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Ethics Theories Summary
Ethics & Social Responsibility (Singapore Management University)
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Structure of answer: Issue, Rules, Analysis, Conclusion
Theories
Utilitarianism
Kantian
Evaluate
Greatest good for
the greatest no. of
people
Deontology: One
must act from
moral duty – not in
conformity with
moral duty
No concept of
justice
Invisible Hand
Theory (Free &
competitive mkts
are best means for
attaining U goals)
Categorical
imperatives:
1. Principle of
Universality (No
double standards)
2. Principle of
humanity – basic
human rights (treat
person as an end
and never as a
means only)
Both principles
must be satisfied
Limitations
Difficult to exhaust
the range of ethical
concerns /
consequences
Does not account
for justice (fairness
in distribution)
Moral actor can’t
make interpersonal
comparisons of
utility
Focuses on motives
instead of
consequences
Does not allow for
exceptions
Theories of Justice
- Aristotle Justice
Theories of Justice
- Rawlsian Justice
(Egalitarian)
Original Position:
Decision makers
behind a veil of
ignorance (do not
know the specific
details of their own
life)
1. Distribution
justice
(distributions of
benefits &
burdens) – justice
as an equality in
ratio
Principles:
1. Equal right
(Benefit & burdens
of a society should
be distributed
equally)
2. Unequal
distribution could
be justified if it
would benefit the
least advantaged
members of the
society, to give
them equal
opportunity
2. Compensatory
justice
(compensate
person for wrongs
done to them) –
restores them to
original position,
focuses on victim
3. Retributive
justice
(punishment of
wrongdoers) –
restores moral
equilibrium by
focusing on wrongdoer
Difficult to discern
the mean
Entitlement Th.
Principles:
1. Principle of Just
Original Acquisition
2. Principle of Just
Transfer
3. Principle of
Rectification
No obligation for
rich to assist poor –
does not promote
equality but to
protect rights (free
market)
Accounts for
historical events
affecting an
existing
distribution
How far should we
go to the past
Requires judgment
or practical wisdom
Virtue Ethics –
Aristotle &
Solomon
Focus on who that
person is (personal
character, actions
or practices) rather
than pure
knowledge
moral
characteristics
(virtues)
Objective of
achieving human
happiness is based
on virtuous
activities (habitual
actions) generated
over one’s lifetime
Ethics of Care
Confucian Ethics
Moral Relativism
Based on virtue
such as empathy,
compassion, love
and friendship
(partial in
treatment towards
persons he has
special affectionate
relationship with)
Individuals are to
cultivate
benevolence or ren
Dependent on
moral views of the
individual / culture
Altruism (love
neighbour as
himself), kinship
based and social
hierarchy
Issue-dependent
Relational and
interdependent
Do not believe in
treating everyone
equally (dependent
on relationship
between parties,
familial priority)
Advocates building
concrete
cooperative
relationships
Feminist approach
Virtue lies in a
mean that is
relative to us and
determined by a
rational principle
(subjective
judgement)
BUT some actions
are evil in
themselves and not
subjected to mean.
Does not provide
straightforward
rules for
determining right
actions in a
particular situation
First mover
disadvantage
(Applying Kantian
ethics
disadvantages
some people)
Looks at the
specifics of
situation to
promote the needs
and interest of that
community
BUT there are
objective moral
values and duties
that transcend
cultures; min
standards
(unethical practices
that cannot be
justified by any
ethical viewpoints)
Involves
compassion for
others, devotion to
parents or elders,
reconciling one’s
own desires with
the needs of one’s
family and
community
Validates
horrendous
conduct
Exaggeration of
moral differences
among societies
Can’t hold societies
practices as
unethical
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Theories
Evaluate
Islamic Ethics
Focus on value maximisation based
on the principles of equity and
justice (fair play and just dealing),
instead of profit max
-Distributive justice – Muslim to give
up ¼ of his income wealth to benefit
the poor. Against persons who mass
or hoard wealth.
-People ought to be trustees of the
earth on behalf of God – consistent
to sustainable development, the
earth’s resources are for everyone’s
benefit and should be utilised in a
manner that conduces the wellbeing of people
-No Caveat Emptor (Responsibility of
the seller to tell you what is bad
about something)
-Prohibits Riba, the charging of
interest for loans
-Prohibits uncertainty / risks in
contracts (conventional insurance
contracts not allowed)
-Prohibits speculation / gambling
-Prohibits dealing in specific
products and commodities such as
alcohol and pork
Buddhist Ethics
Central tenet of Buddhism:
1.Suffering is associated with all
stages of life
2.Suffering arises from desire or
craving
3.Cessation of suffering (craving)
4.End suffering by the Noble
Eightfold Path
Happiness is attained by giving up
such cravings (instead of
maximisation of one’s pleasures and
desires, such as in ethical egoism)
Doctrine of no-self –to attain
nibbana, the ‘self’ (material form,
feelings, perceptions, mental
formation and consciousness)
should be abandoned
Hindu Ethics
Doctrine of karma: Human being has
a free will that enables him to make
intelligent choices and perform good
deeds. These choices and deeds may
in turn alter the manifestation of the
karma.
Ultimate goal of Hindu is to reduce
the bad karma that he has to carry
onto his next cycle of birth.
Free will to make intelligent choices
+ do good
10 moral values of Dharma (way of
life): Patience, forgiveness, wisdom,
truthfulness, no stealing, learning,
anger management, etc
Noble Eightfold Path/ Middle Path
(avoids extremes):
1.Wisdom (right view and intention)
2.Virtue (right speech, action and
livelihood)
3.Meditation (right effort,
mindfulness and concentration)
Ethical Egoism
Action is right to the extent that it is
based on self-interest
Ideal: Pareto Optimal
Based on the idea of free market.
Individuals act upon their selfinterest independently. Under this
theory, decisions are ethical when
individuals pursue his self-interest.
Through independent pursuits of
self-interest, a utilitarian outcome is
achieved according to Adam Smith’s
theory of free market.
Thomas Freeman: Evolution of laws
compelling companies to consider
the interests of stakeholders – thus
stakeholders and stockholders grow
to become interdependent and
should create value without tradeoffs between the two interests
Concept of Middle Path – as long as
individual is able to lead a
reasonably comfortable life, he
should avoid excess /
overindulgence
Caste system is an obstacle to
business. Despite the enactment of
the Protection of Civil Rights Act in
1976, discrimination against lower
caste is still practiced in business
arena.
Limitations
Principle of Double Effect
An Action is justifiable if:
i) The nature of the act itself is good,
or at least morally neutral
Externalities exist since not all
goods (include. air quality, noise etc.
can be traded), market is not
efficient otherwise government
intervention will not be necessary
Conclusions: Using limitations of the theory -> which Is more applicable to real life
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ii) The good effects are generated
from the action not from the bad
effects
iii)The agent intends the good effect
and not the bad
iv) The good effect outweighs the
bad effect sufficiently so as to justify
causing the bad effect