MEMORY AND
INFORMATION PROCESSING
Chapter 8; Day 1 of 2
Pages 234-248
REVIEW FROM LAST CHAPTER
What is the correct definition of “symbolic capacity?”
A. Repeating actions relating to own body.
B. Ability to use images, words, and gestures to represent objects
and experiences.
C. Combining two actions to accomplish a task.
D. The basic understanding that objects are permanent when they
are no longer visible.
O
REVIEW FROM LAST CHAPTER
or wavepool Noah's
@
ark
What is the correct definition of “perceptual salience?”
A. Certain properties of an object do not always vary when the
appearance is altered in a superficial way.
B. Ability to group objects by color, shape, or size.
C. When someone focuses on the most obvious features of an
object or situation while missing other features.
D. Viewing the world solely from one’s own perspective.
MEMORY AND PROCESSING
• Today we will cover:
• Chapter 8: Memory and Processing
• 8.1
• 8.2
• 8.3
8.1 Conceptualizing Memory
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Conceptualizing Memory
(SLIDE 1 OF 6)
• Memory
• Our ability to store and later retrieve information about past events
• Develops and changes over the lifespan
• Information processing approach
• Emphasizes the basic mental processes involved in attention,
perception, memory, and decision-making
• Maturation of the nervous system plus experience enable adults to
remember more than young children
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Conceptualizing Memory
(SLIDE 2 OF 6)
• Information-processing framework (Atkinson and Shiffren)
• Sensory register
• Short-term memory
• Long-term memory
it holds incoming info
for a fraction of a second.
holds up to 7 items for > seconds. (phone#)
relative permanent storage of information
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Conceptualizing Memory
(SLIDE 3 OF 6)
• There are four (4) steps to learning and remembering:
1. Encode
• Get information into the system
2. Consolidation
of.in"
• Information is processed and organized in a form suitable for long-term
storage
% 3. Storage
☑ EE
facilitated by sleep
← supposedly unlimited
• Refers to holding information in a long-term memory store
4. Retrieval
• Process of getting information out when it is needed
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
@
Conceptualizing Memory
(SLIDE 4 OF 6)
• Types of Retrieval
1. Recognition memory
← multiple choice
• Recognition among the options
2. Recall memory
a free response
• Requires active retrieval without the aid of cues
3. Cued recall memory
or give a hint to help remember
• Given a hint or cue to facilitate retrieval
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Conceptualizing Memory
(SLIDE 5 OF 6)
• Working memory
• Mental “scratch pad” that temporarily stores information while
actively operating on it
• Expanded view of short-term memory consists of a central
executive
• Directs attention and controls the flow of information
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Conceptualizing Memory
(SLIDE 6 OF 6)
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Implicit and Explicit Memory
(SLIDE 1 OF 2)
• Implicit memory
• potty training/use bathroom
• Occurs unintentionally, automatically, and without awareness
not
changing
and not
forgotten
• Procedural memory
• Infallible; remains intact
• Explicit memory
• Involves deliberate, effortful recollection of events
• Declarative memory
• Fallible; subject to forgetting
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Implicit and Explicit Memory
(SLIDE 2 OF 2)
• Two types of Explicit Memory
1. Semantic memory ←
dates, times,etc.
• General facts
O
• Example: Knowing that the Twin Towers collapsed on 9-11-2011
2. Episodic memory
• Specific experiences
• Example: Remembering where you were when the Twin Towers
collapsed.
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Neural Bases of Memory
(SLIDE 1 OF 2)
• Implicit memory capacity does not change much across
the lifespan.
• Implicit memory develops earlier in infancy than explicit
memory
• Procedural Memory (Implicit memory)
• Mediated by an area of the forebrain called the striatum
• Explicit capacity increases from infancy to adulthood and
then declines.
• Largely localized in the medial temporal lobe of the brain
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Neural Bases of Memory
(SLIDE 2 OF 2)
"retro"
• Retrograde amnesia
• Loss of memory for information and events occurring prior to the
incident that caused the amnesia
• Anterograde amnesia
"before"
• No longer able to form new memories
• H.M. Case
• Movie – 50 First Dates (2004) – the main character has short-term
memory loss after a horrific car accident. When she goes to sleep
each night, she loses all memory of the previous day and begins
her day again as if it were the day of the car accident.
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Problem-Solving (SLIDE 1 OF 4)
• Problem-solving:
• Use of the information-processing system to achieve a goal or
arrive at a decision
• Executive control processes
• Guide the selection, organization, manipulation, and interpretation
of information throughout
• Most individuals diagnosed with ADHD struggle with this area of
functioning
• Parallel processing
• Carrying out multiple cognitive activities simultaneously
• Example: when you see a bus coming toward you, you see it’s
color, shape, depth, and motion all at once.
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
DEEPER LEARNING ACTIVITY
Split into small groups of 2 -3 students.
• What four steps are required in order to learn & remember
information? Attempt to answer this without your notes or textbook.
encode, consolidation, storage, retrieval
• Describe the difference between “implicit” and “explicit” memory.
Give 2-3 examples for each.
↑
automatic,
don't have to
think.
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
have to
commit to
memory otherwise
will forget it.
8.2 The Infant
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Memory (SLIDE 1 OF 2)
• Methods of assessing infant memory (same or similar
techniques as discussed in our chapter covering cognition)
1. Imitation
• Infants as young as six months display deferred imitation
• Ability to imitate a novel act after a delay, which clearly requires
memory ability
• Seems to represent an early form of explicit or declarative memory
2. Habituation
• Learning not to respond to a repeated stimulus
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Memory (SLIDE 2 OF 2)
3. Operant conditioning
• Task taps into implicit or procedural memory
• Young infants have difficulty recalling what they have learned if
cues are insufficient or different
• Early memories are cue-dependent and context-specific
• Infants remember best when:
• They have repeated exposures to what they are to remember
• They are given plenty of cues to help them remember
• Events they must remember occur in a meaningful or logical order
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Problem Solving (SLIDE 2 OF 4)
• Infants can overcome obstacles to achieve desired goals
• Increasingly pay attention to the cues provided by adults
• Increasingly solicit help by pointing, reaching, or letting the adult
know that assistance is needed
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
8.3 The Child
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
DEEPER LEARNING ACTIVITY
• Memory Game activity (different slide deck)
bike
greenapple
dog
soda
plan
handshake
cake
party hat
apple
flower
cat
bell
coffee
football
hands
Memory Development (SLIDE 1 OF 9)
• Four major hypotheses about why learning and memory
improve:
• Changes in basic capacities
• Changes in memory strategies
• Increased knowledge about memory
• Increased knowledge about the world
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Memory Development (SLIDE 2 OF 9)
• Basic Capacity Changes:
• Long-term storage capacity does not contribute to
developmental differences in memory
• Encoding of information improves over the first several years of
life
• Consolidation and storage of memories show improvement
over infancy
• Basic features of working memory in place by age 4
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Memory Development (SLIDE 3 OF 9)
• Basic Capacity Changes (continued):
• Consolidation and storage of memories show improvement
over infancy
• Allows older children and adults to simultaneously perform more
mental operations in working memory
• Short-term memory capacity is domain-specific
• Speed of processing increases
• Includes improvements in the encoding and consolidation
processes
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Memory Development (SLIDE 5 OF 9)
• Memory Strategy Changes:
• Younger children have a tendency to make perseveration
errors
• Continue to use the same strategy that was successful in the past
despite the strategy’s current lack of success
• Three- and four-year-olds rarely use rehearsal
• Repeating items they are trying to learn and remember
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Memory Development (SLIDE 6 OF 9)
• Memory Strategy Changes (continued):
• Memory strategies
• Rehearsal
• Repeating items in memory
• Organization
• Classifying items into meaningful groups
• Chunking is an example
• Elaboration
• Actively creating meaningful links between items to be remembered
• Helpful in learning foreign languages
• Rehearsal emerges first, then organization, and then elaboration
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Memory Development (SLIDE 7 OF 9)
• Memory Strategy Changes (continued):
• Children progress through four stages to use a strategy
successfully:
• Mediation deficiency – don’t spontaneously use or benefit even
when taught how to use the strategy.
• Production deficiency – can use a strategy, but do not produce
any on their own.
• Utilization deficiency – can spontaneously produce a strategy, but
does not benefit from the use of the strategy.
• Effective strategy - able to produce a strategy and use it
successfully.
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Memory Development (SLIDE 8 OF 9)
• Knowledge About Memory Changes:
• Metamemory
• Knowledge of memory and the process of memory
• Influenced by children’s language skills
• Metacognition
• Knowledge of the human mind and of the range of cognitive processes
• Present in three- and four-year-olds
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Memory Development (SLIDE 9 OF 9)
• Knowledge of the World Changes:
• Knowledge base – what someone knows
• Knowledge of a content area to be learned
• Affects learning and memory performance
• The more you know, the more you can know
• Conclusions about the development of learning and memory
• Older children
• Use more effective memory strategies
• Know more about memory
• Have a larger memory base
• The most effective predictors of memory performance include
basic capacities, strategies, and metamemory
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Autobiographical Memory
(SLIDE 1 OF 3)
• Autobiographical memories
• Episodic memories of personal events
• Important for understanding of who we are
• Childhood amnesia
• Few autobiographical memories of events that occurred during the
first few years of life
• Infants and toddlers may not have enough space in working memory
• Lack of language
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Autobiographical Memory
(SLIDE 2 OF 3)
• Childhood amnesia (continued):
• Fuzzy-trace theory
• Children store verbatim and general accounts of an event separately
• One explanation of childhood amnesia
• Verbatim information unstable
• Events of our early childhood do not seem to undergo
consolidation
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Autobiographical Memory
(SLIDE 3 OF 3)
• Scripts or general event representations (GERs)
• Typical sequence of actions related to an event
• Guide future behaviors in similar settings
• Example: waiting in line to order food, you figure out, or script, what you will order.
• Scripts become more detailed as children age
• Affect how they form new memories
• Affect how they recall events
• Eyewitness Memory
•
The reconstructed nature of memory interferes with the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony (reporting of experienced events).
• Not reliable
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Problem Solving (SLIDE 3 OF 4)
• Memories vital to problem-solving skills
• Rule assessment approach (Ziegler)
• Determines what information about a problem children take in and
what rules they then formulate to account for the information
• Most children use multiple rules or problem-solving strategies
• Use of a strategy’s efficiency tends to increase over multiple task
trials.
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Problem Solving (SLIDE 4 OF 4)
• Overlapping waves theory
• Development of problem-solving skills is a matter of knowing and
using a variety of strategies
• Becoming increasingly selective with experience about which
strategy to use
• Changing or adding strategies as needed
© 2018. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
WRAP UP & LOOKING AHEAD
• Wednesday, 11/15:
• Finishing Chapter 8 lecture (read pages 249-255)
• Introduce Unit 3 Assignment – Memory (Due Wednesday, 11/22)
• Begin movie: Disney’s Inside Out (2015)
• Friday, 11/17:
• Finish movie: Disney’s Inside Out (2015)
• Monday, 11/20: Unit 3 Quiz (Chapters 6, 7, & 8)