Anatomy and Physiology
INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, CELL STUCTURE
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
provide the foundation for understanding the body’s
parts and functions
- theory-based and practical-oriented
ANATOMY
- study of structure, framing, and the relationship
between body parts
- first studied by dissection (careful cutting apart of
body structures to study their relationships)
PHYSIOLOGY
- branch of medical science dealing with the study of
functions of body parts as a whole
HOMEOSTASIS
- balanced condition in the body’s internal environment
due to the constant interaction of the body’s
regulatory processes
WHY IT IS A MUST FOR NURSES
1. FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE
- provide basic knowledge about the human body
- helps in clearing the fundamental concepts as to how
our bodies function
2. THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE
- theoretical concepts and practical functionalities of
the human body
3. CONDITIONS OF EMERGENCIES
- concepts of anatomy and physiology in times of
absence of supervising doctors
4. TRACKING OF PATIENT’S HEALTH
- understanding the health status of patients
- helps in assessing, evaluating, diagnosing, and tracking
a patient’s health
- assists in comprehending the overall condition of the
human body
5. IMPROVES MEDICAL AND CLINICAL SKILLS
- helps in improving and polishing the skills and
competencies of nurses
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
1. CHEMICAL
- atoms bond to form molecules with three-dimensional
structures
2. MOLECULAR
- chemical structures consisting of at least to atoms
held together by one or more chemical bonds
3. CELLULAR
- variety of molecules (combined chemicals) combined
to form the fluid and organelles of a body cell
- smallest independently functioning unit of a living
organism
- where almost all functions of human physiology are
performed or initiated
4. TISSUE
- group of many similar cells (sometimes composed of a
few related types) that work together to perform a
specific function
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ex. many smooth muscles come together structurally
and functionally, forming a layer of smooth muscle
tissue (involuntary, always has movement)
5. ORGAN
- formed by two or more different tissues combined
- anatomically distinct structure of the body composed
of two or more tissue types
- each performs one or more specific physiological
functions
- ex. human bladder (composed of smooth muscle
tissue, transitional epithelial tissue – enables an organ
to contract, and several types of connective tissue
serves the function of storing urine produced by the
kidneys
6. ORGAN SYSTEM
- two or more organs work closely together to perform
the functions of a body system
VASODILATION
- occurs in response to low oxygen levels or increases in
body temperature
- increases blood flow and oxygen delivery
7. ORGANISMAL
- many organ systems work harmoniously together to
perform the functions of an independent organism
PARTS OF A CELL
CELL MEMBRANE
- thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and
proteins surrounding the cell
- primary role is protecting the cell from its
surroundings
- controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other
microscopic entities into the cell
CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
GLYCOPROTEIN
cell to cell recognition and
cell adhesion
GLOBULAR PROTEINS
transport channels for ions
and molecules
CELL MEMBRANE RECEPTOR
receivers, markers,
PROTEINS
activators
INTEGRAL MEMBRANE
molecule transfer
PROTEINS
CARBOHYDRATE SUGAR CHAIN cell to cell recognition
PERIPHERAL MEMBRANE
molecule transfer
PROTEINS
CHOLESTEROL
maintains the structural
integrity and regulates the
fluidity of cell membranes
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER
barrier to the passage of
molecules and ions in and
out of the cell
Anatomy and Physiology
INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, CELL STUCTURE
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NUCLEUS
membrane-enclosed organelle within a cell containing
the chromosomes suspended in a fluid substance
PARTS OF THE NUCLEUS
NUCLEOPLASM
fluid substance containing the
nucleus’ chromosomes
CHROMOSOMES OR
made up of DNA combined with
CHROMATIN
proteins
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE double-layered membrane enclosing
the nucleus’ contents
NUCLAR PORES
regulate the passage of molecules
between the nucleus and cytoplasm
NUCLEOLUS
synthesizes ribosomes
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biological polymers (proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and lipids)
CYTOPLASM
jelly-like material containing all the cell organelles
enclosed within the cell membrane
fluid (cytosol) that fills the cell, including the cytosol
along with filaments, proteins, ions, and
macromolecular structures as well as the organelles
suspended in the cytosol
GOLGI APPARATUS
flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle located near
the nucleus
involved in manufacturing, storing, packing, and
transporting the particles throughout the cell
MITOCHONDRION
membrane-bound cell organelles that generate most
of the chemical energy needed to power the cell’s
biochemical reactions
the cell energy produced is stored in a small molecule
called ATP
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
large, dynamic structure
involved in calcium storage, protein synthesis, and
lipid metabolism
CISTERNAE
- folding of the ER
KINDS OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
ROUGH
synthesis and storage of proteins
SMOOTH storage of lipids, proteins, and calcium
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CENTROSOME
small organelle found near the nucleus where
centrioles are produced
cellular structure involved in the cell division process
before the cell division, it duplicates and as the
division begins, the two centrosomes move to
opposite end of the cell
LYSOSOME
membrane-enclosed organelles containing an array of
lysosomes capable of breaking down all types of
CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
movement of certain substances into the cell to
support metabolic reactions
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- no ATP
- high concentration to low concentration
DIFFUSION
TYPES OF DIFFUSION
SIMPLE
molecules move down their
concentration gradient
FACILITATED pumps and transfers protein (ex. GLUT4)
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OSMOSIS
specifically for water molecules moving across a semipermeable membrane
Anatomy and Physiology
INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, CELL STUCTURE
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diffusion of a solvent through a permeable membrane
through the lipid bilayer
- occurs whenever the water concentration differs on
the two sides of a selectively permeable membrane
AQUAPORINS
- transmembrane proteins that construct water- specific
channels allowing water to move freely and reversibly
OSMOLARITY
- total concentration of all solute particles in a solution
determined by multiplying molarity by the number of
particles resulting from ionization
TYPES OF TONICITY
ISOTONIC
- solutions have the same
concentrations of nonpenetrating solutes as those
found in cells
- cells exposed to this retain their
normal shape, and exhibit no net
loss or gain of water
- ex. body’s extracellular fluids and
most IVs
HYPERTONIC
- have a higher concentration of
non-penetrating solutes than
seen in the cell
- cells exposed to this lose water
and shrink, or crenate
- ex. mannitol for cerebral edema
HYPOTONIC
- more dilute than cells
- cells exposed to this plump up
rapidly as water rushes into them
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- needs ATP
- low concentration to high concentration
- conversion of ATP to ADP
TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
PHAGOCYTOSIS
- cells engulf viruses,
bacteria, or other
particles are too large
to use small channels
to transport through
the plasma membrane
and pull them in
EXOCYTOSIS
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form of bulk transport during
which large numbers of
molecules are transported out of
the cell
important for the transport of
neurotransmitters
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- ATPase, pumps, ATP
PUMPS IN PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Na+/K+ PUMP - low Na inside the cell and high K+ in
the extracellular matrix; since it is
against the concentration gradient,
a. 3 Na ions in the cytosol will bind to
the pump
b. ATP will attach to the pump to
change its configuration
c. two K+ ions will bind causing another
shape configuration in pump since
the P (phosphate) detaches
d. K+ ions will be transported inside the
cell
CLINICAL APPLICATION
1. high insulin, high exchange of Na and
K+, hence the increase in its
concentration
2. thyroid hormones (T3 & T4), increase
the exchange which causes elevated
production of ATP resulting to
increase in body temperature
DIGOXIN
- inhibits Na/K+ pump causing increase
in heart contraction
Ca2+ PUMP
- located in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
of muscle cells
- low Ca++ outside of the cell and high
Ca++ in the cytosol
- Ca++ in the cell could make the muscle
contract even after relaxation
Anatomy and Physiology
INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, CELL STUCTURE
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high Ca++ in the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, higher contractility
during relaxation of cardiac muscle,
calcium ions should move into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum to reduce
muscle contraction (can lead to MI)
sympathetic nervous system (through
the release of norepinephrine &
epinephrine) would trigger protein
kinase A, causing increase in the
movement of Ca++ ions in the calcium
channels
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- molecule A can move from high concentration to low
concentration (ex. Na)
- molecule B can move from low concentration to high
concentration (ex. glucose, amino acids, H+ protons)
SYMPORT
- both molecules will go to the same direction
ANTIPORT
- one will go inside, the other outside
PUMPS IN SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Na+/GLUCOSE
- works in kidneys
COTRANSPORTER - Na+ will move inside together with
OR SYMPORTER
glucose
- glucose in the kidney tubules is
low, while it is high in tubular cells;
to move against the concentration
gradient, glucose with Na will move
inside the kidney tubules
SODIUM-GLUCOSE TRANSPORTERS (SGLTE2) INHIBITORS
- in diabetic patients, this inhibits the
symporter to lower glucose and Na
in the blood stream
- excess glucose will be excreted in
the urine, lowering glucose blood
levels
Na+/Ca+
- works in the cardiac muscle
EXCHANGER OR
- low Ca inside the cell, high Na
ANTIPORTER
outside
- exchange of high Ca+ outside and
high Na+ outside
DIGOXIN
- inhibits Na/K ATPases, causing Na
to decrease outside
- Na++ cannot move down its
concentration gradient, prohibiting
calcium exchange; calcium build up
inside causes the heart to contract
more (causing heart failure)
CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS
- gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the
total number of chromosomes is obtained
IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS
1. development and growth (the number of cells within
an organism increases by mitosis)
2. cell replacement (cells are sloughed off and replaced
by new ones; ex.. skin and digestive tract)
MEIOSIS
- cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that
reduces the number of chromosomes in the gametes
(egg cell, sperm cell)
Anatomy and Physiology
INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, CELL STUCTURE
OOGENESIS AND SPERMATOGENESIS