PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE IN TEACHING MLS
College of Allied Health Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Medical Laboratory Science
First Semester, A.Y. 2023-2024
UNIT 5: CURRICULUM
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OUTLINE
Introduction
Definition
Types of Curriculum
Formulating Goals
Relating Goals & Objectives to Curriculum Development
Classifying Goals & Objectives
Table 1: Levels of Learning Objectives
Table 2: Levels of Cognitive Behavior
Table 3: Levels of Affective Behavior
Table 4: Levels of Psychomotor Behavior
Functions of Curriculum
General Education
Specialized Education
Exploratory Education
Enrichment Education
Special-Interest Education
Elements of Curriculum Development (Palma, 1992)
Purpose
Means
Assessment of Outcomes
Areas of Concern in Curriculum Planning
Philosophy
Educational Goals
Instructional Considerations
Curriculum Components
The Individual & the Society as a Framework
Aims & Objectives
Form of Subject Matter
Mode of Transactions
Evaluation
INTRODUCTION
Through the years, education has seen the coming and
going of practices, paradigm shifts, innovations, and
methods, all aimed at the improvement of instruction. Some
have left their imprint, while others have been mere passing
fads. Amidst all of these is the child, his learning and
development. It is the function of education to provide
the vehicles that shall open to the child the wide vistas
and limitless horizons of his future.
It is, however, unfortunate that in the course, of time, the
educational highway along which the child has to travel has
been built and reshaped by different educators, so that by
now, instead of the smooth and even road that it should be,
it has become an artificial obstacle course.
It is, therefore, incumbent upon educators to provide all the
necessary facilities and conveniences for the children in
order that their travel may be as comfortable and as
enjoyable as it is finally fruitful.
DEFINITION
The term comes from the Latin word “currere” which
means "to run." In educational usage, the "course of the
race" with time came to stand for the "course of study."
Nowadays, curriculum has different meanings for different
people depending on how it is used.
Palma (1992) defines the curriculum as "the sum of all
learning content, experiences, and responses that are
purposely selected, organized, and implemented by the
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school in pursuit of its peculiar mandate as a distinct
institution of learning and human development."
Doll defines the curriculum as "all the experiences which
are offered to students under the auspices or direction of
the school."
Johnson defines the curriculum more narrowly. He refers
to it as "a structured series of learning outcomes that
prescribe for the teacher the goals or expected results of
instruction."
Romberg, on the other hand, refers to curriculum as a "set
of intended learning and the operational plan for achieving
these learning."
Anglin, Goldman, and Anglin defined curriculum as "the
planned learning experiences that a school presents to its
students in order to socialize them into the prevailing
culture."
TYPES OF CURRICULUM
The Academic Curriculum refers to the formal list of
courses offered by a school.
The Extra Curriculum refers to those planned but
voluntary activities that are sponsored by a school, such as
sports, drama, or social clubs.
The Hidden Curriculum refers to those unplanned learning
activities (e.g., learning to cope with school bureaucracy
and boredom or learning how to gain popularity with one's
peers) that are a natural by-product of school life. (Aquino,
1988).
One area of the curriculum that is probably as important as,
or sometimes, even more important than the actual content
offered for study is the so-called "Hidden Curriculum." It is
the informal part of the curriculum that you know is there,
but that is difficult to see and study.” Ballantine (1983)
described the hidden curriculum as that part of the
curriculum that refers to the three Rs - rules, regulations,
and routines - to which the schools must adapt.
Lloyd Trump (1968) wrote that the curriculum is a vital,
moving complex interaction of people and things in a
freewheeling setting.
It includes questions to debate, forces to
rationalize, goals to illuminate, programs to
activate, and outcomes to evaluate.
FORMULATING GOALS
Wiles and Bondi (1989) state that educational goals are
statements of the outcomes of education.
The scope of the entire educational program of a
school can be found in the goals of that school.
Goals are the basic elements in educational planning. The
reflection of societal needs in educational goals usually
results in statements describing categories of human
behavior.
Goals relating to "maintaining health" and
"carrying out the activities of a citizen in a
democratic society" are examples of societal
needs.
Goals may be stated at several levels of generality or
specificity. Goals that are general and broad reflect a
philosophical base and are not concerned with
particular achievement within a period of time.
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RELATING GOALS & OBJECTIVES TO CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
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Wiles and Bondi (1989) state that anyone familiar with
curriculum documents is probably aware that there is
usually a discrepancy between curriculum planned and
curriculum implemented.
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Curriculum workers using curriculum materials know that
statements of goals and objectives accompanying those
materials are not always reflected in the curriculum as it
becomes operative in the classroom.
Most curriculum development projects are
cooperative endeavors involving people, it is sad
that goals and objectives of curriculum documents
are not reflected in classroom practice.
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3.
SAMPLE METHODS OF DEVELOPING A COMPLETE
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVE IS TO APPLY A, B, C, D RULE:
1. A - stands for audience
2. B - for the behavior
3. C - for the condition
4. D - the degree of completion
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CLASSIFYING GOALS & OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives should be designed at more than one
single level of operation.
Table 1: Levels of Learning Objectives
Level of
Type
Origin
Features
Objective
Level I
Broad goals Formulated
Seldom
or purposes
at the district revised
level
by
councils or
school board
Level II
General but Formulated
Contains an
more
at school or out - line of
specific than department
processes to
Level I
level
accomplish
Level
II
objectives
Level III
Behaviorally
Formulated
Describes
stated
by teams of expected
teachers or outcomes,
single
evidence for
teachers
assessing
outcomes,
and level of
performance
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Level I objectives are stated in very general terms. They
are usually found at the system level. They are sometimes
referred to as “purposes or goals”. They should be
accomplished by a related and complementary policy
statement.
Level II objectives are stated in broad or general terms, but
are more specific than Level I statements. They are not,
however, behaviorally stated as in the case of Level III
learning objectives. Level II objectives support and define
Level I objectives. They reflect the same philosophy and are
directed toward the realization of the Level I goals or
purposes.
Level III objectives are found at the classroom level and are
behaviorally stated. These specific objectives support
Level II and Level I objectives.
Behavioral objectives are statements describing
what the learner is doing when he is learning.
Teachers need to describe the desired behavior
well enough to preclude misinterpretation.
The important conditions under which the behavior is
expected to occur should be described; and
The criteria of acceptable performance should be
specified.
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The three taxonomies of educational objectives are best
illustrated in Tables 2, 3, and 4.
Taxonomies are classification schemes developed by
educators to define educational goals.
The reader is especially encouraged to review the following
three sources for a detailed discussion of the three
taxonomy schemes.
Table 2: Levels of Cognitive Behavior (Ascending Order)
Knowledge
(LOWEST)
(ability to
recall; to bring
to mind the
appropriate
material)
Comprehension
(ability to
comprehend
what is being
communicated
and make use
of the idea
without relating
it to other
ideas or
materials or
seeing fullest
meaning)
Requires
knowledge
Applications (ability to use
ideas,
principles,
theories in new
particular and
concentrated
situations)
Analysis
(ability to
break down a
communication
into
constituents
parts in order
to make
organization of
the whole
clear)
Synthesis
(ability to put Requires
together parts analysis
and elements
into a unified
organization or
whole)
Evaluation (ability to judge Requires
(HIGHEST)
the value of analysis
ideas,
procedures,
methods,
using
appropriate
criteria)
Requires
Requires
comprehension knowledge
Requires
Requires
Requires
application comprehension knowledge
Requires
Requires
Requires
application comprehension knowledge
Requires
Requires
Requires
application comprehension knowledge
Table 3: Levels of Affective Behavior (Ascending Order)
BEHAVIORALLY
STATES
OBJECTIVES
CONTAIN
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS:
1. The terminal behavior must be identified by name. An
observable action must be named that shows that
learning has taken place;
Receiving
(LOWEST)
(attending;
becomes
aware of an
idea,
process, or
thing; is
willing to
notice a
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particular
phenomenon)
Responding
(makes
Begins with
response at
attending
first with
compliance,
later willingly
and with
satisfaction
Valuing
(accepts
Requires a Begins with
worth of a
response
attending
thing; an idea
or a behavior;
prefers it;
consistent in
responding;
develops a
commitment
to it)
Organizations
(organizes
Requires
Requires a
Begins
values;
development response
with
determines
of values
attending
relationships;
adapts
behavior to
value system
Characterization (generalizes Requires
Requires Requires Begins
(HIGHEST) certain values organization development
a
with
into
of values
of values response attending
controlling
tendencies;
emphasis on
internal
Table 4: Levels of Psychomotor Behavior (Ascending
Order)
Observing
(LOWEST)
Imitating
Practicing
Adapting
(HIGHEST)
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(watches
process;
pays
attention to
steps or
techniques
and to
finished
product or
behavior;
may read
directions.)
(follows
directions;
carries out
steps with
conscious
awareness
of efforts,
performs
hesitantly)
(repeats
steps until
some or all
aspects of
process
become
habitual,
requiring
little
conscious
effort,
performs
smoothly)
(makes
individual
modification
and
adaptation
in the
process to
suit the
worker
and/or the
situation)
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Requires
observation,
or reading of
directions
Requires
imitation
Requires
observation,
or reading of
directions
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Requires
practice
Requires
imitation
Requires
observation
or reading of
direction
5 FUNCTIONS OF CURRICULUM
There are many variables affecting the performance of the
school system. However, it is the educational content itself,
the curriculum, that shapes these variables, particularly the
institutional capability requirements for its proper
implementation.
It defines the human resource qualifications, the
instructional support requirements, the facilities needed,
and the amount of financing required for the successful
achievement of goals.
GENERAL EDUCATION
It is that part of the curriculum that is designed to provide
for a common universe of discourse, understanding,
and competence for the purpose of developing
thinking, socially responsible citizens of a free society.
➢ NOTES:
General Education is represented by the core of
common learning from which all other studies
emanate. It provides the essential basic knowledge
needed by man for a balanced life. It includes
languages, sciences, mathematics, humanities, arts,
etc.
It forms the broad base of knowledge stressing the
commonality of all academic courses. It provides a
foundation for advancement into a major field of
specialization and it seeks to develop critical thinking,
effective communication, sound judgment, and
formation of values.
SPECIALIZED EDUCATION
It is that aspect of the curriculum designed for the major
field or professional program of studies.
➢ NOTES:
At the high school level, the student who aspires to
become a scientist will ordinarily be advised to take a
concentration of course work in the sciences and
mathematics, including advanced placement courses
in these fields. The student who opts for vocational
studies in the high school may enroll in such program
as: 1) agriculture education; 2) distributive education
(distribution and marketing); 3) health occupations
education; 4) home economics education; 5) office
occupations education; 6) trade and industrial
education; and 7) pre-technical education (electronics,
computer programming, machine tools).
The student may proceed to enter the world of work in
one of these areas after graduation from high school,
or may go to college to prepare for a career in
agriculture, home economics, nursing, machine-tool
design, and so on.
EXPLORATORY EDUCATION
This function provides knowledge beyond those of
general specialized education. This comes in the form of
electives, cognates, minor, or allied subjects.
➢ NOTES:
At the elementary level, the exploratory function is met
through a range of activities and projects extending
from within the common core of studies. For example,
a social studies unit on occupations will lead some
children into the reading of different source materials
on given occupations, including simple biographical
material; others may be engaged in surveying the
different occupations in the community; and some may
be working on a class mural depicting the different
occupations in society.
At the high school or college, a student may elect
courses in science with the intention of deciding
whether to pursue a career in science. The exploratory
experience may impel the students towards a scientific
career or away from such a career.
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ENRICHMENT EDUCATION
This part of the curriculum is intended to supplement and
deepen one's educative experience beyond those
connected with general education, specialized
education, and exploratory education. As in the case of
exploratory education, the enrichment function may be met
in the secondary school and college through controlled or
required electives or through free electives.
➢ NOTES:
At the elementary level, the enrichment function is
typically provided not through course options, but
through activities growing out of the common learning.
Thus, the children who are working on a class mural
depicting the various occupations in society, or the
major historical epochs as part of a unit in the social
studies are gaining enrichment experiences in the
visual arts.
In the secondary school, students who have completed
the core courses in English language arts, for example,
may be required to elect a course in literature to enrich
their learning experiences beyond the required core
studies in English.
SPECIAL-INTEREST EDUCATION
This function of the curriculum in the secondary and college
is typically met through free electives.
➢ NOTES:
At the secondary school and college levels, special
interest education is provided not only through formal
course work but also through organized student
activities such as clubs, publications, community
services, and so on. Many student organizations in
high school and college are oriented toward career
goals as well as toward special interests.
The elementary pupils may have a special interest in
photography or crafts and may be involved in
contributing his or her talents to the class work in social
studies and science. Or they may have developed a
special interest in writing poetry as the result of the
study of poetry in language arts or one may have
developed a special interest in trains as a results of the
social studies unit on transportation.
Obviously, special-interest and enrichment education
are not necessarily sharply demarcated, except that
the former is more highly focused and concentrated.
(Tanner and Tanner, 1987).
ELEMENTS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (PALMA,
1992)
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Tyler introduced the concept of structural cycle whereby
evaluation can lead to a reconsideration of purpose. Such
cycle reduces the somewhat cumbersome process of
planning and makes it possible to treat curriculum making
in a systematic manner.
3 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF THE SCHOOL
CURRICULUM:
1. Purpose = This indicates the goals and directions the
school should take;
2. Means = This suggests the learning experiences and
resources that are to be selected, organized, and
implemented in pursuit of the purpose; and
3. Assessment of outcomes = This measures the
degree to which purposes have been met.
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The three subsystems - purpose, means, and
assessment - are enclosed in a circle suggesting that they
constitute the totality of the curriculum. The circle is also
indicative of the continuous process of curriculum
development.
Curriculum is far from being static. It is never a "finished
curriculum." It is always "tentative" and is meant to undergo
a process of development to bring it to ever higher levels of
effectiveness. The concurrent process of planning,
implementing, evaluating, and revising the curriculum goes
on in a never-ending cycle always taking into consideration
the constantly shifting needs of the learners, the emerging
thrusts of the school and its sponsors, the changing
expectation of the larger society, and the exigencies of the
times.
The two-way arrows indicate the dynamic interaction and
relationships that should exist among the subsystems if the
system is to function well. The counter-clockwise
arrowheads in the outer circle indicate the normal
sequence in the process of curriculum planning and
development.
Logically, the first step should be the determination of
purpose and objectives. However, in curriculum
development, it is possible that one can start with any
step. One might even begin with the assessment or
evaluation phase. Using the result of this evaluation or
assessment, we can examine and make adjustments in the
purpose and the means of attaining this purpose.
Finally, the all-important process of curriculum development
has only one function, the formation of the "Ideal
Graduate." This becomes the ultimate measure of the
success or failure of the total school enterprise. It
should be pointed out, however, that the conception of the
"Ideal Graduate" will vary since it depends on the school's
clientele, ecology, and thrusts (Palma, 1992).
AREAS OF CONCERN IN CURRICULUM PLANNING
According to Wiles and Bondi (1989), the various areas of
concern and influence in curriculum planning are known as
"domains." At least five major domains currently affect
curriculum planning and decision-making. These include
philosophy and goal development, instructional
systems, materials development, management of
instruction, and teacher training.
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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IS A COMPREHENSIVE
PROCESS THAT:
1. facilitates an analysis of purpose;
2. designs a program;
3. implements a series of related experiences; and
4. aids in the evaluation of this process.
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Philosophy is the clarification of beliefs about the purpose
and goals of education which is essential to curriculum
development. Without direction, school programs meander,
become targets for social pressure, or operate in a state of
programmatic contradiction. The development of a
philosophy of education is a prerequisite to assuming a
leadership function in school program development.
Educational goals are statements of the outcomes of
education. The scope of the entire educational program of
a school can be found in the goals of that school. Goals are
the, basic elements in educational planning. The reflection
of societal needs in educational goals usually results in
statement describing categories of human behavior. Goals
relating to "maintaining health" and "carrying out the
activities of a citizen in a democratic society" are
examples of societal needs.
Instructional considerations in curriculum development
require planners to move beyond a theoretical framework to
the implementation of such plans at the classroom level.
Instructional considerations at the classroom level
include teachers making daily lesson plans,
sequencing of activities, grading, and so on. Each
of these small decisions determines what kind of
learning will occur.
In the past, most curriculum experiences were grouped as
"curricular" or "extracurricular." The broadening of the
definition of the curriculum today has diminished somewhat
the distinction between curricular and extra-curricular
experiences. Within a school program all experiences can
be classified under the following headings:
The personal development of the individual;
Skills for continued learning; and
Education for social competence.
The above classification can serve as the basis for planning
a school program and provides direction for instruction at
the classroom level. Attention can be given to each of the
three phases of the school program while still recognizing
that the three phases are related.
5 CURRICULUM COMPONENTS
According to M. J. Eash (1991), the curricula consist of five
widely agreed upon dimensions or components:
a framework of assumptions about the learner and
society;
aims and objectives;
content or subject matter with its selection; scope,
and sequence;
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modes of transaction, for example, methodology and
learning environments; and
evaluation
The components are interdependent in a manner
analogous to the systems. Any alteration in one
component affects the structure and functioning of the
others. They must all be well coordinated for the system to
grow and develop, yet, they may be separated for purposes
of description, study, and research. When separated for
study, curriculum components also serve a productive
analytic function.
THE INDIVIDUAL & THE SOCIETY AS A FRAMEWORK
All curriculum organizations begin with assumptions
concerning the learner and the society in which he lives. A
first guiding construct among curriculum planners is
the determination of the learner's ability, needs,
interest, motivation, and potential for learning certain
cultural content. The learner's ability to assimilate and
shape experience is the focus of the major studies. What
the learner can assimilate, under what condition, and with
what results are among the telling questions that have
historically guided these investigations. Society, its
orientation to nurturing or using the individual, is the
second guiding construct in selecting the options
within curriculum components. How the schools select
individuals for various curricula, such as, vocational, liberal
arts, sciences, reflects an orientation to the society in which
the individual will be a functioning member. The purpose of
the society, its need for trained personnel, and the
preeminence given to society's needs over the individual
purposes of the learner are telling areas for curriculum
makers.
AIMS & OBJECTIVES
Aims and objectives map out the arena for a teacher's
directed effort. There is no standardization among
statements of aims and objectives; thus, in their various
forms they reflect philosophical assumptions and positions
on the pre-eminence of the learner or society and how these
are to be played out in the curriculum.
Aims and objectives evolve and change as cultures and
their participants change. Curricula lag in reflecting these
changes - a common problem worldwide is how to maintain
currency in the curriculum (Tanner, 1988).
FORM OF SUBJECT MATTER
Subject matter is selected, organized, cultural content
which is packaged for use by teachers and learners.
Student experiences are largely shaped from cultural
content, derived from the major areas of human learning,
and organized along subject matter discipline lines for
purposes of formal curriculum implementation. The form of
subject matter and its packaging comes in many shapes but
the textbook has been the standard work for use by
teachers and students in the study of subject matter in
the curriculum. However, electronics promises to add
new dimensions through computers and word
processors which increase the range of subject matter and
the power of manipulation by the teacher and learner for
combinatory and recombinatory forms of learning of the
subject matter (Brandt, 1988).
Subject matter may be selected on the basis of the general
education of all students or the specialized development of
a selected group of students. The curriculum planners
exercise selection in the choice of subject matter and
develops a scope, range, and the sequence or order in
which the subject matter is to be studied (Talmage, 1985).
These selections are translated through textbooks,
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curriculum guides, syllabi, electronic data banks, and other
directives to teachers and learners.
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MODES OF TRANSCATIONS
As a curriculum component, modes of transactions have
been
provisioned
as
recommended
teacher
methodology to inculcate subject matter. Modes of
transactions also figure heavily in syllabi as authorities
attempt to guide teacher behavior and influence learner
outcomes chiefly for national purposes. They are also
viewed as major determinants in learner outcomes
especially as they affect attitudes of students as well
as content mastery. Influences on modes of transaction
have swung between teachercentric and pupil-centric
emphases, but current developments in electronic
presentation of subject matter and replacement of the
standard textbook have induced changes in the role of the
teacher as a mediator of subject matter and repository of a
bank of methodologies for transmitting the required learning
as set forth in the aims and objectives and presented in the
subject matter.
Modes of transactions may also be further classified as
direct and indirect. These classifications stem from the
role of the teacher and the role of the learner in the
transaction of learning and their respective degrees of
choice in determining the modes of learning (Joyce and
Weil, 1980).
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EVALUATION
Evaluation as a curriculum component may be
provisioned in several dimensions. As an integral
element to a curriculum, evaluation may give emphasis
to providing the individual with information on
performance to guide the learner to the next steps
in the sequence of the· subject matter.
Another form of provisioning evaluation is to obtain
information on students' learning that can be
directed to screening and selecting students or
providing data on how well schools are serving
national policy. (Walker, 1976).
Evaluation can be directed toward providing
information directly to the learner for guidance, directly
to the teacher for orientation of the next instruction
activities, and directly to external agencies for their
assessment of schools' functioning in the light of
national purpose.
Evaluation as a way of measuring educational systems'
contributions to national welfare becomes more
important as industrial and military strength hinge ever
more on the human resources capital available to
these efforts.
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