DIRECTIONAL TERMS IN ANAPHY:
1.) Sagittal / Median Plane – Divides left and right
2.) Parasagittal Plane – Parallel to Sagittal
3.) Coronal / Frontal Plane – Divides front and back
4.) Axial – Aligned with center (head, neck, body)
5.) Appendicular – Ends of appendages (arms, legs)
6.) Anterior / Ventral – Front of body
7.) Posterior / Dorsal – Back of body
8.) Superior / Cranial – Towards the top
9.) Inferior / Caudial – Towards the bottom
10.) Medial – Towards the midline
11.) Lateral – Away from midline
12.) Contralateral – opposite sides of midline
13.) Deep – Away from the body’s surface / body
part
14.) Intermediate – between two structures
15.) Proximal – Closer
16.) Distal – Away
17.) Superficial – Close to the surface of the body
18.) Supine – Lying on the back with the face
upward
CELL AND TISSUE FUNCTION:
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DEFINITION OF TERMS:
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Anatomy – The study of the STRUCTURE and
relationships between body parts
Physiology – The science of how those parts
come together to FUNCTION and keep that body
alive.
Pathology – Structural and functional changes in
cells, tissues, and organs of the body that cause
or are caused by disease.
Pathophysiology – Physiology of altered health
Anatomical Position – Body is erect and facing
forward with the arms at the side and palms
forward.
Homeostasis – Maintain stable, internal
conditions no matter what changes are occurring
outside the body.
Synthesis – Combination or composition of parts
or elements so as to form as a whole.
HIERARCHY OF ORGANIZATION:
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)
8.)
Atoms
Molecules
Organelles
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ Systems
The Human Organism
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Cell – Smallest functional unit that an organism
can be divided into and retain the
characteristics necessary for life.
Tissues – Cells with similar embryonic origin or
function are often organised into larger
functional units. Tissues combine to form the
various body structures and organs.
Eukaryotic Cells – Have at least one nucleus;
Cells with a true nucleus.
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A EUKARYOTIC CELL:
⮚ NUCLEUS
⮚ CYTOPLASM
⮚ CELL MEMBRANE
Prokaryotic Cells – Lack nucleus and nuclear
membrane.
Protoplasm – Composed of water, proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, and electrolytes.
⮚ Water makes up 70% to 85% of the cell’s
protoplasm.
Cell Protein – The second most abundant
constituents of protoplasm (10% to 20%).
Proteins – Can also be found complexed to the
other compounds such as nucleoproteins,
glycoproteins, lipoproteins.
Lipids – Comprises 2% to 3% of most cells;
Combine with proteins to form the cell
membrane and the membranous barriers that
separate different cell compartments.
MOST IMPORTANT LIPIDS:
⮚ PHOSPHOLIPIDS
⮚ CHOLESTEROL
Triglycerides – Constitute up to 95% of the total
cell mass; Fat stored in these cells represents
stored energy.
⮚ Few Carbohydrates are found in the
cell, and these are primarily used for
fuel.
MAJOR INTERCELLULAR ELECTROLYTES:
⮚ POTASSIUM ION
⮚ MAGNESIUM ION
⮚ PHOSPHATE ION
⮚ SULFATE ION
⮚ BICARBONATE ION
THREE TYPES OF RNA:
✔ Messenger RNA (mRNA) – Copies and
carries the DNA instructions for protein
synthesis to the cytoplasm.
✔ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – Moves to the
cytoplasm and becomes the site for protein
synthesis.
✔ Transfer RNA (tRNA) – Also moves into the
cytoplasm, where it transports amino acids
to the elongating protein as it is being
synthesized.
These electrolytes facilitate generation and
transmission of electrochemical impulses in
nerve and muscle cells.
Intracellular electrolytes participate in
reactions that are necessary for cellular
metabolism.
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⮚ Small quantities of sodium, chloride,
and calcium ions are also present in the
cell.
Cellular Metabolism – The set of chemical
reactions that occur in living organisms in order
to maintain life.
⮚ Cellular metabolism involves complex
sequences of controlled biochemical
reactions, better known as metabolic
pathways.
Nucleus – Membrane-enclosed organelle within
a cell that contains the chromosomes.
⮚ Appears as rounded or elongated
structure
⮚ Situated near the center of the cell
⮚ Enclosed in a nuclear membrane
⮚ Contains CROMATIN and a distinct
region called
NUCLEOLUS
Cromatin – The nuclear matrix
where complex structure of DNA
and DNA-associated proteins are
dispersed.
⮚ Each DNA molecule is made up of two
extremely long, double-stranded helical chain
containing variable sequences of four (4)
nitrogenous bases which forms the genetic
code.
⮚ DNA must be replicated before Mitosis
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Nucleolus – Darkly-stained
round body / Euchromatic
⮚
Control center
of the cell
⮚ Contains DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
WHY IS DNA ESSENTIAL TO THE CELL?
Because its genes contain the information necessary for the
synthesis of proteins that the cells must produce to stay alive.
These proteins include structural proteins and enzymes used to
synthesize other substances including Carbohydrates and Lipids.
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⮚ Site of RNA synthesis
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: Transcription and Translation
Mitosis – Cell division
⮚ During replication, complementary pairs of
DNA are generated such that each daughter
cell receives am identical set of genes.
Nucleoli – Structures composed of regions from
five (5) different chromosomes, each with a part
of a genetic code needed for the synthesis of
rRNA, which is transcribed exclusively in the
nucleolus.
Nuclear Envelope / Nuclear Membrane – A
double – layered membrane that surrounds the
nucleus.
Cytoplasm – The gelatinous liquid that fills the
inside of a cell.
⮚ Surrounds the nucleus
⮚ Work of the cell takes place
⮚ Contains water, electrolytes, suspended
proteins, neutral fats, and glycogen
molecules.
⮚ Pigments accumulate in the cytoplasm
(such as melanin, which gives the skin color
are normal constituents of the cell.)
Organelles – Organs of a cell; Include
Ribosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi
Complex, Lysosomes and Peroxisomes, and
Mitochondria.
THE CYTOPLASM AND ITS ORGANELLES:
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Ribosomes – Sites of protein synthesis in the
cell; Small particles of nucleoproteins (rRNA and
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proteins) that can be found attached to the wall
of the endoplasmic reticulum or as free
ribosomes.
Polyribosomes – Formed because of free
Note: Ribosomes &
ribosomes are scattered singly in the
cytoplasm
mRNA synthesize
or joined by strands of mRNA.
proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – An extensive
system of paired membranes and flat vesicles
that connects various parts of the inner cell.
⮚ The fluid-filled space between the
paired ER membrane layers is
connected with the space between the
two membranes of the double-layered
nuclear membrane, the cell membrane,
and various cytoplasmic organelles.
⮚ Functions as a tubular communication
system through which substances can
be transported from one part of the cell
to another.
⮚ A large surface area and multiple
enzyme systems attached to the ER
membranes also provide the machinery
for a major share of the metabolic
functions of the cell.
⮚ 2 types of ER: Rough ER and Smooth ER
Rough ER – Studded with ribosomes attached
to specific binding sites on the membrane.
⮚ Proteins produced by the rough ER are
usually destined for incorporation into
cell membranes and lysosomal enzymes
or for exportation from the cell. The
rough ER segregates these proteins
from other components of the
cytoplasm and modifies their structure
for a specific function.
⮚ All cells require a rough ER for the
synthesis of lysosomal enzymes.
Smooth ER – Involved in glycogen storage and
metabolism of lipid soluble drugs.
⮚ Free of ribosomes and is continuous
with the rough ER.
⮚ Does not participate in the protein
synthesis.
⮚ Involved in the synthesis of lipid
molecules including: Lipoproteins,
Steroid Hormones, Regulation of
Intracellular Calcium, Metabolism and
Detoxification of Certain Hormone and
Drugs.
⮚ The sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal
and cardiac muscular cells is a form of
smooth ER.
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum - a complex network of specialized
smooth endoplasmic reticulum that is important in
transmitting the electrical impulse as well as in the storage of
calcium ions.
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⮚ Calcium ions needed for needed for
muscle contraction are stored and
released from cisternae of the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi Complex – Golgi Apparatus
⮚ Consists of stacks of thin, flattened
vesicles or sacs
⮚ Found near the nucleus
⮚ Functions in association with the ER
⮚ Substances produced in the ER are
carried to the Golgi Complex in small,
membrane-covered transfer vesicles.
⮚ Modifies certain substances and
packages them into secretory granules
or vesicles.
⮚ Produces large carbohydrate molecules
that combine with proteins produced
by the rough ER to form Glycoproteins.
Lysosomes – Play an important role in the
normal metabolism of certain substances in the
body.
⮚ Can be viewed as the digestive system
of the cell.
⮚ Consists of small, membrane-enclosed
sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes
capable of breaking down worn-out cell
parts so they can be recycled.
⮚ Breaks down foreign substances such as
bacteria taken into the cell.
⮚ All lysosomal enzymes are acid
hydrolases which requires an acid
environment (5 pH in their interior)
NOTES:
⮚ The pH of cytoplasm is approximately
7.2, which protects other cellular
structure in this activity.
⮚ Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized in
the rough ER and then transported into
the Golgi Apparatus, where they are
biochemically modified and packaged as
lysosomes.
⮚ The type of enzyme packaged in the
lysosome by the Golgi Complex
Determines this diversity.
⮚ Some materials remain undigested even
though lysosomal enzymes can break
down most proteins, carbohydrates,
and lipids to their basic constituents;
These undigested materials may remain
in the cytoplasm as residual bodies or
be extruded from the cell.
⮚ Found close to the site of energy
consumption in the cell
⮚ The number of mitochondria in a given
cell type is largely determined by the
type of activity the cell performs and
how much energy is needed to
undertake this activity.
⮚ Contain their own DNA and ribosomes
and are self-replicating.
LONG LIVED CELLS:
⮚ NEURONS
⮚ HEART-MUSCLE CELLS
⮚ Composed of two (2) membranes:
✔ An outer membrane that
encloses the periphery of the
mitochondrion.
Large quantities of residual
bodies accumulate as lipofuscin
granules or age pigment.
INDIGESTIBLE PIGMENTS:
⮚ INHALED CARBON PARTICLES
⮚ TATTOO PIGMENTS
May accumulate and persist in
residual bodies for decades.
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Peroxisomes – Smaller than lysosomes, these
are spherical membrane – bound organelles.
⮚ Contains a special enzyme that
degrades peroxides
⮚ Function in the control of free radicals
⮚ These highly unstable chemical
compounds would damage other
cytoplasmic molecules, unless
degraded.
⮚ Contains enzymes needed for breaking
down very-long-chain fatty acids, which
are ineffectively degraded by
mitochondrial enzymes.
Mitochondria – Powerhouse of the cell
⮚ Transfers organic compounds into
energy that is easily accessible to the
cell.
⮚ Contains enzymes needed for capturing
most of the energy in foodstuffs and
converting it into cellular energy. This
multi-step process requires oxygen and
is referred to as Aerobic Metabolism.
⮚ Most of this energy is stored in the
high-energy phosphate bonds of
compounds such as Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP) that power the
various cellular activities.
✔ An inner membrane that forms
shelflike projections called
Cristae.
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA:
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⮚ Distinct from the chromosomal DNA
found in the nucleus.
⮚ Known as the “other human genome”
⮚ Double stranded, circular molecule that
encodes the rRNA and tRNA required
for intramitochondrial synthesis
function of the mitochondria.
⮚ Directs the synthesis of 13 of the DNA
proteins required for mitochondrial
function.
⮚ DNA of the nucleus encodes the
structural proteins of the mitochondria
and other proteins needed to carry out
Cellular Respiration.
⮚ Inherited matrilineally and provides a
basis for familial lineage studies.
Cytoskeleton – Controls cell shape and
movements.
⮚ Network of microtubules,
microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
thick filaments.