then the reaction is an
endothermic one.
11 a i
Weakest bond = C–C
ii Strongest bond = C=O
b i
Number of moles of OH bonds = 4
ii Energy required = 4 × 464 = 1864 kJ
c i
Bonds broken = 4C–H + 2O=O
= 6 bonds
ii Bonds made = 2C=O + 4O–H
= 6 bonds
12 a Number of moles of bonds broken:
2 × C–C, 8C–H and 5 × O=O
b Energy required to break moles
2 × C–C = 2 × 347 = 694
8 × C–H = 8 × 413 = 3304
5 × O=O = 5 × 498 = 2490
Total energy required for bond breaking =
6488 kJ / mol
c Bonds made: 6 × C=O and 8 × O–H
d Energy given out by making 6 × C=O
bonds = 6 × 805 = 4830
Energy given out by making 8 × O–H
bonds = 8 × 464 = 3712
Total energy given out = 8542 kJ / mol
e Enthalpy change for combustion of
propane = (energy required to break
bonds) − (energy given out when bonds
formed) = 6488 − 8542 = –2054 kJ / mol
21
i
ii
iii
0.2 mol of propane gives −2054 × 0.2
= –410.8 kJ
4 mol of propane gives −2054 × 4 =
–8216 kJ
33
33 g of propane = 44 mol = 0.75 mol
Therefore energy released =
0.75 × –2054 = –1540.5 kJ
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Chapter 8
Exercise 8.1
1
2
3
4
5
6
a
b
B has the greater surface area because more surfaces are exposed.
calcium carbonate(s) + hydrochloric acid(aq) ➞ calcium chloride(aq) +
water(l) + carbon dioxide(g)
The mass decreases because carbon dioxide is given off, leaves the solution and
therefore the mass decreases.
temperature of acid, concentration of acid, volume of acid, mass of
marble chips
Temperature: if it is increased the particles of acid move more quickly, collide
with the solid surface more frequently and with greater force so that there are
more collisions with an energy greater than the activation energy.
Concentration of acid: particles are more crowded and collide more frequently,
so there is more chance of a reaction.
Volume of acid: if a greater volume of acid (of the same concentration) were
present, then the reaction would take place for longer. As long as the acid
covers the chips, it does not affect the initial rate of reaction.
Mass of solid (of same particle size): if more solid is present then reaction
would continue for longer.
In the reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid, the acid
particles can only collide and react with the calcium carbonate particles on the
outside of the pieces, the ones on the inside cannot react. In the smaller pieces,
more of the inside particles are exposed to the acid and the acid particles can
therefore react with more calcium carbonate particles and more reactions
take place.
a For the large pieces of marble chips (flask B), readings (in grams) were:
Time /s
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
Mass /g
240.86
240.65
240.40
240.21
240.10
240.05
239.95
239.94
Loss in
mass /g
0.00
0.21
0.46
0.65
0.76
0.81
0.91
0.92
Time /s
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450
Mass /g
239.90
239.88
239.87
239.86
239.86
239.86
239.86
239.86
Loss in
mass /g
0.96
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
For the small pieces of marble chips (flask B), readings (in grams) were:
22
Time /s
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
Mass /g
240.86
240.35
240.08
239.99
239.95
239.92
239.90
239.88
Loss in
mass /g
0.00
0.51
0.78
0.87
0.91
0.94
0.96
0.98
Time /s
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450
Mass /g
239.87
239.86
239.86
239.86
239.86
239.86
239.86
239.86
Loss in
mass /g
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
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Chapter 8 continued
11 a
b
b
1.2
loss in mass for
smaller pieces
loss in mass for
large pieces
0.8
12
120
0.6
0.4
0
0
200
400
600
Time / s
a
b
Smaller pieces. The graph is steeper at
the beginning and reaches the maximum
amount of gas earlier.
The greater the surface area, the faster
the rate.
The same amount of acid was used.
Exercise 8.2
8
9
X
100
0.2
7
= 100 = 0.23 cm3 / s
440
Volume of gas / cm3
Loss in mass / g
1
c
440 s
average rate
maximum volume
=
time taken to complete the reaction
80
60
40
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Time / s
a
b
The concentration of a solution / solvent is a
measure of the number of particles of solute /
solvent per unit volume / area.
The third box should have eight filled circles.
The reason for this is that the concentration
is equal to the first box which has two closed
circles. But, the volume in the first box is 1 dm3
and the third box is 4 dm3 which means we
need four times as many solute particles for
the same concentration.
line for 5 cm Mg
20
c
d
The line (X) should be steeper at first
and level off to the same volume as the
original line.
The line should be as steep as the original
line at first and then level off to 50 cm3
because half the mass of magnesium
was used.
An example is shown. The slope of this
line is 88–72 = 16 = 0.16 cm3 / s
100
100
As the reaction proceeds the acid is used up
and therefore its concentration decreases
and the rate slows down. This means that
the slope of the graph decreases and the
line gradually gets less steep.
Exercise 8.3
13 a
b
10 a
b
c
23
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ➞ MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
A = delivery tube
B = clamp
C = gas syringe
time, volume of gas
c
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ➞
H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
The sulfur formed is a solid and it
makes the solution cloudy. Therefore
as it increases the reaction mixture
gets cloudier.
The cross will be obscured when there is
enough sulfur in the reaction mixture to
make it so cloudy that it cannot be seen.
This means that we are measuring the
time it takes to make a certain amount
of sulfur.
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Chapter 8 continued
d
The sulfur dioxide is toxic and causes
respiratory distress, so we need a
well-ventilated room.
Also when the reaction mixture is
discarded, it should be discarded in a
fume cupboard sink.
Safety specs are needed because of the
acid used.
14 When the temperature of a reaction mixture
is increased the particles move around more
quickly and this increases their kinetic energy.
Because they move around more quickly
at higher temperatures, they collide more
frequently and this increases the chance of a
reaction taking place. More importantly, when
the particles do collide the collisions are more
efficient. This means that more collisions have
an energy greater than the activation energy,
which is the energy required for reaction
to occur.
15 a
Experiment
Thermometer
diagram
Initial
temperature
/ oC
30
1
2
3
4
5
25
24
25
20
40
40
35
33
35
30
30
45
45
40
40
40
35
35
55
55
50
51
50
45
45
60
60
55
Time for printed
text to disappear
/s
30
20
50
24
Thermometer Final
Mean
diagram
temperature average
/ oC
temperature
/ oC
60
55
24
24
130
31
32
79
38
39
55
47
49
33
54
57
26
50
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Chapter 8 continued
f
Light intensity
b
Time / s
100
Time
50
Exercise 8.4
c
d
e
20
40
60
80
Mean average temperature / °C
Experiment 5
This was the experiment carried out
at the highest temperature. Increasing
the temperature increases the rate of
a reaction because the particles are
moving faster and therefore collide more
frequently. They also have more energy
when they collide and so are more likely
to react.
As the reaction mixture gets cloudier, due
to the production of sulfur, the intensity/
brightness of the light reaching the light
data-logger decreases.
Ea for uncatalysed
reaction
Energy / kJ
0
16 The correct order is U W Q P V T R S
17 a Copper(II) sulfate. It speeds up the
reaction because the formation of bubbles
of hydrogen gas increase greatly but
it is changed chemically. The red solid
produced is copper (this newly-made
copper acts as a catalyst and speeds up
the reaction).
b Copper is the true catalyst because it
speeds up the reaction and is unchanged
and is still copper at the end.
18
Enthalpy change for
both catalysed and
uncatalysed reactions
reactants
Ea for catalysed
reaction
products
Progress of reaction
25
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Chapter 9
4
Exercise 9.1
1
2
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
3
a
b
c
endothermic
By adding water drop-wise to the powder.
If the forward reaction is endothermic
then the reverse reaction must be
exothermic / because the water being
added becomes chemically combined
(with the cobalt ions) in the solid and
bonds are formed.
anhydrous
CuSO4.5H2O ⇌ CuSO4 + 5H2O
blue
white
The reaction is reversible.
The white powder would turn blue,
with heat given out / the test detects the
presence of water and the water does not
have to be pure / the water can still react
even though there is some ethanol there.
Test its boiling point (should be 100 °C at
sea level) / or its freezing point.
–75.3 kJ / mol
The temperature increases.
The backward reaction is exothermic
which means that heat is released
to the surroundings and the
temperature increases.
True
All reactions are easily reversible.
Reversible reactions are represented
by the arrows ⇌.
Energy / kJ
CuSO4 + 5H2O
Enthalpy change
of reaction
CuSO4.5H2O
Progress of reaction
26
✓
✓
If the forward reaction is
endothermic, the backward reaction
is exothermic.
✓
Heating always favours the
endothermic reaction in a
reversible reaction.
✓
When equilibrium is reached,
reversible reactions stop.
✓
✓
Exercise 9.2
5
d
Activation
energy
✓
When the concentrations of
reactants and products are equal,
reversible reactions stop.
Reversible reactions can go forwards
or backwards depending on
the conditions.
False
6
Crop plants are found to need three elements
for healthy growth: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
and potassium (K). Plants take up these
elements in the form of salts such as ammonium
nitrate, potassium nitrate, and potassium or
ammonium phosphate. These elements are
needed for the new plants to make the proteins
needed for growth. Farmers add fertilisers to the
soil to replace the nutrients that previous crops
have absorbed during growth.
a NH3
b KCl: potassium chloride
HNO3: nitric acid
H3PO4: phosphoric acid
NH4NO3: ammonium nitrate
c potassium phosphate: phosphoric acid
and potassium hydroxide
ammonium sulfate: ammonia solution
(ammonium hydroxide) and sulfuric acid
d ammonia + nitric acid ➞
ammonium nitrate
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) ➞ NH4NO3(aq)
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Chapter 9 continued
7
a
b
forwards
i
The rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of backward reaction.
ii Equilibrium shifts towards the ammonia and hydrogen chloride.
iii The system resists the decrease in pressure by making more gas molecules.
Exercise 9.3
8
Change in conditions
Effect on the position of the equilibrium
Increase in pressure for reactions
involving gases
Equilibrium shifts to favour the side of the reaction with more / fewer
gas molecules (the side which occupies more / less space).
Decrease in pressure for reactions
involving gases
Equilibrium shifts to favour the side of the reaction with more / fewer
gas molecules (the side which occupies more / less space).
Increase in temperature for any reaction
Equilibrium shifts to favour the exothermic / endothermic reaction.
Decrease in temperature for any reaction Equilibrium shifts to favour the exothermic / endothermic reaction.
Forward and reverse reactions both sped up so no effect on equilibrium
position, but the reaction reaches equilibrium slower / faster.
Addition of a catalyst
9
a
c
10 a
b
b
c
d
catalysed
Enthalpy
500 ºC
0
20 000
40 000
Pressure / kPa
uncatalysed
N2 + 3H2
∆H exothermic
2NH3
Progress of reaction
27
300 ºC
Ammonia / %
b
vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5,
11 a
or vanadium pentoxide
The products side of the equation (the
80
right-hand side) has fewer moles of
70
gas (occupies a smaller volume) – so a
higher pressure will favour this side of
60
the equation. As pressure increases, the
50
equilibrium mixture contains more sulfur
trioxide.
40
The yield is good enough and reaction
vessels that withstand high pressures are
30
expensive to build. Also high pressures
20
need very strong pumps and a lot of
energy.
10
450 °C, 20 000 kPa pressure (and a
0
powdered iron catalyst)
e
70% ammonia
46% ammonia (possible range is 42–50%)
The disadvantage of using a low temperature
would be that the ammonia would be produced
at a slower rate. This slower rate could make the
process uneconomic at the lower temperature.
Using a high pressure:
• favours the production of ammonia /
moves the equilibrium position to the right
(because there is a smaller volume of gas
on the products side of the equation)
• increases the rate of production of ammonia
(because the reacting molecules are therefore
closer together, and collide more often).
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Chapter 10
Exercise 10.1
1
a
hydrocarbon
fuel
carbon dioxide
BURNING
oxygen
2
b
a
b
c
d
3
a
CuO
b
c
4
a
b
c
28
water
.......................
heat energy
iron
oxygen
RUSTING
rust
water
........................
carbon dioxide
sugar
...............................
oxidation
Exercise 10.2
If a substance gains oxygen during a
5 a i
Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
reaction, it is oxidised.
water
RESPIRATION
ii Reduction is the gain of electrons.
If a substance loses oxygen during a
b Transfer 1 e–
reaction, it is reduced.
heat energy
i
Sodium
(Na) 2,8,1
Chlorine (Cl)
The substance that givesoxygen
oxygen to
2,8,7
another substance in a chemical reaction
+
is the oxidising agent.
ii Sodium ion (Na ) 2,8 Chloride ion
(Cl–) 2,8,8
The substance that accepts oxygen from
another substance in a chemical reaction
Explanation: Sodium has lost one
is the reducing agent.
electron and is therefore oxidised;
chlorine has gained one electron and is
therefore reduced.
oxidation
Transfer 2 e–
i
Ca (Ca) 2,8,8,2
Oxygen (O)
heat
+ H2
Cu + H2O
2,6
2+
ii Calcium ion (Ca ) 2,8 Oxide ion
(O2–) 2,8
reduction
Explanation: Calcium has lost two
reducing
electrons and is therefore oxidised;
i
Zn(s) + Ag2O(s) ➞ ZnO(s) + 2Ag(s)
oxygen has gained two electrons and is
ii Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) ➞ 2Fe(s) + Al2O3(s)
therefore reduced.
iii 3Mg(s) + Al2O3(s) ➞ 3MgO(s) +
6 a
2Al(s)
reduction
iv CO2(g) + 2Mg(s) ➞ C(s) + 2MgO(s)
Carbon monoxide is the reducing agent,
and oxygen is the oxidising agent. The
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)
Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
carbon monoxide gains oxygen. Therefore
oxidation and reduction have taken place.
oxidation
Nitrogen monoxide is the oxidising
agent, and carbon monoxide is the
Copper(II) ions are acting as
reducing agent. The carbon monoxide
oxidising agents.
gains oxygen. Therefore oxidation and
reduction have taken place.
C7H16 + 11O2 ➞ 7CO2 + 8H2O
The carbon and hydrogen both gain
oxygen and are therefore oxidised. The
heptane is therefore the reducing agent
and oxygen is the oxidising agent.
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Chapter 10 continued
b
7
8
Reducing agent = RA;
Oxidising agent = OA
Cu(s) + 2Ag+ (aq) ➞ Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
i
RA
OA
ii 3Mg(s) + 2Al3+(aq) ➞ 3Mg2+(aq) + 2Al(s)
RA
OA
c i
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– ➞ Cu(s)
Electrode = cathode
Type of reaction = reduction
ii 2Cl– (aq) ➞ Cl2(g) + 2e–
Electrode = anode
Type of reaction = oxidation
iii Al3+(l) + 3e– ➞ Al(l)
Electrode = cathode
Type of reaction = reduction
a Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) ➞ 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
b Cl2(g) + 2I–(aq) ➞ 2Cl–(aq) + I2(aq)
c chlorine
d Cl2 + 2e– ➞ 2Cl–
Cl2 + 2Br– ➞ 2Cl– + Br2
Exercise 10.3
9 a
10 a
e
29
+2
+3
+6
b +3
b 0
f +1
c
c
+2
+3
d
d
+4
+6
11 a
2Mg(s) + CO2(g) ➞ 2MgO(s) + C(s)
ON . 0
+4
+2
0
b The magnesium has been oxidised,
because its oxidation number has
increased from 0 to +2.
The carbon has been reduced, because its
oxidation number has decreased from +4
to 0.
(Oxygen remains as –2 throughout.)
12
MnO4− ➞ Mn2+
oxidation number: +7
+2
colour:
purple
pink
(almost colourless)
13 a 2H2(g) + O2(g) ➞ 2H2O(l)
b an oxidation reaction / electrons have
been lost; oxygen has been gained by
the hydrogen
c O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– ➞ 4OH−(aq)
d H2(g) + 2OH−(aq) ➞ H2O(l) + 2e−
(multiply this equation by 2 in order to
cancel out the electrons)
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e− ➞ 4OH− (aq) / add
equations together
2H2(g) + O2(g) ➞ 2H2O(l) / electrons and
OH– ions cancel out
e Hydrogen has greater energy efficiency /
more energy produced for a given mass
of fuel; water is the only product of
burning hydrogen.
f Hydrogen must be transported and stored
safely as it is highly explosive / hydrogen is
currently expensive to produce / as it is a
gas, hydrogen is difficult to transport.
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Chapter 11
Exercise 11.1
1
Acids are substances that dissolve in water to give a solution with a pH less
than 7. Hydrochloric acid has the formula HCl and is a strong acid. Sulfuric
acid (formula = H2SO4) and nitric acid (formula = HNO3) are also strong acids.
In acidic solutions the concentration of the hydrogen ions is greater than the
concentration of hydroxide ions.
Bases are the oxides and hydroxides of metals and ammonia. A base will
neutralise an acid to form a salt and water.
Most bases are insoluble in water, but alkalis are bases that are soluble in water
and their solutions have pH values greater than 7. KOH (potassium hydroxide)
and NaOH (sodium hydroxide) are both strong alkalis. In alkaline solutions
the concentration of hydroxide ions is greater than the concentration of
hydrogen ions.
2
Practical observation
Acid
Base
A solution of the substance has a pH of 8.
✓
A solution of the substance turns litmus paper blue.
✓
A solution of the substance turns litmus paper red.
✓
A substance that neutralises an acid but is insoluble in water.
✓
A substance that neutralises an acid and is soluble in water.
✓
A substance that is an insoluble oxide or hydroxide of a metal.
✓
A substance that is a soluble hydroxide of a metal.
✓
A solution with a pH of 9 that is produced when ammonia is dissolved in water.
A solution of the substance has a pH of 3.
✓
✓
A solution of the substance has a pH of 13.
3
30
Alkali
a
b
c
d
e
f
✓
Colour at A = red
Colour at B = orange
Colour at C = purple
Colour of thymolphthalein = blue
Colour of methyl orange = yellow
3
N placed at 25 cm , pH 7 on graph
25 cm3
a burette
pH = 1.6
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Chapter 11 continued
Exercise 11.2
4
Type of reaction
Statements about these reactions
Acid + metal carbonate
Gives H2 gas as a product
Gives a salt + water + a gas as
the products
Acid + reactive metal
Gives CO2 as a product
Does give an effervescence (fizzing)
Acid + insoluble metal oxide
Gives a salt and water as the
only products
Acid + alkali
5
a
b
c
d
e
31
word equation: magnesium + hydrochloric
acid ➞ magnesium chloride + hydrogen
symbol equation:
Mg + 2HCl ➞ MgCl2 + H2
word equation: calcium hydroxide +
hydrochloric acid ➞ calcium chloride
+ water
symbol equation:
Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl ➞ CaCl2 + 2H2O
word equation: calcium oxide + nitric acid
➞ calcium nitrate + water
symbol equation:
CaO + 2HNO3 ➞ Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
word equation: sodium hydroxide +
sulfuric acid ➞ sodium sulfate + water
symbol equation:
2NaOH + H2SO4 ➞ Na2SO4 + 2H2O
word equation: sodium carbonate + nitric
acid ➞ sodium nitrate + carbon dioxide
+ water
symbol equation: Na2CO3 + 2HNO3 ➞
2NaNO3 + CO2+ H2O
Gives a salt and gas only
f
6
a
b
c
d
word equation: magnesium + nitric acid
➞ magnesium nitrate + hydrogen
symbol equation:
Mg + 2HNO3 ➞ Mg(NO3)2 + H2
Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl ➞ MgCl2 + 2H2O
MgCO3 + 2HCl ➞ MgCl2 + H2O + CO2
Take the sample of the antacid and place
in a conical flask. Add some distilled
water and make sure this is well mixed.
Add the methyl orange indicator to this
mixture and place on the white tile.
Fill the burette to the zero mark with the
1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.
Slowly add the acid to the antacid/mixture
until the methyl orange changes colour
yellow to orange.
Note the volume of acid used and
repeat with the other antacid. The
antacid that requires the greater volume
of hydrochloric acid is the more
effective antacid.
The magnesium carbonate reacts with the
acid to form carbon dioxide, which will
cause bloating and burping.
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Chapter 11 continued
Exercise 11.3
7
8
a
Experiment 1
Using a beaker / pipette, 10 cm3 of the sodium hydroxide solution was
placed in a conical / round-bottomed flask. Thymolphthalein indicator was
added to the flask turning the solution red / blue because of the acidic /
alkaline conditions. A burette / volumetric pipette was filled to the 0.0 /
50.0 cm3 mark with hydrochloric acid (solution P). The acid was then run
into the flask until the colour changed to red / colourless showing that the
alkali in the flask had been neutralised / naturalised by the acid.
The volume of acid / alkali added was noted. The flask was washed
thoroughly with tap / distilled water.
b Experiment 2
The experiment was repeated using the same volume of sodium hydroxide
acid / alkali in the flask but a different solution of acid (solution Q) in the
burette / volumetric pipette.
c The white tile gives a background that makes it easier to distinguish
colour changes.
a and b
Burette readings / cm3
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Final reading
10.6
21.4
Initial reading
0.0
0.2
10.6
21.2
Difference
9
a
b
c
d
e
f
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ➞ sodium chloride + water
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) ➞ H2O(l)
blue to colourless
experiment 2
The acid used in experiment 1 (P) was the more concentrated. Less of it
was required to neutralise the same amount of NaOH.
10.6 cm3. The same volume because although it has been diluted, the
amount of NaOH is the same.
Exercise 11.4
10 a
b
c
11
pure water: H+ = OH–
acid solution: H+ > OH–
alkali solution: OH– > H+
Acid
Base
A solution of the substance contains an excess of hydroxide (OH ) ions.
A solution of the substance contains an excess of hydrogen (H ) ions.
+
✓
The substance is a proton acceptor.
The substance is a proton donor.
32
Alkali
✓
−
✓
✓
✓
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Chapter 11 continued
Hydrochloric acid is a weak / strong
acid. Hydrogen chloride gas consists of
covalent / ionic molecules. When they
dissolve in water these molecules partly /
completely dissociate into hydrogen and
chlorine / chloride ions, producing as many
hydrogen ions in the solution as possible.
Ethanoic acid is a weak / strong acid.
When it dissolves in water some / all of
the molecules dissociate into ions. The
majority of the molecules remain intact.
This means that the concentration of
hydrogen ions is more / less than it could
be if all the molecules had dissociated
into ions.
Two solutions of hydrochloric acid
and ethanoic acid have the same
concentration. The hydrochloric acid
solution will have the higher / lower
pH value. It has the higher / lower
concentration of hydrogen ions and is the
more / less acidic solution.
i
ethanoic acid:
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COO–(aq) +
H+(aq)
ii hydrochloric acid:
HCl(aq) ➞ H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
iii sulfuric acid:
H2SO4(aq) ➞ HSO4–(aq) + H+(aq)
The reaction is reversible and will reach
an equilibrium when the rate of the
reverse reaction is equal to that of the
forward reaction.
12 a
b
c
13 a
b
b
c
d
It is the hydrogen ions from the acid that
react with the calcium carbonate. The
hydrochloric acid is the strong acid and
therefore its concentration of hydrogen
ions is greater than the weaker ethanoic
acid. This means that the reaction with
hydrochloric acid will be faster and end
more quickly. This is shown by the steeper
graph for hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid will have the greater
conductivity because it is a strong acid,
completely dissociated and therefore has
a higher concentration of ions which will
conduct electricity.
The hydrochloric acid loses a proton to
the ammonia and is therefore a proton
donor; the ammonia gains a proton and is
therefore a proton acceptor.
14 a
Volume of CO2 / cm3
80
60
40
ethanoic acid
20
0
33
hydrochloric acid
Time / minutes
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Chapter 12
Exercise 12.1
1
a
b
c
Hydrochloric acid always produces
a chloride.
Nitric acid always produces a nitrate.
Phosphoric acid always produces
a phosphate.
2
3
34
Substances reacted together
Salt produced
Other products of
the reaction
dilute hydrochloric acid
zinc oxide
zinc chloride
water
dilute sulfuric acid
copper carbonate
copper sulfate
water and carbon
dioxide
dilute sulfuric acid
magnesium carbonate
magnesium sulfate
water and carbon
dioxide
dilute hydrochloric acid
magnesium
magnesium chloride
hydrogen
dilute nitric acid
copper oxide
copper nitrate
water
dilute ethanoic acid
sodium hydroxide
sodium ethanoate
water
dilute phosphoric acid
potassium hydroxide
potassium phosphate
water
All salts are ionic compounds. Salts are
produced when an alkali neutralises an acid.
In this reaction, the salt is formed when a
metal ion or an ammonium ion from the alkali
replaces one or more hydrogen ions of the acid.
Salts can be crystallised from the solution
produced by the neutralisation reaction. The
salt crystals formed often contain chemically
combined water. These salts are called hydrated
salts. The salt crystals can be heated to drive
off this water. The salt remaining is said to
be anhydrous.
Salts can be made by other reactions of acids.
Magnesium sulfate can be made by reacting
magnesium carbonate with sulfuric acid. The
gas given off is carbon dioxide. Water is also
formed in this reaction.
All sodium and potassium salts are soluble
in water. Insoluble salts are usually prepared
by precipitation.
4
a
b
Sulfuric acid
Magnesium oxide/magnesium hydroxide/
magnesium carbonate
Warm the acid. Add the base until it stops
disappearing/dissolving.
• Filter.
• Warm the filtrate until crystals start
to appear.
• Leave to cool so that the rest of the
crystals are formed.
Hydrochloric acid
Potassium hydroxide/potassium carbonate
Place accurate volume of solution of base
in conical flask.
• Add a few drops of indicator.
• Add hydrochloric acid from burette
until the indicator changes colour.
• Note volume of acid used and repeat
same experiment without indicator.
• Warm solution formed until crystals
start to appear.
• Leave to cool so that the rest of the
crystals are formed.
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Chapter 12 continued
5
a
b
c
d
6
a
b
c
To make sure that all of the acid is reacted
and none carries through into the stages
of concentration and crystallisation.
by filtration – it is the filtrate
Heat the filtrate in an evaporating basin
to concentrate the solution. Then allow to
cool slowly to form crystals. Filter off the
crystals and dry between filter papers.
zinc + nitric acid ➞ zinc nitrate + hydrogen
Zn(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ➞ Zn(NO3)2(aq)
+ H2(g)
ECBAFD
Because heating strongly would risk
driving off any water of crystallisation
present which would destroy the structure
of the crystals, giving a powder.
water of crystallisation
9
a
b
c
No further precipitate is formed after
4 cm3 of sodium phosphate solution
is added.
Therefore the reacting ratio of the two
solutions is 6 : 4 or 3 : 2.
The two solutions have the same
concentration, so the molar ratio of metal
X ions and phosphate ions is 3 : 2.
Formula of the phosphate of metal X is
therefore X3(PO4)2.
3X3+(aq) + 2PO43–(aq) ➞ X3(PO4)2(s)
filter off the precipitate as the residue /
wash the precipitate / dry carefully in
warm oven
Exercise 12.2
7
8
a
b
c
d
e
f
a
b
c
d
e
35
soluble
insoluble
insoluble
soluble
insoluble
soluble
Reagents used copper(II) nitrate and
potassium or sodium carbonate
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3 ➞ CuCO3(s) +
2KNO3(aq)
Reagents used silver nitrate and potassium
or sodium iodide
AgNO3(aq) + KI(aq) ➞ AgI(s) +
KNO3(aq)
Reagents used silver nitrate and potassium
or sodium chloride
AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) ➞ AgCl(s) +
KNO3(aq)
Barium nitrate and potassium or
sodium sulfate
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4 ➞ BaSO4(s) +
2KNO3(aq)
One of the following equations
Cu2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) ➞ CuCO3(s)
Ag+(aq) + I–(aq) ➞ AgI(s)
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) ➞ AgCl(s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) ➞ BaSO4(s)
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Chapter 13
b
c
d
Exercise 13.1
1
The Periodic Table is a way of arranging the
elements according to their properties. They
are arranged in order of their proton number.
Elements with similar properties are placed
together in vertical columns called groups.
Periods are horizontal rows of the elements.
The table shows trends down the groups and
patterns across the periods.
The placing of the elements in the table also
corresponds to their electron arrangements
(electronic configurations). The number of
electrons in the outer electron shell is the same
as its group number in the table. The number
of occupied electron shells of the element is
the period in which it is placed.
a Cu and Cr
b He
c Br
d C
e S
f He, Ne and Kr
g Cu
h Ca
i
Mg
a
2
3
C and Si (carbon and silicon)
Group 4 (IV)
When the melting points of elements are
plotted against atomic (or proton) number
they show a repeating pattern. The highest
melting points are given by the elements
of Group number 4 / IV and the lowest by
the noble gases.
Exercise 13.2
4
5
6
7
a Cs
b Na
c one electron in outer shell
d conductor, lustrous, reactive, soft
To stop them reacting with water and air.
a two of: float on surface of water; move
around; fizz; both melt; disappear at end
of reaction
b The potassium bursts into (lilac) flame.
The sodium does not.
c 2Na + 2H2O ➞ 2NaOH + H2
a two of: grey solid; conducts electricity;
soft/easily cut; lustrous/shiny
b 1
C
6
3500
Melting point / °C
3000
2000
Si
14
Be
4
1500
Mg
12
1000
500
0
–273
36
B
5
2500
Li
3
Na
11
N
7
O
8
F
9
Ne
10
Al
13
P
15
S
16
Cl
17
Proton
Ne number
18
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Chapter 13 continued
8
Group I metal Density
/ g per cm3
Radius of metal
atom / nm
Boiling point / °C
Reactivity with water
sodium
0.97
0.191
883
floats and fizzes quickly on the
surface, disappears gradually and
does not burst into flame
potassium
0.86
0.235
760
reacts instantly, fizzes and bursts
into flame, may spit violently
rubidium
1.53
0.250
686
reacts instantaneously, fizzes and
bursts into flame then spits violently
and may explode
caesium
1.88
0.255–0.265
620–650
(actual value 0.260)
(actual value 671)
reacts instantly and explosively
Exercise 13.3
9
a
b
c
d
e
10 a
b
c
d
11 a
The halogens are metals / non-metals and their vapours are
coloured / colourless.
The halogens are toxic / non-toxic to humans.
Halogen molecules are each made of one / two atoms; they are
monatomic / diatomic.
Halogens react with metal / non-metal elements to form crystalline
compounds that are salts.
Halogens can colour / bleach vegetable dyes and kill bacteria.
Halogen
Reaction with iron wool
Chlorine
When iron wool was lowered into a gas jar, a very exothermic reaction could be seen
and dark red solid formed.
Bromine
The iron wool had to be heated at first, but there was a very exothermic reaction
and a dark red solid was formed.
Iodine
Lots of heat was needed and a small amount of heat was given out. A dark red
solid formed.
The elements get less reactive as we descend the group.
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) ➞ 2FeCl3(s)
2Fe(s) + 3Br2(g) ➞ 2FeBr3(s)
Element
37
Proton number
Melting point / °C
Boiling point / °C
Colour
fluorine
9
–219
–18
pale yellow
chlorine
17
–101
–34
pale green
bromine
35
–6
iodine
53
114
185
grey–black
astatine
85
303
337
black
red/dark red
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Chapter 13 continued
b
Exercise 13.4
400
12
True
300
Some transition elements are
non-metals.
Temperature / °C
200
100
0
–100
–200
0
10
20
30
40 50 60 70
Proton number
= melting points
c
d
e
f
38
80
90
= boiling points
estimated boiling point = 90–115 °C
(actual value 114 °C)
colour: red–brown
physical state: liquid
fluorine and chlorine
solid, black
The melting points increase as you go
down the group.
False
✓
Transition elements have
high densities.
✓
Some transition elements make
good catalysts.
✓
Transition elements form only
white compounds.
✓
All transition elements
are magnetic.
✓
13 a
b
c
d
e
f
g
14 a
b
c
copper
platinum
copper
iron
manganese
chromium
silver, gold
oxidation number
variable oxidation number
iron(II) oxide: FeO
iron(III) oxide: Fe2O3
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Chapter 13 continued
Exercise 13.5
15
Statement
Electronic configuration
Is an element in the same
group as nitrogen
2,8,2
Is a monatomic gas
2,8,5
Is chlorine
2,8,8
Forms the gas SO2 with an
element in the same group
2,8,6
Is a green–yellow gas
2,8,7
Is a brittle yellow solid
16 a
Noble gas
b
c
d
Density g/dm3
Atomic number
Period
Electronic configuration
Helium
0.18
2
1
2
Neon
0.90
10
2
2,8
Argon
1.78
18
3
2,8,8
Krypton
3.75
36
4
2,8,18,8
Xenon
5.89
54
5
2,8,18,18,8
The period number (row number) is equal
to the number of occupied shells (energy
levels) in the atom of the element.
Helium is used in balloons because it is
(a lot) less dense than air.
It will sink because argon is more dense
than air.
17
Name of element
Density / g per cm
3
Selenium
Tellurium
2.07
4.79
6.24
Melting point / °C
115
221
450
Boiling point / °C
445
685
988
Ionic radius / nm
39
Sulfur
0.184
0.198
0.221
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Chapter 14
Exercise 14.1
1
2
1 = strong
3 = sonorous
4 = they can be beaten into shape
5 = ductile
Description of physical property
Name for this property
Use that depends on this property
They can be moulded or bent
into shape.
malleability
car bodies
They transfer heat well.
thermal conductivity
cooking pots and pans
They can be drawn into wires.
they are ductile
cabling and wiring
They conduct electricity.
electrical conductivity
electrical wiring
They are heavy for their volume.
high density
building construction
They can bear weight and are not
broken easily.
strength
bridges
They make a ringing sound when
struck by a hammer.
they are sonorous
bells
3
a
b
c
d
4
a
b
c
d
40
2 = high
Metals show good electrical conductivity
whereas non-metals are poor conductors
of electricity.
Metals are malleable and ductile but
non-metals are brittle.
Metals are good conductors of heat but
most non-metals are thermal insulators.
Metals are usually grey in colour and can
be polished whereas non-metals are a wide
range of different colours and cannot
be polished.
Aluminium has a high electrical
conductivity.
The low density of aluminium means that
the overhead cables do not sag too much
between pylons.
Copper is an even better conductor of
electricity and the weight of the wiring is
not a factor.
Titanium is light and strong – it is
also expensive, so can only be used for
specialist purposes.
5
a
b
c
6
a
b
c
d
e
magnesium > zinc > iron > copper
Magnesium produced the most vigorous
bubbling of gas when added to the acid,
copper produced no gas at all. Zinc
produced more effervescence than iron.
hydrogen
zinc + hydrochloric acid ➞ zinc chloride
+ hydrogen
magnesium oxide
B is sodium / sodium hydroxide is the
solution produced
A<C<B
B
magnesium oxide, MgO
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Chapter 14 continued
Exercise 14.2
7
8
a
iii
b
Alloy
vi c
v
d
ii
Composition
mild steel
stainless steel
iron: >99.75%
carbon: <0.25%
iv
Use
Useful property
car bodies
can be beaten into shape
(malleable)
cutlery,
chromium: 18%
surgical instruments,
chemical vessels for industry
copper: 70%
zinc: 30%
copper: 95%
bronze
i f
iron: 74%
nickel: 8%
brass
e
tin: 5%
resistant to corrosion
(does not rust easily)
musical instruments,
ornaments
‘gold’ colour, harder
statues, church bells
hard, does not corrode
aircraft construction
light (low density)
but strong
joining wires in electrical
circuitry
low melting point
cutting edges of drill bits
very hard
than copper
aluminium: 90.25%
aerospace
aluminium
zinc: 6%
magnesium: 2.5%
copper: 1.25%
tin: 60%
solder
lead: 40%
tungsten steel
9
a
b
c
d
e
iron: 95%
tungsten: 5%
In a pure metal the layers can slide over
each other so the metal can be shaped
without breaking.
Solder has a lower melting point and so it
is easier to melt. It is also stronger and so
the joints will be stronger.
chromium and nickel / they are
transition metals
The presence of the different sized atoms
of the added metal in the alloy means that
the layers cannot slide over each other as
easily as in the pure metal / the alloy is
stronger and less malleable.
The presence of the added iron and silicon
atoms make the commercial aluminium
stronger and harder.
f
positive metal ion
electron
g
41
The copper used in wiring needs to be
very pure so that the delocalised electrons
can move as freely as possible through
the structure. The presence of impurities
would interfere with this flow.
i
The pins of the electric plugs have to
be strong, so brass of composition
Cu60:Zn40 is used.
ii Brass instruments have to be shaped
into tubes, so a softer alloy is needed.
Cu70:Zn30 is therefore used.
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Chapter 15
Exercise 15.1
1
a
b
c
d
2
e
f
a
b
c
3
a
b
All the metals in the group react with cold water to give an alkaline
solution of the metal hydroxide.
sodium: 2,8,1
potassium: 2,8,8,1
They each contain one electron in their outer (valency) shell.
Potassium is the more reactive, as the energy generated by the reaction is
sufficient to ignite the hydrogen produced.
potassium + water ➞ potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) ➞ 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
The sodium melts into a ball.
Yellow, because of the sodium ions present / yellow is the flame test colour
for sodium.
magnesium + water (steam) ➞ magnesium oxide + hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2O(g) ➞ MgO(s) + H2(g)
two outer electrons
Group II metal Density
/ g per cm3
c
d
e
f
42
Radius of metal Boiling point
atom / nm
/ °C
Reactivity with water and steam
magnesium
1.74
0.173
1090
reacts very slowly with cold
water, but reacts strongly
with steam
calcium
1.54
0.231
1484
reacts strongly with cold water,
unsafe to react with steam
strontium
2.64
0.249
1377
reacts strongly with cold water,
unsafe to react with steam
barium
3.62
0.268
1845
reacts strongly with cold water,
unsafe to react with steam
Atomic size increases as you descend the group.
Calcium appears to show values for density and boiling point that do not
follow the general trends in the group.
calcium + water ➞ calcium hydroxide + hydrogen
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) ➞ Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
In Groups I and II the metals become more reactive with water as you
descend the groups.
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Chapter 15 continued
b
Exercise 15.2
4
5
When metals react with cold water, the
products are a metal hydroxide and
hydrogen. The hydroxides formed are
alkaline and they will turn red litmus blue.
Some metals do not react with cold water
but do with steam. The products in this
reaction are the metal oxide and hydrogen.
Copper does not react with water or with
dilute acids. This is because it is lower in
the reactivity series than hydrogen.
zinc + steam (water) ➞ zinc oxide +
hydrogen
copper or silver (or another metal low in
the series)
iron, zinc or magnesium (not calcium
or sodium, etc., because these are too
reactive to be safe)
a
a
b
c
Temperature / °C
6
a
80
c
d
e
f
the reaction between zinc and
copper(II) sulfate
because the reactions have finished and no
more heat is given out
zinc + copper sulfate ➞ zinc sulfate +
copper
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) ➞ FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Zinc gave the higher temperature rise
because it is the more reactive metal.
This experiment seems to be a ‘fair test’
in that most of the variables except the
choice of metal are controlled. One
difficulty is whether the two metals were
powdered to the same extent so the
surface area available for the reaction
will be different in each case. Note that,
although 5 g is not an equal number of
moles of the two metals, it is an excess in
both cases.
zinc
60
iron
40
20
43
0
1
2
Time / minutes
3
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Chapter 15 continued
7
a
At start
At finish
b
c
d
e
f
8
a
b
44
zinc
zinc
tin
silver
copper
tin(II)
chloride
solution
copper(II)
sulfate
solution
copper(II)
sulfate
solution
copper(II)
sulfate
solution
silver
nitrate
solution
Colour
of metal
grey
grey
silver
coloured
silver
coloured
brown
Colour
of solution
colourless
blue
blue
blue
colourless
Colour
of metal
coated
with silvercoloured
crystals
coated with
brown solid
coated with
brown solid
silver
coloured
coated
with silvercoloured
crystals
Colour
of solution
colourless
colourless
colourless
blue
blue
zinc > tin > copper > silver
The first equation is correct as lanthanum
is more reactive than aluminium and
will displace aluminium from aluminium
sulfate (reduce Al3+ ions to Al atoms).
transition metals
They can be good catalysts; they form
coloured compounds.
Aluminium becomes coated with a very
thin layer of aluminium oxide which
masks the true reactivity of the metal.
Magnesium is less ready to form a
positive ion than sodium because there
are more protons in the nucleus attracting
the electrons.
Potassium forms a positive ion more easily
because the outer electrons are further
from the nucleus and this outweighs the
fact that there are more protons in the
nucleus / there is also one more inner shell
of electrons in potassium.
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Chapter 16
Exercise 16.1
1
a–c
Metal
sodium
Reactivity
Method of
extraction
Energy needed to
extract the metal
most
calcium
Cost of extracting
the metal
most
highest
least
lowest
extraction by
electrolysis
magnesium
aluminium
carbon
zinc
lead
reduction by
heating with
carbon
copper
silver
gold
2
3
4
5
6
7
least
copper and silver
zinc
no, zinc is more reactive than hydrogen
Sodium can be obtained by electrolysis of the
molten ore (energy costs high).
a Sodium is a good reducing agent, as it has
a strong tendency to form positive ions;
it does this more readily than aluminium
and so can be used to extract aluminium
from aluminium chloride.
b i
3Na(s) + AlCl3(s) ➞ 3NaCl(s) + Al(s)
ii 3Na(s) + Al3+(s) ➞ 3Na+(s) + Al(s)
a exothermic reactions
b aluminium + iron(III) oxide ➞ aluminium
oxide + iron
2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) ➞ Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s)
c iron < aluminium < sodium
b
12 a
b
c
13 a
b
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) ➞ 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
[state symbols as apply in the furnace]
CaCO3(s) ➞ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
SiO2
CaO
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) ➞ CaSiO3(l) [state
symbols as apply in the furnace]
Zinc has a lower boiling point than iron
and it boils at the temperatures in the
furnace. The zinc vapour is collected and
condensed at the top of the furnace.
The liquid zinc collected at the top of the
furnace will be pure as it passed through
the furnace as a gas. Iron remains as a
liquid at the furnace temperature and
flows down to the bottom. The liquid
iron dissolves impurities as it flows down
through the furnace.
Exercise 16.2
Exercise 16.3
8
9
14 a
b
c
a E
b C
c A
d B
e D
blast furnace: because hot air is blown
(blasted) into the furnace at the base
10 a hematite
b at the centre of the furnace, half-way up
c carbon monoxide (CO) produced from
burning the coke
d iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide ➞ iron
+ carbon dioxide
e The iron is liquid at the temperature in the
furnace and so it flows down to the bottom.
45
11 a
d
e
bauxite
Al2O3, Al3+ and O2–
The aluminium oxide must be molten
so that the ions are able to move to the
electrodes and be discharged.
i
oxygen
ii aluminium
any one correct, e.g. aircraft, food
containers, overhead power cables
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Chapter 16 continued
15 a
b
c
d
e
f
16 a
b
B
A
C outer casing, D molten aluminium
Cryolite is a solvent in which the
aluminium oxide is dissolved; it lowers
the melting point of the aluminium oxide
and so reduces the energy costs of the
extraction.
They burn away in the oxygen discharged
by the electrolysis.
Al3+(l) + 3e– ➞ Al(l)
2O2–(l) ➞ O2(g) + 4e–
Aluminium oxide is amphoteric and so
reacts with the sodium hydroxide; iron
oxide is basic and does not react.
(thermal) decomposition
21 Aluminium is not as strong and is
more expensive.
22 a galvanisation
b Zinc is more reactive than iron and so will
corrode away in preference to the iron /
the zinc provides sacrificial protection /
the zinc forms positive ions more readily
than the iron.
23 a magnesium
b Zn(s) ➞ Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
Exercise 16.4
17 a
b
c
d
e
18 a
b
19 a
b
c
d
20 a
b
46
Anhydrous calcium chloride is a drying
agent to dry the air in the tube.
To boil any dissolved air (oxygen) out of
the water.
To prevent any air dissolving in the water.
tube 4
Dissolved salt would speed up the rusting
process (seawater makes rusting take
place faster).
air (oxygen) and water
Two of: painting, coating in plastic, oiling,
plating with a metal.
The can could rust all the way through.
The zinc, being more reactive, would
corrode in preference to the steel.
It is reactive and could react with acids in
the food.
Tin is unreactive and does not react
with acids.
Lead is poisonous, and a little could
dissolve and contaminate the food.
If the layer of tin is broken it causes the
iron beneath to corrode more rapidly. The
tin coating is less reactive and no longer
protects the can.
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Chapter 17
Exercise 17.1
1
A
M
O
T
A
S
Q
N
H
B
W
F
F
P
a
R
C
U
H
L
V
K
R
Y
E
R
N
R
S
b
c
d
2
a
G
H
T
I
B
R
L
E
D
N
O
P
K
C
L
O
T
S
O
M
C
N
R
X
M
Q
A
A
A
R
I
U
R
J
F
A
O
R
I
R
E
R
N
I
C
L
I
P
E
H
G
U
B
V
A
B
S
C
R
F
T
H
G
T
E
O
A
P
L
O
H
P
H
U
A
G
S
E
N
P
R
E
M
N
I
R
N
R
S
T
E
M
L
A
T
S
S
D
F
E
O
D
K
I
O
S
E
V
S
L
P
I
O
U
Y
I
R
N
N
O
G
R
A
P
V
O
M
M
L
O
O
T
L
U
N
E
O
R
Y
X
T
A
O
X
Y
G
E
N
P
T
T
M
L
I
I
S
I
I
Z
A
C
P
Z
A
F
N
P
D
L
D
S
D
P
Q
D
Y
L
W
A
E
A
E
E
B
F
E
L
U
P
F
R
A
M
D
O
M
e
f
g
hydrogen
oxygen / 21%
nitrogen and nitrogen dioxide
Source
motor
vehicles
farming
power
stations
Formula
Name of gas
Found in
clean dry air
Ar
argon
✓
CO2
carbon dioxide
✓
CO
carbon monoxide
H2
hydrogen
CH4
methane
N2
nitrogen
NO2
nitrogen dioxide
O2
oxygen
Considered
a pollutant
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
SO2
sulfur dioxide
H2O
water vapour
✓
nitrogen and argon
See completed table in a.
water
Gas
Adverse effect
toxic gas
carbon dioxide
can cause respiratory
problems
carbon
monoxide
methane
particulates
causes acid rain
oxides of
nitrogen
causes global
warming
sulfur dioxide
photochemical smog
increased cancer risk
b
c
d
e
3
a
b
47
Carbon monoxide decreases the capacity
of the blood to carry oxygen.
sulfuric acid, nitric acid (accept sulfurous
acid, nitrous acid also)
methane
(anaerobic) decay of vegetation in
marshes and paddy fields / (anaerobic)
decay of organic material in landfill sites /
digestion in livestock
A and B: both are major contributors
of carbon dioxide. Possibly D: a major
contributor to methane. Carbon dioxide
and methane are greenhouse gases.
C and F: both can be done without
impacting on the human population. The
technology is already available.
c
4
a
b
c
The easiest methods to implement do
not impact on everyday human life but
do not make a major difference to levels
of pollution. The more difficult methods
must be attempted, but will have a wider
range of impacts on society.
Harmful nitrogen oxides (NOx) arise from
nitrogen and oxygen from the air reacting
in the hot engine of the vehicle. (Diesel
engines produce higher levels of NOx as
they have a higher operating temperature.)
2CO(g) + 2NO(g) ➞ 2CO2(g) + N2(g)
Nitrogen(II) oxide is acting as an
oxidising agent.
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Chapter 17 continued
Exercise 17.2
Carbon dioxide concentration / ppm
6
The greenhouse effect has kept the Earth at a temperature suitable for the
development of life for many thousands of years. As industrial activity has
increased during the 20th century, more and more greenhouse gases have been
released into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and methane are the two gases
causing the greatest problem. Methane is 25 times more potent as a greenhouse gas
but carbon dioxide is present in greater quantities.
Because of these gases, more of the heat from the sun is kept within the
Earth’s atmosphere and this causes global warming. Much of this heat warms
water in the oceans, which cover about 70% of the Earth’s surface. Increased
temperatures in the oceans and in the atmosphere have an effect on the Earth’s
climate. This effect means that extreme weather events are more likely.
a
460
16.4
450
16.2
440
16.0
430
15.8
420
15.6
410
15.4
400
15.2
390
15.0
380
14.8
370
14.6
360
14.4
350
14.2
temperature
340
14.0
330
13.8
320
13.6
310
13.4
carbon dioxide
300
290
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
Mean average temperature / °C
5
13.2
2000
2020
13.0
2040
Year
b
i
ii
48
Carbon dioxide: there has been a steady increase in the level of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere since 1880. However, the curve
has increased more sharply since the 1960s. This rate of increase has
remained steady over recent decades.
Mean temperature: the change in mean temperature is more variable,
showing more peaks and troughs. However, since the 1940s, the broad
trend is for the mean temperature to increase.
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Chapter 17 continued
c
d
7
a
b
c
8
a
b
c
49
No. It was only a minor fluctuation as the
trend is still upwards.
carbon dioxide = 450–460 ppm / mean
temperature = 15.4–15.5 °C (values
depend on extrapolated line drawn)
glaciers melt: sea level rises / coastal
flooding more likely
lack of rain: vegetation dries out / fire
spreads more rapidly
Dependent on student answers:
Problems: increased land temperatures /
droughts, etc.
Causes: industrialisation / burning fossil
fuels / intensive livestock farming /
deforestation, etc.
Solutions: increasing use of hydrogen
and renewable energy / planting trees
/ decreasing reliance on fossil fuels /
reduction in livestock farming, etc.
Photosynthesis
carbon dioxide + water ➞ glucose
+ oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O ➞ C6H12O6 + 6O2
9
The greenhouse effect is a natural
phenomenon that warms the surface of
the Earth.
When thermal energy (infrared radiation)
from the Sun reaches the Earth’s atmosphere,
around 30% is reflected back to space and
around 70% is absorbed by the oceans and
land to heat the planet. Some of this heat is
then radiated back up into the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere such as
carbon dioxide and methane can absorb this
infrared radiation and then re-emit it back
toward the Earth. This reduces heat loss to
space and keeps the Earth’s temperature warm
enough to sustain life.
Human activities are increasing the amount
of greenhouse gases released into the
atmosphere, trapping extra heat and causing
global temperatures to rise. This warming of
both the atmosphere and the oceans gives rise
to the different aspects of climate change.
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Chapter 17 continued
Exercise 17.3
10
Stage of treatment
What is removed
passed through a coarse screen
A, B
sedimentation and filtration
E, H
chlorination
F
not removed in water treatment
C, D, G
11
Test
Seawater
River water
Add to anhydrous copper sulfate
Changed from white to blue
Changed from white to blue
Test with cobalt chloride paper
Changed from blue to pink
Changed from blue to pink
Measure the boiling point
Boiled at 103–105 °C
Boiled at slightly over 100 °C
Boil away a sample of water
There was a lot of white
solid remaining
There was very little
solid remaining
12 Distilled water contains no dissolved
substances. Even very small amounts of
dissolved impurities in water can interfere with
science experiments.
13 a It has been filtered as it flows through the
ground / it has not flowed through fields
and towns.
b No: only water that is consumed by
people needs to be free from microbes.
c Some minerals are essential for health,
and spring (well) water can provide some
of these minerals.
d Boiling will kill the harmful microbes in
the water.
e Plastic bottles can be discarded, causing
environmental pollution.
f Sterilising tablets can be added to water /
water can be boiled before consumption /
filter straws, etc.
50
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Chapter 18
Exercise 18.1
Exercise 18.2
1
3
2
The chief source of organic compounds is the
naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons
known as petroleum. Hydrocarbons are
compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen
only. There are many hydrocarbons because
of the ability of carbon atoms to join together
to form long chains. There is a series of
hydrocarbons with just single covalent bonds
between the carbon atoms in the molecule.
These are saturated hydrocarbons, and they
are called alkanes. The simplest of these
saturated hydrocarbons has the formula
CH4 and is called methane. Unsaturated
hydrocarbons can also occur. These molecules
contain at least one carbon–carbon double
bond. These compounds belong to the
alkenes, a second series of hydrocarbons.
The simplest of this ‘family’ of unsaturated
hydrocarbons has the formula C2H4 and is
known as ethene.
The test for an unsaturated hydrocarbon is to
add the sample to bromine water. It changes
colour from orange–brown to colourless if the
hydrocarbon is unsaturated.
a
b
c
d
e
51
Name
Formula
ethene
C2H4
–102
propene
C3H6
–48
butene
C4H8
–7
pentene
C5H10
30
hexene
C6H12
4
5
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
a
b
c
alkanes
alcohols
carboxylic acids
alkenes
butane
methanoic acid
butanol
CnH2n +2
CnH2n+1OH
CnH2n+1COOH
Boiling
point / °C
60 (58–62)
C12H24
CnH2n
A homologous series is a series of
organic compounds that have the same
general formula and similar chemical
properties because they contain the same
functional group.
the carbon–carbon double bond
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H
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Chapter 18 continued
6
Name of compound
Homologous series
an alcohol
propanol
Molecular formula
C3H7OH
Displayed formula
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
a carboxylic acid
ethanoic acid
CH3COOH
H
C
O
an alkene
C3H6
H
an alcohol
ethane
an alkane
C2H5OH
C2H6
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
H
C
H
H
ethanol
H
C
H
propene
O
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
H
C
C
H
H
O
H
H
Exercise 18.3
7
Compound
Molecular formula
Structural formula
Empirical formula
butane
C4H10
CH3CH2CH2CH3
C2H5
propene
C3H6
CH3CH=CH2
CH2
ethanol
C2H5OH
CH3CH2OH
C2H6O
propanoic acid
C2H5COOH
CH3CH2COOH
C3H6O2
propyl ethanoate
CH3COOC2H5
CH3COOCH2CH3
C2H4O
8
a because it is an alkane with just carbon–carbon single bonds
b and c
H
O
H
C
C
H
C
C
H H
C
O
H
C
H
d
A
H
C
C
C
H
B
H
C
O
C
H
C
C
H
H
H
O
C
H
Aspirin
the hydroxyl group (–OH); the functional group present in alcohols
CH3 CH2
Cholesterol
CH3
CH
CH2
CH2
CH3
CH
CH3
CH3
52
HO
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Chapter 18 continued
9
a
b
10 a
b
c
d
e
11 a
alkenes
CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2
(or CH3CH2CH=CHCH3)
(structural) isomerism
butane, CH3CH2CH2CH3
butan-2-ol, CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3
but-1-ene, CH3CH2CH=CH2
1,1-dibromoethane, CH3CHBr2
ethyl ethanoate, CH3COOCH2CH3
propyl propanoate,
CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3
H
b
H
H
C
C
H
H
O
C
O
H
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
methyl butanoate, CH3CH2CH2COOCH3
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
O
C
O
H
C
H
H
53
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Chapter 19
3
Exercise 19.1
1
Name of
hydrocarbon
Molecular
formula of
hydrocarbon
Saturated /
unsaturated
ethane
ethene
C2H6
C2H4
saturated
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
30
H
H
C
H
4
H
C
C
H
H
c
a
e
f
54
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
H
Br
Br
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
b
28
H
H
H
C
C
C
Cl
H
H
H
H
1-chloropropane
c
H
H
H
C
C
C
H
Cl
H
H
2-chloropropane
A reaction that is started by light
(including ultraviolet light) / the light
energy provides the activation energy for
the reaction.
Exercise 19.2
CH2
5
H
a
CH2
H
CH
C
b
c
CH3
b
c
d
C
C4H8 + Br2 ➞ C4H8Br2
C
H2C
H
H
C
H
Ethane is saturated because all the
C—C bonds are single covalent
bonds.
ii Ethene is unsaturated because it
contains one C=C bond.
Alkenes C=C
H2C
H
Br
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
Br
i
H 3C
H
H
b
unsaturated
H
Relative
molecular
mass of
hydrocarbon
2
C
H
Displayed
formula of
hydrocarbon
c
a
H
H
a
b
a
C10H16
10 × 12 + 16 × 1 = 136
The colour changes from orange–brown
to colourless (not clear).
A thermometer, B (water-cooled)
condenser / Liebig condenser,
C measuring cylinder
burning in an insufficient (limited) supply
of air (or oxygen)
6
7
a
b
a
b
H
H
C
C
H
H
O
H
C3H7OH or C3H8O
3 × 12 (3 carbons) + 7 × 1 (7 hydrogens) +
16 + 1 (for OH group)
= 36 + 7 + 17 = 60
retinol, cholesterol and geraniol
alkenes
The water has to be in gaseous form and
therefore the temperature has to be above
the boiling point of water.
If a high pressure is applied to the
chemical system at equilibrium, the
equilibrium will shift to lower the pressure
and does this by making fewer gas
molecules which means more ethanol.
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Chapter 19 continued
8
d
a
air-lock containing water
bubbles of carbon dioxide
glucose solution and yeast
b
c
d
9
a
b
c
10 a
b
c
Ethanol is toxic to the yeast and as more
is produced it eventually kills the yeast.
Ethanol is a product of anaerobic
respiration – in the presence of oxygen
a different reaction takes place / in the
presence of oxygen the ethanol may
be oxidised.
Advantage using ethene: can be made using
continuous flow method so do not need to
stop and start / can make 100% ethanol.
Advantage using sugar: cheap – the
materials are easily available and doesn’t
use fossil fuels.
high temperature and a catalyst
C9H20 ➞ C5H12 + C4H8
steam (H2O)
C4H9OH + 6O2 ➞ 4CO2 + 5H2O
butan-1-ol + propanoic acid ➞ butyl
propanoate + water
CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH2CH3
12 a
b
c
d
13 a
b
Exercise 19.3
11 a
b
c
55
C2H5OH + 3O2 ➞ 2CO2 + 3H2O
carbon monoxide and water
burns to give out lots of heat energy; easy
to light; easily available, e.g. from renewable
sources; burns cleanly with no solid
waste; is a liquid at room temperature and
therefore easy to transport
c
Ethene is formed from the cracking of
fossil fuels, and therefore the production
of ethanol by this method makes it a
non-renewable fuel. Fossil fuels are
non-renewable because they take millions
of years to form, so once they are used up
there is no more. If ethene is made from
glucose, all the sources are from plants
and are therefore renewable because more
can be planted and grown.
Measurements made are: weighing the
masses of ethanol and the burner before
and after burning; weighing the water
and copper calorimeter to make sure the
same amount of water is used each time;
temperature measurements.
Errors are due to heat loss and
incomplete combustion.
C2H5OH + 3O2 ➞ 2CO2 + 3H2O
13.8
x=
× 2.7 = 16.2 g of water
2.3
A: ethanol; B: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH;
C: 88
The independent variable is either
the number of carbons or the relative
molecular mass.
The dependent variable is the
boiling point.
To estimate the boiling points of
propan-1-ol and hexan-1-ol:
Plot the points; draw line of best fit
whether it be a curve or straight line.
• From the line, see what temperature
corresponds with three carbons or a
relative molecular mass of 60.
• Extend line on for six carbons or
relative molecular mass of 102.
The value for hexan-1-ol, because the
value for propan-1-ol lies on the line
already given. The hexan-1-ol is an
estimate by extrapolation of what the
value would be.
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Chapter 19 continued
Exercise 19.4
14 a
d
15 a
b
c
16 a
b
c
d
56
A
b C and E
c D
B and D
e A
f C2H4O
H2O
1 kg = 1000 g: Mr(ethanol) = 46;
Mr (CH3COOH) = 60
920
Number of moles of ethanol =
× 103
46
4
= 2 × 10 (20 000)
From the equation the number of moles
of ethanoic acid = number of moles of
ethanol = 20 000. Therefore, mass of
ethanoic acid formed = 20 000 × 60 =
1 200 000 or 1.2 × 106 g or 1200 kg.
ethanoic acid + sodium carbonate ➞
sodium ethanoate + carbon dioxide
+ water
If the condenser is returned to the usual
slanting position, the reaction mixture
will not be returned to the flask and some
of the ethanol will not be oxidised to
ethanoic acid. Some of the ethanol will
distill over and not be available to react.
C2H5OH + 2[O] ➞ CH3COOH + H2O
The group knew that they needed ethanoic
acid as well as ethanol to prepare ethyl
ethanoate. So, they took the ethanol and
divided it into two portions. One portion
was oxidised to ethanoic acid by adding
it to acidified potassium manganate(VII).
The mixture was then refluxed for an
hour and the ethanoic acid produced
was distilled off. The ethanoic acid was
then mixed with the ethanol and some
concentrated sulfuric acid added. The
concentrated sulfuric acid acted as a
catalyst for the reaction. After the mixture
was refluxed together, the ester ethyl
ethanoate was distilled off.
CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) ⇌
CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
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Chapter 20
b
Exercise 20.1
2
3
50
Proportion in petroleum / %
aluminium oxide
A: refinery gas / heating and cooking
B: gasoline (petrol) / fuel for cars
C: naphtha / for making chemicals
(chemical feedstock)
D: kerosene (paraffin) / fuel for aircraft
(jet fuel)
E: bitumen / road surfacing
a boiling point
b Chain length decreases and viscosity
decreases as you ascend the tower.
a
ceramic wool
soaked in decane
Proportion in petroleum
Percentage of demand
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
c
d
e
50
40
A
B
C
D
diesel fuel oil /
oil waxes / E
0
It is a catalyst.
See diagram.
Y = octane.
2C8H18 + 25O2 ➞ 16CO2 + 18H2O
Test: add bromine water and mix.
Results: the bromine is decolourised or
the colour of the bromine water goes from
orange to colourless.
The other product would have to contain
only one carbon and be an alkene, which
has to have at least two carbons.
f
g
Exercise 20.2
6
Poly(ethene) is an addition polymer
formed from many ethene molecules. In
this reaction, the starting molecules can
be described as monomers. The process is
known as polymerisation.
a
Fraction
b
4
c
a
b
B (gasoline), diesel oil; E (bitumen),
fuel oil and waxes
B (gasoline) + diesel oil = 22 + 23 = 45%
C15H32 ➞ C12H26 + C3H6
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
H
5
a
H
C10H22(l) ➞ C8H18(l) + C2H4 (g)
decane
octane
ethene
b
7
8
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
a–v / b–ii / c–iv / d–i / e–iii
H
Cl
C
H
9
a
b
57
product /gas
Y
ice cubes
ice-cold water
Percentage of demand / %
1
C
H
not broken down by natural means / not
digested by biological organisms
(bacteria / fungi)
calcium chloride, water, carbon dioxide
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Chapter 20 continued
10 a
b
aquatic life (e.g. fish, turtles, birds) can get tangled with plastic bags /
ropes, etc. and be strangled by them / larger creatures can take bags, etc.
into their stomachs / fragments of larger plastic objects and microbeads
can be ingested and interfere with feeding and digestion of food
any exfoliating / mildly abrasive products such as cosmetic facial scrubs,
shower gels and toothpastes
Exercise 20.3
11
Addition polymerisation
Condensation polymerisation
Monomers used
usually many molecules of a single
unsaturated monomer, usually contains
a carbon–carbon double bond
molecules of two different monomers
usually used; monomers contain a
reactive functional group at each end of
the molecule
Reaction taking place
an addition reaction
a condensation reaction with loss of a
small molecule (usually water) each time
a monomer joins the chain
Nature of product
only one product formed – the polymer
two products: the polymer plus another,
small, molecule
non-biodegradable
can be biodegradable
resistant to acids
PET can be hydrolysed back to
monomers by acids or alkalis
12 a
b
13 a
b
A, C and D.
They have only one functional group in the molecule.
polyamide
H
N
C
C
O
O
H
H
N
N
C
O
amide link
c
d
water / H2O
nylon
14
Monomers used
Structure of the polymer
formed (show just three
monomers joined)
Other product formed
Type of polymer formed
58
O
HO
C
C
O
O
C
C O
O
OH
and
HO
OH
O
O
O C
C
Name: water
Formula: H2O
polyamide
polyester
polysaccharide
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Chapter 20 continued
15 a
b
c
59
They are both condensation polymers /
both polyamides.
Synthetic polyamides are made from a
maximum of two monomers. A protein
chain is made from up to 20 different
(amino acid) monomers with each protein
having a unique amino acid sequence.
amino acids
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Chapter 21
b
Exercise 21.1
1
2
Measuring cylinder, because the large volume
of solution needs to be added rapidly;
volumetric pipettes are designed to only
dispense small volumes at a time, but are
more accurate.
Results would be more precise but not more
accurate, as accuracy depends on human
reaction time.
Exercise 21.2
7
a
3
250
Time / s
150
100
50
4
a
b
5
6
60
Elements
Mixtures
Compounds
aluminium
brass
carbon dioxide
sodium
dilute nitric
acid
copper sulfate
zinc
seawater
methane
b
200
0
Toxic sulfur dioxide gas will be released
from solution if the mixture is heated too
strongly (the solubility of gases decreases
with increased temperature).
0
10
20
Volume of sodium thiosulfate used / cm3
30
13.5 cm3 (13–14 cm3 depending on the line
drawn on the graph)
16.5 cm3 (or 30 minus the value given
in 4a)
20
× 0.5 = 0.25 mol / dm3
40
a Additional apparatus needed:
thermometer and Bunsen burner
• Use fixed volume of thiosulfate.
• Measure temperature of solution.
• Add acid and time.
• Retake temperature.
• Repeat, but heat thiosulfate solution
to raise temperature by 5 °C.
• Further repeats increasing
temperature by 5 °C each time.
• Plot a graph of time against final
temperature of mixture.
• To make a fair test, change only one
variable (temperature) at a time while
keeping all other conditions (solution
concentration, etc.) the same.
Elements. Mixtures are easily separated
by physical means, and compounds
can be separated chemically into their
constituent elements.
c electrolysis
8 a simple distillation
b Any insoluble solid in a liquid, with
appropriate filtrate and residue from
example given.
c Dissolve in a solvent (water), filter and
heat to crystallise.
9 Heat the solution to evaporate water
(crystallisation point) until crystals are seen at
the surface or until a sample taken with a glass
rod forms crystals. Allow to cool and filter the
crystals formed from the remaining solution.
10 Simple distillation: the liquid is evaporated
by boiling and condensed leaving the solid
behind. Example: production of drinking
water from seawater. Fractional distillation:
more than one liquid is present / the mixture
is boiled and the condensate is collected at
different temperatures / the collecting vessel
is changed when the boiling point of a
component is exceeded. Example: separating
different fractions from petroleum.
11 a Impure water would have a higher
boiling point.
b An impure metal would have a lower
melting point.
12 Weigh the sample of powdered brass / add
hydrochloric acid in excess / wait until
reaction stops (no more bubbling) / filter to
obtain copper / wash and dry copper / weigh
the copper and calculate the mass of zinc
by subtraction.
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Chapter 21 continued
Exercise 21.3
13 A: solvent front: the level that the solvent
reaches during chromatography run
B: origin / base line: the level where the
samples are placed
14 between 0 cm and 1 cm / must be below the
origin, e.g. 0.5 cm
15 A pencil was used rather than an ink pen
because soluble components in the ink could
have risen up the paper with the sample and
interfered with the result.
16 No. There are no spots in common / no spots
at the same height.
17 The component at 5 cm, as it has
moved furthest.
18 Mixture X: one component was insoluble and
remained on the baseline (as shown).
Mixture Y: two of the components moved
together in the solvent used (or one
component was colourless and so did not
show on the chromatogram).
19 a By comparing the spots with those
produced by known substances
(standards).
b By running the sample using a different
solvent to try to separate them (or by
using a locating agents to detect any
colourless component).
20 a spot moves 2 – 1 cm = 1 cm, solvent moves
7 – 1 cm = 6 cm; Rf = 1/6 = 0.17 (2 d.p.)
b By using a locating agent which reacts
with the substance in the spot making
it coloured / spray the locating agent on
the chromatogram / hang to allow the
reaction to take place and to dry.
61
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Chapter 22
6
Exercise 22.1
1
Cation (metal ion)
Colour of flame
lithium, Li+
red
strong pungent smell of ammonia and the
red litmus is turned blue
nitric acid
white precipitate
Cl–(aq) + Ag+(aq) ➞ AgCl(s)
ammonium chloride, or NH4Cl
NH4Cl + NaOH ➞ NaCl + H2O + NH3
potassium, K
lilac
calcium, Ca
orange–red
barium, Ba2+
light green
Exercise 22.2
copper(II), Cu2+
blue–green
7
+
2+
2
3
4
5
62
b
c
d
e
f
yellow
sodium, Na
+
a
The procedure for the flame test is:
• Dip a clean (nichrome) wire probe into
hydrochloric acid.
• Dip the wire into the compound to
be tested.
• Hold the wire near the edge of the roaring
blue flame of a Bunsen burner.
• Note the colour of the flame produced.
Results: the antacids containing sodium
carbonate will give a yellow flame; this
colour tends to mask the colour produced
by the presence of other metals / the antacid
containing just calcium carbonate gives an
orange red flame.
Solid carbonates would not react directly with
NaOH(aq) / first acidify each solid antacid
with a small amount of dilute hydrochloric
acid to form the metal chlorides / then add
excess aqueous sodium hydroxide separately
to each sample. The antacid containing
calcium ions will give a white precipitate (of
calcium hydroxide).
a Use a flame test: barium gives a light
green flame.
b Barium carbonate is insoluble in water but
would dissolve in the acid environment of
the stomach and cause poisoning.
a Ca2+ and CO32–
b The fizzing with HCl shows a gas is
formed, and this is CO2 which is given
by carbonates.
c calcium carbonate
d All carbonates (apart from those of
Group I and ammonium) are insoluble.
Therefore calcium carbonate is insoluble
and after filtration will always be in
the residue.
8
9
a
b
c
a
chromium Cr3+
copper Cu2+
iron(II) Fe2+
When Fe2+ is exposed to air it will form
Fe3+ by oxidation.
b iron(III) Fe3+
c copper Cu2+ / blue–green flame
Drops of copper sulfate are added to the
ammonia solution, so the ammonia solution is
always in excess and the pale blue precipitate
never appears.
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Chapter 22 continued
10 a
Test
Observations
1 A sample of the solid mixture was dissolved in
distilled water.The solution was acidified with
dilute HCl(aq) and a solution of BaCl2 added.
A white precipitate was formed.
2 A sample of the solid was placed in a test tube.
NaOH(aq) was added and the mixture warmed.
A piece of moist red litmus paper was held at the
mouth of the tube.
b
c
The solid dissolved and pungent fumes were
given off.
The litmus paper turned blue, indicating the
presence of ammonium ions.
3 A sample of the solid was dissolved in distilled
water to give a colourless solution. NaOH(aq) was
added dropwise until in excess.
A white precipitate was formed which was
soluble in excess alkali.
4 A further sample of the solid was dissolved in
distilled water. Concentrated ammonia solution
(NH3(aq)) was added dropwise until in excess.
A white precipitate was formed. On addition
of excess alkali, the precipitate was soluble.
ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4) and zinc sulfate (ZnSO4)
The precipitate in both tests is zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2).
Exercise 22.3
11 a
b
c
12 a
b
13 a
b
c
63
carbon dioxide
Test: bubble the gas through colourless limewater.
Result: the limewater turns cloudy/milky.
i
Test: Use a glowing splint
Observations: splint relights
ii Test: Use a lighted splint
Observations: ‘pops’ with a lighted splint
Ammonia: turns damp red litmus paper blue.
Chlorine: bleaches damp litmus paper white.
It would not show which was which / both gases would give
identical results.
A paper dipped in a solution of acidified potassium manganate(VII) is
held in the gas. The paper turns from purple to colourless.
It is a reducing agent.
damages buildings / damaging to tree growth / damaging to aquatic life in
lakes and streams / causes breathing problems
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Chapter 22 continued
Exercise 22.4
14 burette: to measure the volume of the solution added
volumetric pipette: to measure the fixed volume of the solution in the flask
conical flask: to contain and swirl the solutions being reacted
15 thymolphthalein, it is an indicator to show the endpoint
16 a
Titration
1
Final burette reading / cm
First burette reading / cm
3
3
Volume of solution A / cm3
Best titration result (✓)
b
c
d
e
17 a
b
2
3
4
25.9
48.6
32.4
28.5
0.0
23.3
6.9
3.1
25.9
25.3
25.5
25.4
✓
✓
✓
25.9 cm3 because it is the rough or pilot value
25.4 cm3 (omitting rejected value)
to ensure adequate mixing
Any remaining solution in the flask could interfere with the next titration
and give false results.
The water does not affect the result as the quantity of acid and alkali are
separately measured. Water is only the solvent.
A smaller volume would be needed to neutralise the same volume of alkali
since it contains more acid per unit volume (a higher concentration).
Exercise 22.5
18 The cobalt chloride paper would change from blue to pale pink (test for the
presence of water).
19 a white precipitate (sulfate ions)
20 water D (lowest pH value)
21 water C (most sodium ions and most chloride ions)
22 Water D. Impurities increase the boiling point of water. D is purest (lowest
total solids) and so has the lowest boiling point.
23 Carbonates can decompose on heating / some solids splash out during boiling.
24 To decide whether the water might pose any hazards to health / for
quality control.
64
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