The
Architecture
Reference +
Specification
Book
The
Architecture
Reference +
Specification
Book
Everything Architects Need to Know Every Day
Julia McMorrough
Contents
Introduction
6
1
Materials
2
Structures and Systems
3
Standards
106
4
Compendium
232
8
Index
About the Author
56
266
272
Measure and Drawing 106
1: Wood
10
2: Masonry and Concrete
24
3: Metals
36
4: Finishes
44
5: Structural Systems
58
6: Mechanical Systems
72
7: Electrical Systems
78
8: Plumbing and Fire Protection Systems
84
9: Building Enclosure Systems
88
10: Measurement and Geometry 108
11: Architectural Drawing Types 120
12: Architectural Documents 132
13: Hand Drawing 148
14: Computer Standards and Guidelines 154
Proportion and Form 162
15: The Human Scale 164
16: Residential Spaces 172
17: Form and Organization 182
18: Architectural Elements 186
Codes and Guidelines 196
19: Building Codes 198
20: ADA and Accessibility 206
21: Parking 218
22: Stairs 222
23: Doors 226
24: Timeline 234
25: Glossary 242
26: Resources 252
i.
INTRODUCTION
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN is a complex activity that involves
multiple levels of knowledge, communication, and production,
even on a small project. Architects often speak their own language, both in terminology and through conventions of drawings,
models, and diagrams. Moreover, to make a piece of architecture
requires following countless rules of which an able practitioner must remain ever knowledgeable: building codes, human
dimensions, drawing standards, material properties, and relevant
technologies. Familiarity with so many issues comes with schooling and long years of experience, but even the most seasoned
architect must avail him- or herself of a vast and exhaustive array
of resources, from code books to graphic standards, from materials libraries to manufacturers’ catalogs.
6
The Architecture Reference + Speciication Book is a unique
compilation of essential information for architects, students of
architecture, and anyone contemplating an architectural project.
Included here are the tables, charts, diagrams, dimensions, standards, codes, and general data that many architects need on a
daily basis. This book is not a replacement for other sources that
architects might consult regularly, but rather a handy “irst-stop”
reference that is always at the ready, on a desk or in a bag.
Part 1, “Materials,” provides a detailed catalog of the most common
building materials—wood, masonry, concrete, metals—as well as various interior inishes. Parts 2 and 3, “Structures and Systems,” and
“Standards,” address the major aspects of undertaking an architectural project. Topics include basic measurements and geometry,
architectural drawing types and conventions, architectural elements,
the human scale, parking, building codes, accessibility, structural
and mechanical systems, and building components. Part 4, “Compendium,” brings together a glossary and a timeline of key moments
in the history of architecture. Finally, because such a compact book
cannot possibly contain everything, a directory of resources offers
an extensive guide to the most helpful publications, organizations,
and websites.
For every project, architects must take into account an endless number of external forces, not least of which are the codes and standards of design and construction. But these codes and standards
should certainly not be viewed as limiting: Knowledge of them and
their creative use can, in fact, liberate and empower.
7
MATERIALS
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
1.
During the design process architects often use a foam board model as a
quick way to realize and study a form or space. Frequently, the building’s materials may not yet have been chosen or inalized, and there is
a seductive simplicity to the foam (or wood or cardboard) model at this
point: anything is still possible. Aside from the overarching impact of the
project’s budget, numerous factors inluence the selection of materials
for a building’s structure, skin, and inishes. Some materials are more
readily available in certain regions, or the local building trades may be
more comfortable with speciic construction practices. Other materials
have very long lead times, and for some projects, time constraints may
rule these out. Also, different climates have different material needs,
and the building’s program, size, and code requirements bear on the
appropriateness of materials and methods of construction.
A basic sampling of common materials found in many buildings is presented here. Space limitations do not allow for discussion of other more
innovative materials, but increasingly, for reasons of practicality, cost, or
environmental concerns, architects are looking to less standard sources
for building materials (textiles, plastics, and aerogels) or to unconventional uses for common products (concrete roof tiles, acrylic “glass
blocks,” and recycled cotton fabric insulation).
9
01
Chapter 1: Wood
Lightweight, strong, and durable, wood is an ideal construction material with many uses.
The two major classifications—soft wood and hard wood—do not necessarily indicate
relative hardness, softness, strength, or durability.
COMMON WOOD TERMS
Board foot: Unit of measurement for wood
quantities, equivalent to 12” x 12” x 1” (305 x
305 x 25.5).
Book-matched: Result of resawing thick
lumber into thinner boards, opening the two
halves like a book, and gluing the boards
together along the edge to create a panel with
a mirrored grain pattern.
Dimensional stability: Ability of a section
of wood to resist changes in volume at
luctuating moisture levels. Low dimensional
stability produces expansion in humid
environments and contraction in dry ones.
Early growth/Late growth: In regions of
little climatic change, trees tend to grow at a
fairly consistent rate and have little variation
in texture. In regions of seasonal climatic
change, however, trees grow at different
rates, depending on the season. Variations in
growth contribute to the color and texture of
the growth rings in the tree.
Figure: Patterns on a wood surface produced
by growth rings, rays, knots, and irregular
grains. Descriptors include interlocked, curly,
tiger, wavy, and iddleback, among others.
iddleback
swirl
Burl: Irregular grain pattern that results from
an unusual growth on the tree.
Cathedral grain: V-shaped grain pattern
running the length of the board.
Check: Separation of the wood ibers
running with the grain that do not go
through the whole cross section. Occurs as
a result of tension and stress caused by
wood movement during the drying process.
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
bird’s-eye
crotch
Grain: Size, alignment, and appearance of
wood ibers in a piece of lumber.
01
Gum pocket: Excessive accumulation of resin
or gum in certain areas of the wood.
Movement in performance: See dimensional
stability.
Hardness: Ability of wood to resist indentation. See Janka hardness test.
Plainsawn: Lumber cut with less than a 30-degree angle between the face of the board and
the wood’s growth ring.
Hardwood: Wood from deciduous trees (which
lose their leaves in the winter months). Oak
and walnut constitute 50 percent of all hardwood production.
Heartwood: Harder, nonliving innermost
layers of a tree. It is generally darker, denser,
more durable, and less permeable than the
surrounding sapwood. Good all-heartwood
lumber may be dificult to obtain, and,
depending on the species, it is common to
ind boards with both heartwood and sapwood
combined.
Plywood: Large sheet of wood made up
of several layers of veneer that are glued
together so that the grain of each layer lies
perpendicular to the grain of the previous
layer. There are always an odd number of layers, enabling the grain direction of both faces
to run parallel to one another.
Pressure-treated lumber: Wood products that
are treated with chemical preservatives to
prevent decay brought on by fungi and to resist attack from insects and microorganisms.
Under pressure, the preservatives are forced
deep into the cellular structure of the wood.
sapwood
heartwood
cambium
phloem
outer bark
Quartersawn: Lumber cut with a 60- to 90degree angle between the face of the board
and the wood’s growth rings.
Janka hardness test: Test that measures the
pounds of force required to drive a 0.444”
(11 mm) -diameter steel ball to half its depth
into a piece of wood.
Moisture content: Percentage that represents a board’s ratio of water weight to the
weight of oven-dried wood.
Wood
11
01 01
Riftsawn: Lumber cut with a 30- to 60degree angle between the face of the
board and the wood’s growth rings.
SOFTWOOD LUMBER
Lumber Standards*
Rough Lumber
Sawed, trimmed, and edged lumber
whose faces are rough and show marks.
Surfaced (Dressed) Lumber
Rough lumber that has been smoothed
by a surfacing machine.
Sapwood: Living outer layers of a tree,
between the outer bark and the thin
formative layers of the cambium and
phloem, on the one side, and the heartwood, on the other. These layers contain
the sap-conducting tubes. Generally
lighter in color, less durable, less dense,
and more permeable than heartwood,
sapwood darkens with age and becomes
heartwood. Sapwood and heartwood
together make up the xylem of the tree.
Softwood: Wood from coniferous (evergreen) trees.
Split: Separation of wood ibers from
one face through to the next. Occurs
most often at the ends of boards.
Stain: Substance used to change the
color of wood.
Straight grain: Wood ibers that run parallel to the axis of a piece of lumber.
Stud: 2” x 4” and 2” x 6” dimension lumber used for load-bearing and stud walls.
Texture: Describes the size and distribution of wood ibers: coarse, ine, or even.
Warp: Bowing, cupping, and twisting
distortion in lumber that occurs after it
has been planed, usually during the drying process.
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
S1S: Surfaced one side
S1E: Surfaced one edge
S2S: Surfaced two sides
S2E: Surfaced two edges
S1S1E: Surfaced one side and one edge
S1S2E: Surfaced one side and two edges
S2S1E: Surfaced two sides and one edge
S4S: Surfaced four sides
Worked Lumber
Surfaced lumber that has been
matched, patterned, shiplapped, or any
combination of these.
Shop and Factory Lumber
Millwork lumber for use in door jambs,
moldings, and window frames.
Yard (Structural) Lumber
Lumber used for house framing,
concrete forms, and sheathing.
Boards: No more than 1” (25) thick and
4”–12” (102–305) wide
Planks: Over 1” (25) thick and 6” (152) wide
Timbers: Width and thickness both greater
than 5” (127)
*From U.S. Department of Commerce American
Lumber Standards of Softwood Lumbers
01
Softwood Lumber Sizes
Nominal Size1
inches
Actual Size, Dry2
inches (mm)
Actual Size, Green3
inches (mm)
1
3/4 (19)
25/32 (20)
11/4
1 (25)
11/32 (26)
11/2
11/4 (32)
19/32 (33)
2
11/2 (38)
19/16 (40)
21/2
2 (51)
21/16 (52)
3
2 1/2 (64)
2 9/16 (65)
31/2
3 (76)
3 1/16 (78)
4
31/2 (89)
3 9/16 (90)
41/2
4 (102)
41/16 (103)
5
41/2 (114)
4 5/8 (117)
6
51/2 (140)
5 9/16 (143)
7
61/2 (165)
6 5/8 (168)
8
71/4 (184)
71/2 (190)
9
81/4 (210)
81/2 (216)
10
91/4 (235)
91/2 (241)
11
101/4 (260)
101/2 (267)
12
111/4 (286)
111/2 (292)
14
131/4 (337)
131/2 (343)
16
151/4 (387)
151/2 (394)
1
Nominal dimensions are approximate dimensions assigned to pieces of lumber and other
materials as a convenience in referring to the piece.
2
Dry lumber is deined as having a moisture content of less than 19 percent.
3
Green (unseasoned) lumber is deined as having a moisture content of greater than 19
percent.
Softwood grading is based on the appearance, strength, and stiffness of the lumber. Numerous
associations nationwide establish their own grading standards, though they must all conform
to the U.S. Department of Commerce American Lumber Standards. Grading is often dificult to
understand, and because it deals with both strength analysis and visual analysis, there is an allowable 5 percent variation below a given grade.
Wood
13
01
Dimensional Variations of a 2X6 Stud
2”
1 1/2”
6”
5 1/2”
2X6 Old Growth
Typically, older growth wood
is denser, stronger, and
more dimensionally stable.
Before aggressive logging,
older growth trees grew more
slowly, as they competed
for sunlight in more densely
forested conditions, resulting in more rings per inch.
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
2X6 Farmed Wood
By contrast, farmed wood
grows bigger faster, due to
more aggressive watering,
fertilizing, and exposure to
sunlight. More rapid growing
results in less dense wood.
01
1 5/8”
1 3/4”
5 1/2”
6”
Laminated Veneer
Lumber (LVL) - Farmed & Glued
Commonly referred to by its
proprietary name of Microllam
(Weyerhauser), LVL lumber is
made of thin sheets of wood
sandwiched and glued together,
much like plywood, though resulting in heavy and dense wood
members that resist warping and
shrinkage, and are designed to
carry signiicant loads.
Metal Stud
Though more expensive than
wood framing members, steel
studs offer more strength and
dimensional stability.
Wood
15
01
HARDWOOD
Board Feet
Most lumber is measured and sold in board
feet (one board foot equals 144 cubic inches),
calculated as follows:
thickness x face width x length
144
Hardwood Lumber Grades
First and Second (FAS): Best grade,
normally required for a natural or
stained inish. Boards must be at
least 6” wide, 8’–16’ long, and 83.3
percent clear on the worst face.
Select, No. 1 Common: Boards must
be a minimum 3” wide, 4’–16’ long,
and 66.66 percent clear on the worst
face.
1x2
1 board foot =
1” x 2” x 72”
Select, No. 2 Common
Select, No. 3 Common
2x4
1 board foot =
2” x 4” x 18”
Hardwood Lumber Thicknesses
4x8
1 board foot =
4” x 8” x 4 1/2”
Quarter*
6 x 12
1 board foot =
6” x 12” x 2”
8 x 16
1 board foot =
8” x 16” x 11/8”
Surfaced 1
Side (S1S)
Surfaced 2
Sides (S2S)
3/8” (10)
1/4” (6)
3/16” (5)
1/2” (13)
3/8” (10)
5/16” (8)
5/8” (16)
1/2” (13)
7/16” (11)
Rough
Dimension
3/4” (19)
5/8” (16)
9/16” (14)
4/4
1” (25)
7/8” (22)
13/16” (21)
5/4
1 1/4” (32)
1 1/8” (29)
1 1/16” (27)
6/4
1 1/2” (38)
1 3/8” (35)
1 5/16” (33)
8/4
2” (51)
1 13/16” (46)
1 3/4” (44)
3” (76)
2 13/16” (71)
2 3/4” (70)
4” (102)
3 13/16” (97)
3 3/4” (95)
12/4
16/4
*Hardwood thickness is often referred
to in “quarters:” 4/4 equals 1” (25), 6/4
is 1 1/2” (38), and so on.
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
01
01
PLYWOOD
Exposure Durability
Exterior: Fully waterproof glue and minimum C-grade
veneers - suitable for applications permanently exposed to the weather.
Exposure 1: Fully waterproof glue and minimum
D-grade veneers - suitable for applications with some
exposure to weather.
Exposure 2: Glue of intermediate moisture resistance suitable for applications of intermittent high humidity.
Plywood quality is rated by the American
Plywood Association (APA) and is generally
graded by the quality of the veneer on both
front and back sides of the panel (A-B, C-D,
and so on). Veneer grades describe appearance according to natural unrepaired growth
characteristics and the size and number of
repairs allowed during manufacture.
Interior: Protected indoor applications only.
Typical Plywood Construction
Veneer Grades
N
Premium grade available by special order. Select, all heartwood or all sapwood
with a smooth surface and free of open
defects. No more than six repairs, wood
only, matched for grain and color, and
parallel to the grain, allowed per 4’ x 8’
panel. Best for natural inish.
A
Smooth and paintable. Permits no more
than eighteen neatly made repairs of
boat, sled, or router type, and parallel to
the grain. Used for natural inish in less
demanding applications.
B
Solid surface that allows shims, circular
repair plugs, and tight knots limited to 1”
across grain, with minor splits permitted.
C
Plugged
Improved C veneer with splits up to 1/8”
width and knotholes and borer holes up
to 1/4” x 1/2”. Some broken grain is permitted, and synthetic repairs are allowed.
C
Tight knots and knotholes up to 11/2”
permitted if total width of knots and knotholes is within speciied limits. Synthetic
or wood repairs allowed. Discoloration
and sanding defects that do not impair
strength, limited splits, and stitching all
permitted. Lowest exterior use grade.
D
3-layer (3 ply)
3-layer (4 ply)
5-layer (5 ply)
Knots and knotholes up to to 21/2”
across grain and 1/2” larger within
speciied limits permitted. Limited
splits and stitching also permitted.
Use restricted to Interior, Exposure 1, and
Exposure 2 panels.
5-layer (6 ply)
Wo o d
17
01
WOOD TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
ASH white Fraxinus Americana
Hardness
H
Principal Finish Uses trim, cabinetry
Creamy white to
Color
light brown
Paint
n/a
Transp. excellent
BIRCH Betula alleghaniensis
Hardness
H
trim, paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Color
Paint
White to dark red
excellent Transp. good
BUTTERNUT Juglans cinerea
Hardness
M
trim, paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Color
Paint
pale brown
n/a
Transp. excellent
CEDAR western red Thuja plicata
Hardness
S
trim, exterior &
Principal Finish Uses interior paneling
Reddish brown
Color
nearly white
Paint
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
n/a
Transp. good
01
S=soft; M=medium; H=hard; VH=very hard; n/a=not normally used
Finishes: Painted and Transparent
CHESTNUT Castanea dentate
Hardness
M
trim, paneling
Principal Finish Uses
Grayish brown
Color
Paint
n/a
Transp. excellent
MAHOGANY Hond. Sweitenia macrophylla
Hardness
M
trim, frames, panelPrincipal Finish Uses ing, cabinetry
Color
Paint
Rich golden brown
n/a
Transp. excellent
MAPLE Acer saccharum
Hardness
VH
trim, paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
White to reddish
Color
brown
Paint
excellent Transp. good
OAK English brown Quercus robur
Hardness
H
veneered paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Color
Paint
Leathery brown
n/a
Transp. excellent
Wood
19
01
WOOD TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
OAK red Quercus rubra
Hardness
H
trim, paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Color
Paint
Reddish tan to brown
n/a
Transp. excellent
OAK white Quercus alba
Hardness
H
trim, paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Color
Paint
Grayish tan
n/a
Transp. excellent
PECAN Carya species
Hardness
H
trim, paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Reddish brown w/
Color
brown stripes
Paint
n/a
Transp. good
PINE east. or north. white Pinus strobes
Hardness
S
trim, frames,
Principal Finish Uses paneling, cabinetry
Creamy white to
Color
pink
Paint
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
good
Transp. good
01
S=soft; M=medium; H=hard; VH=very hard; n/a=not normally used
Finishes: Painted and Transparent
ROSEWOOD Dalbergia nigra
Hardness
VH
veneered paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Mixed red/brown/
Color
black
Paint
n/a
Transp. excellent
TEAK Tectona grandis
Hardness
H
trim, paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Tawny yellow to dark
Color
brown
Paint
n/a
Transp. excellent
WALNUT Juglans
Hardness
H
trim, paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Color
Paint
Chocolate brown
n/a
Transp. excellent
ZEBRAWOOD Brachystegea leuryana
Hardness
H
trim, paneling,
Principal Finish Uses cabinetry
Gold streaks on
Color
dark brown
Paint
n/a
Transp. excellent
Wood
21
01
WOOD JOINERY
ve
roo
G
nd
Edge Joints
tt
le
p
Sim
Bu
ea
gu
nt
Joi
Ton
n
tte
ack
Ba
B
n
tte
Ba
et
Fill
End Joints
p
ipla
Sh
arf
p
La
Sc
lice
d
are
Sp
ap
lf L
u
Ha
lice
Fin
Sq
r
ge
Sp
Right-Angle Joints (Miters)
Plain
22
Wood Spline
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Quirk
Tongue and Groove
Shoulder
01
Right-Angle Joints
Right-Angle Joints
(Mortise and Tenon)
Butt Joint
Half Blind
Right-Angle
Joints
(Dovetail)
Ship
Rabbet
Blind
Right-Angle Joints (Lap)
Dovetail Dado
Dado
Dado and Rabbet
Middle Lap
End Lap
Miter Half Lap
Wood
23
02
Chapter 2: Masonry and Concrete
Masonry
Masonry building has become quicker, stronger, and more efficient than in the past,
but the basic principles of construction have changed very little since ancient times.
Masonry units include bricks, stones, and concrete blocks, and because they all come
from the earth, they are suitable for use as foundations, pavers, and walls embedded
in the earth. The strength and durability of most masonry makes it ideal to resist fire
and decay from water and air.
BRICKS
The small scale of a single brick makes it a
lexible material for use in walls, loors, and
even ceilings. Brick production, in which
the clay is ired at very high temperatures,
gives brick excellent ire-resistive qualities.
Brick Grades
(Building and Facing)
SW: Severe weathering (where
water may collect)
MW: Moderate weathering
NW: Negligible weathering
Brick Types (Facing)
course
(horizontal layer
of brick or other
masonry unit plus
mortar)
FBS: General use in exposed
exterior and interior walls; most
common type and default choice
if architect does not specify
head joint
bed joint
face brick
(brick on exposed
surface of a wall,
selected for its
appearance and
durability)
wythe
(vertical layer
of brick or other
masonry unit)
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
FBX: Special use in exposed exterior
and interior walls, where a higher
degree of mechanical perfection,
narrower color range, and minimal
variation in size are required
FBA: Special use in exposed
exterior and interior walls, where nonuniformity in size, color, and texture
are desired
02
Brick Manufacturing
Winning (Mining) and storage:
Clays are mined and enough raw material is stored for several days’ use
to allow continuous operation in any
weather. The three principal types of
clay are surface clays, shales, and
ire clays.
Preparation:
Clay is crushed
and pulverized.
Forming Processes
Stiff mud process (extrusion process): Clay is mixed
with minimal amounts of water and then “pugged” (thoroughly mixed). Air pockets are removed from the clay
as it is passed through a vacuum. Then it is extruded
through a rectangular die and pushed across a cutting
table where it is sliced into bricks by cutter wires.
Extrusion
Soft mud process (molding process): Moist clay is
pressed into rectangular molds. Water or sand are used
as media to prevent the clay from sticking to the molds.
Water-struck bricks have a smooth surface, produced
when the molds have been dipped into water before
being illed; sand-struck, or sand-mold, bricks have a
matte-textured surface, produced by dusting the molds
with sand before forming the brick.
Molding
Dry-press process: Clay is mixed with a minimum of
water and machine-pressed into steel molds.
Drying Process
Firing Process
Molded bricks
are placed in
a low-temperature kiln and
dried for one
to two days.
In periodic kilns, bricks are loaded, ired,
cooled, and unloaded. In continuous tunnel
kilns, bricks ride through a tunnel on railcars,
where they are ired the entire time at various
temperatures and emerge at the end fully
burned. Firing can take from 40 to 150 hours.
Water-smoking and dehydration: Remaining water is removed from the clay.
Oxidation and vitrification: Temperatures reach up to 1,800º F (982ºC) and 2,400ºF
(1,316ºC), for these respective processes, Flashing: Fire is regulated to produce color
variations in the brick.
Bricks may also be glazed, either during the initial iring or in a
special additional iring.
Masonr y and Concrete
25
02
BRICK UNITS
Comparative Proportions
Standard
Engineer
Economy
Norman
Nominal brick dimensions are derived from
combining actual brick
dimensions (length,
thickness, and height)
with their respective
mortar joints. Typical
mortar joints are
3/8” (10) and 1/2” (13).
Roman
Utility
SCR
T
H
L
Standard Sizes
Unit Type
Joint
Thickness
in. (mm)
Standard
Modular
3/8 (10)
Norman
3/8 (9.5)
Nominal
T
in. (mm)
Nominal
H
in. (mm)
Nominal
L
in. (mm)
3C = 8 (203)
4 (102)
2 2/3 (68)
8 (203)
3 5/8 (92)
3 1/2 (89)
2 1/4 (57)
2 3/16 (56)
11 5/8 (295)
11 1/2 (292)
3C = 8 (203)
4 (102)
2 2/3 (68)
12 (305)
3 5/8 (92)
3 1/2 (89)
1 5/8 (41)
1 1/2 (38)
11 5/8 (295)
11 1/2 (292)
2C = 4 (102)
4 (102)
2 (51)
12 (305)
3 5/8 (92)
3 1/2 (89)
2 13/16 (71)
2 11/16 (68)
7 5/8 (194)
7 1/2 (191)
5C = 16 (406)
4 (102)
3 1/5 (81)
8 (203)
3 5/8 (92)
3 1/2 (89)
3 5/8 (92)
3 1/2 (89)
7 5/8 (194)
7 1/2 (191
1C = 4 (102)
4 (102)
4 (102)
8 (203)
3 5/8 (92)
3 1/2 (89)
3 5/8 (92)
3 1/2 (89)
11 5/8 (295)
11 1/2 (292)
1C = 4 (102)
4 (102)
4 (102)
12 (305)
1/2 (12.7)
1/2 (12.7)
5 1/2 (140)
2 1/8 (54)
11 1/2 (292)
3C = 8 (203)
6 (152)
2 2/3 (68)
12 (305)
3/8 (9.5)
3/8 (9.5)
Economy
3/8 (9.5)
1/2 (12.7)
1/2 (12.7)
26
Vertical
Coursing = (C)
in. (mm)
7 5/8 (194)
7 1/2 (191)
Engineer
Modular
SCR
Brick
Length = L
in. (mm)
2 1/4 (57)
2 3/16 (56)
1/2 (12.7)
Utility
Brick
Height = H
in. (mm)
3 5/8 (92)
3 1/2 (89)
1/2 (13)
1/2 (12.7)
Roman
Brick
Thickness = T
in. (mm)
3/8 (9.5)
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02
Orientations
Bond Types
Preferred SI Dimensions
for Masonry
Nominal Height
(H) x Length (L)
Vertical
Coursing (C)
50 x 300 mm
[2C = 100]
67 x 200 mm
67 x 300 mm
[3C = 200]
75 x 200 mm
75 x 300 mm
[4C = 300]
80 x 200 mm
80 x 300 mm
[5C = 400]
100 x 200 mm
100 x 300 mm
100 x 400 mm
[1C = 100]
133 x 200 mm
133 x 300 mm
133 x 400 mm
[3C = 400]
150 x 300 mm
150 x 400 mm
[2C = 300]
200 x 200 mm
200 x 300 mm
200 x 400 mm
[1C = 200]
300 x 300 mm
[1C = 300]
Rowlock
Running Bond
Header
Flemish Monk Bond
Sailor
1/3 Running Bond
Soldier
Stack Bond
Stretcher
Acceptable Length
Substitutions for Flexibility
200 mm
(100 mm)
300 mm
(100 mm, 150 mm,
200 mm, 250 mm)
400 mm
Common Bond
Shiner
(100 mm, 200 mm,
300 mm)
Flemish Bond
Masonr y and Concrete
27
02
9’-4” (2 845)
42
83
8’-8” (2 642)
39
64
14’-0” (4 267)
63
20
62
4’-0” (1 219)
18
61
13’-4” (4 064)
60
17
59
3’-4” (1 016)
15
58
12’-8” (3 861)
57
14
56
2’-8” (813)
12
55
12’-0” (3 658)
54
11
53
2’-0” (610)
9
52
11’-4” (3 454)
51
8
50
1’-4” (406)
6
49
10’-8” (3 251)
48
5
28
14’-8” (4 470)
65
4’-8” (1 422)
21
4
67
66
23
7
15’-4” (4 674)
68
5’-4” (1 626)
24
10
70
69
26
13
16’-0” (4 877)
71
6’-0” (1 829)
27
16
73
72
29
19
16’-8” (5 080)
74
6’-8” (2 032)
30
22
76
75
32
25
17’-4” (5 283)
77
7’-4” (2 235)
33
28
79
78
35
31
18’-0” (5 486)
80
8’-0” (2 438)
36
34
82
81
38
37
18’-8” (5 690)
84
41
40
no. of
courses
no. of
courses
Standard Modular Brick Coursing
47
8” (203)
46
3
45
2
44
1
43
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
10’-0” (3 048)
9’-4” (2 845)
02
Colors
Mortar
Mortar adheres masonry
units together, cushions them
while mediating their surface
irregularities, and provides a
watertight seal. Composed
of portland cement, hydrated
lime, an inert aggregate (generally sand), and water, there
are four basic types of mortar:
M: High strength (masonry
below grade, or subjected to
severe frost or to high lateral
or compressive loads)
Bricks come in numerous textures and
patterns, and both bricks and mortar are
available in almost endless varieties of color
(especially if either is custom produced).
Coordination of brick and mortar colors can
be an effective way to achieve different qualities within one brick type and color. Matching
mortar to brick color, for example, produces
a more monolithic look for the wall. Similarly,
darker mortars can make a wall feel darker
overall, and lighter mortars can make it feel
lighter. Full-scale mockups are helpful for testing color combinations.
S: Medium-high strength
(masonry subjected to normal
compressive loads, but requiring high lexural bond strength)
N: Medium strength (masonry
above grade, for general use)
O: Medium-low strength
(masonry in non-load-bearing
interior walls and partitions)
Mortar Joints
concave
v-shaped
lush
struck
weathered
raked
Masonr y and Concrete
29
02
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
CMUs (also called concrete blocks) are available as bricks, large hollow stretcher units, and large
solid units. The cores of hollow units can receive grout and reinforcing steel, making them a common element in masonry bearing-wall construction, either alone or as a backup for other cladding
material. Like bricks, CMUs have nominal dimensions and accommodate mortar joints; 8” (203)
nominal block heights correspond to three brick courses.
Typical Standard Sizes (W x H x L)
4” Block
H
4x8x8
(102 x 203 x 203)
4 x 8 x 16
(102 x 203 x 406)
3 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8
(92 x 194 x 397)
L
nominal
Other Shapes
3 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8
(92 x 194 x 194)
W
6” Block
6 x 8 x 16
(152 x 203 x 406)
6x8x8
(152 x 203 x 203)
5 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8
(143 x 194 x 397)
5 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8
(143 x 194 x 194)
Screen
Brick
8” Block
8 x 8 x 16
(203 x 203 x 406)
8x8x8
(203 x 203 x 203)
7 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8
(194 x 194 x 3 97)
7 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 75/8
(194 x 194 x 194)
Solid Block
10” Block
10 x 8 x16
(254 x 203 x 406)
10 x 8 x 8
(254 x 203 x 203)
9 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8
(244 x 194 x 397)
9 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8
(244 x 194 x 194)
Corner Block
12” Block
12 x 8 x 16
(305 x 203 x 406)
12 x 8 x 8
(305 x 203 x 203)
11 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8
(295 x 194 x 397)
11 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8
(295 x 194 x 194)
Bond Beam
All sizes may also be 4” (102) high and 8” (203), 12” (305), or 24” (610) long.
30
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
02
CMU Production
Decorative CMUs
To produce CMUs, a stiff concrete mixture
is placed into molds and vibrated. The wet
blocks are then removed from the molds and
steam cured.
Concrete blocks are easily produced in
many different shapes, surface textures, and
colors, allowing for a variety of wall surfaces.
Numerous standard decorative units exist and
units may be custom designed.
Fire-resistance ratings for CMUs vary depending on the aggregate type used in the
concrete and the size of the block.
CMU Grades
Split Face
N: General use above and below grade
S: Use above grade only; good where
wall is not exposed to weather; if used
on exterior, wall must have weatherprotective coating
CMU Types
Ribbed Face
I: Moisture-controlled, for use where
shrinkage of units would cause cracking
II: Not moisture-controlled
Scored Face
CMU Weights
Fluted Face
Normal: Made from concrete
weighing more than 125 lb. per cu. ft.
(pcf) (2 000 kg/m3)
Medium: Made from concrete weighing
105–25 pcf (1 680–2 000 kg/m3)
Light: Made from concrete weighing
105 pcf (1 680 kg/m3) or less
Masonr y and Concrete
31
02
CONCRETE
Concrete comprises a mixture of aggregate (sand and gravel), portland cement, and
water. Because these elements are found almost everywhere, concrete is employed
as a construction material throughout the world. When combined correctly with steel
reinforcing, concrete becomes virtually indestructible structurally and is generally not
susceptible to burning or rotting. It can be shaped into almost any form.
COMPOSITION
Aggregate: Mixture of sand and gravel.
Gravel sizes can range from dust to 2 1/2”
but should not exceed one-quarter of the
thickness of the unit being poured (that
is, for a 4” slab, gravel should not be
greater than 1”). Rounded fragments are
preferred. Larger gravel yields more costeffective concrete and fewer problems
from shrinkage.
Types of Portland Cement
There is no universal international
standard for portland cement. The United
States uses the ASTM C-150 Standard
Speciication for Portland Cement, as
do a number of other countries.
Type I: Normal; for general use
Type IA: Normal, air-entraining
Portland cement: Chemical combination
of lime, silicon, aluminum, iron, small
amounts of other ingredients, and gypsum, which is added in the inal grinding
process. Exact ingredients vary by region,
based on local availability.
Type II: Moderately sulfate resistant;
ideal for use in bridges and pilings; also
used when heat build-up is an issue
There are ive basic types of portland
cement.
Type III: Quick hardening with high
early strength; used mostly in winter
and for rush jobs
Type IIA: Moderately sulfate resistant,
air-entraining
Type IIIA: High early strength,
air-entraining
Water: Clean and impurity free.
Air: Millions of tiny air bubbles in the
mixture make up a fourth component of
some mixes of concrete. Air makes the
concrete lighter and more able to withstand the effects of freezing and thawing,
thus useful in cold climates.
32
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Type IV: Slow hardening and low
heat producing; used when the
amount and rate of heat generation
must be minimized
Type V: Highly sulfate resistant;
used in high water and soils with
high alkali content
02
SITECAST CONCRETE FRAMING
Sitecast concrete is concrete that is cast into forms on the building site. It can be cast into any shape
for which a form can be made; however, the work and time involved in building formwork, reinforcing
and pouring the concrete, waiting for the concrete to cure, and dismantling the formwork makes sitecast concrete slower to erect than precast concrete or structural steel.
Concrete Casting
edge form
concrete
welded wire
mesh
moisture
barrier
crushed stone
Slab on Grade
plywood
formwork
studs
walers
form tie
Cast concrete uses welded wire mesh
or reinforcing steel bars (rebar) to
prevent cracking or uneven settling
and to supply rigidity. Rebar commonly
ranges in size from #3 to #18 (diameter
in eighths of an inch), and its size,
spacing, and number are determined by
the sizes and natures of the columns,
slabs, and beams.
Casting loor slabs, slabs on grade,
plates, walls, columns, beams, and
girders all involves the use of formwork,
which is often plywood but can also be
metal or iberboard. Standardization
of column and beam sizes within a
project helps to mitigate the cost of the
formwork, which can be reused.
To hold formwork together during pour
and curing, form ties are inserted
through holes in the formwork and
secured in place with fasteners; the
protruding ends are snapped off after
formwork comes down.
bracing
reinforcing
bars
concrete
Poured concrete must have regular control joints designed into walls and slabs,
either as part of the form or tooled onto
the surface before the concrete has
cured. A control joint is a line of discon
tinuity acting as a plane of weakness
where movement or cracking can occur
in response to forces, relieving potential
cracking elsewhere.
Wall
Masonr y and Concrete
33
02
PLACING AND CURING
As concrete is poured and placed, care must
be taken to ensure that it is not subjected to
excessive vibration or sudden vertical drops,
which could cause segregation of the materials (course aggregate to the bottom, water
and cement to the top). For this reason, vertical transportation should be done with drop
chutes. If the concrete must travel excessive
distances from the mixer to the formwork, it
should be pumped through hoses, not transported in the formwork.
Concrete cures by hydration, as a binding
chemical combination of the cement and
water; it must be kept moist during this
period, generally twenty-eight days, before it
is adequately cured. Surfaces may be kept
moist by spraying them with water or a curing
compound or by covering them with moistureresistant sheets.
Admixtures
Other ingredients may be added to
concrete for various desired effects.
Fibrous admixtures: Short glass,
steel, or polypropylene ibers that act
as reinforcing.
Fly ash: Improves workability of wet
concrete while also increasing strength
and sulfate resistance, and decreases
permeability, temperature rises, and
needed water.
Pozzolans: Improve workability, reduce
internal temperatures while curing, and
reduce reactivity caused by sulfates.
Retarding admixtures: Promote slower
curing and allow more time for working
with wet concrete.
Silica fume: Produces extremely high
strength concrete with very low
permeability.
Super-plasticizers: High-range waterreducing admixtures that turn stiff concrete into lowing liquid for placing
in dificult sites.
Water-reducing admixtures: Allow for
more workability with less water in the mix.
Accelerating admixtures: Promote
faster curing (may be used in cold
weather, when curing is slowed down).
Air-entraining admixtures: Increase
workability of wet concrete, aid in
reducing freeze-thaw damage, and may
produce lightweight, thermal-insulated
concrete.
Blast furnace slag: Similar to ly ash
in effect.
Reinforcing Steel
Without reinforcing, concrete would
have few or no structural uses.
Fortunately, steel and concrete are
chemically compatible and have a
similar rate of dimensional change
due to temperature.
Coloring agents: Dyes and pigments.
Corrosion inhibitors: Reduce corrosion
of reinforcing steel.
#8
Re-bar
#3
Re-bar
34
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
02
FINISHES
Concrete can be inished in a variety of
ways, allowing it to be used on virtually
any surface in almost any kind of space.
As cast: Concrete remains as it is after
removal of forms and often bears the
imprint of wood grain from the plywood.
Blasted: Various degrees of sandblasting smooth the surface while exposing
successive levels of cement, sand, and
aggregate.
Chemically retarded: Chemicals are
applied to the surface to expose the
aggregate.
Mechanically fractured: Tooling, hammering, jackhammering, and scaling produce varied aggregate-exposing effects.
Polished: Heavy-duty polishing machines
polish the surface to a high gloss, with
or without polishing compounds.
Sealed: Acrylic resin helps protect concrete from spalling (chipping or laking
caused by improper drainage or venting
and freeze/thaw damage), dusting, eflorescence (whitening caused by water
leeching soluble salts out of concrete
and depositing them on the surface),
stains, deicing salts, and abrasion.
Reinforcing bars: Bars come in the following sizes: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 18.
Nominal diameters of #8 and lower are the
bar number in eighths of an inch; that is,
#3 is 3/8” (9.52). Nominal diameters of #9
and higher are slightly larger.
Color
Colored concrete provides numerous design opportunities, It is generally achieved
in one of two ways:
Integral coloring: Color is added to the
wet concrete or mixed in at the jobsite—
in either case, the color is distributed
throughout the concrete. Because so
much concrete is involved, colors are
limited to earth tones and pastels.
Once cured, the surface is sealed,
which provides protection and a sheen
that enhances the color.
Dry-shake color hardeners: Color hardeners are broadcast onto freshly placed concrete and troweled into the surface. The
hardeners produce a dense and durable
surface. Because the color is concentrated on top of the concrete, more vibrant
and intense tones are possible. Sealers
applied after curing further accentuate
the richness of the color.
As in all natural materials, variations in
color outcome will occur. The base color
of the cement determines the ranges
possible.
Welded wire fabric: Reinforcing steel is
formed into a grid of wires or round bars
2”–12” (51–305) on center. Lighter styles
are used in slabs on grade and some
precast elements; heavier styles may be
used in walls and structural slabs.
Masonr y and Concrete
35
03 03
Chapter 3: Metals
Metals play an enormous role in almost every component of many projects and building types, from structural steel to sheet-metal ductwork, from drywall partition studs to
oxides used as paint pigments. Metals of most varieties occur in nature as oxide ores,
which can be mined and worked to extract and reine the metals, separating them
from other elements and impurities. Metals fall under two broad categories: ferrous
(containing iron) and nonferrous. Ferrous metals are generally stronger, more abundant, and easier to reine, but they have a tendency to rust. Nonferrous metals tend
to be easier to work and most form their own thin oxide layers that protect them from
corrosion.
MODIFYING METAL
PROPERTIES
Most metals in their chemically pure and
natural form are not very strong. To be suitable for construction and other functions,
their properties must be altered, which can
be done in several ways, often dependent on
the proposed use of the metal.
Alloys
Metals are mixed with other elements,
usually other metals, to create an alloy.
For example, iron mixed with small
amounts of carbon produces steel.
Generally, the alloy is stronger than its
primary metal ingredient. In addition to
improved strength and workability, alloys provide self-protecting oxide layers.
36
Cold-Worked Metals
At room temperature, metals are rolled
thin, beaten, or drawn, making them
stronger but more brittle by altering their
crystalline structures. Cold-worked metals may be reversed by annealing.
Cold rolling: Metal is squeezed between
rollers.
Drawing: Drawing metal through increasingly smaller oriices produces the wires
and cables used to prestress concrete,
which have ive times the structural
strength of steel.
Coated Metals
Heat-Treated Metals
Anodizing: A thin oxide layer of controlled
color and consistency is electrolytically
added to aluminum to improve its surface appearance.
Tempering: Steel is heated at a moderate rate and slowly cooled, producing a
harder and stronger metal.
Electroplating: Chromium and cadmium
are coated onto steel to protect it from
oxidation and improve its appearance.
Annealing: Steel and sometimes
aluminum alloys are heated to very
high temperatures and cooled slowly,
softening the metal so that it is easier
to work.
Galvanizing: Steel is coated with zinc to
protect it against corrosion.
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Other coatings: Coatings can include
paints, lacquers, powders, luoropolymers, and porcelain enamel.
03
FABRICATION TECHNIQUES
Casting: Molten metal is poured into a shaped
mold. The metal produced is weak but can be
made into many shapes, such as faucets or
hardware.
Casting
Drawing: Wires are produced by pulling metal
through increasingly smaller holes.
Extrusion: Heated (but not molten) metal is
squeezed through a die, producing a long metal
piece with a shaped proile.
Drawing
Forging: Metal is heated until lexible and
then bent into a desired shape. This process
improves structural performance by imparting a
grain orientation onto the metal.
Grinding: Machines grind and polish metal to
create lat, inished surfaces.
Extrusion
Forging
Machining: Material is cut away to achieve a
desired shape. Processes include drilling, milling
(with a rotating wheel), lathing (for cylindrical
shapes), sawing, shearing, and punching. Sheet
metal is cut with shears and folded on brakes.
Rolling: Metal is squeezed between rollers.
Hot rolling, unlike cold, does not increase the
strength of metal.
Stamping: Sheet metal is squeezed between
matching dies to give it shape and texture.
Grinding
Joining Metals
Machining
Rolling
Welding: In this high-temperature fusion, a gas
lame or electric arc melts two metals and allows
the point of connection to low together with additional molten metal from a welding rod. Welded
connections are as strong as the metals they
join and can be used for structural work.
Brazing and soldering: In these lowertemperature processes, the two metals are
not themselves melted but joined with the solder
of a metal with a lower melting point: Brass or
bronze are used in brazing, lead-tin alloy is used
in soldering. Too weak for structural connections,
brazing and soldering are used for plumbing
pipes and rooing.
Mechanical methods: Metals can also be drilled
or punched with holes, through which screws,
bolts, or rivets are inserted.
Stamping
Interlocking and folding: Sheet metal can be
joined by such connections.
Metals
37
03
METAL TYPES
Ferrous
Cast iron: Very brittle with high compressive strength and ability to absorb vibrations;
ideal for gratings and stair components but too brittle for structural work.
Malleable iron: Produced by casting, reheating, and slowly cooling to improve workability;
similar to cast iron in use.
Mild steel: Ordinary structural steel with a low carbon content.
Stainless steel: Produced by alloying with other metals, primarily chromium or nickel for
corrosion resistance and molybdenum when maximum resistance is required (in sea water, for example). Though harder to form and machine than mild steel, its uses are many,
including lashing, coping, fasteners, anchors, hardware, and inishes that can range from
matte to mirror polish.
Steel: Iron with low amounts of carbon (carbon increases strength, but decreases ductility and welding capabilities); used for structural components, studs, joists, and fasteners,
and in decorative work.
Wrought iron: Soft and easily worked, with high corrosion resistance, making it ideal for
use below grade. Most often cast or worked into bars, pipes, or sheets, and fashioned
for ornamental purposes. Other metals like steel have virtually replaced it today.
Steel Alloys
Aluminum Alloy Series
Aluminum: Hardens surfaces
Chromium and cadmium: Resists corrosion
Copper: Resists atmospheric corrosion
Manganese: Increases hardness and
helps to resist wear
Molybdenum: Often combined with other
alloys, increases corrosion resistance and
raises tensile strength
Nickel: Increases tensile strength and
resists corrosion
Silicon: Increases strength and resists
oxidation
Sulfur: Allows for free machining of mild
steels
Titanium: Prevents intergranular corrosion
in stainless steel
Tungsten: With vanadium and cobalt,
increases hardness and resists abrasions
38
THE ARCHICTECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Wrought
Series
1000
Alloying
Element
Cast
Series
Alloying
Element
pure
aluminum
100.0
2000
copper
200.0
copper
3000
manganese
300.0
silicon plus
copper and/
or magnesium
pure
aluminum
4000
silicon
400.0
silicon
5000
magnesium
500.0
magnesium
6000
magnesium
and silicon
600.0
unused series
7000
zinc
700.0
zinc
8000
other elements
800.0
tin
900.0
other elements
1st digit is series no.; 2nd is
modiication of alloy; 3rd/4th
are arbitrary identiiers
1st digit is series no.;
2nd/3rd are arbitrary identiiers; no. after decimal is
casting if 0, ingot if 1 or 2
03
Nonferrous
Aluminum: When pure, it resists corrosion well, but is soft and lacks strength; with
alloys, it can achieve various levels of strength and stiffness, at one-third the density
of steel, and can be hot- or cold-rolled, cast, drawn, extruded, forged, or stamped.
Sheets or foil, when polished to a mirror inish, have extremely high levels of light
and heat relectivity. Its uses include curtain wall components, ductwork, lashing,
rooing, window and door frames, grills, siding, hardware, wiring, and coatings for
other metals. Aluminum powder may be added to metallic paints and its oxide acts
as an abrasive in sandpaper.
Brass: Alloy of copper, zinc, and other metals; can be polished to a high luster and is
mostly used for weather stripping, ornamental work, and inish hardware.
Bronze: Alloy of copper and tin that resists corrosion; used for weather stripping,
hardware, and ornamental work.
Cadmium: Similar to zinc; usually electroplated onto steel.
Chromium: Very hard and will not corrode in air; like nickel, often used as an alloy to
achieve a bright polish and is excellent for plating.
Copper: Ductile and corrosion-, impact-, and fatigue-resistant; it has high thermal
and electrical conductivity, and can be cast, drawn, extruded, hot-, or cold-rolled.
Widely employed as an alloy with other metals, it can also be used for electrical
wiring, lashing, rooing, and piping.
Lead: Extremely dense, corrosion resistant, limp, soft, and easy to work; most often
combined with alloys to improve hardness and strength. Foil or sheets are ideal for
waterprooing, blocking sound and vibrations, and shielding against radiation. Can
also be used as rooing and lashing, or to coat copper sheets (lead-coated copper)
for rooing and lashing. High toxicity of vapors and dust have made its use less
common.
Magnesium: Strong and lightweight; as an alloy, serves to increase strength and
corrosion resistance in aluminum. Often used in aircraft, but too expensive for most
construction.
Tin: Soft and ductile; used in terneplate (80 percent lead, 20 percent tin) for
plating steel.
Titanium: Low density and high strength; used in numerous alloys and its oxide has
replaced lead in many paints.
Zinc: Corrosion resistant in water and air, but very brittle and low in strength.
Primarily used in galvanizing steel to keep it from rusting; also electroplated onto
other metals as an alloy. Other functions include lashing, rooing, hardware, and
die-casting.
Metals
39
03
GALVANIC ACTION
GAUGES AND
Galvanic action is corrosion that occurs between metals under the
following conditions: There exist two electrochemically dissimilar metals,
an electrically conductive path between the two metals, and a conductive
path for metal ions to move from the less noble metal to the more noble
one. A good understanding of the material compatibilities in the galvanic
series will minimize corrosion in design. The galvanic series lists metals
from least noble (anodic, or most reactive to corrosion) to most noble
(cathodic, or least reactive to corrosion). Generally, the farther apart two
metals are on the list, the greater the corrosion of the less noble one.
Therefore, combinations of metals that will be in electrical contact should
be selected from groups as close together in the series as possible.
Note that the ranking of metals may differ, based on variations in alloy
composition and nonuniform conditions. When specifying and detailing
metals, always consult the manufacturer of the metal product.
Anode
+
Galvanic Series
Magnesium, magnesium
alloys
Zinc, zinc alloys and plates
Zinc (hot-dipped),
galvanized steel
Aluminum (non-silicon
cast alloys), cadmium
Aluminum (wrought alloys,
silicon cast)
Iron (wrought, malleable),
plain carbon and lowalloy steel
Aluminum (wrought alloys
—2000 series)
Lead (solid, plated), lead alloys
Tin plate, tin-lead solder
The series listed here
is for general
information only and
does not consider
the anodic index of
any metals. The anodic index (V) of each
metal determines
more precisely its
compatibility thresholds with
other metals.
Accurate anodic index
numbers should be
obtained from the
speciic metal manufacturer.
MILS
Sheet metal thicknesses have long been
expressed in terms
of gauge (ga.), an
antiquated term based
on weight (originally for
reasons of taxation)
and not a reference to
the precise thickness
of a sheet. Thus, a
sheet of mild steel
and one of galvanized
steel may have the
same gauge but different thicknesses.
As the gauge number
increases, the sheet
becomes thinner;
sheets thicker than 1/4”
(6), or about 3-gauge,
are referred to as
plates.
Most steel manufacturers are adapting to
mils. This straightforward system allows
the actual thickness
of the sheet to deine
its mil designation.
Chromium plate
High brasses and bronzes
Brasses and bronzes
Copper, low brasses and
bronzes, silver solder,
copper-nickel alloys
Silver
Gold, platinum
-
Cathode
Nickel, titanium alloys, monel
40
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
There is no equation
for a strict translation
from gauge to mil
thickness; however—for
reference purposes
only—many common
mil sizes may be associated with speciic
gauge sizes.
03
Gauge Reference Chart
Mil
(µm)
118
97
33 mil is
considered
the thinnest
material
allowable for
structural
cold-formed
steel framing
68
54
43
30 | 33
20-gauge
material often
comes in the
following two
thicknesses:
30 mil for
nonstructural
drywall studs;
33 mil for
structural
studs
18 mil is
considered
the thinnest
material
allowable for
nonstructural,
cold-formed
steel framing
27
18
Gauge
Standard Steel
(ga.)
in.
3
0.2391
4
5
(mm)
Galvanized Steel
in.
(mm)
Aluminum
in.
(mm)
(6.073)
0.2294
(5.827)
0.2242
(5.695)
0.2043
(5.189)
0.2092
(5.314)
0.1819
(4.620)
6
0.1943
(4.935)
0.1620
(4.115)
7
0.1793
(4.554)
0.1443
(3.665)
8
0.1644
(4.176)
0.1285
(3.264)
9
0.1495
(3.797)
0.1532
(3.891)
0.1144
(2.906)
10
0.1345
(3.416)
0.1382
(3.510)
0.1019
(2.588)
11
0.1196
(3.030)
0.1233
(3.132)
0.0907
(2.304)
12
0.1046
(2.657)
0.1084
(2.753)
0.0808
(2.052)
13
0.0897
(2.278)
0.0934
(2.372)
0.0720
(1.829)
14
0.0747
(1.879)
0.0785
(1.994)
0.0641
(1.628)
15
0.0673
(1.709)
0.0710
(1.803)
0.0571
(1.450)
16
0.0598
(1.519)
0.0635
(1.613)
0.0508
(1.290)
17
0.0538
(1.367)
0.0575
(1.461)
0.0453
(1.151)
18
0.0478
(1.214)
0.0516
(1.311)
0.0403
(1.024)
19
0.0418
(1.062)
0.0456
(1.158)
0.0359
(0.912)
20
0.0359
(0.912)
0.0396
(1.006)
0.0320
(0.813)
21
0.0329
(0.836)
0.0366
(0.930)
0.0285
(0.724)
22
0.0299
(0.759)
0.0336
(0.853)
0.0253
(0.643)
23
0.0269
(0.683)
0.0306
(0.777)
0.0226
(0.574)
24
0.0239
(0.607)
0.0276
(0.701)
0.0201
(0.511)
25
0.0209
(0.531)
0.0247
(0.627)
0.0179
(0.455)
26
0.0179
(0.455)
0.0217
(0.551)
0.0159
(0.404)
27
0.0164
(0.417)
0.0202
(0.513)
0.0142
(0.361)
28
0.0149
(0.378)
0.0187
(0.475)
0.0126
(0.320)
29
0.0135
(0.343)
0.0172
(0.437)
0.0113
(0.287)
30
0.0120
(0.305)
0.0157
(0.399)
0.0100
(0.254)
31
0.0105
(0.267)
0.0142
(0.361)
0.0089
(0.226)
32
0.0097
(0.246)
0.0134
(0.340)
0.0080
(0.203)
33
0.0090
(0.229)
0.0071
(0.180)
34
0.0082
(0.208)
0.0063
(0.160)
35
0.0075
(0.191)
0.0056
(0.142)
36
0.0067
(0.170)
Metals
41
03
LIGHT-GAUGE FRAMING
Metal studs are generally made of cold-rolled
corrosion-resistant steel in
standard sizes. They work
in both load-bearing and
non-load-bearing capacities and as loor and roof
framing elements. Studs are
spaced 16” (406) or 24” (610)
OC inside top and bottom
tracks. Metal studs with
gypsum sheathing provide
greatly reduced combustibility, and can be built
taller than wood stud walls.
Knockouts or punchouts are
provided at regular intervals
to allow for bridging between
studs or for the passing
through of electrical conduit
or plumbing.
depth
lange
knockout
F = furring channels
(for applying inished
wall materials to
concrete or masonry)
T = track sections
S = stud or joist
U = cold-rolled
(C-shapes with
lange stiffeners)
channel (without
lange stiffeners)
The Steel Stud Manufacturers Association (SSMA) designations for light-gauge steel
framing members are written as follows: web depth (in 1/100”) + S, T, U, or F designation +
lange width (in 1/100”) + minimum base metal thickness (in mils).
Thus, a 250S 162-33 member is a 21/2” (250/100”) stud with a flange of 15/8” (162/100”), at 33
mils.
Common Metal Stud Sizes
Non-load-bearing Studs
depths: 15/8” (41), 2 1/2” (64), 3 5/8” (92), 4” (102), 6” (152)
gauges [mils]; 25 [18], 22 [27], 20 [30]
Non-load-bearing Curtain Wall Studs
depths: 21/2” (64), 3 5/8” (92), 4” (102), 6” (152)
gauges [mils]: 20 [30], 18 [43], 16 [54], 14 [68]
lange: 1 3/8” (35)
Structural C-Studs
depths: 21/2” (64), 3 5/8” (92), 4” (102), 6” (152), 8” (203), 10” (254), 12” (305)
gauges [mils]: 20 [33], 18 [43], 16 [54], 14 [68]
lange: 1 5/8” (41)
Structural Stud/Joist
depths: 21/2” (64), 3 5/8” (92), 4” (102), 6” (152), 8” (203), 10” (254), 12” (305)
gauges [mils]: 20 [33], 18 [43], 16 [54], 14 [68]
lange: 2” (51)
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THE ARCHICTECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
03
Sheet Thickness (actual size)
210 mils
97 mils
33 mils
18 mils
Metal Roofing Seams
Flat Seam
Standing Seam
Batten Seam
Forms and Sheets
Ribbed Decking
Corrugated
Perforated
Expanded
Metals
43
04
Chapter 4: Finishes
Interior inishes encompass all
CEILINGS
materials and surfaces that can be
seen or touched. The choice
of materials and the methods of
construction should be based on
WALL SYSTEMS
the function of the space, the
anticipated volume of trafic,
acoustical effects, ire-resistance
ratings, and aesthetic appearance.
FINISH CARPENTRY
44
THE ARCHICTECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
04
FINISH CARPENTRY
FINISH FLOORING
Finishes
45
04
WALL SYSTEMS
Gypsum Board
Gypsum board goes by many names: gypsum wallboard (GWB), drywall, plasterboard, and
Sheetrock (a trademarked brand name). Gypsum board is a less expensive alternative to
plaster, because it requires less labor, time, and skill to install, but it still provides excellent
ire-resistance and sound control.
Gypsum, a naturally occurring mineral, is formulated chemically when combined with water,
starch, and other elements into a slurry and placed between paper faces to become gypsum
board. When gypsum board is exposed to ire, the water is released as steam, providing a ire
barrier until the water is completely eliminated (calcination). When the gypsum is completely
calcined, its residue still acts as an insulating barrier to lames, preventing the structural
members behind it from igniting.
Panel Types
Customary Sizes
Panel sizes may
vary depending on
the type of board,
though generally
they fall in the
following range:
4’ (1 220) wide by
8’ (2 439) to
16’ (4 877) high.
Widths of 2’ (610)
and 2’-6” (762)
and heights of
6’ (1 829) may also
be available for
certain preinished
boards and core
boards.
Backing board: Used as a base layer when
multiple layers are needed, improving ire
resistance and sound control.
Coreboard: Thicker boards, 1” (25.4) and
2” (50.8), used to enclose vent shafts,
emergency egress stairs, elevator shafts,
and other vertical chases.
Foil-backed: Can work as a vapor barrier
in exterior wall assemblies and as a thermal
insulator.
Prefinished: Covered in a variety of inishes
such as paint, paper, or plastic ilm for
installation without further inishing.
Regular: Used for most applications.
Type X: Short glass ibers in the core hold
the calcined gypsum residue in place for
increased ire resistance protection ratings.
SI Preferred Sizes
Standard panel size
is 1 200 x 2 400 mm.
Other acceptable
increments are
600 mm, 800 mm,
and 900 mm.
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THE ARCHICTECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Water-resistant (green board): Waterresistant board with a water-repellent paper
facing (colored light green to distinguish it
from other walls) and a moisture-resistant
core (also available in type X); used as base
for tiles and other nonabsorbent materials in
wet locations.
04
Board Thicknesses
Edge Types
Square
1/4” (6.4)
backing board, some acoustic work
5/16” (8)
used for manufactured housing
3/8” (9.5)
used in double-layer inishes
1/2” (12.7)
used for stud spacings up to 24”
(610), most common thickness
5/8” (16)
used when additional ire resistance
or structural stiffness are required
Rounded
Beveled
Tongue and Groove
Tapered
Rounded Taper
1” (25.4)
coreboard used for shaft walls
Finishes
47
04
GWB Partition Wall Installation
Gypsum wallboard is placed over wood studs
using nails or screws and over metal studs
using screws. The orientation of the boards
may differ based on the height of the wall,
whether it is double-layer construction, and
other factors.
Generally, it is best to minimize end joints
between boards (boards have inished paper
only on the face, back, and long edges, which
themselves are inished in a variety of edge
types), because these joints are more dificult to inish. If two or more layers of board
are to be installed, joints between the layers
should be staggered for added strength.
ceiling channel
stiffener channels
shaftliner (for shaft
wall construction)
metal stud
base GWB layer
tape and joint
compound
face GWB layer
tape and joint
compound
base
loor channel
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Joints are inished with joint compound and
tape, usually in the following manner: A layer
of joint compound is troweled into a tapered
edge joint, then iber-reinforcing mesh tape
is applied; for some tapered edge joints,
joint compound is forced through the tape
to ill the V-shaped trough. After drying
overnight, more joint compound is applied to
completely smooth the joint, making it lush
with the surrounding wall. Individual board
manufacturers may suggest adding more
layers of joint compound.
Nail or screw holes are also illed, and the
whole wall receives a inal light sanding
before painting.
04
Common GWB Partition Assemblies
Fireprooing at
Steel Structural Members
3 5/8” STC: 40–44: (1 layer 3/8” GWB on either
side of 15/8” metal studs; face layers of 1/2” GWB)
1-HR
intumescent
latex paint
FIRE
RATING
metal lath
and plaster
enclosure
4 7/8” STC: 40–44: (1 layer 5/8” type X
GWB on either side of 3 5/8” metal studs)
1-HR
FIRE
RATING
spray-on
ireprooing
5 1/2” STC: 45–49: (1 layer 5/8” type X GWB on
either side of 35/8” metal studs; one face layer
5/8” GWB applied with laminating compound;
31/2” glass iber insulation in cavity)
1-HR
FIRE
RATING
6 1/4” STC: 55–59: (2 layers 5/8” type X GWB on
either side of 3 5/8” metal studs; one face layer
1/4” GWB applied with laminating compound;
11/2” glass iber insulation in cavity)
sheet-metal
enclosure
with loose
insulating ill
reinforced
concrete
encasement
2-HR
FIRE
RATING
multiple layers
of GWB
enclosure
Finishes
49
04
PLASTER
Today most plaster has a gypsum base. Gypsum is calcined and then ground into a ine powder.
When mixed once again with water, it rehydrates and returns to its original state, expanding as
it hardens into a plaster that possesses excellent ire-resistive qualities. This formulation can
be mixed with an aggregate and applied by hand or by machine directly to masonry walls or to a
lath system.
Lath Assemblies
Plaster Types
Plaster over Metal Lath
Gauging plaster: Mixed
with lime putty for accelerated setting and
reduced cracking; may
be mixed with inish
lime to make a highquality inish coat.
Three-Coat Plaster
metal lath: expanded metal or mesh
(steel)
scratch coat: troweled on roughly and
scratched to create a scored surface
for the next coat
brown coat: applied over the lath and
hardened scratch coat; leveled with a
long straightedge
Gypsum plaster: Used
with sand or lightweight
aggregate.
finish coat: very thin (1/16”) outer layer
that may be smoothed or textured.
High-strength
basecoat: Used under
high-strength inish
coats.
Keenes cement:
High-strength with
a very strong and
crack-resistant inish.
Total thickness of all three layers is
roughly 5/8” (16) and provides good
ire resistance and durability.
Plaster over Gypsum Lath
Molding plaster:
Fast-setting for
molding ornaments
and cornices.
Stucco: Portland
cement–lime plaster;
used on exterior walls
or where moisture is
present.
With wood fiber or
perlite aggregate:
Lightweight with good
ire resistance.
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Two- or Three-Coat Plaster
gypsum lath: hardened gypsum plaster
core with an outer sheet of absorbent
paper to adhere to the plaster and
water-resistant inner layers to protect
the core; comes in 16” x 48” (406 x
1 219) boards in 3/8” (10) and 1/2” (13)
thicknesses.
brown coat
finish coat
If gypsum is attached to studs, it is rigid enough to require only two coats of
plaster; solid plaster walls (plaster on
either side of gypsum, with no studs)
require three coats. Total thickness of
the plaster on one side is 1/2” (13).
04
Veneer Plaster
Veneer plaster is a less expensive and
less labor-intensive plaster system.
The special veneer base works much
like a standard gypsum board wall
system and is inished smooth and lat
to provide the best surface for the very
dense veneer plaster. The plaster is
applied in two coats in quick succession; the second coat, called a skim
coat, dries almost immediately. The
total plaster thickness is about 1/8” (3).
TRIM SHAPES
Ceiling Moldings
crown
bed
Plaster over Masonry
Plaster can be applied directly to brick,
concrete block, poured concrete, and
stone walls. Walls should be dampened irst to keep the plaster from dehydrating during application. Generally,
three coats will be needed, totaling 5/8”
(16) in plaster thickness, though the
roughness of the masonry surface will
dictate the thickness in many cases.
Where the masonry or other wall is
unsuitable for direct plaster application (if moisture or condensation are
present or if an air space is required
for insulation), plaster and lath are
applied over furring channels attached
to the wall.
cove
quarter-round
General Moldings
picture rail
chair rail
Wall Assemblies
Plaster and lath assemblies can be
applied to truss studs, steel studs,
or wood studs, in addition to furring
strips. Solid plaster walls of roughly
2” (51) thick are sometimes used
where space is at a premium. They
generally consist of plaster on either
side of expanded metal mesh or
gypsum lath, supported at the loor
and ceiling by metal runners.
panel
molding for
wainscoting
Baseboards
Wood lath is rarely used today in
favor of cheaper and more durable
lath types.
Finishes
51
04
FINISH FLOORING
Floors receive regular wear and abuse, from
feet, furniture, dirt, and water. Floor inish
materials should be carefully chosen based
on the function of the space and the amount
of trafic they must endure. A wide array of
inish loor types and methods of installation
exist, of which the small sampling shown here
represents the most common residential and
commercial applications.
Wood
Wood offers a variety of widths and thicknesses, as
well as methods of installation. Almost any wood can
be made into strip looring, though oak, pecan, and
maple are the most common. Thicker boards should
be installed in areas of heavier use.
strip looring
15# felts
board subloor
Carpet
Wool, nylon, polypropylene, and polyester account for most carpet ibers, with nylon the most
widely used. Construction types include velvet,
Axminster, Wilton, tufted, knitted, locked, needlepunched, and fusion-bonded. Installation methods
include stretch-in (using staples), direct glue
down, and double glue down.
Ceramic Tile and Quarry Tile
For thick-set installation, tiles are laid on ±1” (25)
portland cement mortar. For thin-set installation, tiles
are laid on ±1/8” (3) dry-set mortar, latex–
portland cement mortar, organic adhesive, or
modiied epoxy emulsion mortar.
tile
carpet
bond coat
backing
cushion
subloor
mortar bed
with cleavage
membrane
concrete or wood subloor
Terrazzo
Resilient Flooring
Vinyl sheet, homogeneous vinyl tile, vinyl composition tile (VCT), cork tile, rubber tile, and linoleum
are the common types. The looring, either ±1/8” (3)
thick sheets or tiles, is glued to a concrete or wood
subloor. Most types can be installed to include a
seamless integral cove base.
looring
Terrazzo is a poured or precast material composed
of stone chips and a cement matrix (epoxy, polyester,
polyacrylate, latex, or electrically conductive).
Appearance types vary from Standard (small chip
sizes) to Venetian (large chips with small chips
between), Palladiana (large random marble slabs with
small chips between) to Rustic (uniform texture with
suppressed matrix to expose chips).
±1/2” (13)
terrazzo
adhesive
underbed
subloor
concrete slab
52
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04
CEILINGS
Attached Ceilings
Gypsum board, plaster, metal, and other
materials can be attached directly to joists,
rafters, and concrete slabs. Attached ceilings
are constructed in a similar manner to wall
systems.
Common Panel
Sizes in. (mm)
Suspended Ceilings
Suspended ceiling systems can support
almost any material, although gypsum board,
plaster, or ibrous board panels are most
common. Regular grids of sheet metal cee
channels suspended from the structure above
with hanger wires support the gypsum board
and plaster.
The space between the structure above and
the suspended ceiling, called the plenum,
provides a zone for ductwork, piping, conduit,
and other equipment.
12 x 12
12 x 24
24 x 24
24 x 48
24 x 60
20 x 60
30 x 60
60 x 60
48 x 48
(305 x 305)
(305 x 610)
(610 x 610)
(610 x 1 219)
(610 x 1 524)
(508 x 1 524)
(762 x 1 524)
(1 524 x 1 524)
(1 219 x 1 219)
Fibrous panels known as acoustic ceiling
tiles (ACT) are lightweight boards made of
mineral or glass ibers that are highly sound
absorptive. They are easily laid into an exposed, recessed, or concealed grid of lightgauge metal tees suspended with hanger
wires. Good ACT has a very high noise
reduction coeficient (NRC), meaning that
it absorbs the majority of the sound that
reaches it. The NRC for gypsum and plaster,
by contrast, is very low. Lightweight panels,
however, tend to pass the sound through,
which limits acoustical privacy in spaces
with a shared plenum. Composite panels
with acoustic material laminated to a substrate can alleviate this problem. Acoustical
panels may involve other materials such as
perforated metal, Mylar, and tectum.
Ceiling tiles can be easily removed, allowing
access to the plenum area for maintenance
of equipment and systems.
structure
hanger wire
main runner
cross tee
ceiling panel
Finishes
53
04
FINISH CARPENTRY
The wood interior inish components of a building are called millwork, and their installation is
known as inish carpentry. Wood used for millwork encompasses various arrangements of solid
and veneer wood, but in general it is of a higher quality than that used for framing. Millwork
related to cabinetry and its assembly is called casework.
Common Countertops
Plastic Laminate
Plastic laminate counters may come postformed, with
the laminate already glued to a particle board platform,
complete with a backsplash and bull-nosed front edge.
It is also possible to apply p-lam as thin sheets—generally 1/16” (1.6) thick—using a contact adhesive. Decorative
plastic laminates have a top sheet of paper printed with
wood-grain patterns or other images.
Stone
Solid stone countertops of granite, soapstone, marble,
or slate (typically resting on a thin-set bed of cement)
are durable and resistant to most common kitchen or
bathroom wear and tear. Substrates are generally two
layers of plywood or particle board. The thickness of the
stone varies based on type, but is in the general range
of 3/4”–15/16” (19–33).
Grouted stone tiles offer a lighter, less expensive
alternative.
Solid Surface
The general composition of solid surface is polymer
(acrylic-based resin or unsaturated polyester resin),
aluminum trihydrate iller, pigment (colorant), and a
catalyst. Solid surface materials are nonporous,
homogeneous (maintaining the same appearance all
the way through), strong, and have UV stability and
surface hardness. They resist water, impacts, chemicals,
stains, and high temperatures. Moreover, solid surface
can be repaired by being sanded and polished back to
its original inish.
Solid surface materials are highly versatile and come
in a wide variety of colors, textures, patterns, and
translucencies.
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04
Wood-based Board Types
wood veneer
MDF veneer
plywood core
plywood core
wood veneer
MDF veneer
Veneer core hardwood plywood:
VC is common plywood (typically,
ir) with a inished wood grain
surface veneer; it is relatively
lightweight and easy to handle.
Medium- and high-density overlay plywood:
MDO and HDO are generally common
plywood with an MDF surface, resulting in
panels that weigh less than full MDF but
have smoother and more stable surfaces
than VC.
wood veneer
wood veneer
HDP core
MDF core
wood veneer
wood veneer
High-density plywood: HDP has more
plies and fewer voids than common
plywood. Its strength and stability
make it useful for cabinetry, and it typically comes in birch (Baltic) or maple
(Appleby).
Medium-density iber core hardwood
plywood: MDF is produced by heat-pressing a
mixture of ine wood dust and a binder into panels.
Paint-grade blank sheets can be used as they are
or with a veneer skin, while dyed MDF has a consistent color from face to core. Though ideal for use in
cabinetry and shelving, full MDF is very heavy.
veneer, gen’l
paper with melamine resin
PBC core
PBC core
veneer, gen’l
paper with melamine resin
Particle board core plywood: PBC
produced by heat-pressing a coarse
wood dust and a binder into panels,
which are lower in weight than full
MDF, due to the coarser dust. As the
surface is rougher and less consistent, it is an ideal substrate for many
other products.
Melamine: Melamine consists of a particle
board core with a thermally fused, resin-saturated paper inish. Though the name refers to
the resin in the paper liner, and not the paper or
board, the entire product is commonly referred
to as melamine. Melamine is ideal for use in
cabinetry and comes in a wide variety of colors.
MDF can also be used as the substrate.
Finishes
55
05
STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
56
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2.
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A single person rarely designs all aspects of a building. Numerous
teams of professionals are needed to create the systems that make
a building stand and function well. Coordination of these systems
begins early and may continue even after the building is occupied.
During design, the building is an ever-changing organism, growing
and shrinking to accommodate more systems as they are shaped
and sized, designed and reined, requiring continual communication
between the architect and the consulting trades.
Many decisions cannot be made until speciic systems are in place.
For example, the materials, structure, occupancy, and layout of a
building must be known before a preliminary code analysis can be
attempted. This analysis may yield new information, such as the need
for wider egress stairs, more exit corridors, or further provisions for
sprinkler systems. The accommodation of larger stairs and more corridors will affect the arrangement of spaces—or it may generate an
overall change to the size of the building, which could, in turn, require
less expensive cladding materials—and more sprinklers might entail
more plumbing requirements. This give-and-take process continues
throughout design, resulting in a (usually) happy coexistence of systems, spaces, and materials.
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Chapter 5: Structural Systems
Structural elements of a building—its walls, frame, and foundation—hold it up (or
keep it down) by resisting gravity (vertical forces) and lateral (horizontal) loads such as
winds and earthquakes. The primary components of a building’s structural system are
its foundation system and framing system. The type selected for either is contingent
on many factors, including the building’s use, desired height, soil conditions of the
site, local building codes, and available materials. Elements of a building’s structure
cannot be removed without compromising its strength and stability.
STRUCTURAL TERMINOLOGY
Loads
All stresses acting on a building’s
structure, no matter how complex, can
be reduced to either tension or compression. In basic terms, a building’s
structure must press up with the same
force that the weight of the building is
pressing down, which includes all ixed
dead loads and varying live loads.
Tension is a pulling and stretching
force.
Compression is a pressing, pushing,
or squeezing force.
Dead loads: Fixed, static loads made
up of the building’s own structure, skin,
equipment, and other ixed elements.
Live loads: Moving or transient loads
such as occupants, furnishings, snow,
ice, and rain.
Wind loads: Pressure from wind that
affects lateral loads as well as possible uplift forces on roofs or downward
pressure.
Other loads: Impact loads, shock
waves, vibrations, and seismic loads.
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Arch: Structural device that supports vertical
loads by translating them into axial forces.
Axial force: System of internal forces whose
outcome is a force acting along the longitudinal axis of a structural member or assembly.
Beam: Horizontal linear element that spans
an opening and is supported at both ends by
walls or columns.
Buttress: Vertical mass built against a wall to
strengthen it and to resist the outward pressure of a vault.
05
Cantilever: Horizontal beam or slab that
extends beyond its last point of support.
Column: Upright structural member acting in
compression.
beam
column
Shear: System of internal forces whose
outcome is a force acting perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of a structural member or
assembly.
Shoring: Temporary vertical or sloping supports.
Slump test: Test in which wet concrete or
plaster is placed in a metal cone-shaped
mold of speciic dimensions and allowed to
slump under its own weight after the cone is
removed. The index of the material’s working
consistency is determined by the distance
between the height of the mold and the height
of the slumped mixture.
Dome: Arch rotated in plan to produce an
inverted bowl-shaped form.
Strain: Intensity of deformation at a point in
an object.
Girder: Horizontal beam, which is usually very
large, that supports other beams.
Stress: Intensity of internal force acting at a
point in an object.
Lintel: Beam used to span the opening in a
wall left for a window or a doorway. The lintel
supports and distributes the load of the wall
above the opening.
Vault: Extruded arch.
vault
Prestressing: Applying a compressive stress
to a concrete structural member, either by pretensioning (pouring concrete around stretched
steel strands, then releasing the external
tensioning force on the strands
once the concrete has cured) or posttensioning (tensioning high-strength steel
tendons against a concrete structural
member after the concrete has cured).
Retaining wall: Wall used to mediate
abrupt changes in ground elevation and
to resist lateral soil pressures.
groin vault
Materials
Structural framing elements may
be made of wood, heavy timbers,
concrete, masonry, steel, or a
combination of these.
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FOUNDATION SYSTEMS
The selection of a foundation system depends on many factors, including the building size and
height, the quality of the subsurface soil and groundwater conditions, construction methods, and
environmental concerns.
Superstructure
The above-ground portion of a building,
composed of a framing system and
exterior cladding.
Substructure
The portion of a building below ground
(which may be habitable).
Foundation
The below-ground elements of the building’s structural system that transfer the
building’s loads into the soil.
Shallow
Foundation
Deep
Foundation
Transfers the
building’s load
at the base of a
column or bearing
wall of the substructure.
Transfers the
building’s load at
a point well below
the substructure.
Less expensive than deep
foundations and
commonly used
when good soil
conditions exist
within a few
stories below the
substructure.
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Penetrates upper
layers of incompetent soil to get to
more competent
soil or bedrock
deeper down.
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SHALLOW SYSTEMS
DEEP SYSTEMS
Footings
Caissons
Concrete footings may be in the form of a
column pad, for distributing the load of a
column, or a strip footing, which does the
same for a bearing wall.
To construct a caisson (also referred to as a
“drilled pier”), a hole is drilled or dug (a process known as augering) through unsatisfactory soil beneath a building’s substructure, until rock, dense gravel, or irm clay is reached.
If the caisson will rest on soil at the bottom,
the hole is sometimes belled out to achieve a
bearing area similar to a footing and the hole
is then illed with concrete. Caissons may
range from 18” (457) to 6’ (1 829) in diameter.
Column Footing
Strip Footing
Slab on Grade
Used for one- and two-story structures, this
inexpensive foundation has thickened edges
and rests as a continuous slab on the surface
of the ground.
Piles
Piles are similar to caissons, but are driven
into place, not drilled or poured. They may
be made from concrete, steel, or timber, or
a combination of these materials. Piles are
driven closely together in clusters and then
cut off and capped in groups of two to twentyive. The building’s columns rest on top of the
pile caps. Load-bearing walls, where used,
rest on reinforced-concrete grade beams that
span between pile caps, transmitting the
walls’ loads to the piles.
Slab on Grade
Mat Foundation
In this foundation system (also known as
raft foundation), the whole building rests on
a large continuous footing. It is often used
to resolve special soil or design conditions.
“Floating” or “compensated” mat foundations
are sometimes employed in situations with
weak soil. The loating foundation is placed
beneath the building to a point that the
amount of soil removed is equal to the total
weight of the building.
grade beam
pile cap
cluster of four piles
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WOOD LIGHT-FRAMING
Wood light-frame construction uses a system of wood wall studs, loor joists, rafters, columns,
and beams to create both structure and framework for applied interior and exterior inished surfaces. As a building material, wood is relatively inexpensive, versatile, and quick to erect. Typical
spacing for studs and loor joists is 12” (305), 16” (406), or 24” (610) on center. These dimensions
are compatible with typical wall, loor, and ceiling material unit dimensions, such as gypsum
wallboard and plywood sheets. When complete SI conversion occurs in the United States, these
building materials will undergo a change in unit size, and framing dimensions will shift to the
metric planning grid used elsewhere in the world.
Exterior wall sheathing is typically
plywood, which acts as a base for
stucco, siding, or even brick and stone
façades; insulation is placed between
the studs. The most common framing
method is platform framing, in which,
in multistory buildings, the levels are
built one at a time, so that each loor
acts as a platform on which the walls
above can rest. In balloon framing, wall
studs are continuous from sill to roof;
the intermediate loor joists tie into a
ribbon occurring at the loor line and
attached to the studs. Balloon framing
is more prevalent in older houses and
is seldom used today.
ridge beam
rafter
double header
exterior sheathing
double sill
cripple stud
sublooring
loor joists
wall studs
sole plate
header joist
sill
concrete foundation
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HEAVY TIMBERS
Heavy-timber construction uses speciically engineered woods of minimum dimensions to achieve
greater structural strength and ire resistance than is possible with wood light-frame construction,
while also taking advantage of the aesthetic beneits of exposed wood. To achieve high levels
of ire resistance, construction details, fastenings, and wood treatment are closely regulated in
heavy-timber construction.
Decking
Floor deck planking spans between
loor beams; inished loor material is placed above the planking,
running perpendicular to it. Planks
should be a minimum 3” nominal
(76) thick if splined or tongue-andgrooved together, or a minimum
4” nominal (102) if set on edge and
spiked together. Flooring should be
1/2”–1” (13–25) thick.
Floors
Beams and girders may be sawn
or glue-laminated.
They should not be less than 6”
wide x 10” deep nominal (152 x 254).
Truss members must be a minimum
8” x 8” nominal (203 x 203).
Decay
Structural members must be preservatively treated or be from the heartwood of a naturally durable wood.
girder
beam
Connections
Connection types vary
and can include metal
hangers (shown here),
metal angles, bolts and
split rings, and bolts
and shear plates, and
for column anchorage,
metal shoes (shown
here), anchor straps,
straps with shear plates
and bolts, and angles
with bolts, all on bearing
plates.
Columns
Columns may be sawed or
glue-laminated.
Supporting loor loads, must be
a minimum 8” wide x 8” deep
nominal (203 x 203).
Supporting roof and ceiling loads,
must be a minimum 6” wide x 8”
deep nominal (152 x 203).
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Concrete Floor and Roof Systems
Different systems, in order of increasing load capacity, spans, and cost, are one-way solid slab
(spans across parallel lines of support), two-way lat plate (uses no beams, dropped plate, or column capitals, but rather, reinforcing of various stresses), two-way lat slab (uses column capitals
and/or drop panels instead of beams), one-way joist, wafle slab, one-way beam and slab, and
two-way beam and slab. Two-way systems tend to be square in proportion and are supported on
four sides; one-way systems have a 1:>1.5 proportion and are supported on two sides.
Two-way Flat Plate
One-way Ribbed Slab (joist)
Flat Beam and Slab
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Two-way Flat Slab
Two-way Wafle Slab
One-way Beam and Slab
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Moment Frame
Rigid framework resists
lateral forces
Braced Frame
Internal structure braces
light frame
Tube
Exterior walls contribute to
structural stability
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05 05
PRECAST CONCRETE FRAMING
4’-0” (1 219)
4” (102)
6” (152)
8” (203)
Slab Detail
topping
Solid Flat Slab
welded
wire fabric
6” (152)
8” (203)
10” (254)
12” (305)
4’-0” (1 219)
Hollow Core Slab
prestressing
strands
Slab Detail
optional topping
Type A: 8’-0” (2 438)
Type B: 10’-0” (3 048)
2” (51)
3’-4” (1 016)
Type D
4’-0” (1 219)
Type E
4’-0” (1 219)
Type F
varies
12” (305)–
32” (813)
Type A: 4’-0” (1 219)
Type B: 5’-0” (1 524)
Stemmed Deck, Double Tee (DT)
optional topping
Type C: 8’–0” (2 438)
Type D: 10’–0” (3 048)
1 1/2” (38)
varies
20” (508)–
48” (1 219)
Type C
4” (102)
6” (152)
8” (203)
10” (254)
1’-4” (406)
1’-8” (508)
2’-0” (508)
2’-0” (610)
6” (152)
8” (203)
10” (254)
12” (305)
Type B
4” (102)
6” (152)
8” (203)
10” (254)
12” (305)
4’-0” (1 219)
6” (152)
8” (203)
10” (254)
12” (305)
Type A
4” (102)
6” (152)
8” (203)
10” (254)
12” (305)
4’-0” (1 219)
6” (152)
8” (203)
12” (305)
15” (381)
Hollow Core Slab Types
8” (203)
Stemmed Deck, Single Tee (ST)
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Hollow Slab Framing System
Beam-to-Column
Connection
Slab-to-Bearing
Wall Connection
hollow core slab
precast
column
rectangular
beam
precast
bearing wall
Stemmed Deck DT Framing System
stemmed deck
(double tee)
Deck to-Bearing
Wall Connection
Beam-to-Column
Connection
precast
column
with corbel
inverted
tee beam
precast
bearing wall
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STEEL FRAMING
Structural Steel Shape Designations
Shape
Description
W
Wide-lange
hot-rolled, doubly symmetric wide-lange shapes used
as beams and columns
HP
Wide-lange
hot-rolled, wide-lange shapes whose langes and webs
are of the same nominal thickness and whose depth
and width are essentially the same; often used as
bearing piles
S
American Standard
beam
hot-rolled, doubly symmetric shapes produced in accordance with AASM* dimensional standards; generally
being superseded by wide-lange beams, which are
more structurally eficient
M
Miscellaneous
doubly symmetrical shapes that cannot be classiied as
W or HP shapes
L
Angle
equal leg and unequal leg angles
C
American Standard
channel
hot-rolled channels produced in accordance with AASM
dimensional standards
MC
Channel
hot-rolled channels from miscellaneous shape
WT
Structural tee
hot-rolled tees cut or split from W shapes
ST
Structural tee
hot-rolled tees cut or split from S shapes
MT
Structural tee
hot-rolled tees cut or split from M shapes
TU
Tube
hollow structural steel members shaped like a square
or rectangle; used as beams or columns, or in bracing
*AASM: Association of American Steel Manufacturers
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Steel Shape Examples
tf (lange
thickness)
Wide-lange
W8X67
k
tw (web
thickness)
8 = nominal depth (in.);
67 = weight per foot of
length (lb.)
T
d (depth)
k
k1
bf (lange width)
Wide-lange
HP12X84
American Standard
S8X18.4
Miscellaneous
M10X8
12 = nominal depth (in.);
84 = weight per foot of length (lb.)
8 = nominal depth (in.);
18.4 = weight per foot of
length (lb.)
10 = nominal depth
(in.); 8 = weight per foot
of length
(lb.)
Structural Tees
WT25X95
Angle
L6X4X7/8
Channel
MC7X22.7
6 and 4 = nominal depths of
legs (in.); 7/8 = nominal
thickness of legs (in.)
7 = nominal depth (in.); 22.7
= weight per foot of length (lb.)
ST15X3.75
Tube
TU2X2X1/8
StructuralSystems
Systems
Structural
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TRUSS DESIGN
Steel-Frame Connections
Steel is proportionally light in weight relative to its
strength and can be erected quickly but precisely.
Steel-frame construction uses a combination
of structural steel shapes that act as columns,
beams, girders, lintels, trusses, and numerous
means of connection.
The integrity and strength of steel connections are
just as important as the steel shapes themselves,
because a failed connection results in a failed
system. Steel-frame connections include angles,
plates, and tees for transitioning between members being joined.
Heel Conditions
Light Wood
Connections that join only the web of the beam to
the column are called framed connections; they
can transmit all the vertical (shear) forces from the
beam to the column. If the langes of the beam are
also connected to the column, it is then capable
of transmitting bending moment from beam to
column.
Heavy Wood
Framed Connection: Shear connection with beam web
bolted to column
lange using connecting angles.
Welded Moment
Connection: Moment
connection between
beam and column
using groove welds at
beam web and lange.
Cold-rolled Steel Channel
Welded Steel
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A truss is a structural framework of triangular units for supporting loads over long spans.
The framework of the structural members reduces nonaxial forces to a set of axial forces in
the members themselves.
panel length
top chord
web
overall
height
bottom chord
heel
bottom chord length
Truss Types
Belgian
Flat Pratt
Warren
Pitched Howe
Fink
Flat Howe
Scissors
Bowstring
Pitched Pratt
Modiied Bowstring
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Chapter 6: Mechanical Systems
A building’s mechanical systems involve control of heat, ventilation, air-conditioning,
refrigeration, plumbing, ire protection, and noise reduction, all of which must be
integrated with the architectural, structural, and electrical design.
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
All-air Systems: Conditioned air is circulated to and from spaces by central fans that direct
it through runs of ductwork.
Air and Water Systems: Conditioned air is ducted to each space, and chilled and heated
water are piped to each space to modify the temperature of the air at each outlet.
All-water Systems: No ductwork is used, and air is circulated within each space, not from a
central source. Chilled and heated water are furnished to each space. Because water piping
is much smaller than ductwork for air, all-water systems are very compact.
Air duct: Pipe that carries warm and cold
air to rooms and back to a furnace or airconditioning system.
Louver: Opening with horizontal slats that
permit passage of air, but not rain, sunlight, or
view, into a structure.
ASHRAE: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Plenum: Chamber that serves as a distribution area for heating or cooling systems,
usually found between a false ceiling and
the actual ceiling.
Cavity wall: Hollow wall formed with two layers of masonry, providing an insulating
air space between.
Chase wall: Cavity wall containing electrical
runs or plumbing pipes in its cavity.
Closed loop: Evaporator side of chiller
system, closed to the atmosphere.
Dry bulb: Ambient outside temperature.
Furnace: Device that generates heated air,
and is powered by natural gas, fuel oil, or
electricity. Most often used in small commercial or residential applications.
Heat pump: A device that warms or cools by
transfering thermal energy from a heat source
to a heat sink.
HVAC: Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning.
IAQ: Indoor Air Quality
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Open loop: Condenser/tower side of chiller
system; open to the atmosphere.
Radiant heat: Heating system that uses
coils of electricity, hot water, or steam
pipes embedded in loors, ceilings, or
walls to heat rooms.
Shaft: Enclosed vertical space (usually with
ire-resistive walls) containing all vertical runs
of pipes, ducts, and elevators.
Variable air volume (VAV): Air-handling system
that conditions air to a constant temperature
and varies airlow to ensure thermal comfort.
Wet bulb: Combination of outside air temperature and relative humidity; higher relative
humidity makes it more dificult for a cooling
tower to evaporate water into the atmosphere.
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HVAC SYSTEMS
The systems for accomplishing heating, ventilation, and air conditioning of indoor spaces vary
considerably, based on factors including building type and program, cost, climate, and building
size. The basic principals and components of heating, cooling, and circulating are similar across
all systems.
Cooling tower: Open recirculating
system where heat exchange occurs
by evaporation.
COOLING TOWER
Air handling unit
(AHU): Equipment including
a fan or blower,
heating and/or
cooling coils, regulator controls,
condensate
drain pans, and
air ilters.
AHU
BOILER
CHILLER
Boiler: Tank where the
heat produced from the
combustion of fuels (natural gas, fuel oil, wood, or
coal) generates hot water or
steam for use in heating.
Chiller: Heat exchanger (evaporator, condenser,
and compressor system) that uses air, a refrigerant, water, and evaporation to transfer heat and
produce air-conditioning.
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MECHANICAL DISTRIBUTION TYPES
FAN COIL UNITS
Fan coil units (FCUs) contain cooling or heating coils and a fan. Typically, hot or chilled water is piped
to the unit from a central boiler and chiller. Air from the room is drawn into the unit (return air) and
blown over the coil by a fan. The air is then heated or cooled and discharged (supply air) to the
room. FCUs may be vertical or horizontal, mounted on walls, ceilings, or freestanding.
2-Pipe: System has one supply and one return pipe. Must
be changed over from hot to
cold with change in seasons.
Chiller
Supply air
4-Pipe: System has hot
supply, hot return, cold supply, and cold return pipes,
allowing the system to change
between heating and cooling
at any time.
Return air
Boiler
Piping
Fan Coil Unit
Horizontal Console
Floor-mounted, often
at exterior wall
Vertical Stack
May be concealed within wall
system, or freestanding
Vertical Stack — ducted
May be concealed within wall
system, or freestanding
Horizontal FCU
Ceiling-hung, may
be within sofit or
exposed
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FORCED AIR DUCT SYSTEM
A duct system distributes heated, cooled, and fresh air throughout the building, while also iltering
and dehumidifying the air.
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
Hydronic systems provide heating, but typically not cooling. Hot water is circulated through tubing,
from the central heat source to radiators throughout the space to be heated. The radiators may be
wall-mounted or loor-mounted. Tubes may also be designed into loor systems, providing consistent
radiant heat. Heat sources may include boilers, water heaters, and solar power.
Main supply
Branch
Return:
(Register/Grille)
Supply:
(Register/Diffuser)
Main return
Plenum
Heating element
Cooling element
Blower fan
Coolant lines
Condensor Unit
Pad-mounted, outdoor
Drain to stack
Filter
FORCED AIR FURNACE — Typical residential heating and cooling system
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SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
The issue of sustainable design shines a brighter and brighter light on architecture’s
need to grow, learn, and adapt to a changing world. By nature, architecture is subject
to inertia: Buildings take years to design and realize, and architects, engineers, and
contractors take years to train. This process once ensured painstaking attention to
detail and craftsmanship that resulted in a building that could last forever. Today architecture must too often bend to economic pressures to build quickly and inexpensively.
Technological and engineering advances allow for such economy, though often at the
risk of producing disposable buildings, ultimately unable to stand the test of time and
frequently at odds with the well-being of the environment. Sustainable design proposes using systems that meet present needs without compromising those of future
generations. Architects, for their part, are increasingly compelled to understand and
implement such new systems and methods as they envision ways in which buildings
may work with the environment and the living world. The result is a built world that
enhances instead of diminishes its surroundings and resources.
LEED DESIGN
The LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building Rating
System is a voluntary, nationally recognized
standard for developing high-performance,
sustainable buildings. LEED was developed
by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), comprising members from all walks
of the building community. LEED’s progressive levels of certiication—Certiied, Silver,
Gold, and Platinum—relect various levels
of building performance and sustainability.
Projects wishing for certiication must register and submit documentation for review
by LEED.
Among LEED’s primary goals is to establish a common standard of measuring
sustainability and to promote integrated
design practices while raising awareness
of the beneits of “green building.” A green
building is one that uses energy in an eficient and ecologically aware way and that
minimizes negative impact on the health of
its users.
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DECLARATION
OF INTERDEPENDENCE
In 1993 the Union Internationale des
Architectes (UIA) and the AIA signed a
“Declaration of Interdependence for a Sustainable Future,” which made commitment
to environmental and social sustainability
a core issue of practice and professional
responsibility. In addition to bringing the
existing built environment up to established
sustainability standards, it also stresses
the importance of developing and reining
practices, procedures, products, services,
and standards to enable implementation of
sustainable design, as well as educating all
members of the building community, clients,
and the general public about the beneits
of and need for sustainable approaches to
design.
Similarly, a coalition of architects, landscape architects, and engineers formed the
Interprofessional Council on Environmental
Design (ICED) as a multidisciplinary partnership committed to the common goal of
sustainability.
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TERMINOLOGY
Adaptive reuse: Changing a building’s function in
response to the changing
needs of its users.
Black water: Waste water
from toilets, kitchen sinks,
and dishwashers.
Brownfields: Abandoned or
underused industrial and
commercial sites where
environmental contamination
hampers redevelopment.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
Chemical compounds used
as refrigerants and in aerosol
and believed to be responsible for depleting the ozone
layer.
Conservative disassembly:
Counterproposal to destructive demolition of buildings
(where most of the building’s
material is crushed into
waste) that promotes varying
levels of salvaging materials
from a building before it is
demolished.
Embodied energy: All of the
energy consumed by all of the
processes associated with
the production of a building,
including transportation.
Gray water: Wastewater from
baths, showers, washers, and
lavatories, which might be
appropriate for irrigation or
other uses not requiring clean
water.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFC): Alternative to CFCs,
with shorter atmospheric
lifetimes that deliver less
reactive chlorine to the ozone
layer, though alternatives to
both are still being sought.
GUIDELINES
Hydronic heating: In-loor
hot-water heating system
where hot water is pumped
through a thermal mass loor
that absorbs the heat, evenly
radiating it over time.
Life cycle analysis (LCA):
Quantiiable assessment of
all stages in the life cycle of
a product system (resource
extraction, manufacturing, onsite construction, occupancy/
maintenance, demolition, and
recycling/reuse/disposal)
used to determine the impact
of the material or system
via four phases: initiation,
inventory analysis, impact assessment, and improvement
assessment.
Passive solar: Technology of
heating and cooling a building
naturally, through the use of
energy-eficient materials and
proper site placement.
Photovoltaics: Solar panels
used to harness the sun’s
energy into electricity that can
be stored in batteries and
used to power an electrical
system.
Renewable: Resource that
comes into being through
a relatively quick natural
process.
Upstream/downstream:
Cause-and-effect example
that what one does upstream
affects what happens downstream.
Design for energy eficiency
through the use of high levels
of insulation and high-performance windows.
Design buildings with renewable energy sources such
as passive solar heating,
daylighting, and natural cooling,
whenever possible.
Design for standard sizes to
minimize material waste.
Avoid materials containing
CFCs and HCFCs.
Use salvaged or recycled building materials such as heavy
timbers, millwork, and plumbing
ixtures.
When possible, use locally
produced materials to cut down
on transportation costs and
pollution.
Use materials with low embodied energy. Rules of thumb:
lumber, brick, concrete, and
iberglass have relatively low
embodied energies, whereas
timber, ceramics, and steel are
higher, and glass, plastic and
aluminum are very high. Often
a higher embodied energy level
can be justiied if it contributes
to lower operating energy, such
as when large amounts of
thermal mass can signiicantly
reduce heating and cooling
needs in well-insulated passive
solar buildings.
Avoid off-gassing materials with
high levels of VOCs.
Reduce energy and water
consumption.
Minimize external pollution and
environmental impact.
Reduce resource depletion.
Minimize internal pollution and
negative effects on health.
Volatile organic compound
(VOC): Highly evaporative,
carbon-based chemical
substance producing noxious
fumes and found in many
paints, caulks, stains, and
adhesives.
Mechanical Systems
Mechanical Systems
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Chapter 7: Electrical Systems
Lighting has a tremendous effect on the manner in which a space will be experienced
and perceived. Architects often work closely with lighting designers, who provide expertise on the technical aspects and effects of lighting and how they can best serve the
design and function of a space. Lighting designers provide lighting speciications for
the project and coordinate much of their design information with the electrical drawings and relected ceiling plans.
LIGHTING TERMINOLOGY
Ambient lighting: General lighting for an
entire space.
Ampere (amp): Unit of measuring electrical
current, equal to one coulomb per second.
Baffle: Opaque or translucent element that
controls the distribution of light at certain
angles.
Ballast: Device that provides starting voltage
for a luorescent or HID lamp, then limits
and regulates the current in the lamp during
operation.
Bulb: Decorative glass or plastic housing that
diffuses light distribution.
Candela: SI unit of the luminous intensity of a
light source in a speciic direction. Also called
candle.
Candlepower (CP): Measure (in candelas) of
the luminous intensity of a light source in a
speciic direction.
Coefficient of utilization (CU): Ratio of a
luminaire’s lumens on a surface to the lamp’s
production of lumens.
Color rendering index (CRI): Scale of 1 to
100 determining a light source’s effect on the
color appearance of an object, compared to
the color appearance under a reference light
source. A rating of 1 indicates maximum color
shift and 100 indicates no color shift.
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Color temperature: Speciication of the color
appearance of a light source, measured in
Kelvins. Color temperatures below 3,200K may
be considered warm and those above 4,000K
may be considered cool.
Compact fluorescent: Small luorescent lamp
used as an alternative to incandescent light.
Known also as twin-tube, PL, CFL, or BIAX.
Daylight compensation: Energy-saving
photocell-controlled dimming system that
reduces the output of lamps in the presence
of daylight.
Diffuser: Translucent piece of plastic or glass
that shields a ixture’s light source, scattering
and diffusing the transmitted light.
Direct glare: Glare resulting from direct view
of light source.
Downlight: Ceiling ixture that can be fully
recessed, semirecessed, or ceiling mounted,
in which most of the light is directed downward. Variously called a can, high-hat, or
recessed downlight.
Electroluminescent: Lighting technology that
provides uniform brightness and long lamp life
while consuming very little energy, making it
ideal for use in exit signs.
Energy: Electric power unit, measured in
kilowatt hours (kwh).
Fluorescent: Tube illed with argon, krypton,
or another inert gas. An electrical current applied to the gas produces an arc of ultraviolet
radiation that causes the phosphors inside
the lamp wall to radiate visible light.
07
Foot-candle (FC): English unit of measuring
the light level on a surface, equal to one
lumen per square foot.
Lux (LX): Metric unit of illuminance measure.
One lux = 0.093 foot-candles; one foot-candle
= 10.76 lux.
High-intensity discharge (HID): Mercury
vapor, metal halide, high-pressure sodium,
and low-pressure sodium light sources.
Nadir: Reference direction directly below (0
degrees) a luminaire.
High output (HO): Lamp or ballast that
operates at high currents and produces
more light.
IALD: International Association of Lighting
Designers.
IESNA: Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America.
Illuminance: Luminous lux per unit area on a
surface at any given point. Commonly called
light level, it is expressed in foot-candles or
lux.
Incandescent: Bulb that contains a conductive wire ilament through which current lows.
This is the most common type of light source.
Lamp: Light-producing component inside a
bulb.
Opaque: Of material, transmitting no visible
light.
Optics: Components of a light ixture—
relectors, refractors, lenses, louvers, and
so on; or, the light-emitting performance of
a luminaire.
Reflectance: Ratio of light relected from a
surface to the light incident on the surface.
(The relectance of a dark carpet is 20
percent and that of a clean white wall is
50 to 60 percent.)
Reflector: Element of a luminaire that
shrouds the lamps, redirecting some of the
light they emit.
Refractor: Element of a luminaire that
redirects light output by bending the waves
of light.
Lay-in troffer: Fluorescent ixture that lays into
a ceiling grid.
Room cavity ratio (RCR): Ratio of room
dimensions used to determine how light will
interact with the room’s surfaces.
Light-emitting diode (LED): Semiconductor
diode that emits light when voltage is applied
to it; used in electronic displays such as
signage.
T12 lamp: Industry standard designation for
a luorescent lamp that is 12/8” in diameter. T8
and T10 are similarly named.
Lens: Transparent or translucent element that
alters the directional characteristics of light
as it passes through.
Lumen: Unit of measuring the total light
output of a lamp.
Luminaire: Complete lighting unit (also called
a ixture) consisting of lamp(s) and the parts
required to distribute the light, hold the
lamps, and connect them to a power source.
Luminance: Luminous intensity per unit area
of a surface. It is expressed in candelas (metric) or footlamberts (customary).
Translucent: Of material, transmitting some
visible light.
Transparent: Of material, transmitting most
visible light incident on it.
Troffer: Recessed luorescent ixture (from
trough plus coffer).
Ultraviolet (UV): Invisible radiation of shorter
wavelength and higher frequency than visible
violet light.
Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL): Independent
organization that tests products for public
safety.
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07
LIGHT FIXTURES AND TYPES
recessed
luorescent troffer
track lighting
luorescent ixture in a
cove (provides indirect
light source)
loor lamp
table lamp
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07
semirecessed downlight
recessed downlight
recessed wall washer
(provides even level of
illumination on a wall)
pendant
wall sconce
desk lamp
(provides task lighting)
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COMMON BULB TYPES
Fluorescent lamps are long, sealed glass tubes, coated inside with a phosphor powder. Fluorescent
bulbs contain mercury, which is converted from a liquid to a gas by the energy produced by electrodes
at either end.
T2
Fluorescent bulbs come in a
variety of lengths, diameters,
2/8” dia.
T5
wattages, and starting methods.
(1/4”)
Lengths are in increments of 12”
5/8” dia.
(commonly 48”), and diameters
are noted by 1/8” modules.
T12 bulbs,
which are typically 40 watts,
T8
have begun to
8/8” dia.
be phased out
in the U.S., per
(1”)
the Department
T12
of Energy, in
favor of more
12/8” dia.
eficient T8 and
(1-1/2”)
T5 lamps.
Contact pins
Mercury
Electrode
Glass tube (sealed)
Phosphor coating
(internal)
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07
Bulbs are typically identified by a letter or letters that indicate its type or shape, and a number
that indicates the greatest diameter of the bulb in 1/8”.
CFL (Compact Fluorescent Lamp)
Incandescent
The A-series incandescent light bulb
has long been the ‘classic’ multipurpose bulb type. The most common
size is the A19 (2-3/8” dia.)
CFLs are luorescent lights designed to
replace incandescent bulbs - many screw into
the same ixtures, and the luorescent tube
has been folded and curved to it the same
volume as a typical incandescent bulb. CFLs
use less power and last longer than incandescent, though their mercury content makes
safe disposal dificult.
MR (Multi-faceted Reflector)
PAR (Parabolic Aluminized Reflector)
The inside surface of MR lamps is
faceted and covered in a relective
coating. The light is produced by a
single-ended quartz halogen ilament
capsule.
PARs contain the light bulb, relector, and
lens within one unit, allowing them to shape
and concentrate light for speciic tasks and
settings. The light is a sealed beam incandescent. Sizes vary, and include PAR 16 (2”
dia.), PAR 30 (3-3/4” dia.), PAR 38 (4-3/4”
dia.), and PAR 64 (8” dia.)
Common sizes are MR16 (2” dia.),
MR11 (1-3/8” dia.) and MR8 (1” dia.)
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Chapter 8: Plumbing and Fire Protection
vent stack
(through roof)
shower
supply
tub
supply
tub
drain
si
nk
tub trap
col
rs
nk
to
ply
ld
tw
ate
up
co
ho
si
rs
ho
tt
o
dw
ate
up
ply
waste
Common Bathroom Pipe Layout
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PIPES
SUPPLY
Water Supply:
white plastic (PVC)
1/2” - 1” dia.
Water or Gas Supply:
copper
1/2” - 1” dia.
Water Supply:
galvanized iron
1/2” - 1” dia.
Gas Supply:
black iron
1/2” - 1” dia.
DRAIN
Drain and Vent:
black plastic
1-1/2” + dia.
Drain and Vent:
cast iron
1-1/2” + dia.
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Fire Protection Systems
Limitations on building area and height may be lessened when ire-protection systems such as automatic
sprinklers are in place. Active ire-protection systems are deined by IBC 202 as “approved devices,
equipment and systems or combinations of systems used to detect a ire, activate an alarm, extinguish
or control a ire, control or manage smoke and products of a ire, or any combination thereof.” They are
meant to work in conjunction with the building’s passive systems (ire-resistive construction) to provide
necessary protection for the occupants of any building type. Higher levels of stringency in one system
might mean lessened requirements in the other, though neither should be compromised for the sake of
cost or convenience.
The IBC requires active systems for buildings above certain sizes and occupant loads, regardless of the
type of construction. IBC Section 903 establishes these requirements based on use groups and ire
areas (“the aggregate loor area enclosed and bounded by ire walls, ire barriers, exterior walls, or ireresistance-rated horizontal assemblies of a building”). Alternative ire-extinguishing systems may be used
when necessary, in compliance with IBC 904. Examples of reasons to use alternative systems might
include libraries and museums or telecommunications facilities, whose contents would sustain water
damage from standard water sprinkler systems. Until recently, Halon 1301 gas was widely preferred as a
ire-suppression option; however, it has proven to be harmful to the ozone layer and is being replaced by
other options.
reserve
tank
wa
te
rm
ain
Sprinkler Distribution Diagram
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Sprinkler Head Distribution Types
Concealed Pendant
Sprinkler head is recessed in ceiling and
covered with a decorative cap, which falls
off once ambient air
temperatures reach a
temperature of 20˚F
prior to sprinkler activation. Water sprays
downward in a circular
pattern.
Pendant
Hangs from ceiling
and sprays water
downward.
Side Wall
When mounting sprinklers to ceiling is not
possible, they may
be mounted to walls.
Two delectors spray
water out and back
toward the wall.
Actuation Methods
Fusible Link: two pieces of metal are
fused by a heat-sensitive metal alloy,
which, when it reaches its melting point,
causes the two metals to separate and
activate the sprinkler.
Upright
Mounted atop supply
pipe, upright sprinkler
heads are used in
locations where
ceiling mounting
is not possible, or
obstructions prevent
adequate coverage
(such as mechanical
or storage rooms).
Glass Bulb: a glass bulb illed with liquid
expands and bursts when it has reached
a suficient temperature, causing the
pip cap to fall away and actuate the
sprinkler. The color of liquid indicates
the temperature range that will cause
the liquid to expand.
Response Temperatures (per National Fire Protection Association 13)
classiication
ordinary
sprinkler activation temp.
135°F - 170°F
glass bulb color
Orange (135°F)
fusible link color
Black; no color
Red (155°F)
intermediate
175°F - 225°F
Yellow (175°F)
White
Green (200°F)
high
250°F - 300°F
Blue
Blue
extra high
325°F - 375°F
Purple
Red
very extra high
400°F - 475°F
Black
Green
ultra high
500°F - 575°F
Black
Orange
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1
2
Chapter 9: Enclosure Systems
3
A building’s enclosure systems serve many functions. Not only must they separate and
protect interior from exterior, they must still allow the inside and outside to have a relationship that contributes to the most effective means of moisture, thermal, and ventilation control, all while presenting the building’s public face.
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
10
11
12
13
14
2
15
3
4
16
17
Roof Forms
18
19
20
Flat
21
Pitched
Hip
Hip Gable
22
23
24
25
Mansard
Barrel Vault
Gambrel
Gambrel
Pyramidal
Sawtooth
Shed
Butterly
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FLASHING
Flashing is used in several locations of a building’s exterior to move water away and into
the drainage system quickly and eficiently. Flashing is commonly thin sheet metal (copper, aluminum, stainless steel, or painted galvanized steel) or other impervious material
such as rubber. Material choices often depend on whether the lashing will be exposed
(metals are preferred) or concealed, and with which other materials it is likely to come
into contact.
1. Roof
Flashing is
wrapped around
protruding
objects such as
chimneys and
vents to keep
water from settling into joints
and seams.
back cap
lashing (folds
into mortar
joint)
(brick chimney)
side cap
lashing
(folds into
mortar joint)
2. Wall
Flashing may
prevent water
from entering a
wall, or may divert water that
has entered a
wall cavity.
saddle or cricket
ice/water barrier
beneath
3. Sill
Interruptions
in a wall, such
as doors and
windows, are
vulnerable to
water penetration.
building
paper
open-weave
mesh
4. Base
Gravity helps
water escape
walls down the
sloped surfaces
of the lashing,
and out through
weep holes.
lashing
weep hole (with
open-weave mesh
inserted into joint)
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2
ROOF SYSTEM TYPES: STEEP SLOPES
3
4
5
6
Tiles: (clay or concrete)
sit on top of a weatherprooing underlayment
(typically asphalt-saturated non-perforated
organic rooing felts)
7
8
9
10
11
Shingles and
Shakes:
(asphalt, slate,
wood, synthetic) sit
on top of a weatherprooing underlayment (typically
asphalt-saturated
non-perforated organic rooing felts)
12
13
14
15
16
17
Metal:
architectural metal
panels sit on top of
a weather-prooing
underlayment
(typically asphaltsaturated nonperforated organic
rooing felts)
18
19
20
12
21
12
22
Steep slope
23
Low slope
24
12
25
Flat
4
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ROOF SYSTEM TYPES: LOW & FLAT SLOPES
Structural metal panel:
over weather-prooing
underlayment
Single-ply membranes:
thermoplastic or thermoset membranes are
factory-made. Methods
of installing include fullyadhered, mechanicallyfastened, or held down
with a ballast material.
Shown here, the membrane is fully adhered to
the insulation, which itself
is mechanically fastened
to the substrate.
Polymer-modiied bitumen
sheet membranes (MB):
composed of multiple
layers, and most often
fully-adhered as a two-ply
system.
SPF (Spray polyurethane
foam board): base layer is
a rigid, spray foam insulation, on top of which is a
spray-applied elastomeric
weather-proof coating.
Sand or mineral granules
may be added to this layer
for reasons of durability
and aesthetic concerns.
Built-up roof (BUR):
bitumen (asphalt, coal tar,
or cold-applied adhesive)
and reinforcing fabrics
(rooing felts) are applied in
alternating layers to create
the membrane. Sometimes referred to as ‘tar
and gravel’ roofs. Gravel
or other minerals may be
added on top.
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1
STONE
2
As a building material, stone may be used in two different manners: as a masonry unit laid with
mortar, similar to brick or concrete blocks, or as a thin, non-load-bearing veneer facing attached
to a backup wall and structural frame. Stone colors, textures, and patterns are highly varied, as
are the design and detailing of unit masonry and cladding systems.
3
4
5
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
(rock deposited as a result of
natural action or wind)
6
limestone
7
8
9
10
11
sandstone
12
13
14
15
Limestone: Colors limited mostly to
white, buff, and gray. Very porous and
wet when quarried, though after air
seasoning, quarry sap evaporates and
stone becomes harder. Suitable for wall
and loor surfaces, but does not accept
a polish.
Sandstone: Colors range from buff to
chocolate brown to red. Suitable for
most building applications, but also does
not accept a high polish.
Stone masonry includes
rubble stone (irregular quarried fragments), dimension
stone (quarried and cut into
rectangular forms called cut
stone when large and ashlar
when small), and lagstone
(thin slabs of paving stone,
irregular or cut).
Masonry Patterns
IGNEOUS ROCK
(rock deposited in a molten state)
16
17
granite
18
19
Granite: Wide range of grains and
colors including gray, black, brown,
red, pink, buff, and green. Nonporous
and very hard. Suitable for use in the
ground and with exposure to weather.
Comes in many textures and may be
highly polished.
Random (Uncoursed) Rubble
20
Coursed Rubble
21
METAMORPHIC ROCK
(sedimentary or igneous rock
transformed into another rock
type by heat or pressure)
22
23
slate
24
25
26
27
marble
28
29
Slate: Colors range from red and brown
to grayish-green to purple and black.
Sheetlike nature makes it ideal for
paving, rooing, and veneer panels.
Marble: Highly varied in both color
and streaking patterns. Color range
includes white, black, blue, green, red,
and pink, and all tones between. Suitable for use as a building stone but is
most often highly polished and used as
a veneer panel.
Coursed Ashlar
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Random (Uncoursed) Ashlar
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09
MASONRY BEARING WALLS
Brick, concrete block, and stone walls built
as load-bearing walls will have many different
characteristics, depending on whether or
not they are reinforced, use more than one
masonry unit type (composite wall), or are
solid or cavity walls.
Common Wall Configurations
Reinforcing
Reinforcing masonry allows the entire wall
system to be thinner and taller.
Double-wythe
brick wall with
concrete and
steel reinforcing
between
Composite Walls
Composite masonry walls employ a concrete
block backup with brick or stone veneer on
the exterior wythe, with the two layers bonded with steel horizontal reinforcing. Masonry
ties join wythes of masonry together or to
supporting wood, concrete, or steel backup
structures. Anchors connect masonry units
to the supporting structure.
Cavity Walls
Cavity walls have an inner and outer wythe of
masonry units, separated by an air space of
a minimum 2” (51). Masonry ties hold the two
wythes together. If rain penetrates the outer
wythe, it runs down the inner surface of the
outer wythe and is collected at the base with
lashing materials that divert it back to the
outside through weep holes.
Brick wall on
CMU backup
(CMUs may
or may not be
reinforced), tied
together with
Z-ties
Brick and CMU
cavity wall
(CMU wall is
reinforced)
cavity wall tie
brick
cmu
lashing
Stone veneer
on CMU
backup, tied
together with
adjustable
stone ties
weep hole
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2
3
4
EXTERIOR WALLS
Common conigurations are shown here, though the combinations of backup systems and
exterior cladding systems are interchangeable in many cases, with changes to fastening
systems dependent on the type of material being attached to speciic structural elements.
5
6
7
8
9
Wood stud wall
Wood studs with batt insulation between;
exterior sheathing with weather-resistive barrier; exterior-grade plywood panels (sealed)
10
11
12
13
14
15
SIP (Structural Insulated Panel) Wall
SIP (insulated foam-core with OSB skin, either
side); weather-resistive barrier; exterior siding
Metal stud wall
Metal studs with batt insulation between;
exterior sheathing with weather-resistive barrier; aluminum composite material (ACM)
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The outer skin of a building is the vertical envelope that separates interior from exterior,
and must effectively keep out water and contribute effectively to maintaining the desired
interior climate. Most wall constructions include structural elements, insulation, water
barriers, and an exterior cladding material. Depending on many factors, including the
building’s size and height, backup materials such as CMUs, concrete, and stud systems
may be load-bearing, or act as inill within a structural frame.
Composite wall
Reinforced CMU backup; rigid insulation; 1” min. airspace; brick (or other
masonry) tied to CMUs
UHPC Concrete wall
Poured-in-place or pre-cast concrete
wall; ultra high performance concrete
(UHPC) pre-cast panels (textured)
Stucco wall
Concrete or masonry wall; two layers
stucco
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2
WINDOWS AND GLAZING
3
4
5
6
Caulk: Sealant that ills a void.
Condensation: Process in which water vapor
from the air, coming into contact with a cold
surface like glass, condenses and forms a
foggy effect.
7
8
9
10
Convection: Transfer of heat by air movement.
Desiccant: Porous crystalline substance
used in the air space of insulating glass units
to absorb moisture and solvent vapors from
the air.
11
12
13
14
15
16
Dew point: Calculated temperature at which
water vapor will condense.
Dual-sealed units: Sealed insulating glass
units with a primary seal and a secondary
outer seal.
Emissivity: Relative ability of a surface to absorb and emit energy in the form of radiation.
18
Gas-filled units: Insulating glass units with
a gas instead of air in the air space, used
to decrease the thermal conductivity U value.
19
Glaze: To it a window frame with glass.
20
Grille: Decorative grid installed on or between
glass lites, meant to look like a muntin bar,
but without actually dividing the glass.
17
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Light (or lite): Unit of glass in a window or
door, enclosed by the sash or muntin bars.
Sometimes spelled lite to avoid confusion
with visible light; also called a pane.
Mullion: Horizontal or vertical member holding
together two adjacent lites of glass or sash.
Muntin bar: Strip that separates panes of
glass in a sash.
Passive solar gain: Solar heat that is
captured naturally as it passes through
a material.
R-value: Measure of the overall resistance to
heat transmission due only to the difference
in air temperature on either side of the
material. See U-value.
Radiation: Process by which heat is emitted from a body through open space, as in
sunlight.
Sash: Frame that holds glass lites and into
which glass products are glazed.
Shading coefficient: Relative measurement
of the total amount of solar energy that enters a building space through its glass, as the
ratio of the solar heat gain through a speciic
glass product to the solar heat gain through
a lite of 1/8” (3) clear glass. Glass of 1/8” (3)
thickness is given a value of 1.0. The lower
the shading coeficient number, the lower the
amount of solar heat transmitted.
Tempered glass: Specially heat-treated
high-strength safety glass.
Thermal performance: Ability of a glass unit
to perform as a barrier to the transfer of heat.
Total solar energy: Total solar spectrum
composed of UV, visible, and near infrared
wavelengths.
U-value: Measure of thermal conductance;
the reciprocal of R-value.
Ultraviolet (UV): Type of radiation in wavelengths shorter than those of visible light
and longer than those of X rays.
Visible light: Portion of solar energy detected
by the human eye as light.
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WINDOW TYPES
Fixed
Double-hung
Sliding
Awning
Single-hung
Casement
Hopper
Sliding Doors
Skylight
French Doors
Terrace Door
Roof Window
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1
Window Sizing
2
A typical chart from a window
manufacturer’s catalog depicts
stock sizes and types of
windows (in feet and inches).
Mas Opg (masonry opening)
is the opening that must be
provided for a brick, block,
or stone wall; Rgh Opg (rough
opening) is the opening
required for typical stud walls;
Sash Opg (sash opening) is
the size of the window itself;
and Glass Size is the size of
the glass.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Mas Opg
Rgh Opg
Sash Opg
Glass Size
12
13
head
2’-8 1/2”
2’-6 3/8”
2’-4”
24”
decorative grille
14
3’-6 1/2”
3’-5 3/4”
3’-2”
16”
16
17
meeting rail
18
19
lite/pane
20
21
22
sash
23
4’-2 1/2”
4’-1 3/4”
3’-10”
20”
24
25
26
27
Double-hung Window
28
29
30
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
rough opening
double layer
of glass
15
09
Punched opening
Window wall
Window system ‘rests’
on loor
Curtain wall
Window system slides
past loor and is anchored to structure
Curtain wall
Spandrel panel covers
edge of loor
Enclosure Systems
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09
1
2
WINDOW CONSIDERATIONS
3
4
casement
interior screen
5
6
7
casement + fixed
interior screen
8
slider
exterior screen
or interior screen
double hung
exterior screen
fixed
no screen
(space above windows ideal for window treatments)
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
(no wall space
for window
treatments if
windows end
at ceiling)
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
fixed
tempered
(begins below
24” AFF)
23
24
25
fixed
max. size 72
sf. for single
insulated unit
(typ.)
26
27
28
29
Interior
30
100
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
hoppers
tempered or solid if under
24” AFF (check local codes)
09
Exterior
Enclosure Systems
101
09
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
GLASS AND GLAZING
Most architectural glass comprises three major raw materials that are found naturally: silica,
lime, and sodium carbonate. Secondary materials may be added to facilitate the glass-making
process or to give the glass special properties, which can be broken into three basic categories.
Soda-lime glass accounts for the majority of commercially produced glass. Used for bottles,
glassware, and windows, its composition of silica, soda, and lime does not give it good resistance
to sudden thermal changes, especially high temperatures, or to chemical corrosion. Lead glass
contains about 20 percent lead oxide, and its soft surface makes it ideal for decorative cutting
and engraving, though it does not withstand sudden temperature changes. Borosilicate glass,
which refers to any silicate glass with a composition of at least 5 percent boric oxide, has greater
resistance to thermal changes and chemical corrosion.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Glass Production
The most common lat glass is loat
glass, in which properly weighed and
mixed soda lime glass, silica sand,
calcium, oxide, soda and magnesium
are melted in a 2,732°F (1,500°C) furnace. The highly viscous molten glass
is loated across a bath of molten tin
in a continuous ribbon. Because the
tin is very luid, the two materials do
not mix, creating a perfectly lat surface between them. By the time the
glass has left the molten tin, it has
cooled enough to proceed to a lehr,
where it is annealed, that is, cooled
slowly under controlled conditions.
19
20
21
22
23
Glass may also be rolled, a process by
which semimolten glass is squeezed
between metal rollers to form a ribbon
with predeined thicknesses and patterned surfaces. This process is used
mostly for patterned and cast-glass
production.
Nominal Thickness
Actual Range
3/32” single
0.085”–0.101”
(2.16–2.57)
strength
laminate
0.102”–0.114”
(2.59–2.90)
1/8” double
0.115”–0.134”
(2.92–3.40)
strength
5/32”
0.149”–0.165”
(3.78–4.19)
3/16”
0.180”–0.199”
(4.57–5.05)
7/32”
0.200”–0.218”
(5.08–5.54)
1/4”
0.219”–0.244”
(5.56–6.20)
5/16”
0.292”–0.332”
(7.42–8.43)
3/8”
0.355”–0.406”
(9.02–10.31)
1/2”
0.469”–0.531”
(11.91–13.49)
5/8”
0.595”–0.656”
(15.09–16.66)
3/4”
0.719”–0.781”
(18.26–19.84)
1”
0.969”–1.031”
(24.61–26.19)
11/4”
1.125”–1.375”
(28.58–34.93)
24
25
26
27
Glass Thickness
Sheet size, wind, and other loads
determine the required glass thickness for any particular window.
28
29
30
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09
GLASS FORMS
Glass Block: Glass blocks
are considered to be masonry
units. Typical units are made
by fusing together two hollow
halves, with a vacuum inside.
Solid blocks, called glass
bricks, are impact resistant
but can be seen through.
Solar control units may have
coatings or inserts. Glass
block walls are constructed
in a similar fashion to other
masonry walls, with mortar,
metal anchors, and ties; they
can be applied to interiors or
exteriors.
Customary Sizes
4 1/2” x 4 1/2”
5 3/4” x 5 3/4” (nominal 6” x 6”)
7 1/2” x 7 1/2”
7 3/4” x 7 3/4” (nominal 8” x 8”)
9 1/2” x 9 1/2”
11 3/4” x 11 3/4” (nominal 12” x 12”)
3 3/4” x 7 3/4” (nominal 4” x 8”)
5 3/4” x 7 3/4” (nominal 6” x 8”)
9 1/2” x 4 1/2”
thickness: 3”– 4”
Preferred SI Sizes
115 x 115 mm
190 x 190 mm
240 x 240 mm
300 x 300 mm
240 x 115 mm
thickness: 80–100 mm
Cast or Channel Glass: U-shaped
linear glass channels are selfsupporting and contained within
an extruded metal perimeter
frame. One or two interlocking
layers may be used, creating
varying levels of strength, sound
and thermal insulation, and
translucence. Glass thicknesses
are roughly 1/4” (6–7); channel
widths range from 9” (230) to
19” (485), with heights varying depending on widths and
wind loads. Cast glass can be
employed vertically or horizontally, internally or externally, and
as a curved surface. The glass
itself can be made with wires,
tints, and other qualities. Double
layers of channels provide a natural air space that can be illed
with aerogel, a lattice-work of
glass strands with small pores,
which results in an insulating
substance that is 5 percent solid
and 95 percent air.
Enclosure Systems
103
09
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
GLASS TYPES
Insulating Glass: Two or more panes of
glass enclose a hermetically sealed air
space and are separated by a desiccantilled spacer that absorbs the internal
moisture of the air space. The multiple
layers of glass and air space of these insulating glass units (IGUs) drastically reduce
heat rates. Low-E or other coatings may be
used on one or more of the glass surfaces
to further improve thermal performance.
Argon and sulfur hexaluoride gases may ill
the space between glass sheets for even
further eficiency as well as reduced sound
transmission. Standard overall thickness for
a double-glazed IGU is 1” (25.4), with 1/4” (6)
thick glass and a 1/2” (13) air space.
Numbers in bubbles represent glass
surface numbers, beginning with 1
on the exterior face.
2
4
air space
1
3
spacer
exterior
interior
12
13
14
15
16
Reflective Glass: Ordinary loat glass (clear
or tinted) is coated with metal or metal oxide
to reduce solar heat. The coating also produces a one-way mirror effect, generally with
the mirror on the exterior. Shading coeficients depend on the density of the metallic
coating and range from about 0.31 to 0.70.
17
18
Low-E Glass: Low emissivity is clear loat
glass with a microscopically thin metal oxide
coating that reduces U-value by suppressing
radiative heat low and blocking short wave
radiation to impede heat gain. At the same
time, it provides for light transmission, low
relection, and reduced heat transfer. Generally, Low-E glass can be cut, laminated,
or tempered. It is produced in soft-coat
(vacuum or sputter coated) or hard-coat
(pyrolitic) versions.
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Body-Tinted Glass: Chemical elements
added to the molten glass mixture produce a
variety of colors. The visible light transmitted
depends on the color and ranges from about
14 percent for very dark colors to 75 percent
for light colors. (Clear glass has about an 85
percent light transmission.) Shading coeficients range from 0.50 to 0.75, meaning that
they transmit 50 to 75 percent of the solar
energy that would be transmitted by doublestrength clear glass.
Colorant
Glass Colors
Cadmium sulide
yellow
Carbon and sulfur
brown, amber
Cerium
yellow
Chromium
green, pink, yellow
Cobalt
blue, green, pink
Copper
blue, green, red
Iron
blue, brown, green
Manganese
purple
27
Nickel
purple, yellow
28
Selenium
pink, red
Titanium
brown, purple
Vanadium
blue, gray, green
29
30
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09 09
Safety Glass
Specialty and Decorative Glasses
Tempered Glass: Annealed glass is
cut and edged before being reheated
at about 1,200°F (650°C). If the glass
is cooled rapidly, it is considered to be
fully tempered; the glass can be up
to four times as strong as annealed
glass, and, when broken, it shatters into
small, square-edged granules instead of
into sharp shards. If cooled slowly, the
glass is twice as strong as annealed
glass, and the broken pieces are more
linear but tend to stay in the frame.
The slower process is also much less
expensive. Tempered glass is ideal for
loor-to-ceiling glass, glass doors, walls
of squash courts, and walls exposed to
heavy winds and intense temperatures.
Photovoltaic Glass: Solar cells are embedded
in special resin between panes of glass. Each
cell is electrically connected to the other cells,
converting solar energy into an electrical current.
Chemically Strengthened Glass:
Glass is covered by a chemical solution
that produces a higher mechanical
resistance, giving the glass similar
properties to thermal-strengthened
(tempered) glass.
Laminated Glass: Interlayers of
plastic or resin are sandwiched
between two sheets of glass and the
layers are bonded together under heat
and pressure. When the glass breaks,
the laminate interlayer holds the fragments together, making it ideal for use
in overhead glazing, stair railings, and
store fronts. Security glass (bullet-proof)
is made of multiple layers of glass and
vinyl, in many thicknesses.
Wired Glass: A wire mesh is
sandwiched between two ribbons of
semimolten glass, which are squeezed
together through a pair of metal rollers.
When the glass breaks, the wire holds it
in place. Wire glass is often acceptable
for windows in ire doors and walls.
X-ray Protection Glass: Used primarily in
medical or other radiology rooms, X-ray glass
has high levels of lead oxide that reduce
ionizing radiation. X-ray glass can be laminated
and used in single- or double-glazed units.
Electrically Heated Glass: Polyvinyl butyral (PVB)
ilms are pressed between two or more sheets of
glass. Electrically conductive wires heat the glass,
making it useful in areas of high moisture content
or with extreme differences between indoor and
outdoor temperatures.
Self-cleaning Glass: Float glass is given a photocatalytic coating on the exterior that reacts to
ultraviolet rays to break down organic dirt. Hydrophilic properties also cause rain to low down the
glass as a sheet, washing away the dirt.
Enameled/Screen-printed Glass: Special
mineral pigments are deposited on one face of
the glass surface before tempering or annealing.
A variety of colors and patterns may be applied
for decorative purposes. Enameled glass can
also be used as a solar-ray conductor.
Sand-blasted Glass: A translucent surface
is produced by spraying sand at high velocity
over the surface of the glass, which may be
done in decorative patterns or in varying depths
and translucencies, depending on the force and
type of sand.
Acid-etched Glass: One side of loat glass
is acid-etched, giving a smoother inish than
achieved by sand-blasting.
Antireflective Glass: Float glass is given a
coating that relects very small amounts of light.
Enclosure Systems
105
STANDARDS
3.
MEASURE AND DRAWING
For an architect’s ideas to evolve into fully considered designs, they
require constant evaluation, investigation, and experimentation.
Scribbled notes and sketches are quickly put to the test as real
scales and measures are applied; lat plans grow into volumes, and
spaces are examined inside and out. To become built form, ideas
must be communicated to the various groups involved in the design
process, and so the architect embarks on a cycle of production and
presentation.
For presentation to the client whose building this will become,
communication can take the form of sketches, cardboard models,
computer models, and digital animations—whatever is needed to
ensure that the design is understood. In preparing such materials,
the architect often discovers new aspects of the design that prompt
further study and presentation.
For construction, the architect prepares documents to certain standards. Technical measured drawings describe everything necessary to
erect the building. Depending on the size of the project, many other
parties will also be involved, from structural and mechanical engineers to electrical engineers and lighting designers. Each of these
trades also produces construction documents speciic to their work
and coordinated with the entire set. In every case, these drawings
and written speciications must be clear and precise to ensure a wellbuilt structure.
10
Chapter 10: Measurement and Geometry
The two primary measurement systems used in the world today are the metric system,
also known as the Système International d’Unités and commonly abbreviated to SI in
all languages, and the U.S. customary units system, referred to in the United States
as English units or standard units. The latter is an irregular system based on imperial
units once used in the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth.
The metric system has become the universally accepted system of units in science,
trade, and commerce. In the United States, however, where the Metric Conversion Act
of 1975 established SI as the preferred system of weights and measures for trade and
commerce, federal laws have yet to mandate SI as the oficial system, making its use
still primarily voluntary. Several U.S. agencies, including the American National Metric
Council (ANMC) and the United States Metric Association (USMA), are working to establish SI as the oficial measurement system, a process known as metrication. Though
the architectural, engineering, and building trades have been slow to make a full transition, nearly all federally funded building projects are now required to be in SI units.
UNITS OF MEASURE: CUSTOMARY UNIT DATA
Customary units may be shown in a number of ways, including as fractions (11/2”) or as decimals
(1.5” or 0.125’), depending on the more common usage for a particular situation. It should be
noted that, though not the case here, exponents can be used with abbreviations that designate
area or volume; for example, 100 ft.2 for area or 100 ft.3 for volume.
Linear Equivalents
Customary Unit
of Measure
Relation to Other
Customary Units
inch (in. or “)
1/12
foot (ft. or ‘)
12 in.
1/3 yd.
yard (yd.)
36 in.
3 ft.
rod (rd.), pole, or perch
chain
furlong
mile (mi.), statute
mile (mi.), nautical
108
108
Area Equivalents
ft.
16 1/2 ft.
5 1/2 yd.
4 rd.
22 yd.
Customary Unit
of Measure
square inch (sq. in.)
0.007 (1/142) sq. ft.
square foot (sq. ft.)
144 sq. in.
square yard (sq. yd.)
1,296 sq. in.
9 sq. ft.
square pole
30 1/4 sq. yd.
220 yd. or 40 rd.
or 10 chains or 1/8 mi.
5,280 ft. or 1,760 yd.
or 8 furlongs
2,025 yd.
THE ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE
REFERENCE ++ SPECIFICATION
SPECIFICATION BOOK
BOOK
THE
Relation to Other
Customary Units
acre
43,560 sq. ft.
40 rd. (1 furlong) x 4 rd. (1 chain)
square mile (sq. mi.)
640 acres
10
Fraction to Decimal Equivalents
Fraction
Decimal
1/32
0.03125
1/16
0.0625
3/32
0.0938
METRIC CONVERSION
Conversion Factors for Length
Customary
Metric
1 in.
25.4 mm
1/ 8
0.1250
1 ft.
0.304 8 m or 304.8 mm
5/32
0.1563
1 yd.
0.914 4 m
3/16
0.1875
1 mi.
1.609 344 km
7/32
0.2188
1/ 4
0.2500
9/32
0.2813
5/16
0.3125
11/32
0.3438
3/ 8
13/32
7/16
15/32
Customary
Metric
1 sq. in.
645.16 mm2
0.3750
1 sq. ft.
0.092 903 m2
0.4063
1 sq. yd.
0.836 127 m2
0.4375
1 acre
0.404 686 ha or 4 046.86 m2
1 sq. mi.
2.590 00 km2
0.4688
1/ 2
0.5000
17/32
0.5313
9/16
0.5625
19/32
0.5938
5/8
0.6250
Metric
21/32
Conversion Factors for Length
Customary
0.6563
1 micrometer (µm)
0.0000394 in. or 0.03937 mils
11/16
0.6875
1 mm
0.0393701 in.
23/32
0.7188
1m
3.28084 ft. or 1.09361 yd.
3/ 4
0.7500
1 km
0.621371 mi.
25/32
0.7813
13/16
0.8125
27/32
0.8438
7/ 8
0.8750
Metric
Customary
29/32
0.9063
1 mm2
0.001550 sq. in.
15/16
0.9375
31/32
0.9688
1/ 1
1.0000
Conversion Factors for Area
1m
2
10.7639 sq. ft. or 1.19599 sq. yd.
1 ha
1 km
2.47105 acres
2
0.368102 sq. mi.
Measurement and Geometr y
109
10
UNITS OF MEASURE: SI METRIC UNIT DATA
The General Conference on Weights and Measures (abbreviated to CGPM from the French Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures), which meets every four years concerning issues related
to the use of the metric system, has established speciic rules for use, type style, and punctuation of metric units. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)—formerly the
National Bureau of Standards (NBS)—determines metric usage in the United States. Millimeters
are the preferred unit for dimensioning buildings, with no symbol necessary if they are used
consistently. Meters and kilometers are reserved for larger dimensions such as land surveying
and transportation.
Unit names and symbols employ standard, lowercase type, except for symbols derived from
proper names (for example, N for newton). Another exception is L for liter, to avoid confusing the
lowercase l with the numeral 1. Preixes describing multiples and submultiples are also lowercase,
except for M, G, and T (mega-, giga-, and tera-), which are capitalized in symbol form to avoid confusion with unit symbols, but which maintain the lowercase standard when spelled out. No space is
left between the preix and the letter for the unit name (mm for millimeter and mL for milliliter). A
space is left between the numeral and the unit name or symbol; for example, 300 mm.
Linear Metric Equivalents
Millimeters
(mm)
Centimeters
(cm)
Decimeters
(dm)
Meters
(m)
Decameters
(dam)
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
10
1
0.1
0.01
Hectometers
(hm)
Kilometers
(km)
0.000 1
0.000 01
0.000 001
0.001
0.000 1
0.000 01
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000 1
1 000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
10 000
1 000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
100 000
10 000
1 000
100
10
1
0.1
1 000 000
100 000
10 000
1 000
100
10
1
Area Metric Equivalents
Square
Millimeters
(mm2)
Square
Centimeters
(cm2)
Square
Decimeters
(dm2)
Ares
Hectares
(ha)
1
0.0 1
0.001
0.000 001
100
1
0.01
0.000 1
0.000 001
10 000
100
1
0.01
0.000 1
0.000 001
1 000 000
110
Square
Meters
(m2)
Square
Kilometers
(km2)
10 000
100
1
0.01
0.000 1
0.000 001
1 000 000
10 000
100
1
0.01
0.000 1
1 000 000
10 000
100
1
0.01
1 000 000
10 000
100
1
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
10
Although the United States and Canada mark the decimal with a point, other countries use a
comma (for example: 5,00 vs. 5.00). For this reason, commas should not be used to separate
groups of digits. Instead, the digits should be separated into groups of three, both to the left
and the right of the decimal point, with a space between each group of three digits (for example,
1,000,000 is written as 1 000 000). This convention for metric units is used throughout the book.
Units with Compound Names
Physical Quantity
Unit
Symbol
Area in Metrics
Area
square meter
m2
Volume
cubic meter
m3
Density
kilogram per cubic meter
kg/m3
Velocity
meter per second
m/s
SI metric units for area, like
volume, are derived from the
base units for length. They are
expressed as powers of the base
unit: for example, square meter
= m2 = 106 mm2.
Angular velocity
radian per second
rad/s
Acceleration
meter per second squared
m/s2
Angular acceleration
radian per second squared
rad/s2
Volume rate of flow
cubic meter per second
m3/s
Moment of inertia
kilogram meter squared
kg m2
Moment of force
newton meter
Nm
Intensity of heat flow
watt per square meter
W/m2
Thermal conductivity
watt per meter kelvin
W/m K
Luminance
candela per square meter
cd/m2
The square centimeter is not a
recommended unit for construction and should be converted to
square millimeters.
The hectare is acceptable only
in the measurement of land
and water.
When area is expressed by linear
dimensions, such as 50 x 100 mm,
the width is written irst and the
depth or height second.
SOFT AND HARD CONVERSIONS
Conversions of customary and SI units can be either “soft” or “hard.” In a soft conversion,
12 inches equals 305 millimeters (already rounded up from 304.8). In a hard conversion of this
same number, 12 inches would equal 300 millimeters, which makes for a cleaner and more
rational equivalency. This is the ultimate goal of total metrication within the building trades.
The process, however, is an extensive one, which will require many building products whose
planning grid is in customary units to undergo a hard metric conversion of their own, making 6
inches equal 150 millimeters (instead of 152) and 24 inches equal 600 millimeters (instead of
610). Thus, to conform to a rational metric grid, the actual sizes of standard products such as
drywall, bricks, and ceiling tiles will need to change.
Every attempt has been made in this book to represent accurately the relationship between
customary and SI units. Except where noted, soft conversions are used throughout and, due
to constraints of space, are usually written as follows: 1’-6” (457).
Measurement and Geometr y
111
10
METRIC CONVERSION
Feet and Meters Scale
Inches and Millimeters Scale (1:1)
152.4 mm
6”
304.8 mm
12”
150 mm
➔
300 mm
11 13/16”
140 mm
130 mm
5”
290 mm
127.0 mm
11”
120 mm
4”
100 mm
260 mm
101.6 mm
250 mm
240 mm
80 mm
9”
76.2 mm
70 mm
50 mm
8”
50.8 mm
203.2 mm
200 mm
7 7/8”
190 mm
30 mm
25.4 mm
7”
20 mm
180 mm
160 mm
6”
150 mm
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
177.8 mm
170 mm
10 mm
112
228.6 mm
210 mm
40 mm
1”
230 mm
220 mm
60 mm
2”
254.0 mm
10”
90 mm
3”
279.4 mm
270 mm
110 mm
3 15/16”
280 mm
152.4 mm
10
165’
82.0’
25 m
50 m
164.0’
160’
80’
45.7 m
150’
70’
45 m
147.6’
20 m
65.6’
140’
60’
131.2’
40 m
15.2 m
50’
130’
15 m
49.2’
40’
120’
35 m
32.8’
10 m
114.8’
110’
30’
30.5 m
20’
100’
30 m
96.4’
16.4’
5m
15’
10’
90’
5’
25 m
82.0’
0
0
Feet
Inches
1
12
2
24
3
36
4
48
5
60
6
72
7
84
8
96
9
108
10
120
11
132
12
144
13
156
14
168
15
180
16
192
17
204
18
216
19
228
20
240
21
252
22
264
23
276
24
288
25
300
26
312
27
324
28
336
29
348
30
360
31
372
32
384
33
396
34
408
35
420
80’
Measurement and Geometr y
113
10
SLOPES AND PERCENTAGE GRADE
Note: Entries in blue indicate frequently used slopes. Slopes gentler than 1:20 do not require handrails; 1:12 is
the maximum ADA-approved slope for ramps and 1:8 is the maximum code-approved slope for ramps (non-ADA).
Degrees
114
Gradient % Grade
Degrees
Gradient % Grade
Degrees
Gradient % Grade
0.1
1:573.0
0.2
23.0
1:2.4
42.4
57.0
1: 0.6
154.0
0.2
1:286.5
0.3
24.0
1:2.2
44.5
58.0
1: 0.6
160.0
0.3
1:191.0
0.5
25.0
1:2.1
46.6
59.0
1: 0.6
166.4
0.4
1:143.2
0.7
26.0
1:2.1
48.8
60.0
1: 0.6
173.2
0.5
1:114.6
0.9
27.0
1:2.0
51.0
61.0
1: 0.6
180.4
0.6
1:95.5
1.0
28.0
1:1.9
53.2
62.0
1: 0.5
188.1
0.7
1:81.8
1.2
29.0
1:1.8
55.4
63.0
1: 0.5
196.2
0.8
1:71.6
1.4
30.0
1:1.7
57.7
64.0
1: 0.5
205.0
0.9
1:63.7
1.6
31.0
1:1.7
60.1
65.0
1: 0.5
214.5
1.0
1:57.3
1.7
32.0
1:1.6
62.5
66.0
1: 0.4
224.6
2.0
1:28.6
3.5
33.0
1:1.5
64.9
67.0
1: 0.4
235.6
2.86
1:20.0
5.0
34.0
1:1.5
67.5
68.0
1: 0.4
247.5
3.0
1:19.1
5.2
35.0
1:1.4
70.0
69.0
1: 0.4
260.5
4.0
1:14.3
7.0
36.0
1:1.4
72.7
70.0
1: 0.4
274.7
4.76
1:12.0
8.3
37.0
1:1.3
75.4
71.0
1: 0.3
290.4
5.0
1:11.4
8.7
38.0
1:1.3
78.1
72.0
1: 0.3
307.8
6.0
1:9.5
10.5
39.0
1:1.2
81.0
73.0
1: 0.3
327.1
7.0
1:8.1
12.3
40.0
1:1.2
83.9
74.0
1: 0.3
348.7
7.13
1:8.0
12.5
41.0
1:1.2
86.9
75.0
1: 0.3
373.2
8.0
1:7.1
14.1
42.0
1:1.1
90.0
76.0
1: 0.2
401.1
9.0
1:6.3
15.8
43.0
1:1.1
93.3
77.0
1: 0.2
433.1
10.0
1:5.7
17.6
44.0
1:1.0
96.6
78.0
1: 0.2
470.5
11.0
1:5.1
19.4
45.0
1:1.0
100.0
79.0
1: 0.2
514.5
12.0
1:4.7
21.3
46.0
1:1.0
103.6
80.0
1: 0.2
567.1
13.0
1:4.3
23.1
47.0
1: 0.9
107.2
81.0
1: 0.2
631.4
14.0
1:4.0
24.9
48.0
1: 0.9
111.1
82.0
1: 0.1
711.5
15.0
1:3.7
26.8
49.0
1: 0.9
115.0
83.0
1: 0.1
814.4
16.0
1:3.5
28.7
50.0
1: 0.8
119.2
84.0
1: 0.1
951.4
17.0
1:3.3
30.6
51.0
1: 0.8
123.5
85.0
1: 0.1
1,143.0
18.0
1:3.1
32.5
52.0
1: 0.8
128.0
86.0
1: 0.1
1,430.1
19.0
1:2.9
34.4
53.0
1: 0.8
132.7
87.0
1: 0.1
1,908.1
20.0
1:2.7
36.4
54.0
1: 0.7
137.6
88.0
1: 0.0
2,863.6
21.0
1:2.6
38.4
55.0
1: 0.7
142.8
89.0
1: 0.0
5,729.0
22.0
1:2.5
40.4
56.0
1: 0.7
148.3
90.0
1: 0.0
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10
Calculating Slope Degrees:
Slope =
Vertical Rise Distance (V)
= tangent m
Horizontal Distance (H)
Slope Angle = tangent m
Calculating Gradient:
= 1 unit in
Vertical Distance (V)
= 100 x Tangent (Slope) or 100 x V/H
90°
Calculating % Grade:
Horizontal Distance (H)
45
°
60
°
∞
0%
10
%
Vertical Distance (V)
90
%
80
°
30
%
70
%
60
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
15
20
Horizontal Distance (H)
Measurement and Geometr y
115
10
PLANE FIGURE FORMULAS
Rectangle
Equilateral Triangle
(all sides equal)
a
cc
a
b
h
a
area = ab
perimeter = 2(a+b)
a2 + b2 = c2
a
area = a2! 3 = 0.433 a2
4
perimeter = 3a
Parallelogram
a
h = 2 !3 = 0.866a
Triangle
b
a
h
h
U
area = ah = ab sinU
perimeter = 2(a+b)
b
bh
area = 2
perimeter = sum of length of all sides
Trapezium
Trapezoid
(irregular quadrilateral)
b
c
d
b
h
h
e
a
h1
g
f
a
area = (a+b)
h
2
perimeter = sum of length of sides
area = (h + h1) g + eh + fh1
2
perimeter = sum of length of all sides
Quadrilateral
or
h
dd22 U
d1
2
b
h
3
area = bh2 + bh3
2
2
area = d1d2 sinU
2
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(Divide igure into two triangles and add
their areas together.)
10
VOLUMES
Regular Polygons
(all sides equal)
a
Prism or Cylinder (right or
oblique, regular or irregular)
volume = area of base x altitude
R
r
Altitude (h) =
distance between
parallel bases,
measured
perpendicular to the
bases. When bases
are not parallel,
then altitude =
perpendicular
distance from one
base to the center
U
of the other.
h
n = number of sides
nR2 sin 2U
nar
area =
= nr2 tan U =
2
2
perimeter = n a
h
Polygon
Sides
Pyramid or Cone (right or
oblique, regular or irregular)
Area
Triangle (equilateral)
3
0.4330 a2
Square
4
1.0000 a2
Pentagon
5
1.7205 a2
Hexagon
6
2.5981 a
2
Heptagon
7
3.6339 a2
Octagon
8
4.8284 a2
Nonagon
9
6.1818 a2
Decagon
10
7.6942 a2
Undecagon
11
9.3656 a2
Dodecagon
12
11.1962 a2
h
volume = area of base x 1/3
altitude
Altitude (h) =
h
distance from
base to apex,
measured
perpendicular
to base.
h
h
Measurement and Geometr y
117
10
CIRCLE
c
a
m
circumference = 2 p r = p d = 3.14159 d
U
2
area = pr2 = p d = 0.78539d2
4
p
length of arc a = U 180 r = 0.017453 U r
r
2
r=
d
m2 + c /4
c/2
=
2m
sin 1/2U
c = 2!2 mr – m2 = 2 r sin 1/2U
a = arc
r = radius
d = diameter
c = cord
m = distance
U = degrees
p = 3.14159
2
2
m = r +_ !r – c
4
use + if arc >_ 180˚
use – if arc < 180˚
D
A
C
U
A
C
r
U
B
Sector of Circle
arc length AC =
prU
180
pU r2
360
or
area ABCA =
arc length AC x r
2
118
118
2
3
B
area ABCA =
r
1
Segment of Circle
Circular Zone
area ACDA =
pU – sinU
r2
x
2
180
area 2 =
circle area – area 1
– area 3
r = radius
U = degrees
A, B, C, D = points
p = 3.14159
1 = segment
2 = zone
3 = segment
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ELLIPSE
A
perimeter (approximate) =
p [1.5 (x + y) – !x y]
B
y
(Assume point G is the center point
of the ellipse, with x,y coordinates
of 0,0, and point B coordinates of Bx
and By.)
G
[BG-22-MS.live]
d
area ABFEA =
(Bx x By) + ab sin-1 (Bx /a)
F
E
x
D
DOUBLE-CURVED SOLIDS
Sphere
Ellipsoid
volume =
R
4 p R3
3
surface = 4 p R2
a
Segment of Sphere
C
volume =
b
R
p b2 (3R–b)
3
(sector – cone)
b
surface = 2 p R b
c
volume =
Sector of Sphere
p abc
6
surface = no simple equation
C
volume =
b
R
2p R2 b
3
surface = p R(4b + C)
2
(segment + cone)
Measurement
Measurements
and Geometr
119
y
119
11
Chapter 11: Architectural Drawing Types
An architect uses eight basic drawing types within the drawing set to most completely
describe the design of a building.
PLAN
View of the horizontal planes of
the building, showing their relationship to each other. A plan
is a horizontal section, typically
depicting the building as though
cut approximately 3’-0” (915)
from its loor.
SECTION
View of a vertical cut through the building’s components. A section acts as a vertical plan and
often contains elevational information, such as doors and windows. This information is shown
with a lighter line weight than the section cuts.
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11
ELEVATION
View of the vertical planes of the building, showing their relationship to each other. An elevation
is viewed perpendicularly from a selected plane.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL REPRESENTATIONS
Perspectives (not scaled), axonometrics, and isometrics describe the building or space in a way
that conventional plans, elevations, and sections cannot. Perspectives are particularly effective in
producing a view that would actually be experienced by being in the space designed.
Architectural Drawing Types
121
11
READING THE DRAWING SET
Drawing Symbols
Symbols and reference markers are necessary for navigating the drawing set. They tell whoever
is looking at a drawing where to go to ind out more information about certain elements.
DET
SHT
DET
SHT
building
section
wall or
detail section
DET
SHT
detail section
(nondirectional)
DET
SHT
partition type
north arrow
column grid
and bubbles
enlarged
detail reference
DET
SHT
centerline
FIRST FLOOR
EL.
elevation target
drawing
label
DET
SHT
DET
SHT
First Floor Plan
exterior elevation
graphic
scale
interior elevation
break line
OFFICE
room name and
room number
ceiling height
revision
cloud and number
window number
spot elevation
align note
door number
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ALIGN
11
Floor Plans
Overall building plans are usually drawn at
a scale that enables one to see the whole
plan. Most elements of the overall plan are
keyed to other drawings in the set, as in the
case of larger-scale plans, details, sections,
and elevations. Some information may be
keyed and cross-referenced among multiple
drawings. Keys shown on the plan below
reappear on the drawings to follow.
CARPORT
DRIVEWAY
BENCH
KITCHEN
PATIO
LIVING
POOL
BATH
BED
ROOM
PATIO
BED
ROOM
First Floor Plan
Architectural Drawing Types
123
11
Building Elevations
Building elevations depict the exterior conditions of the building, describing materials and important vertical dimensions. In instances where a drawing is too large to it on a standard sheet, it
must be broken apart and continued on the same sheet or another sheet, requiring the use of
match lines for alignment.
T.O. ROOF
FIRST FLOOR
POOL
PRECAST
CONC.
PANELS
West Elevation
T.O. ROOF
FIRST FLOOR
POOL
East Elevation
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PRECAST
CONC.
PANELS
MATCH
LINE
MATCH
LINE
MATCH
LINE
T.O. ROOF
MATCH
LINE
11
FIRST FLOOR
POOL
MATCH
LINE
MATCH
LINE
North Elevation (Partial)
CHANNEL
GLASS
PRECAST
CONC.
PANELS
MATCH
LINE
MATCH
LINE
PRECAST
CONC.
PANELS
North Elevation (Partial)
EXTERIOR
BUILDING
ELEVATIONS
Architectural Drawing Types
125
11
Doors and most
windows do not
appear on an RCP,
but their headers
do.
Reflected Ceiling Plans
Relected ceiling plans (RCPs)
may be thought of as upside-down
loor plans, for they are literally a
plan of the ceiling. They are used
to describe light ixture placement
and types, ceiling heights and materials, and anything else found
on the ceiling plane. RCPs employ
standard keys and symbols as
well as some speciic to the ceiling plan.
Site information
is not present
on an RCP (unless it happens
overhead).
KITCHEN
Light ixtures often bear tags that
refer to their descriptions in the
lighting speciications.
return-air
diffuser
CARPORT
2 x 4 luorescent
GWB
supply-air
diffuser
2 x 2 recessed
luorescent
Elevation
markers call out
the height and
material of the
ceiling planes.
LIVING
smoke
detector
luorescent pendant
BATH
WOOD SOFFIT
smoke
detector w/
audible
device
decorative pendant
ADA light/
speaker
BED
ROOM
ceiling-mounted
exit sign
wall-mounted
exit sign
recessed
wall washer
PLYWOOD
recessed downlight
BED
ROOM
ceiling
sprinkler
head
wall sconce
wall
sprinkler head
Mylar-coated ACT
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Relected Ceiling Plan
11
Interior Elevations
Interior elevations are drawn at a larger scale than the overall building plans, allowing for more
details, notes, and dimensions to be represented. Keyed from the building plan, interior elevations are, in turn, keyed to other, larger-scale views, such as section and plan details of cabinetry
construction and wall sections.
PLYWOOD
PANELS
CHANNEL
GLASS WALL
BOOKSHELVES
SLIDING DOOR
ON SSTL TRACK
HARDWOOD
SHELVING/ROOM
DIVIDER UNITS
CURTAIN ON TRACK
Bedroom
Details
Details are drawn at scales such as
1 1/2” = 1’-0”, 3”= 1’-0”, 6”= 1’-0”, and
sometimes even at full scale, and
are keyed from and to numerous
other drawings.
PLYWOOD
PANELS
SLIDING DOOR
ON SSTL TRACK
HARDWOOD
SHELVING/ROOM
DIVIDER UNITS
Bedroom Shelving
Architectural Drawing Types
127
11
THREE-DIMENSIONAL DRAWINGS
Paraline Drawings
Paraline drawings are projected pictorial representations of the three-dimensional qualities of an
object. These drawings can be classiied as orthographic projections, with a rotated plan view
and a tilted side view. They are also commonly referred to as axonometric or axiometric drawings.
Unlike in perspective drawings, the projection lines in a paraline drawing remain parallel instead
of converging to a point on the horizon.
side
side
back
plan
Unfolded Object
front
Oblique
Isometric
In an oblique drawing, one face (either plan
or elevation) is drawn directly on the picture
plane. Projected lines are drawn at a 30- or
45-degree angle to the picture plane. The
length of the projecting lines is determined
as shown in the diagrams opposite.
An isometric drawing is a special type of
dimetric drawing, where all axes of the object are
simultaneously rotated away from the
picture plane and kept at the same angle
(30 degrees) of projection. All legs are equally
distorted in length and maintain an exact
1:1:1 proportion.
Dimetric
A dimetric drawing is similar to an oblique
drawing, except that the object is rotated
so that only one corner touches the picture
plane.
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Trimetric
A trimetric drawing is similar to a dimetric drawing, except that the plan of the object is rotated
so that the two exposed sides are not at equal
angles to the picture plane.
11
A
A
A
30°
45°
45°
30°
A
A
A
30º Oblique
45º Oblique
A
A
15°
15°
A
A
45°
A
45°
30°
A
15º Dimetric
45º Dimetric
A
A
30°
Isometric
(30º Dimetric)
30°
A
A
60°
30°
30°
A
A
Trimetric
Architectural Drawing Types
129
11
Two-Point Common Method Perspective
Station Point (SP): Locates the ixed position of the viewer.
Picture Plane (PP): Flat, two-dimensional surface that records the projected perspective image
and aligns perpendicular to the viewer’s center of vision. The picture plane is the only true-size
plane in the perspective ield: Objects behind the picture plane project to its surface smaller than
true scale, whereas those between the viewer and the picture plane project to its surface larger
than true scale.
Measuring Line (ML): Located on the picture plane, the measuring line is the only true-scale line
in a perspective drawing. Most commonly, this is a vertical line from which can be projected the
key vertical dimensions of the object.
Horizon Line (HL): Lies at the intersection of the picture plane and a horizontal plane through the
eye of the viewer.
Vanishing Point: Point at which parallel lines appear to meet in perspective. The left (vpL) and
right (vpR) vanishing points for an object are determined by the points at which a set of lines
originating from the station point and parallel to the object lines intersect the picture plane.
Ground Line (GL): Lies at the intersection of the picture plane and the ground plane.
pl
an
PP
ML
SP
HL
vpL
GL
elevation
130
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vpR
11
One-Point Common Method Perspective
One-point perspectives use a single vanishing point, and all edges and planes that are perpendicular to the picture plane vanish toward this point. To locate this point (C), draw a vertical line from
the station point to the horizon line. Building edges that are parallel to the picture plane appear
as parallel lines in perspective, with no vanishing point.
PP
SP
Picture Frame
Projections occurring
in front of the picture
frame will appear
distorted. As the station
point moves closer to
the picture plane, the
ield of vision decreases.
As the station point
moves farther from the
picture plane, the ield
of vision increases.
HL
C
GL
Basic GeometrArchitectural
y and Drawing
Projections
Drawing
Types
131
131
12
Chapter 12: Architectural Documents
THE PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE
To speak an architectural language is to do many things: It could involve the art of
form and style or the more prosaic aspects of contract administration. Architecture
and its practice move, sometimes with effort, among realms not only of art, science,
and engineering, but also of business, economics, and sociology. All professional
groups speak their own language to some extent. To their written and spoken language
architects add drawings and symbols, organizing them into accepted standards of
presentation and legibility. As with good manners, the point of these standards is not
to complicate but to ease communication and interaction.
Most countries have a governing body in architectural practice—in the United States it
is the American Institute of Architects (AIA)—which oversees ethics and professional
conduct and establishes guidelines for issues ranging from project delivery schedules
to contracts and legal documents. The architect who has complete mastery of every
aspect of the multiple personalities of architectural practice may be rare. However,
all responsible practicing architects are compelled to understand the business of the
profession, because the art of architecture depends on the practice of getting it built.
COMMON PROJECT TERMS
Addendum: Written information that clariies or modiies the bidding documents,
often issued during the bidding process.
Alternate: Additional design or material options added to the construction documents
and/or speciications to obtain multiple
possible cost estimates for a project.
“Add-alternates” imply added material and
cost; “deduct-alternates” imply removal of
certain elements to lower the project cost,
as necessary.
ANSI: American National Standards
Institute.
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As-built drawings: Contract drawings
that have been marked up to relect any
changes to a project during construction,
differentiating them from the bid documents. Also known as record drawings.
Bid: Offer of a proposal or a price. When a
project is “put out to bid,” contractors are
asked to submit their estimates as to the
time and the cost of a project.
Building permit: Written document issued
by the appropriate government authority
permitting the construction of a speciic
project in accordance with the drawings
and speciications that the authority has
approved.
12
Certificate of occupancy: Document issued by the appropriate local governmental
agency, stating that a building or property
meets local standards for occupancy and is
in compliance with public health and building codes.
Change order: Written document between
and signed by the owner and the contractor authorizing a change in the work, or an
adjustment in the contract sum or length
of time. Architects and engineers may also
sign a change order, but only if authorized (in
writing) by the owner to do so.
Charrette: Intensive design process for solving an architectural problem quickly; often
undertaken by students of architecture, but
also employed by professionals in various
stages of the design process. The instructors of the École des Beaux Arts in Paris
would use a charrette, French for “small
wooden cart,” for collecting the design work
of the students after such a process.
Construction cost: Direct contractor costs
for labor, material, equipment, and services,
as well as overhead and proit. Excluded
from construction cost are fees for architects, engineers, consultants, costs of land,
or any other items that, by deinition of the
contract, are the responsibility of the owner.
Construction management: Organization
and direction of the labor force, materials, and equipment to build the project as
designed by the architect.
Construction management contract:
Written agreement giving responsibility for
coordination and accomplishment of overall
project planning, design, and construction to a construction management irm or
individual, called the construction manager
(CM).
Consultant: Professional hired by the owner
or architect to provide information and to
advise the project in the area of his or her
expertise.
Contract administration: Contractual duties
and responsibilities of the architect and
engineer during a project’s construction.
Contract over- (or under-) run: Difference
between the original contract price and the
inal completed cost, including all change
order adjustments.
Contractor: Licensed individual or company
that agrees to perform the work as speciied, with the appropriate labor, equipment,
and materials.
Date of substantial completion: Date
certiied by the architect when the work is to
be completed.
Design-build construction: Arrangement
wherein a contractor bids or negotiates to
provide design and construction services for
the entire project.
Estimating: Calculation of the amount of
material, labor, and equipment needed to
complete a given project.
Fast-track construction: Method of construction management in which construction work begins before completion of the
construction documents, resulting in a
continuous design-construction situation.
FF&E: Moveable furniture, ixtures, or equipment that do not require permanent connection to the structure or utilities of a building.
Architectural Documents
133
12
Field order: Written order calling for a clariication or minor change in the construction
work and not involving any adjustment to the
terms of the contract.
Project directory: Written list of names and
addresses of all parties involved in a project, including the owner, architect, engineer,
and contractor.
General contractor: Licensed individual
or company with prime responsibility for
the work.
Project manager: Qualiied individual or irm
authorized by the owner to be responsible
for coordinating time, equipment, money,
tasks, and people for all or portions of a
project.
Indirect cost: Expenses that are not
chargeable to a speciic project or task,
such as overhead.
Inspection list: List prepared by the owner
or authorized owner’s representative of work
items requiring correction or completion by
the contractor; generally done at the end of
construction. Also called a punch list.
NIBS: National Institute of Building
Sciences.
Owner-architect agreement: Written contract between the architect and client for
professional architectural services.
Parti: Central idea governing and organizing a work of architecture, from the French
partir “to depart with the intention of going
somewhere.”
Program: Desired list of spaces, rooms, and
elements, as well as their sizes, for use in
designing the building.
Progress schedule: Line diagram showing
proposed and actual starting and completion times in a project.
Project cost: All costs for a speciic project,
including those for land, professionals, construction, furnishings, ixtures, equipment,
inancing, and any other project-related
expenses.
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Project manual: Detailed written speciications describing acceptable construction
materials and methods.
Request for Information (RFI): Written
request from a contractor to the owner or
architect for clariication of the contract
documents.
Request for Proposal (RFP): Written request
to a contractor, architect, or subcontractor
for an estimate or cost proposal.
Schedule: Plan for performing work; also, a
chart or table within the drawing set.
Scheme: Chart, diagram, or outline of a
system being proposed.
Scope of work: Written range of view or action for a speciic project.
Shop drawings: Drawings, diagrams, schedules, and other data specially prepared by
the contractor or a subcontractor, subsubcontractor, manufacturer, supplier, or
distributor to illustrate some portion of the
work being done. These drawings show the
speciic way in which the particular contractor or shop intends to furnish, fabricate, assemble, or install its products. The architect
is obligated by the owner-architect agreement to review and approve these drawings
or to take other appropriate action.
12
Site: Location of a structure or group of
structures.
Soft costs: Expenses in addition to the direct construction cost, including architectural and engineering fees, permits, legal and
inancing fees, construction interest and
operating expenses, leasing and real estate
commissions, advertising and promotion,
and supervision. Soft costs and construction costs add up to the project cost.
Zoning: Restrictions of areas or regions of
land within speciic areas based on permitted building size, character, and uses as
established by governing urban authorities.
Zoning permit: Document issued by a
governing urban authority that permits land
to be used for a speciic purpose.
Standards of professional practice: Listing
of minimum acceptable ethical principals
and practices adopted by qualiied and recognized professional organizations to guide
their members in the conduct of speciic
professional practice.
Structural systems: Load-bearing assembly
of beams and columns on a foundation.
Subcontractor: Specialized contractor
who is subordinate to the prime or main
contractor.
Substitution: Proposed replacement or
alternate for a material or process of
equivalent cost and quality.
Tenant improvements (TIs): Interior improvements of a project after the building
envelope is complete.
Time and materials (T&M): Written agreement wherein payment is based on actual
costs for labor, equipment, materials, and
services rendered, in addition to overhead.
Value engineering (VE): Process of analyzing the cost versus the value of alternative
materials, equipment, and systems, usually
in the interest of achieving the lowest total
cost for a project.
Architectural Documents
135
12
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)—based on one square meter
Architectural
ANSI (American National
Standards Institute)
COMMON PAPER SIZES
136
SHEET FOLDING
Paper Size
Inches
Millimeters
ANSI-A
8 1/2 x 11
216 x 279
ANSI-B
11 x 17
279 x 432
ANSI-C
17 x 22
432 x 559
ANSI-D
22 x 34
559 x 864
ANSI-E
34 x 44
864 x 1 118
Paper Size
Inches
Millimeters
Arch-A
9 x 12
229 x 305
Arch-B
12 x 18
305 x 457
Arch-C
18 x 24
457 x 610
Arch-D
24 x 36
610 x 914
Arch-E
36 x 48
914 x 1 219
Paper Size
Inches
Millimeters
4A0
66 1/4 x 93 3/8
1 682 x 2 378
2A0
46 3/4 x 66 1/4
1 189 x 1 682
A0
33 1/8 x 46 3/4
841 x 1 189
A1
23 3/8 x 33 1/8
594 x 841
A2
16 1/2 x 23 3/8
420 x 594
A3
11 3/4 x 16 1/2
297 x 420
A4
8 1/4 x 11 3/4
210 x 297
Paper Size
Inches
Millimeters
B0
39 3/8 x 55 5/8
1 000 x 1 414
B1
27 7/8 x 39 3/8
707 x 1 000
B2
19 5/8 x 27 7/8
500 x 707
B3
13 7/8 x 19 5/8
353 x 500
B4
9 7/8 x 13 7/8
250 x 353
Paper Size
Inches
Millimeters
C0
36 1/8 x 51
917 x 1 297
C1
25 1/2 x 36 1/8
648 x 917
C2
18 x 25 1/2
458 x 648
C3
12 3/4 x 18
324 x 458
C4
9 x 12 1/2
229 x 324
MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS
Individual sheets that must be folded (for reasons of ile storage or mailing) should be folded
in a logical and consistent manner that allows
the title and sheet number information to be
visible in the bottom-right corner of the folded
sheet. Large numbers of sheets are best bound
into sets and rolled for shipping or laid lat for
storage.
12
DRAWING SHEET LAYOUT AND SET ASSEMBLY
In the NIBS Standard sheet layout (in accordance with the National CAD Standard), drawings
within a sheet are numbered by coordinate system modules as described below. The graphic or
text information modules are known as drawing blocks and their numbers are established by the
coordinates for the bottom-left corner of their module. This system enables new drawing blocks
to be added to a sheet without having to renumber the existing blocks, saving considerable time
once drawings begin to be keyed to other drawings and schedules.
note block
(when
needed)
This edge is bound
with staples or post
binding and covered
with paper or tape.
D2
E5
A1
The title block may run vertically along the right edge or horizontally
along the bottom edge, but the location of the sheet number and
title remains in the bottom-right corner, enabling a quick glimpse of
all sheets when lipping through the set.
Architectural Documents
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DRAWING SET ORDER
Typical Order for Disciplines
Standards for the order of disciplines in the drawing set may vary within different ofices.
The order below is recommended by the Uniform Drawing System (UDS) to minimize confusion
among the many trades that will use the set. Note that most projects will not contain all the
disciplines listed here, and others might have need for additional, project-speciic disciplines.
Cover Sheet
Index Sheet(s)
H
Hazardous Materials
C
Civil
L
Landscape
S
Structural
A
Architectural
I
Interiors
Q
Equipment
F
Fire Protection
P
Plumbing
M
Mechanical
E
Electrical
T
Telecommunications
R
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Resource
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Typical Order for Sheets within the Architecture Discipline
A-0:
General
A-001
Notes and Symbols
A-1:
Architectural Floor Plans
A-101
A-102
A-103
A-104
A-105
A-106
A-107
First-Floor Plan
Second-Floor Plan
Third-Floor Plan
First-Floor RCP
Second-Floor RCP
Third-Floor RCP
Roof Plan
A-2:
Architectural Elevations
A-201
A-202
A-203
Exterior Elevations
Exterior Elevations
Interior Elevations
A-3:
Architectural Sections
A-301
A-302
A-303
Building Sections
Building Sections
Wall Sections
A-4:
Large-Scale Views
A-401
A-402
A-403
Enlarged Toilet Plans
Enlarged Plans
Stair and Elevator Plans and Sections
A-5:
Architectural Details
A-501
A-502
A-503
A-504
Exterior Details
Exterior Details
Interior Details
Interior Details
A-6:
Schedules and Diagrams
A-601
A-602
A-603
Partition Types
Room Finish Schedule
Door and Window Schedules
Architectural Documents
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DRAWING SET ABBREVIATIONS
When all drawings were done by hand, architectural lettering—an art form of its own—could
be tedious and time-consuming. As a result, architects and draftspersons abbreviated words.
Though many standards were created, they have not always been consistent and historically have
led to interpretive errors by contractors. CAD technology makes much shorter work of text production and arrangement and enables less frequent use of abbreviations. If space dictates that
abbreviations must be used, omit spaces or periods and capitalize all letters. Though variations
still exist, the following is a widely accepted list.
ACT: acoustical ceiling tile
ADD: additional
ADJ: adjustable
AFF: above inish loor
ALUM: aluminum
APPX: approximately
BD: board
BIT: bituminous
BLDG: building
BLK: block
BLKG: blocking
BM: beam
BOT: bottom
BC: brick course
BUR: built-up rooing
CB: catch basin
CBD: chalkboard
CI: cast iron
CIP: cast-in-place
CJ: control joint
CMU: concrete
masonry unit
CEM: cement
CLG: ceiling
CLR: clearance
CLO: closet
COL: column
COMP: compressible
CONC: concrete
CONST: construction
CONT: continuous
140
CPT: carpet
CRS: courses
CT: ceramic tile
CUB: column utility box
DF: drinking fountain
DET: detail
DIA: diameter
DN: down
DR: door
DWG: drawing
EA: each
ENC: enclosure
EJ: expansion joint
EL: elevation or electrical
ELEV: elevator
EQ: equal
EQUIP: equipment
ERD: emergency roof
drain
EWC: electric
water cooler
EXIST: existing
EXP: expansion
EXT: exterior
FE: ire extinguisher
FEC: ire extinguisher
cabinet
FHC: ire hose cabinet
FD: loor drain
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
FDN: foundation
FFT: inished
loor transition
FIN: inish
FLR: loor
FLUOR: luorescent
FOC: face of concrete
FOF: face of inish
FOM: face of masonry
FTG: footing
FIXT: ixture
FR: ire-rated
FT: feet
FUB: loor utility box
GA: gauge
GALV: galvanized
GC: general contractor
GL: glass
GWB: gypsum wallboard
GYP: gypsum
HC: hollow core or
handicap accessible
HDW: hardware
HM: hollow metal
HORIZ: horizontal
HP: high point
HGT: height
HTR: heater
HVAC: heating,
ventilating, and
air conditioning
12
IN: inch
INCAN: incandescent
INCL: including
INS: insulation
INT: interior
JAN: janitor
JC: janitor’s closet
JT: joint
LP: low point
LAM: laminated
LAV: lavatory
LINO: linoleum
LTG: lighting
MAT: material
MO: masonry opening
MAX: maximum
MECH: mechanical
MEMB: member
MFR: manufacturer
MIN: minimum
MISC: miscellaneous
MTL: metal
NIC: not in contract
NTS: not to scale
NO: number
OC: on center
OD: outside diameter
or overlow drain
OHD: overhead door
OHG: overhead grille
OPNG: opening
OPP: opposite
OPPH: opposite hand
PC: precast
PGL: plate glass
PTN: partition
PL: plate
PLAM: plastic laminate
PLUM: plumber
PTD: painted
PT: paint
PVC: polyvinyl chloride
QT: quarry tile
QTY: quantity
R: radius or riser
RA: return air
RD: roof drain
REG: register
RO: rough opening
REINF: reinforcing
REQD: required
RM: room
REV: revision or reverse
RSL: resilient looring
SC: solid core
SECT: section
SHT: sheet
SIM: similar
SPEC: speciications
STD: standard
SSTL: stainless steel
STL: steel
SUSP: suspended
SQ: square
STRUC: structural
STOR: storage
STA: station
T: tread
TBD: tackboard
TD: trench drain
THK: thickness
TEL: telephone
TO: top of
TOC: top of concrete
TOF: top of footing
TOR: top of rail
TOS: top of steel
TRT: treated
TOW: top of wall
TYP: typical
UNO: unless noted
otherwise
VCT: vinyl
composition tile
VERT: vertical
VIF: verify in ield
VP: veneer plaster
VWC: vinyl wall covering
W/: with
WD: wood
WC: water closet
WF: wide lange
WPR: waterprooing
W/O: without
WWF: welded wire fabric
WDW: window
WUB: wall utility box
&: and
<: angle
“: inch
‘: foot
@: at
CL: centerline
[ : channel
#: number
Ø: diameter
Architectural Documents
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12
PROJECT TIMELINE
Pre-design
Even before beginning the actual design
of a project, the architect may be asked to
perform the following tasks, alone or in conjunction with other consultants: site selection and evaluation, environmental analysis,
community participation, feasi-bility studies,
programming, cost analysis, and conceptual
design. It is not unusual for the architect
to do many of these services as a (paid or
unpaid) marketing effort, in anticipation of
varies
The information presented here is a
generalization of the phases and events
within a typical architectural project. It
does not attempt to account for all project
sizes and client types. The length of each
phase is a rough estimation for a normal,
medium-sized project, but the timeframes
can vary wildly. The expectations and duration of any of these phases are subject
to the stipulations of the project’s ownerarchitect agreement.
being awarded the project.
Competitions: Firms or individuals
submit a design for a speciied program
and site, for which a winner is chosen.
Competitions vary in form—they may be
paid or unpaid, open or invited—and do not
always result in a project being built.
Requests for Qualiications (RFQs):
A potential client asks architects to
submit their qualiications, sometimes
to a speciied format.
Requests for Proposal (RFPs): Similar to
RFQs, though often irms are speciically
asked to supply information about other
relevant projects they have completed.
Proposals may include a wide variety of
information types, including proposed budget and schedule, and sometimes
may require a design for the project.
Interviews: A potential client will want to
meet the architect, sometimes with his
or her prospective consultants. At this
meeting, the design team may be asked
to present a proposal for the project in
question.
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MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS
Major design ideas are proposed and
explored, including alternate schemes.
Drawings produced in this phase include
site plan, plans, elevations, and sections
suficient for cost estimation. SD often
requires multiple presentations to the client
for review and approval and can encompass
the production of perspectives, renderings,
and models to describe the design concept.
DD Design Development
The detailed development of the design
(as established in SD) results in a drawing set suitable for a more accurate cost
estimate. Coordination with consultants is
key in this phase to identify and address
potential problems before the design
has proceeded too far. Presentations to
the client turn more to these issues of
coordination and cost control and take into
account more speciic feedback about the
nature of rooms and spaces. The design
is documented inside and out, including
construction details, interior elevations,
schedules, and speciications, all of which
will be further reined in the CD phase.
6 months
In the competitive environment of
architecture, procuring a project can be
more time- and labor-intensive than getting
it built. Marketing takes many forms, but
common modes of obtaining work are:
3 months
SD Schematic Design
Marketing
12
CD Construction Documents
The CD set is the oficial documentation of the project and is distributed to
contractors for bids as well as to the building department and other oficials
for all necessary permits. The architect is responsible for assisting the client
in this process.
9 months
The “working drawing” phase of the project, in which every aspect of the
design is drawn to scale and appropriately speciied, is time- and energyintensive, and project teams usually grow larger to accommodate the work
involved. The design of the project must be well established by this point, and
most owner-architect agreements stipulate that any requests for major design
changes made after DD must be part of an “Additional Services” agreement,
to make up for the time it has taken to document the project to date.
A CD set contains, at a minimum, a site plan, loor plans, relected ceiling
plans, exterior and interior building elevations, building sections, wall sections
depicting construction detailing, interior details, door and window schedules,
equipment schedules (if applicable), inishes schedules, and written speciications, as well as the drawings of engineers and other consultants.
CA Construction Administration
Marketing
duration
durationofofconstruction
construction
Though the project is under construction,
the architect must still maintain control
over its outcome, both through regular
site visits, in which construction quality
is observed for its conformance with the
CD set, and by overseeing solutions to
unanticipated problems as they arise.
The architect must review shop drawings,
change orders, and requests for information from the contractor, always acting in
the best interest of the client and the budget. At the end of construction, the architect prepares the punch list and assists in
obtaining a Certiicate of Occupancy.
Once completed, the project
is photographed and documented. The architect may
submit it for publication in
any number of professional
magazines, include it in the
irm’s brochure, or post it
on the irm’s website. It now
serves as a marketing tool
for obtaining more projects,
and the process continues.
Architectural Documents
143
12
SPECIFICATIONS
Architectural speciications act as written instructions to the contractor and all parties
involved in the construction of a building. Speciications are part of the construction
document set, usually as a separate project manual. They provide detailed descriptions of the acceptable construction materials for all aspects of a building, from the
type and color of paint to the type and method of structural ireprooing. Speciication
writing is time-consuming and exacting work; it is most often undertaken by speciication writers or architects who specialize in the writing of speciications. Certiied spec
writers list the sufix CCS (Certiied Construction Speciier) after their name. A wellwritten set of specs is imperative to keep a project safe and on budget and to ensure
that the needs of both architect and owner have been met.
CSI MASTERFORMAT SYSTEM
The Construction Speciications Institute (CSI) was established in 1948 to bring order to the
post–World War II building boom. CSI governs standardization of speciication writing and formatting, and its Project Resource Manual (formerly the Manual of Practice, or MOP) is the industry
reference. Spec writers might avail themselves of prewritten master guide specs that serve as a
basis for many projects, or they might begin a set of specs entirely from scratch.
The CSI MasterFormat system has become the standard formatting system for nonresidential
building projects in the United States and Canada. It consists of a list of numbers and titles that
organize the information contained in the speciication project manual.
Division Numbering
0 0 0 0 0 0
Level One
Level Two
(division
number)
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Level Three
.0
0
Level Four
(separated by
a decimal point;
used only when the
amount of detail
warrants further
classiication)
12
MasterSpec Sample Section Pro Forma
SECTION NUMBER
SECTION TITLE
PART 1 - GENERAL
1.01
Summary
1.02
Price and Payment Procedures
1.03
References
1.04
Administrative Requirements
1.05
Submittals
1.06
Quality Assurance
1.07
Delivery, Storage, and Handling
1.08
Warranty
PART 2 - PRODUCTS
2.01
Manufacturig
2.02
Manufacturers and Products
2.03
Materials
2.04
Finishes
2.05
Accessories
PART 3 - INSTALLATION
3.01
Examination
3.02
Preparation
3.03
Erection
3.04
Field Quality Control
3.05
Adjusting
3.06
Cleaning
Architectural Drawing Types
145
12
CSI MasterFormat Division Titles
Reserved divisions provide space for future development and expansion, and CSI recommends
that users not appropriate these divisions for their own use.
PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS GROUP
00—Procurement and Contracting
SPECIFICATIONS GROUP
General Requirements
01—General Requirements
Facility Construction
02—Existing Conditions
03—Concrete
04—Masonry
05—Metals
06—Wood, Plastics, and Composites
07—Thermal and Moisture Protection
08—Openings
09—Finishes
10—Specialties
11—Equipment
12—Furnishings
13—Special Construction
14—Conveying Equipment
15—Reserved for future expansion
16—Reserved for future expansion
17—Reserved for future expansion
18—Reserved for future expansion
19—Reserved for future expansion
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Facility Services
20—Reserved
21—Fire Suppression
22—Plumbing
23—Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
24—Reserved
25—Integrated Automation
26—Electrical
27—Communications
28—Electronic Safety and Security
29—Reserved for future expansion
Site and Infrastructure
30—Reserved for future expansion
31—Earthwork
32—Exterior Improvements
33—Utilities
34—Transportation
35—Waterway and Marine Construction
36—Reserved
37—Reserved
38—Reserved
39—Reserved
Process Equipment
40—Process Integration
41—Material Processing and Handling Equipment
42—Process Heating, Cooling, and Drying Equipment
43—Process Gas and Liquid Handling, Puriication and Storage Equipment
44—Pollution and Waste Control Equipment
45—Industry-Speciic Manufacturing Equipment
46—Water and Wastewater Equipment
47—Reserved for future expansion
48—Electrical Power Generation
49—Reserved for future expansion
Architectural Documents
147
13
Chapter 13: Hand Drawing
Though rapidly being replaced by computer-aided drafting, hand drafting continues
to be used by some practitioners, and its principles can still be applied to computer
drawing. The practice of hand drafting employs a number of key instruments.
WORK SURFACE
45°/90° triangle
T-square
drafting surface
30°/60°/90°
triangle
parallel bar
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13
PAPERS AND BOARDS
Paper Type
Qualities
Format
Best Uses
Use for Overlay
Tracing paper
white, buff or
yellow; inexpensive
Rolls in multiple
sizes (12”, 18”, 24”,
36”, 48”); pads
sketch overlay;
layouts
yes
Vellum
oil-treated to
achieve
transparency
rolls, sheets,
and pads
pencil and
technical pen work;
overlay work
yes
Mylar
(drafting ilm)
nonabsorbent
polyester ilm
(1- and 2-sided)
rolls and sheets
pencil and tech.
pen work; ideal
for archival work
yes
Bond and
drawing papers
variety of weights,
textures, and
colors
rolls and sheets
smooth best for
pens; textured best
for pencils
no
Illustration board
high-quality white
rag afixed to board
large-scale sheet
sizes
inished work in
watercolor, pencil,
chalk, or pen
no
Chip board
variety of plies;
mostly gray
large-scale sheet
sizes
model making;
some dry mounting
no
Foam board
polystyrene foam
between paper liners; white/black
large-scale boards;
1/8”, 3/16”, 1/4”, 1/2”
thick
model making;
dry-mounting
sheets
no
translucent paper and ilm
sheets
boards
Hand Drawing
149
13
DRAFTING SUPPLIES
1. Drafting brush:
Implement used to
brush away erasures
and drafting powder.
2. Drafting powder:
Finely ground white
compound that prevents
dust, dirt, and smudges
from being ground into
the drafting media.
1
3. French curve:
Template used as guide
to draw smoothly most
desired curvatures.
2
4. X-Acto knife:
Cutting tool used in
model making and in
Letratone application.
5. Erasing shield:
Device used to erase
speciic lines and areas
without affecting others.
3
4
6. Adjustable triangle:
Tool used alone or in
combination with other
triangles to achieve
any angle.
7. Template:
Pattern guides available
in a wide variety of types
(lettering, toilets, people)
and scales.
6
5
8. Compass:
Hinge-legged instrument
that accommodates a
pen or pencil to describe
precise circles or
circular arcs.
7
8
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
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Triangular Architect’s Scale (1:1)
With the exception of
perspectives and some other
three-dimensional representations, most architectural
drawings are made “to scale.”
Simply put, a loor plan or
elevation, too large to be
represented at full scale
(1”=1”), must be reduced to it
on a sheet of paper. To do so,
a standard architect’s scale
is employed. A representation made at a quarter-inch
scale (1/4”=1’-0”), for instance,
indicates that a distance of
a quarter-inch on the drawing
equals one foot in reality.
The three sides of a triangular
architect’s scale provide a total
of eleven scales, which are
written as follows:
1/16”=1’-0”
3/32”=1’-0”
1/8”=1’-0”
3/16”=1’-0”
1/4”=1’-0”
3/8”=1’-0”
1/2”=1’-0”
3/4”=1’-0”
1”=1’-0”
1 1/2”=1’-0”
3”=1’-0”
Engineer’s scales are often
used for larger-scale drawings
such as site plans; they follow
the same principle as architect’s scales but with larger
increments of ten (1”=10’,
1”=50’, 1”=100’, and so
forth). Scales are also
available in metric units.
Hand Drawing
151
13
PENCILS
Harder leads contain more clay, whereas softer leads
contain more graphite. Lead holders employ a pushbutton that advances the 2 mm lead, which comes in a
wide array of hardnesses, colors, and nonphoto blue (does
not appear on reproductions). Leads are sharpened in lead
pointers or with simple emery paper or sandpaper blocks.
Pencil Hardness Range
Grade
9H
Weight and Use
very hard
and dense
ideal range for guidelines
and underlay work
8H
7H
6H
5H
4H
2H
medium-hard
H
medium
F
medium,
general purpose
HB
medium-soft,
bold line work
best range for
inished drawings
3H
2B
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lead reills for lead holder
clutch lead holder
wood pencil
3B
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
4B
5B
6B
very soft
range for bold lines and shading,
less suitable for drafting purposes
B
13
TECHNICAL INK PENS
Technical pens, which use an ink low–regulating wire with a tubular point (the pen nib), can
produce very precise line widths. Depending on the pen type, the ink may come in a prepackaged cartridge or the barrel of the pen may be illed with ink as needed. The iner the pen nib,
the more fragile and prone to clogging it is. All nibs require cleaning and maintenance to keep
them in working order. Ink should be waterproof, nonfading, and opaque. Ink pens can be used
on most paper types and are ideal for vellum and Mylar; they can even be erased from Mylar ilm
with a nonabrasive drafting eraser or electric eraser.
Technical Pen Line Weights
pen nib
7
2.0
6
1.4
4
1.2
3 1/2
1.0
3
.80
2 1/2
.70
technical pen body
2
.60
1
.50
0
.35
00
.30
3x0
.25
4x0
.18
6x0
.13
Hand Drawing
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14
Chapter 14: Computer Standards and Guidelines
Building design and construction involves enormous amounts of information in need
of organization and dissemination among numerous groups of interested and active
parties. The introduction of computers into this process has understandably changed
the way in which buildings are conceived, designed, and documented. Truly, many
things can now be done faster and with more ease, but computers have given rise
to new issues involving management of computer iles, quality standards for deliverable materials, and the constant need to stay current with rapidly evolving technologies. The prospect of documenting computer standards and guidelines as static and
absolute is therefore neither productive nor possible—the only thing that is certain is
that things will change. With this in mind, this chapter focuses on guidelines affecting
AutoCAD, at this printing still the de facto industry standard for construction document
production.
COMPUTER PROGRAMS
Architectural production can be divided
into two major groups: contract document
deliverables and general presentation
materials.
Deliverables are usually understood as
the construction document set composed
of the basic two-dimensional drawing
types (plan, section, elevation, details,
and schedules) that describe the building
suficiently for the contractors to build it.
The computer programs used to produce a
standard set of deliverables are primarily
drafting programs. In essence, they provide
eficient, precise, and easily modiiable
mechanical drawings. AutoCAD remains
the drafting program of choice for most
architects and engineers. Though it does
have three-dimensional capabilities and
can also accommodate rendering plug-ins,
for high-quality presentation drawings, AutoCAD is still most valued for its precision as
a versatile drafting program.
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Presentation materials can include standard plan, section, and elevation drawings
as well as physical three-dimensional models, computer renderings, and animations.
Computer modeling and rendering programs are numerous and varied, depending on the desired output. Predictably, the
more sophisticated the intended product,
the more expensive the tool.
Modeling programs are not limited to production output. Many are employed extensively to design complex forms that would
simply be impossible otherwise. Increasingly, architecture is taking advantage of
programs developed for use in other ields,
such as the automotive industry, aerospace
engineering, video game development, and
animated ilm production.
14
AUTOCAD TERMS
drawing. Examples include building grids and
site information. Also called X-Ref.
Aspect ratio: Ratio of display width to height.
Block: Grouping of one or more objects
combined to form a single object. On creation,
blocks are given a name and an insertion
point.
CAD: Computer-aided design or computeraided drafting. Also CADD, for computer-aided
design and drafting.
Command line: Text area reserved for keyboard input, messages, and prompts.
Coordinates: X, y, and z location relevant to a
model’s origin (0,0,0).
Crosshairs: Type of cursor.
Cursor: Active object on a video display that
enables the user to place graphic information
or text.
Drawing file: Electronic representation of a
building or object.
Drawing web format (DWF): Compressed ile
format that is created from a DWG ile, ideal
for publishing and viewing on the Web.
DWG: File format for saving vector graphics
from within AutoCAD.
Drawing interchange format (DXF): ASCII
or binary ile format of an AutoCAD drawing, for exporting AutoCAD drawings to other
applications or importing those from other
applications into AutoCAD.
Entity: Geometric element or piece of data
in a CAD drawing, such as a line, a point, a
circle, a polyline, a symbol, or a piece of text.
Explode: Disassemble complex objects such
as blocks and polylines.
Layer: Entity used for classiication in a
CAD drawing, whose properties allow for
manipulation and lexibility of information in
the drawing.
Model: In AutoCAD, a two- or threedimensional representation of an object;
or a three-dimensional replica of a design,
whether physical or digital.
Model space: One of two primary spaces in
which AutoCAD entities exist. Model space is
a three-dimensional coordinate space in which
both two-dimensional and three-dimensional
drafting and design are done at full (1:1) scale.
Paper space: Other primary AutoCAD space.
Used for creating a inished printable or plottable layout; usually contains a title block.
Polyline: Object made up of one or more connected segments or arcs, treated as a single
object.
Sheet file: Print- or plot-ready electronic representation of a presentation sheet, containing
a view or views of the model, text, symbols,
and a title block.
User coordinate system (UCS): System that
deines the orientation of x, y, and z in threedimensional space.
UCS icons: Keys that indicate the direction of
x, y, and z planes, as well as whether the user
is in paper space or model space.
paper
space
icon
model
space
icon
Viewport: Bounded area that displays some
portion of the model space of a drawing.
Window: Drawing area, including the command line and surrounding menus.
External reference: File or drawing that is
used as background in another drawing
but cannot be edited, except in its original
Computer Standards and G uidelines
155
14
AUTOCAD WINDOWS
Active Model Space
Model may be edited
in model space.
Tilemode = 1 (on)
All drawing done in model
space should be at 1:1.
UCS icon
Active Paper Space
Title block or other non–model
space information may be edited
in the paper space viewport.
Tilemode = 0 (off).
When tilemode is off,
viewports are objects that
can be moved and resized.
UCS icon
Paper Space with Active
Model Space Viewport
To enter the viewport, type
ms at command line; note
the model space icon.
Tilemode = 0 (off)
Paper space scales (XP) may
be set by zooming while in this
mode. Editing of the model is
possible though not encouraged.
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14
EXTERNAL REFERENCES
External reference (X-Ref) drawings contain architectural information common to multiple sheet
iles. Typically, these drawings are loor plans that can serve many purposes; each has its own
sheet ile. For example, the same plan model can be used for loor plans, relected ceiling plans,
and large-scale plans.
The following diagram describes the interaction between X-Ref drawings and sheet iles.
X-Ref Model Files
X-Ref
drawing
attached to
other X-Ref
drawings
Floor Plan
A-FP-01
Structural Grid
X-GRID
X-GRID and A-FP-01 are both used
as X-Refs in other iles to create sheet iles.
Sheet iles before X-Refs:
contain sheet-speciic text,
dimensions, and symbols
Sheet Files
Enlarged Kitchen Plan
A-401
Sheet iles with X-Refs
First-Floor Plan
A-101
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157
14
MODEL SPACE AND PAPER SPACE SCALES
All AutoCAD models and drawings, from detailed wall sections to expansive site plans, are drawn
in model space at full scale (1:1). Paper space is used to set up print- and plot-worthy sheets
(often with the use of a title block) that enable the information in model space to be printed to
a speciic and accurate scale. Such a system allows the architect considerable lexibility when
designing and drawing, because one drawing can be used at many different scales and for many
different purposes and need not be drawn “to scale.”
viewport zoom:
1/48XP
(1/4”=1’-0”)
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viewport
viewport
paper space title blocks
A simple way to envision the relationship between model and paper space is to think of the paper
space title block as an actual piece of paper, with a hole cut out (the viewport). Through this hole
model space is visible. Using XP factors (see following page), the model in the viewport is scaled
in relation to the paper space title block.
viewport zoom:
1/24XP
(1/2”=1’-0”)
14
AutoCAD Text Scale Chart (in inches)
Desired Text Height
DWG
Scale
Scale
Factor
XP
Factor
1/16”
3/32”
1/8”
3/16”
1/4”
5/16”
3/8”
1/2”
3/4”
1”
Full
1
1
.0625
.09375
.125
.1875
.25
.3125
.375
.5
.75
1
6”=1’
.5
1/2
.125
.1875
.25
.375
.5
.625
.75
1
1.5
2
3”=1’
.25
1/4
.25
.375
.5
.75
1
1.25
1.5
2
3
4
11/2”=1’
.125
1/8
.5
.75
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
4
6
8
1”=1’
.08333
1/12
.75
1.125
1.5
2.25
3
3.75
4.5
6
9
12
3/4”=1’
.0625
1/16
1
1.5
2
3
4
5
6
8
12
16
1/2”=1’
.04167
1/24
1.5
2.25
3
4.5
6
7.5
9
12
18
24
3/8”=1’
.03125
1/32
2
3
4
6
8
10
12
16
24
32
1/4”=1’
.02083
1/48
3
4.5
6
9
12
15
18
24
36
48
3/16”=1’
.015625
1/64
4
6
8
12
16
20
24
32
48
64
1/8”=1’
.01042
1/96
6
9
12
18
24
30
36
48
72
96
1/16”=1’
.005208
1/192
12
18
24
36
48
60
72
96
144
192
1”=10’
.0083
1/120
7.5
11.25
15
22.5
30
37.5
45
60
90
120
1”=20’
.004167
1/240
15
22.5
30
45
60
75
90
120
180
240
1”=30’
.002778
1/360
22.5
33.75
45
67.5
90
112.5
135
180
270
360
Using This Chart
Because all work done in AutoCAD models should be at 1:1, text and labels must be adjusted to
appropriate sizes based on the scale at which they will be printed.
For example: if a detail drawing will be printed at 3”=1’-0”, and the desired height of the text when
printed is 1/8”, the text in the model must be set to 0.5”. If the same drawing will be printed at
1/4” = 1’- 0”, and that text also needs to be 1/8” high, any text related to the 1/4” scale output would
be set to 6” in the model. Many clients, including government agencies, will require a minimum text
size for legibility.
Using Paper Space Scales (XP)
The XP scale is the relationship between the desired plotted scale and the sheet of paper on
which it will be plotted. With hand drafting, one would typically use an architect’s or engineer’s
scale to assist in correctly making a drawing “to scale.” On such a scale, if using 1/4” = 1’-0”,
1’ is shown on the scale as 1/4” in length; 2’ are shown as 1/2”, and so on. In reality, the scale
has already done much of the calculation necessary to draw at the desired scale. To describe
this process accurately, one could say that, for the drawing to it on a certain sheet of paper, the
drawing has been made at 1/48th its full scale (if 1/4”=1 2 ”, 1/4 x 1/12 =X, therefore X = 1 / 48 ).
In AutoCAD the process is much the same. To set the scale of a viewport while inside the
viewport (ms) in paper space, zoom to 1/48XP (also equal to 0.02083XP). XP literally means
“times paper space.” This action will zoom the viewport window to 1/4” =1’-0” in relation to the
paper space title block, which is printed at 1:1.
Computer Standards and Guidelines
159
14
AUTOCAD FILE-NAMING CONVENTIONS
File types have a direct bearing on the format of the ile and the manner in which it should
be named. File types include models, details, sheets, schedules, text, databases, symbols,
borders, and title blocks. The ile- and layer-naming system discussed here follows the AIA
CAD Guidelines, as established by the U.S. National CAD Standard.
Model Files
A building model ile is an
electronic representation
of the building. Models
may be two- or threedimensional and are created at a true 1:1 scale.
All geometry in a model
ile contains a three-dimensional coordinate (x,
y, z). In two-dimensional
drawings, the z coordinate is 0.
Sheet Files
The electronic sheet ile
contains one or more
views of one or more
model iles, as well as
text, symbols, and, often,
a border or title block.
The title block generally
contains graphic and
text information common
to all other sheets in a
project or section.
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Level 1 Discipline Designators
Both ile names and layer names are classiied by discipline. The discipline code is a twocharacter ield in which the second character
is either a hyphen or a modiier deined by the
user.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
L
M
O
P
Q
R
S
T
V
W
X
Z
Architectural
Geotechnical
Civil
Process
Electrical
Fire Protection
General
Hazardous Materials
Interiors
Landscape
Mechanical
Operations
Plumbing
Equipment
Resource
Structural
Telecommunications
Survey/Mapping
Distributed Energy
Other Disciplines
Contractor/Shop Drawings
14
Standard Model File Identification
Model File Types
FP
SP
DP
QP
XP
EL
SC
DT
SH
3D
DG
Floor Plans
Site Plans
Demolition Plans
Equipment Plans
Existing Plans
Elevations
Sections
Details
Schedules
Three-Dimensional
Drawings
Diagrams
A
A
A U U U U
discipline
designator
(same as for sheet ile naming)
A
A
A U U U U
hyphen
(serves as a placeholder and makes name more readable)
A
A
A U U U U
model ile
type
deined by user
(optional alphanumeric modiiers)
Examples: A-FP-01 (Architectural Floor Plan, Level 1)
P-DP-010 (Plumbing Demolition Plan, Level 1)
Standard Sheet Identification
Sheet Type
Designators
0
General
1
Plans
2
Elevations
3
Sections
4
Large-scale Views
5
Details
6
Schedules and
Diagrams
7
User Deined
8
User Deined
9
Three-Dimensional
Drawings
A
A
N N N
U U U
discipline
designator
(discipline character plus optional modiier character)
A
A
N
N N
U U U
N N
U U U
sheet type
designator
A
A
N
sheet
sequence
numbers
deined by user
(optional alphanumeric
modiiers)
Examples: A-103 (Architectural Plan, Level 3)
AD206 (Architectural Demolition Elevation, Level 6)
Computer Standards and G uidelines
161
STANDARDS
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3.
PROPORTION AND FORM
Since most architecture, even that designed for a large-scale use (such as
an airplane hangar or an elephant barn), requires some human interface,
our own bodies serve as useful reference points for inhabiting space. Similarly, no matter how complicated structures may be, most are reducible to
the point, line, or plane that evolved into the more complex combinations of
forms and spaces that constitute a design.
Throughout history, architects have devised and employed ordering and
proportioning systems for architecture based on the logics of harmonics,
arithmetic, geometry, and the human body, often producing a visual and
physical order that is apparent to the observer even if the organizing logic is
not known or understood.
Daily life brings us into contact with endless numbers of systems of arrangement and order, much of it centered on how our bodies and our cars
(extensions of our bodies) use and navigate our immediate surroundings
and share them with others. The standards presented here describe the
basic clearances demanded of an assortment of programs that architects
regularly encounter. They do not propose speciic designs, but give a better
understanding of how different bodies occupy different spaces.
163
15
164
MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS
Chapter 15: The Human Scale
The scale of the human body informs almost every aspect of architectural design. The
dimensions in this chapter represent an average range (the lower number denotes the
2.5th percentile, while the upper number denotes the 97.5th percentile).
19.4 495
16.0 405
15.1 385
12.4 315
75.0 1 905
64 .6 1 640
eye
15.3 390
13.6 345
70.3 1 785
60.6 1 540
shoulder
59.7 1 515
51.0 1 295
19.2 485
16.7 425
center of
gravity
pelvis
40.5 1 030
34.3 870
18.1 460
15.3 390
knee
22.4
19.0
570
480
4.7
4.2
120
105
17.7 450
14.8 375
ankle
Adult Male Figure
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15
On the drawings below, the gray bars indicate
inches and the blue bars indicate millimeters.
17.7 450
14.4 365
13.7 350
11.2 285
70.4 1 790
60.6 1 540
eye
14.5 370
12.8 325
66.0 1 675
56.6 1 440
shoulder
55.9 1 415
47.8 1 215
18.0 455
15.7 400
center of
gravity
pelvis
37.9
32.1
960
815
16.7 425
14.0 355
knee
21.2
18.1
535
460
16.2 410
13.6 345
ankle
5.0
4.5
125
115
Adult Female Figure
The Human Sc ale
165
MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS
ACCESSIBLE DESIGN DIMENSIONS
6”
(152)
18” (457)
26” (660)
42” (1 067)
43” –51” (1 092–1 295)
eye
lap
19” (483)
toe
8” (203)
27” (686)
30” (762)
seat
36” (914)
15
166
Overall Dimensions for Adult Wheelchairs
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
15
Architects must equally be familiar with the dimensions of those with special needs, speciically
the constraints posed by wheelchair use. Design to accommodate wheelchairs and other special
needs is increasingly the rule rather than the exception, particularly as the concept of universal
design gains more prominence. Universal design suggests making all elements and spaces
accessible to and usable by all people to the greatest extent possible—a goal that, through
thoughtful planning and design, need not add to the cost of production.
shelving depth
9”–12” (230–305)
high shelf reach
48.5”–67.7” (1 230–720)
work clearance
15 - 20 (380 - 510)
reach to
back 42”
(1 075)
minimum
workspace
width
42” (1 065)
toe space
7” (180)
toe clearance
10” (255)
lowest
shelf
10.7” (270)
workspace 21” (535)
counter height
32” (810)
low shelf
(reach to
back)
18” (455)
eye
switches and phone dial
height 42”–48” (1 065–220)
highest
shelves:
reach
to front
45.5”
(1 155)
Side Approach Work Station Clearances
The Human Scale
167
MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS
SEATED DIMENSIONS
12” (305)
54” (1 372)
switches
42”–48” (1 065–220)
24”–30” (610–760)
knee well
20”–24” (510–610)
Work Station Clearances
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14.4”–18.5”
(365–470)
24” (610)
toe space 4” (102)
25”–31.5”
(635–800)
wall outlets
18” (457)
4” (102)
15
168
15
30” (750)
35” (875)
35” (875)
25” (625)
25” (625)
39” (1 000)
35” (875)
38” (950)
35” (875)
12”
(300)
35” (875)
73” (1 875)
Lounging Position General Space Considerations
The Human Scale
169
MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS
8” (203)
4” (102)
12” (305)
4” (102)
Masonry
16” (406)
6” (152)
6” (152)
10” (254)
8” (203)
8” (203)
12” (305)
15
170
Wood
Proportions of Materials
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Masonry
15
48” (1 220)
96” (2 440)
48” (1 220)
Plywood
60” (1 524)
Plywood
Gypsum Wall Board
96” (2 440)
60” (1 524)
Proportions of Materials
The Human Sc ale
171
16
Chapter 16: Residential Spaces
KITCHENS
5’-6” (1 676) avg.
18” (457)
30” (762)
Typical Dimensions
36” (914)
32” (813) avg.
30” (762) avg.
The total distance of all
three sides of the work
triangle should average
between 12 lineal feet
(3 660) and 22 lineal feet
(6 705).
work triangle
work triangle
Storage guidelines:
minimum 18 sq. ft.
(1.67 m2) basic storage,
plus 6 sq. ft. (0.56 m2)
per person served.
5’-0” (1 524) min.
Typical
Layout Types
U-shape
L-shape
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16
Cabinetry Components
upper cabinets
adjustable shelves
backsplash
12” (305)
drawer
adjustable shelves
25” (635)
door
base
Appliances
Many appliances have become modular
in width, and
it within a 3”
system (ex. 9”,
12”, 15”, 18”,
21”, 24”...48”)
line of work
work triangle
4’-0” (1 219)
min.
Single Wall
Parallel Walls
Residential Spaces
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16
BATHROOMS
General Guidelines
Minimum ceiling height = 6’-8” (2 032)
(Subject to Local Codes)
18”(457)
18”(457)
Minimum ventilation should be a window
of at least 3 sq. ft. (0.28 m2), of which
50 percent is operable, or a mechanical
ventilation system of at least 50 cu. ft. per
minute (cfm) ducted to the outside.
Wall area above a tub or
shower pan should be
covered in a waterproof
material to a height of not
less than 72” (1 829) AFF.
36” (914)
min.
30”(762)
Minimum clear
opening at door
= 32” (813). Door
swing should not
interfere with other
doors (including
cabinets) or the
safe use of ixtures
and cabinets.
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Vanity height = 32”–43”
(813–1 092), as it suits
the user
16
Lighting
In addition to general lighting,
task lighting should be installed
at each functional area of the
bathroom, and at least one light
must be provided that is controlled by a wall switch located
at the entry. Any light ixture
installed at a tub or shower
must be marked as suitable for
damp/wet locations.
2’-6” (762)
4’-0” (1 219)
4’-6” (1 372)
5’-0” (1 524)
Electrical Outlets
All electrical receptacles should
be protected by GFCI (groundfault circuit interrupter) protectors, and at least one GFCI
receptacle should be installed
within 36” (914) of the outside
edge of the lavatory. No receptacles of any kind should be
installed in a shower or bathtub
space, nor should switches be
installed in wet locations in tub
and shower spaces (unless
installed as part of a UL-listed
tub or shower assembly).
6’-3” (1 905)
7’-0” (2 134)
5’-0” (1 524)
Floors
Bathroom loors and tub and
shower loors should have
slip-resistant surfaces.
Typical Arrangements
7’-6” (2 286)
5’-0” (1 524)
Glazing
Tempered glass or an approved
equal should be used in the following conditions: shower doors
or other glass in tub or shower
enclosures; tub or shower surrounds with glass windows or
walls that are less than 60”
(1 524) above any standing surface; and any glazing such as
windows or doors whose bottom
edge is less than 18” (458) AFF.
8’-0” (2 438)
Residential Spaces
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16
HABITABLE ROOMS
75” (1 905)
28” (711)
In most residential
projects, sleeping
rooms should have
at least one means
of egress to the
exterior, which can
be in the form of
an operable window
of not less than 3.3
sq. ft. (0.307 m2),
and with a minimum
clear opening of
20” x 24” (508 x 610),
with a sill height
no higher than 44”
(1 118).
5’-0” (1 524)
Crib
Ceiling height should not be less than 7’-6” (2 286) for at least 50 percent
of the required area; 50 percent may be sloped to a minimum height
of 5’ (1 524).
7’-6” (2 286)
52” (1 321)
Beds (mattress sizes)
Twin
39” (991)
Table Size
(in.)
Maximum
Seats
24 x 48
4
Full
30 x 48
4 (2 wch.)
(Double)
30 x 60
6 (4 wch.)
36 x 72
6 (6 wch.)
80” (2 032)
54” (1 372)
Queen
8 (6 wch.)
2
36 x 36
4
42 x 42
4 (2 wch.)
48 x 48
8 (2 wch.)
54 x 54
8 (4 wch.)
30 dia.
2
36 dia.
4
42 dia.
4–5
48 dia.
6 (2 wch.)
54 dia.
6 (4 wch.)
80” (2 032)
60” (1 524)
36 x 84
30 x 30
24”–40”
(varies)
4’-0” –10’-0”
(varies)
18” x 18”
(457 x 457),
typical
36” (914)
wch. = wheelchair
King
in.
24
30
36
42
48
54
60
72
84
mm
610
762
914
1 067
1 219
1 372
1 524
1 829
2 134
76” (1 930)
176
28”–42” (varies)
75” (1 905)
Seating
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Each dwelling should have at
least one room not less than
120 sq. ft. (11.15 m2).
Closets
Habitable rooms (except bathrooms and
kitchens) should have
an area greater than
or equal to 70 sq. ft.
(6.51 m2), with no less
than 7’-0” (2 134) in
any direction.
Kitchens may be a
minimum of 50 sq.
ft. (4.65 m2).
Garages
A minimum clearance of
2’-6” (762) for circulation
should be maintained
between the vehicle and
other vehicles, walls, or
equipment.
21’-10” (6 655) avg.
5’-2”–5’-10” (1 575–779)
5’-10”–6’-4” (1 779–930)
22”–30” (559–762)
clear inside depth
48”–72” (1 219–829)
of hanging space
per person
12” (305) = 6 suits,
12 shirts, 8 dresses,
or 6 pairs of pants
11’-2” (3 404) avg. for one car
19’-10” (6 045) avg. for two cars
8’ (2 438) min. door clearance
9’ (2 743) recommended
16’ (4 877) min. required for
single door of two-car garage
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EATING
1-person: 2’-0”–2’-6” (610–762)
Seating Types
2-person: 3’-6”–4’-6” (1 067–372)
2’-0”–2’-6”
(610–762)
1’-6”
(457)
Booth tables may be
2” (51) shorter than
bench seats, and with
rounded corners to
facilitate getting in and
out of the booth.
2’-6” (762)
3’-0”–4’-0”
(914–1 219)
Booths
0–4” (0–102)
1’-6”
5’-0”–6’-2”
(1 524–880)
(457)
Tables
customer zone
1’-6”–2’-0” (457–610)
2’-6” (762)
Tables with widespread
bases (shown here) are
more practical for sitting
down and getting up than
four-legged tables.
1’-6” (457)
Chair seat dimensions
average 1’-2”–1’-6”
(356–457).
customer zone
1’-6”–2’-0”
(457–610) 2’-4”–3’-2”
(711–965)
Bars and Counters
2’-6”–3’-0”
(762–914)
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3’-0”–3’-6”
(914–1 067)
5’-0”–5’-9” (1 524–753)
2’-6” (762)
Counter stools should
average ten per server.
2’-6”–2’-10”
(762–864)
6”–7”
(152–179)
3’-6”–3’-9” (1 067–143)
1’-6”–2’-0”
(457–610)
2’-0”–2’-6”
(610–762)
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Seating Clearances
19” (483)
Clear loor area for wheelchairs is 30” x 48”
(762 x 1 219), of which 19” (483) may be used
for required under-table knee space. At least 5
percent (but not less than 1) of tables must be
accessible.
36” (914)
required
for all
accessible
routes
service aisle
6” (152) no
passage
30”–42”
(762–1 067);
36” (914)
minimum
required for
accessible
aisle
18” (457)
limited
passage
service aisle
service
aisle
30” (762)
service aisle
bar
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PUBLIC SEATING
Typical Chair Widths
Chair widths typically run 18”–24” (457–610); the ideal
width is 21” (533).
Accessible spaces of 36” x 60”
(914 x 1 524) should be open,
on level ground, and provided
as follows:
Total Seating
Wheelchair Spaces
4–25
1
26–50
2
51–300
4
301–500
6
500+
6 (+1 per each
additional 100 seats)
Plumb Line Clearance
The distance between an unoccupied chair in the up position and the back of the chair in front of it. Local codes
should be consulted for minimum clearances.
Row Spacing
Row spacing, like tread, runs 32”–40” (813–1 016) and
higher.
Also, 1 percent of all ixed seats
(but not less than one) must have
removable or folding armrests on
the aisle side and must be identiied with appropriate signage.
Closer spacing may cause uncomfortable conditions for
the seated person, as well as dificulty for anyone trying
to pass in front of a seated person. Conversely, whereas
wider spacing of rows provides more comfort while sitting and passing in front of seated persons, too wide a
spacing may make the audience feel overly spread out. In
addition, the wider spacing may encourage some people
to try to squeeze through when exiting, causing a jam that
could be dangerous in the event of an emergency.
An ideal spacing that accounts for all of these factors is
36” (914).
row spacing (= tread)
plumb line
clearance
pitch
row spacing (= tread)
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17” (432)
6”
(152)
8.5”
(216)
20” (508) max.
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OFFICE WORKSPACES
Flexible Workspaces
Many companies produce lexible ofice furniture and workspace modules, in a wide variety of
styles and inishes. These diagrams are for general layout purposes only and to illustrate a
range of possibilities for ofice privacy, interaction, and space allocation.
8’-0”
(2 438)
30”(762)
30”(762)
8’-0”
(2 438)
24” (610)
30”(762)
Various arrangements
of four 8’ x 8’ (2 438 x
2 438) workspaces,
allowing for a wide
range of levels of
interaction.
The primary advantage of lexible ofice
furniture is precisely
its ability to adjust to
changing staff levels,
changing personnel
type, and even shifts
in the nature of work
being performed in
the space.
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16
17
Chapter 17: Form and Organization
PRIMARY ELEMENTS
The primary elements of form are points, lines, planes, and volumes, each growing from the
other. A point is a position in space and the prime generator of form. A line is a point extended;
its properties are length, position, and direction. A plane is a line extended; its properties are
width and length, shape, surface, orientation, and position. A volume is a plane extended; its
properties are length, width, and depth, form and space, surface, orientation, and position.
PRIMARY SHAPES
Square
Triangle
Circle
PLATONIC SOLIDS
Cube
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Pyramid
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Cone
Cylinder
Sphere
16
17
POLYHEDRA
Icosahedron (20-sided Solid)
Geodesic Sphere
A geometric polyhedron is a threedimensional solid made up of a collection of polygons, usually joined
at the edges.
Geodesic Dome
Geodesic spheres and domes are designed by illing
each face of a solid, such as an icosahedron, with a
regular pattern of triangles, bulged out so that their
vertices are not coplanar but are in the surface of the
sphere instead. As a structural concept, the subpattern
of triangles form geodesics that distribute stresses
across the structure.
BOOLEAN OPERATIONS
Joining together or subtracting of one solid from one or more sets of solids.
Union
Extraction
Intersection
RULED SURFACES
A ruled surface, which is the
surface generated by connecting line segments between
corresponding points, can
take many forms.
Hyperboloid of Revolution
Hyperbolic
Paraboloid
Conoid
A hyperbolic paraboloid is a doubly ruled surface
generated by two meshes of lines that are skewed
from each other but appear parallel when viewed in
plan. The saddle point is found at its center.
Form
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and Organization
Spaces
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17
THE GOLDEN SECTION
The properties of proportion of the golden section have been employed by architects, artists,
mathematicians, and musicians since the ancient Greeks recognized its proportional ordering in
the human body. Even today many believe it to contain mystical qualities, whose unique mathematical and geometrical relationships create a harmonic condition that is nature’s aesthetically
“perfect” balance between symmetry and asymmetry.
Constructing a Golden Rectangle
C
A
1. Create a square and
locate the midpoint of
one side.
B
C
A
4. Line AB is the long leg of
the golden rectangle.
2. Draw a line from the
midpoint to a corner that
does not share a line with
the midpoint.
5. A golden rectangle has
been added to the original
square, and together they
also form a larger golden
rectangle.
3. This is the radius of a
circle with its center at the
midpoint; the point where the
circle and the line AC intersect becomes point B.
6. The process can be
repeated ininitely, creating
proportionally larger or
smaller series of squares
and rectangles.
C
A
In mathematics, the golden section is the ratio of
the two divisions of a line such that the smaller is to
the larger as the larger is to the sum of the two. In
addition to its many uses in the arts and music, there
are practical uses for the mathematical
integrity of the golden section in its proportions
as related to structure.
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B
Calculating the Golden Mean
AC/CB = AB/AC (a unique characteristic)
If AB = 1, let AC = x
x= !5 –1 = 0.61803398 . . . (ininite).
2
Therefore: the ratio of AC to AB is
approximately 61.8%;
the inverse (1/61.8) is 1.61803398 . . .
B
17
THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
The Fibonacci Sequence is a recursive series of numbers, where each number in the
sequence is the sum of the two numbers preceding it. A simple sequence beginning
with 0 follows:
0 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 13 , 21 , 34 , 55 …
Any two adjacent numbers in the sequence may be divided, the lower number by the
higher number (for example, 34/55), to achieve a very close approximation of the
golden section (in this case, 0.6181818 . . . ). The higher the numbers, the more
accurate the answer will be (for example: 377/610 = 0.6180327 . . . ).
REGULATING LINES
The guiding lines that indicate the proportional and alignment relationships
in drawings, such as those depicting
the golden rectangle, are known as
regulating lines. They are used, for
instance, both to determine and to
illustrate proportional relationships in
a design. Rectangles whose diagonals
are either perpendicular or parallel to
each other have similar proportions
(even if they are not golden rectangles), and the use of such lines is a
common proportional ordering tool.
axis
intersection at
perpendicular lines
tangent to arc
parallel lines
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Chapter 18: Architectural Elements
CLASSICAL ELEMENTS
Classical architecture typically refers to the styles of both ancient Greece and Rome, which are
based around the ixed columnar proportions and ornamentation of the classical orders. Both
Greek and Roman classicism have been the bases of revivals throughout history, and the ideals
behind their form and proportion continue to have resonance today.
Parthenon,
Athens, Greece
448–32 B.C.E.
peripteros:
single row of columns
surrounding building
pronaos:
vestibule
opisthodomos:
cella (naos):
shrine room at
center of temple
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enclosed section
at the rear of the
temple
18
pediment
tympanium
acroterion
cornice
frieze
triglyph
metope
architrave
capital
tenia
guttae
regula
shaft
shaft
(maximum
entasis at
2/5 height
of column)
stylobate
stereobate
Entasis: Slight convex curvature
of classical columns, used to
counteract the optical illusion of
concavity produced by straight
lines. Other adjustments, such
as reclining the columns slightly
away from the vertical and making
the end columns larger and closer
together, also produce a more
pleasing visual effect.
Caryatid: Sculpted female igure
used as a column to support an
entablature. Other forms include
atlantes or telamones (male
caryatids), canephorae (females
with baskets on their heads), herms
(three-quarter-height igures), and
terms (pedestals that taper upward,
terminating in a sculptured human
or animal).
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18
CLASSICAL ORDERS
13/4 dia.
simplest; derived from
Etruscan temples
entablature
Doric
Ionic
Greek (no base)
and Roman
characterized by
volutes on its capital
2 dia.
Tuscan
2 1/4 dia.
Elements of the classical orders are distinguished by their unique proportioning system based
on the shaft diameter of the columns, from which pedestal, shaft, and entablature heights are
derived. Using a common shaft diameter, the ive orders are shown here in their proportional
relationship to each other.
7 dia.
8 dia.
9 dia.
capital
shaft
1 dia.
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3 dia.
22/3 dia.
pedestal
21/3 dia.
base
18
Composite
Corinthian
frieze
entablature
2 1/2 dia.
10 dia.
base
shaft
capital
architrave
2 1/2 dia.
10 dia.
cornice
Roman combination
of Ionic and Corinthian
orders
Greek and Roman,
luted or not;
characterized by
acanthus leaves
on its capital
plinth
pedestal
31/3 dia.
31/3 dia.
dado
or
die
plinth
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ArchitecturalElements
Elements
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18
GOTHIC ELEMENTS
wooden roof
inial
pinnacle
clerestory
crocket
aisle
main arcade
tritorium
lying buttress
buttress pier
nave
aisle
Rheims Cathedral, France
1212–1300
aisle
nave
chapel
apse
transept
chapel
Typical Plan
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ARCHES
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
3
abutment
voussoirs
keystone
intrados (sofit)
extrados
crown
haunch
span
springing line
center
7
1
5
2
4
9
10
8
Semicircular
Segmental
Semicircular Stilted
Jack
Tudor (Four-centered)
Pointed Saracenic
(Gothic)
Ogee
Three-centered
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ArchitecturalElements
Elements
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parapet
cornice
dentils
louver
(mechanical)
drip mold
mullion
muntin
curtain wall
spandrel
quoin
band
base
(piano
nobile)
rustication
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MODERNISM
Architectural modernism opposed following the forms and styles of the past in favor of embracing
contemporary technology and opportunities. Industrialization and innovative methods of using iron,
steel, and concrete for structural systems opened up new and lexible ways to design buildings that
no longer depended on heavy masonry bearing walls. Swiss architect Le Corbusier (1887–1965) developed the Domino House system (1914), in which he separated building structure from enclosure,
freeing up both plan and façade.
Le Corbusier’s ive points are supports (pilotis), roof gardens, free plans, horizontal windows, and
free design of the façade. His 1929 Villa Savoye (which he dubbed a “machine for living”) in Poissy,
France, illustrates all ive points clearly.
roof
terrace
free
façade
ribbon
windows
open plan
pilotis
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CANONICAL ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATIONS
MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO (c. 80 BCE - c. 15 BCE) was a Roman architect, engineer, and writer, whose De Architectura (in English, Ten Books on Architecture) was
written around 15 BCE and dedicated to Emperor Augustus. The books provide
explanation and insight into the architecture, engineering and city planning of classical antiquity, though it was not until the Renaissance that they were re-discovered
and ultimately published in 1486. Vitruvius proposed firmitas, utilitas, and venustas
as three elements forming the basis for architecture:
irmness (structural stability and integrity)
commodity (eficient and functional spatial arrangement)
delight (pleasing proportion and beauty)
Book 1: Education of the architect; principals of architecture; city planning
Book 2: Materials for building; origin of the dwelling house
Book 3: Symmetry and proportion; temples; architectural orders
Book 4: Temples; origins of the three orders (continuation of Book 3)
Book 5: Civic buildings (Forum, Basilica, Senate); theater design
Book 6: Domestic buildings
Book 7: Stucco; plasterwork; colors
Book 8: Water; aqueducts and cisterns
Book 9: Zodiac; planets; astrology
Book 10: Machines and instruments
LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI (1401-1472)
De Re Aedificatoria (On the Art of Building), written between
1443-1452, became the irst printed book on architecture
with its publication in 1485 (followed by the publication of
Vitruvius’s Ten Books inally in 1486).
1. Lineaments
2. Materials
3. Construction
4. Public Works
5. Works of Individuals
6. Ornament
7. Ornament to Sacred Buildings
8. Ornament to Public Secular Buildings
9. Ornament to Private Buildings
10. Restoration of Buildings
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ANDREA PALLADIO (1508-1580)
LE CORBUSIER (1887-1965)
I quattro libri dell’architettura
(The Four Books of Architecture)
Oeuvre Complète
(Complete Works in Eight Volumes)
A Renaissance architect, Palladio’s
highly illustrated treatise includes
his own designs and the ancient
Roman inspirations for his and
other work of the Renaissance.
Published regularly throughout the
proliic working life (and beyond) of
Swiss architect Le Corbusier, the
Oeuvre Complète comprises over
1700 pages. Contained within is
a comprehensive collection of his
sketches, drawings, projects both
built and unbuilt, texts and manifestos, paintings, and sculptures.
Book 1 - buidling materials and
techniques; the orders of architecture
Book 2 - private houses
Book 3 - streets, bridges, piazzas
Book 4 - reproductions of ancient
Roman temple designs
volume 1: 1910-1929
volume 2: 1929-1934
volume 3: 1934-1938
volume 4: 1938-1946
volume 5: 1946-1952
volume 6: 1952-1957
volume 7: 1957-1965
volume 8: 1965-1969 (last works)
SEBASTIANO SERLIO (1475-1554)
I sette libri dell’architettura (Seven Books of Architecture) also known as:
Tutte l’opere d’architettura et prospetiva (All the works on architecture and
perspective)
1. On Geometry
2. On Perspective
3. On Antiquities
4. On the Five Styles of Buildings
5. On Temples
6. On Habitations
7. On Situations
With the irst of the books published in 1537, Serlio’s books were highly illustrated, and written in Italian, in order to appeal to architects and builders of the
day - in contrast to Alberti’s books, which were written in Latin and did not focus
on illustration. Many of Serlio’s books were published long after his death.
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STANDARDS
3.
CODES AND GUIDELINES
Codes, laws, and regulations can carry with them a certain off-putting suggestion of bureaucratic obfuscation. To run afoul of them would never be recommended, but attempts to understand them can be frustrating. Certainly, there
exist standards that appear senseless or unnecessarily restrictive, but as the
world changes and populations expand, the built environment is subject to an
increasing number of forces that dictate its use and forms.
As we open doors, turn on lights, and navigate stairs, we all experience irsthand
standards within design practice. Ideally, codes and standards allow us to use
buildings safely. Constraints brought by code restrictions may also provide an
opportunity to let good design solve dificult problems.
As the very real design needs of people with disabilities receive oficial and
widespread acknowledgment and the concept of accessibility becomes more
naturally integrated with architecture—for younger designers this is the norm—it
can be dificult to imagine how recently it was viewed as an impediment to good
design.
Acceptance of the aesthetic possibilities of sustainable design is even more recent. In fact, new standards that accommodate all types of users and a growing
recognition of architecture’s responsibility to the environment and its future can
provide fresh takes on old forms and strong incentives to try new processes.
19
Chapter 19: Building Codes
The fundamental purpose of building codes is to protect the health, safety, and welfare
of all people through the construction of safe buildings and environments. Building
practices have long been regulated in various ways, and regulations have existed in
America since the early colonies, but it was the 1871 Chicago ire that emphasized the
need for effective and enforceable building codes. In the early years since, most building codes in the United States were written and administered by local city, county, or
state jurisdictions, eventually producing three major model codes: the National Codes
of the Building Oficials and Code Administrators International (BOCA), the Uniform
Codes of the International Conference of Building Oficials (ICBO), and Standard Codes
of the Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI). With a few exceptions,
each of the ifty states has adopted one of these models for its primary building code,
in addition to supplemental codes for ire, mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and residential.
INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE
In 1997 the International Code Council (ICC) enlisted representatives from BOCA, ICBO, and
SBCCI (the three founding arms of the ICC) to create a comprehensive and internationally available model construction code that would combine the considerable scope of the existing model
codes. The irst International Building Code (IBC) was established in 2000, and with it, the
development of the National Codes, Uniform Codes, and Standard Codes was discontinued.
Currently, most U.S. states have adopted or are making efforts to adopt the IBC as their
primary building code, though the process continues to differ for each state. Some have
adopted the IBC but have not yet made it effective, others have adopted it on a statewide level,
and still others have let their local city and county governments decide. The same has been
true for the supplemental codes. The current status of the applicable codes for any given state
or local jurisdiction should be veriied with local building departments or by visiting the ICC
website at www.iccsafe.org. Any code information cited in this book is from the IBC, unless stated
otherwise.
NOTE OF DISCLAIMER
The code information contained in this chapter is for general information only and is
here to provide the reader with an introductory overview of the purposes and organization of building codes. It is not intended to replace any codes discussed, to present
interpretations or analyses of said codes, or to address any speciic project. It also
does not try to address all aspects of any one code in such a small number of pages;
rather, the information touches on topics of general interest to most users of this book.
All attempts have been made to present information as accurately as possible, with the
understanding that code content may change after the book’s publication.
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To address a changing world, the IBC codes are evolving through continual review by almost any
party that comes in contact with them, including code enforcing oficials, various code development
committees, and design professionals. Changes occur, for instance, to address new materials,
emerging technologies, and shifts in use types. They even occur to clarify interpretations of
language and the intent of the codes as written. As a result, the IBC has been designed to be
updated every three years. The 2012 edition, for example, exhibits the 2009 code with ICCapproved changes included.
For any project, the applicable codes must be interpreted by the appropriate Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ), which could include, among others, local building and ire oficials. The use and interpretation of codes can be daunting, and differences of interpretation may occur among designers
and building oficials. For this reason, it is beneicial to a project to establish contact with the local
building department early enough in the design process to address any questions of interpretation.
Numerous publications offer explanations and interpretations of many aspects of code use, though
they should always be used in conjunction with the code itself, and not as a substitute. In addition,
licensed code consultants can provide further clariication of codes or offer a general review of
projects, especially large and complex ones, with an eye to code compliance.
Even with the help of consultants and the interpretations of others, architects must make every effort
to familiarize themselves with pertinent codes, which puts them in a position of greater authority when
issues of interpretation do arise. It is never recommended to memorize passages of the code, however,
because these will change over time and memory may fail. What is important is to have a thorough
working knowledge of the table of contents and to be able to navigate the code with a conident eficiency that, like all aspects of the practice of architecture, comes with experience.
OTHER CODES
Within any one jurisdiction, a complex variety of codes may still be in use, even if the IBC has been
adopted as the primary code. Local building departments must always be consulted for a complete
breakdown of what codes are to be addressed for any given project. In addition, federal laws such
as the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Federal Fair Housing Act must be followed.
All codes are structured around protection of human life and of property, including both prevention
and reaction. Code analysis is performed based on the following sets of data:
Occupancy Type
Construction Type
Building or Floor Area
Building Height
Exits and Egress
Building Separations and Shafts
Fire Protection
Fire Extinguishing Systems
Engineering Requirements
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OCCUPANCY TYPE AND USE GROUPS
A building’s use and occupancy are primary criteria for determining many aspects of how codes
will affect a building, including the height, area, and type of construction allowed. Within each
occupancy use group are further subdivisions. It is not unusual for a building to fall under more
than one category of occupancy type, which is known as a mixed-use occupancy. It may then be
handled either as a “separated use,” by providing complete ire separation between occupancies,
or as a “nonseparated use,” by subjecting each occupancy type to the most stringent requirements for its respective use group.
Occupancy Use Groups
A
B
E
F
H
I
M
R
S
U
Assembly
Business
Educational
Factory and Industrial
High Hazard
Institutional
Mercantile
Residential
Storage
Utility and Miscellaneous
In addition, other building types exist which
do not fall into the above categories, and/
or contain elements requiring additional
code requirements.
Group B: Business
Most ofice buildings fall into this
category, including their storage areas
(unless they exceed the amount of
hazardous materials allowable, in which
case they become Use Group H).
Also included are educational facilities
after grade 12 (colleges and universities), outpatient clinics and doctors’
ofices, and research laboratories.
Any assembly area, including a lecture
hall, may fall into Group A and should
be treated as such.
Group E: Educational
More than 6 people, for classes up to
the 12th grade
Group A: Assembly
(50 or more occupants)
Daycare facilities for ive or more
children over age 21/2 (daycare in a
dwelling unit for fewer than 5 people is
classiied as R-3)
A-1: Assembly areas usually with ixed
seats, usually for viewing movies or performances (may or may not have a stage)
A-2: Assembly areas involving serving and
consumption of food and drink, as in a
restaurant or bar. Loose seating and possible patron alcohol impairment are key
factors in this group.
A-3: Other assembly groups that don’t it
A-1 or A-2. May include houses of worship,
art galleries, and libraries.
A-4: Assembly areas for indoor sporting
events.
A-5: Assembly areas for outdoor
sporting events.
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Group F: Factory and Industrial
F-1: Moderate-hazard factory occupancy
that has established that the relative
hazards of fabrication operations do not
put them in Group H (Hazardous) or in
category F-2.
F-2: Low-hazard factory industrial
occupancy where the materials of
manufacture are considered to be
noncombustible.
19
Group H: High-Hazard
Group R: Residential
A range in high-hazard occupancies
from H-1 to H-5, addressing the quantities and nature of use of the hazardous
materials.
R-1: Residences with sleeping units
serving transient occupants. May include
hotels and boarding houses.
Group I: Institutional
R-2: Permanent dwellings with more
than two units. May include apartments,
dormitories, and longer term boarding
houses.
I-1: More than 16 people in a 24-hour
residential environment and under supervised conditions. May include group
homes, assisted-living facilities, and
halfway houses whose residents require
custodial care, but are capable of self
preservation.
R-3: Permanent single-family or duplex
residences. May also include care
facilities for 5 or fewer people, boarding
houses with 10 or fewer occupants, and
(nontransient) congregate living facilities
with 16 fewer occupants. Includes many
residential occupancies not included in
R-1, R-2, R-4, or I.
I-2: More than 5 people in a 24-hour
residential environment and under
supervised conditions and receiving
medical care. May include hospitals and
nursing homes whose residents are unable to respond to emergency situations
without the aid of staff members.
I-3: More than 5 people in a 24-hour
supervised environment under full-time
restraint and security. Because of
security measures, occupants cannot
respond to emergencies without the aid
of a staff member. May include prisons,
detention centers, and mental hospitals,
which may be further subdivided into
ive categories based on the amount
of freedom of movement of residents
inside the facility.
I-4: More than 5 people under supervised conditions or custodial care for
less than 24 hours a day. May include
care facilities for adults and children
under the age of two, who are unable to
respond to emergency situations without
assistance from a staff member.
Group M: Mercantile
Department stores, drug stores, markets, gas stations, sales rooms, and
retail or wholesale stores.
R-4: Between 5 and 16 occupants of a
residential care or assisted-living facility,
in which the residents receive custodial
care on a 24-hour basis, but are capable
of self preservation. Types include
alcohol and drug centers and social
rehabilitation facilities.
Group S: Storage
S-1: Moderate-hazard storage
occupancy for materials not considered
hazardous enough for Group H but that
do not qualify as S-2.
S-2: Low-hazard storage occupancy
for materials considered to be noncombustible.
Group U: Utility and
Miscellaneous
Used for incidental buildings and nonbuildings (such as fences or retaining
walls) that are generally not occupied
for long periods of time and may serve
a secondary function to other occupancies. This occupancy is seldom used
and is not to be used for any building
that is dificult to categorize.
Building Codes
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19
CONSTRUCTION TYPES AND FIRE RESISTANCE
Construction types are categorized by their material content and the resistance to ire of the
structural system. The IBC assigns ive broad categories to all buildings, based on the predominant materials in the building’s construction. These categories are I, II, III, IV, and V, with Type I
being most ire resistive and Type V being least ire resistive. The ive types are divided into A and
B categories, relecting the level of ire-resistance rating for each.
Noncombustible materials, which are deined as being materials “of which no part will ignite and
burn when subjected to ire,” typically include masonry and steel. Combustible materials, which
may be assumed to be materials that fail to meet noncombustibility requirements, include wood
and plastic.
Types of Construction
Noncombustible
IA
IB
All building elements
as listed in IBC
Table 601 (structural
frame, interior and
exterior bearing walls,
interior and exterior
nonbearing walls, floor
construction, and
roof construction) are
of noncombustible
materials.
IIA
Noncombustible/Combustible
IIB
All building elements
as listed in IBC
Table 601 (structural
frame, interior and
exterior bearing walls,
interior and exterior
nonbearing walls, floor
construction, and
roof construction) are
of noncombustible
materials. Type IIB
construction is not
required to be fireresistance rated.
IIIA
IIIB
Exterior walls must
be of noncombustible
materials and interior
building elements may
be of any material
permitted by the code.
Fire retardant–treated
wood framing may be
allowed in exterior
wall assemblies of less
than 2-hour rating, as
long as they comply
with IBC Section
2303.2.
IV
(Heavy Timber = HT)
Exterior walls must
be of noncombustible
materials and interior
building elements may
be of solid or laminated wood without
concealed spaces.
Fire retardant–treated
wood framing may be
allowed in exterior
wall assemblies of less
than 2-hour rating, as
long as they comply
with IBC Section
2303.2.
Combustible
VA
VB
All building elements
as defined by IBC
Table 601 are of any
materials permitted by
the code.
Fire-Resistance Ratings
Fire-resistance ratings are measured in hours or fractions of an hour and relect the amount of
time that a material or assembly of materials will resist ire exposure, as set forth in ASTM E119
(American Society for Testing and Materials Standard for Fire Tests of Building Constructions).
When beginning design of a building, the initial code analysis must consider the desired occupancy and the desired height and area to determine the minimum allowable construction type for
ire ratings.
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19
Means of Egress Diagram
An exit is an enclosed,
protected way of travel
from an exit access
to an exit discharge.
When the exit access
is above or below
the grade of the exit
discharge, an enclosed
stair or ramp is
required.
The number of means
out of an occupied
space are determined
by size, occupancy
type, and occupant
load.
An exit access
leads an
occupant from
an occupied part
of the building
to an exit
(commonly, this
is a corridor).
PU
BL
IC
WA
Y
An exit discharge
provides a means
of moving from an
exit to a public way.
This is considered an unallowable
dead-end corridor, unless a second
means of egress is provided. Typically, dead-end corridors must not
exceed 20' (6 069), though exceptions exist for certain occupancies
and sprinklered conditions.
Building Codes
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19
MEANS OF EGRESS
IBC 202 deines a means of egress as “a
continuous and unobstructed path of vertical and horizontal egress travel from any
occupied portion of a building or structure
to a public way.” It consists of the exit
access, the exit, and the exit discharge.
Simply put, means of egress provide conditions for getting all occupants to a safe
place (usually an outdoor public way) in
the event of ire or other emergency.
Required Egress Widths
Sizes are determined by coordinating IBC
Table 1004.1 (summarized on the following
page) with the requirements below, taking
whichever number is higher.
Egress Doors
In areas with an egress load of more than ifty
occupants, or any Group H occupancy, exit
access doors should swing in the direction
of travel. If they swing into a required egress
path, they may not reduce the required width
by more than one half while swinging open,
and once opened 180º, the door may not project into the required width more than 7” (178).
Number of Means of Egress
Per IBC Table 1015.1, occupancy spaces that require
more than one means of egress are:
A, B, E, F, M, and U, with occupant loads 50 and over
H-1, H-2, H-3, with occupant loads over 3
H-4, H-5, I-1, I-2, I-3, I-4, and R, with occupant loads
over 10
S with occupant loads 30 and over
Any occupancy between 501 and 1,000 requires three
exits, and occupancies over 1,000 require four.
Exit Passageways
Minimum passageway width is determined
by IBC 1005.1 but must not be less
than 44” (1 118), except for the following
conditions:
Within a dwelling unit or in an occupancy
of less than ifty: 36” (914)
Group E with a hundred or more capacity:
72” (1 829)
Group I-2 areas with required bed movement: 96” (2 438)
Egress Stairs
Egress doors should be a minimum of 6’-8”
(2 032) high, with a clear opening width
determined by IBC 1008.1, but no less than
32” (813), measured from the face of the
door to the stop when open.
Maximum width of a swinging door leaf is
48” (1 219).
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Minimum width is determined by IBC
1005.1 but must not be less than 44” (1
118), except for passageways serving occupant loads of less than ifty, which must
be no less than 36” (914).
Ramps in an egress system should have
a width no less than the corridors that
serve them, and no less than 36” (914)
between handrails..
19
Determining
Occupancy Loads
The table at right may be used to
establish occupant loads per area
sizes, from which egress widths
per occupant are calculated.
Alternatively, occupant loads are
determined by the actual number,
if larger, of occupants for whom
the space is designed or, in addition, for whom the space will
serve as a means of egress.
Maximum Floor Areas per Occupant
(excerpted from IBC Table 1004.1.2)
Type of Occupancy
Floor Area per Occupant
Assembly with fixed seats
Occupant load for areas with fixed
seats and aisles is determined by the
number of seats, with one person for
every 18” (457) of seating length;
or one person for every 24” (610) in
seating booths.
Assembly without fixed seats
chairs (concentrated):
7 sq. ft. (0.65 m2) net
standing space:
5 sq. ft. (0.46 m2) net
Required Egress Widths
in Inches
Per Occupant
All Other Occupancies
I-2 Institutional
H-1, H-2, H-3, and H-4
Stairs
0.7
(no
sprinkler
system)
0.3
(with
sprinkler
system)
0.3
(with
sprinkler
system)
Other Egress
Components
0.4
(no
sprinkler
system)
0.2
(with
sprinkler
system)
0.2
(with
sprinkler
system)
0.3
(no
sprinkler
system)
0.2
(no
sprinkler
system)
0.2
(with
sprinkler
system)
0.15
(with
sprinkler
system)
tables and chairs (unconcentrated):
15 sq. ft. (1.39 m2) net
Business areas
100 sq. ft. (9.29 m2) gross
Dormitories
50 sq. ft. (4.65 m2) gross
Educational—classrooms
20 sq. ft. (1.86 m2) net
Educational—
shop and vocational areas
50 sq. ft. (4.65 m2) net
Commercial kitchens
200 sq. ft. (18.58 m2) gross
Library reading room
50 sq. ft. (4.65 m2) net
Library stacks
100 sq. ft. (9.29 m2) gross
Mercantile—
basement or grade floor
30 sq. ft. (2.79 m2) gross
Mercantile—floors other than
basement or grade floor
60 sq. ft. (5.57 m2) gross
Mercantile—
storage, stock, and shipping
300 sq. ft. (27.87 m2) gross
Parking garage
200 sq. ft. (18.58 m2) gross
Residential
200 sq. ft. (18.58 m2) gross
Net area is generally considered to be the actual occupied area and
does not include unoccupied areas such as corridors, walls, stairways,
or toilets. Gross area includes loor area within the inside perimeter of
the exterior walls, as well as corridors, stairways, closets, interior
partitions, columns, and other ixed features.
Building Codes
205
20
Chapter 20: ADA and Accessibility
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed by Congress in 1990 to protect
and honor the civil rights of people with disabilities, including conditions affecting mobility, sight, hearing, stamina, speech, and learning disorders. Modeled on earlier landmark laws prohibiting discrimination based on race and gender, the ADA provides equal
access for all people to housing, public accommodations, employment, government
services, transportation, and telecommunications. Similar to building codes, accessibility guidelines and standards are continually subject to improvement and revision,
and in 2010 the Department of Justice adopted a revised set of standards, published
as the 2010 Standards for Accessible Design. Included among the revisions are accommodation for children, and ambulatory (in addition to wheelchair) accessibility.
KEY TERMS AS DEFINED BY ADA
Access aisle: Accessible pedestrian space between elements such as parking spaces, seating,
or desks that provides clearances appropriate for
use of the elements.
Accessible: Of a site, building, facility, or portion
thereof, in compliance with ADA guidelines.
Accessible element: Element (telephone, controls, and the like) speciied by ADA guidelines as
in compliance.
Accessible route: Continuous unobstructed path
connecting all accessible elements and spaces
of a building or facility. Interior accessible routes
may include corridors, loors, ramps, elevators,
lifts, and clear loor space at ixtures. Exterior
accessible routes may include parking access
aisles, curb ramps, crosswalks at vehicular ways,
walks, ramps, and lifts.
Accessible space: Space that complies with ADA
guidelines.
Adaptability: Ability of certain building spaces
and elements, such as kitchen counters, sinks,
and grab bars, to be added or altered so as to
accommodate the needs of individuals with or
without disabilities or with different types or
degrees of disability.
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Addition: Expansion, extension, or increase in
the gross loor area of a building or facility.
Administrative authority: Governmental
agency that adopts or enforces regulations
and guidelines for the design, construction, or
alteration of buildings and facilities.
Area of rescue assistance: Area that has
direct access to an exit, where people who
cannot use stairs may remain temporarily in
safety to await further instructions or assistance during emergency evacuation.
Assembly area: Room or space accommodating a group of individuals for recreational,
educational, political, social, or amusement
purposes, or for the consumption of food and
drink.
Automatic door: Door equipped with a poweroperated mechanism and controls that open
and close the door automatically on receipt
of a momentary actuating signal. The switch
that begins the automatic cycle may be a photoelectric device, loor mat, or manual switch.
See power-assisted door.
20
Building: Any structure used and intended for
supporting or sheltering any use or occupancy.
Circulation path: Exterior or interior way
of passage from one place to another for
pedestrians, including, but not limited to,
walks, hallways, courtyards, stairways, and
stair landings.
Clear: Unobstructed.
Clear floor space: Minimum unobstructed
loor or ground space required to accommodate a single, stationary wheelchair and
occupant.
Common use: Describes interior and exterior
rooms, spaces, or elements that are made
available for the use of a restricted group
of people (for example, the occupants of a
homeless shelter, the occupants of an ofice
building, or the guests of such occupants).
Cross slope: Slope that is perpendicular to
the direction of travel.
Curb ramp: Short ramp cutting through a curb
or built up to it.
Detectable warning: Standardized surface
feature built in or applied to a walking surface
or other elements to warn visually impaired
people of hazards on a circulation path.
Elements: Architectural or mechanical component of a building, facility, space, or site (for
example, a telephone, curb ramp, door, drinking fountain, seating, or water closet).
Entrance: Any access point to a building or
portion of a building or facility used for the
purpose of entering. An entrance includes the
approach walk, the vertical access leading to
the entrance platform, the entrance platform
itself, vestibules if provided, the entry door(s)
or gate(s), and the hardware of the entry
door(s) or gate(s).
Marked crossing: Crosswalk or other identiied path intended for pedestrian use in crossing a vehicular way.
Operable part: Part of a piece of equipment or
appliance used to insert or withdraw objects,
or to activate, deactivate, or adjust the equipment or appliance (for example, a coin slot,
push button, or handle).
Power-assisted door: Door used for human
passage with a mechanism that helps to open
the door, or relieves the opening resistance
of a door, on the activation of a switch or a
continued force applied to the door itself.
Egress, means of: Continuous and unobstructed way of exit travel from any point in a
building or facility to a public way. A means of
egress comprises vertical and horizontal travel
and may include intervening room spaces,
doorways, hallways, corridors, passageways,
balconies, ramps, stairs, enclosures, lobbies,
horizontal exits, courts, and yards. An accessible means of egress is one that complies
with ADA guidelines and does not include
stairs, steps, or escalators. Areas of rescue
assistance or evacuation elevators may be included as part of accessible means of egress.
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207
20
Public use: Describes interior or exterior rooms or spaces that are made
available to the general public. Public
use may be provided at a building or
facility that is privately
or publicly owned.
Ramp: Walking surface that has a
running slope greater than 1:20.
SIGNAGE
Elevator Control Panel
Raised
character
and Braille
designations - left
of button
button
diameter
3/4” (19)
Running slope: Slope that is parallel
to the direction of travel.
main
entry loor
Signage: Displayed verbal, symbolic,
tactile, and pictorial information.
door open
door close
emergency
alarm
emergency stop
Space: Deinable area (for example,
a room, toilet room, hall, assembly
area, entrance, storage room, alcove,
courtyard, or lobby).
Tactile: Of an object, perceptible using the sense of touch.
Text telephone: Machinery or
equipment that employs interactive
graphic (that is, typed) communications through the transmission of
coded signals across the standard
telephone network. Text telephones
can include devices known as TDDs
(telecommunication display devices
or telecommunication devices for
deaf persons) or computers.
Walk: Exterior pathway with a
prepared surface intended for
pedestrian use, including general
pedestrian areas such as plazas
and courts.
Emergency controls should be grouped at the
bottom, with centerlines no less than 35” (889)
AFF.
Raised and Tactile Characters
Characters should be raised 1/32” (0.8)
and in uppercase with sans serif font. Characters shall not be italic, oblique, decorative
or unusual.
Characters must be accompanied by Grade
2 Braille.
Raised characters must be a minimum of 5/8”
(16) and maximum of 2” (51) high based on an
uppercase I.
Braille shall be positioned below the corresponding text, and shall be separated by 3/8”
(10) minimum from any other tactile characters
or raised borders.
Tactile characters on signs shall be located
48” (1 220) min. AFF, measured from the
baseline of the lowest character, and 60” (1
525) max. AFF, measured from the baseline of
the highest tactile character.
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Visual Characters
ACCESSIBLE MEANS OF EGRESS
Characters and background must be eggshell, matte, or another nonglare inish and
must contrast with background (either light
on dark or dark on light).
Any space that is considered to be
accessible must have at least one
accessible means of egress.
Characters may be uppercase or lowercase, or a combination of both, and
shall not be italic, oblique, decorative or
unusual.
Minimum character height shall be determined by the horizontal viewing distance
(per 2010 Standard 703).
Pictograms
Text descriptors (if any) must be placed
directly below pictogram ield.
Pictograms can be any size within a minimum ield of 6” (153) in height.
Elevators that comply with ASME A17.1,
Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, may be allowed as part of an accessible egress route. Primarily, they must be
equipped with standby power and emergency
operation and signaling devices, and most
must be accessed from an area of refuge.
Areas of refuge, where those unable to use
stairways remain temporarily in an evacuation, should be in an egress stairway or have
direct access to one, or to an elevator with
emergency power. Two-way communications
systems should be provided in the area of
refuge, connecting it to a central control
point.
One 30” x 48” (762 x 1 219) wheelchair space
must be provided for every two hundred
occupants of the space served. Generally
these spaces are alcoves within an enclosed stair, because they must not reduce
the egress width.
Except in sprinklered buildings, accessible
egress stairways should be a minimum of
48” (1 219) wide clear between handrails.
This provides a space wide enough for two
people to carry a disabled person down or
up to safety.
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209
20
ACCESSIBLE PARKING SPACES
The length of accessible
parking spaces must be
in accordance with local
building codes. Accessible
spaces should be marked
by high-contrast painted
lines or other high-contrast
delineation. Access
aisles should be a part
of an accessible route
to the building or facility
entrance. Two accessible
parking spaces may share
a common access aisle.
Access aisles should be
marked clearly by means
of diagonal stripes.
parking space
96”
(2 438)
access
aisle
parking space
60”
(1 524)
96”
(2 438)
for vans:
96”
(2 438)
Number of Accessible Spaces Required
210
1–25
1
26–50
2
51–75
3
76–100
4
101–150
5
151–200
6
201–300
7
301–400
8
401–500
9
501–1,000
2% of total
1,001 and over
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Surface slopes should not exceed
1:50 (2%) in any direction on accessible
parking spaces and access aisles.
Accessible parking spaces serving a
particular building should be located on
the shortest accessible route of travel
from the adjacent parking to an accessible entrance.
In buildings with multiple accessible
entrances with adjacent parking,
accessible parking spaces should be
dispersed and located closest to the
accessible entrances.
20
WHEELCHAIR SPACE ALLOWANCES
Clear loor or ground space is deined as the minimum clear area required to accommodate a
single, stationary wheelchair and occupant. This applies to both forward and parallel approaches
to an element or object. Clear loor space may be part of the knee space required under objects
such as sinks and counters.
Wheelchair Passage Widths
Clear Floor Space at Alcoves
30” (762)
single wheelchair
two wheelchairs
36” (914)
12”
(305)
48” (1 219)
30” x 48”
(762 x 1 219)
clear floor
space, typical
30” (762)
60” (1 524)
x
32” (813)
48” (1 219)
x # 24”
(610)
36” (914)
x # 15” (381)
12”
(305)
x
36” (914)
30” (762)
or
36” (914) if x$ 24” (610)
60” (1 524)
60” (1 524) dia. min.
78” (1 981) preferred
48” (1 219)
or
60” (1 524) if x$ 15” (381)
x
60” (1 524) dia. min.
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DOORS
Maneuvering Clearances at Doors
pull side
60”
(1 524)
Clear Doorway Width and Depth
18”
(458)
hinged door
60”
(1 524)
12”
(305)
sliding door
32”
(813)
push side
folding door
24”
max.
(610)
Swinging Doors
(front approaches)
48”
(1 219)
pull side
42”
(1 067)
24”
(610)
24”
(610)
push side
Swinging Doors
(latch-side approaches)
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Two Hinged Doors
in a Series
Y
X
pull side
54”
(1 372)
48”
(1 219)
42”
(1 067)
push side
If Y=60” (1 524 ),
X =36” (914 )
If Y=54” (1 372),
X =42” (1 067)
Swinging Doors
(hinge-side approaches)
54”
(1 372)
side
48”
(1 219)
42”
(1 067)
48”
(1 219)
front approach
approach
42”
(1 067)
24”
(610)
latch-side approach
Sliding and Folding Doors
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TOILETS AND BATHROOMS
56”-59”
(1 420 - 1 499)
Clear Floor Space at Water Closets - Adult
Toilet Stalls
35” - 37”
(890 - 940)
Grab bars:
32”
(813)
32”
(813)
60”
(1 524)
End-of-Row Wheelchair Accessible Stall
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17–19”
(432–483)
12”
42”
(305) (1 065)
33–36”
(838–914)
16”-18”
(406-457)
non-circular cross sections
shall have a crosssectional dimension of 2”
(51) max, and a perimeter
dimension between 4” and
4.8” (100 - 120)
Ambulatory Accessible Stall
32”
(813)
36”
(914)
56” min. (1 422)
Wheelchair Accessible Stall
54” min.
(1 372)
17” -19”
(432-482)
circular cross section
should be 11/4”–2” (32–51)
in diameter, with a clearance of 11/2” (38) from wall.
42” (1 067) min.
latch-side approach
48” (1 219) min.
other approaches
16”-18”
(406-457)
52” min.
(1 321)
56” min. (1 420)
wall-mtd. toilet
59” (1 499)
floor-mtd. toilet
12”
(305)
12” max.
(305)
60” min.
(1 524)
24” min. 12” max.
(609)
(305)
60” min. (1 524)
60”
(1 525)
Side-wall Elevation
toilet paper dispenser mounting
height: 15” (483)
- 48” (1 220)
20
Lavatories
19” max.
(483)
8” min.
(203)
17” min.
(432)
36” (914)
A seat must be provided in
shower stalls 36” x 36”
(914 x 914), mounted 17”–19”
(432–83) from the bathroom
loor and extending from the
back wall to a point within 3”
(76) of the compartment entry.
36” (914)
30” min.
(762)
60” min.
(1 524)
36” x 48”
(914 x
1 219) min.
clear loor
space
Transfer Type
36” x 60”
(914 x
1 524)
min.
clear
loor
space
Fixed seats in 30” x 60”
(762 x 1 524) shower stalls
should be of a folding type
mounted on the wall adjacent
to the controls.
Roll-in Type
15” (381)
30” x 60” (762 x 1 524)
min. clear loor space
seat
head
seat
Bathtubs
foot
40” max.
(1 016)
6” max.
(19)
Showers
fixed seat
27” min.
(686)
9” min.
(229)
30” x 48”
(762 x
1 219) min.
clear floor
space
34” max.
(864)
17” min.
(432)
48” x 60” (1 219 x 1 524)
min. clear loor space
12” max. 24” min.
(305)
(610)
30” x 75” (762 x 1 905) min.
clear loor space
48” min.
(1 219)
33-36”
(838-914)
8”-10”
(203-254)
12”max.
(305)
ADA
ADA and
and Accessibility
Accessibility
215
20
ELEVATORS
”
54 2)
37
1
(
60”
(1 524)
Call buttons
must be a minimum 3/4” (19)
in the smallest
direction.
42”
(1 067)
Door jambs
should have
raised and
Braille loor
designation
markings.
72”
(1 829)
Hall lantern
ixtures at
each hoistway
entrance must
indicate visibly
and audibly
which car is answering a call.
(1
68
”
72
7)
36
(91 ”
4)
Typical Dimensions for off-centered door
RAMPS
The rise for any ramp run before landing shall be
30” (762) max.
The minimum
clear width
of a ramp
should be 36”
(914), inside
handrails. If
a ramp has a
rise greater
than 6” (150)
then it should
have handrails
on both sides.
th
ram
g
mi
n.
idt
h
)
c
oje
l pr
nta
rizo
ing
and
el l
lev 60” 5)
2
(1 5
un
n (r
tio
ho
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
din
pw
Maximum
slope is 1:12.
216
lan
wid
rise
ing
and
el l ”
v
e
l
60 5)
2
(1 5
=
20
STAIRS
Handrails
Nosings
at wall: handrail
returns to wall
11/4” –2”
(32–51) dia.
Risers should be
sloped, or the
underside of nosings
should have an angle
not less than 60º
from the horizontal.
at switchback:
handrail is
continuous
11/2” (38) min.
from wall
where no wall:
handrail returns
smoothly to the
loor
lush riser
11” (280) min.
tread depth
handrail extension at top of
run = 12” (305)
minimum
angled nosing
7” (178) max.
riser height
rounded nosing
g
din th
lan id
n. h = w
i
m dt ir
wi sta
of
80”
(2 032)
Handrail
Extension (min.)at
Bottom of Run
27”
(686)
34” –38”
(864–965)
tread
depth
ne
ca
rea
na
tio
c
ete
d
ADA
ADA and
and Accessibility
Accessibility
217
21
Chapter 21: Parking
Almost everywhere, parking is often a person’s irst and last interface with a building
and should be designed with this in mind. Primarily, parking should be safe, eficient,
well-marked, and able to accommodate users of all kinds. Because vehicle sizes luctuate, parking areas must be lexible enough to respond to future scenarios.
General Guidelines
PARKING LOTS
Pavement striping should
be 4” (102) wide, in white
or yellow paint.
Parking area surfaces should
have a minimum slope of 2
percent (a quarter-inch per
foot or 6 mm per 305 mm)
for drainage purposes.
20’-0” to 24’-0”, typ.
(6 096 to 7 315)
45º
60º
75º
width
stall
90º
8’-0”
(2 438)
stall length
aisle
Parking Stalls
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
20’-0” (6 096)
Parallel Parking
Lots are laid out with modules. One complete module
includes one access aisle
and the parking it serves on
either side.
The most common angle for
parking is the 60º stall, which
provides for ease of entering
and exiting spaces while still
allowing for an eficiently
sized module. Stalls of 45º
reduce the total number of
parking spaces for a given
area but do not require a
wide access aisle. They are
the only acceptable angle
for a herringbone parking lot
pattern. Stalls of 90º provide
the most parking spaces for
a given area, though they are
unsuitable for in-and-out trafic, due to the higher degree
of dificulty entering and exiting the stalls. They are ideal
for all-day parking, such as
for employees.
21
COMMON PARKING STALL LAYOUTS
cross aisle (one-way): 14’ (4 267)
cross aisle (two-way): 24’ (7 315)
G
H
A
B
C
D
interlock
interlocking module
stall depth
A
B
C
D
45º
17.5’
(5 334)
12.0’
(3 658)
15.3’
(4 663)
42.6’
(12 984)
60º
19.0’
(5 791)
16.0’
(4 877)
17.5’
(5 334)
51.0’
(15 549)
75º
19.5’
(5 944)
23.0’
(7 010)
18.8’
(5 730)
61.0’
(18 593)
90º
18.5’
(5 639)
26.0’
(7 925)
18.5’
(5 639)
63.0’
(19 202)
Recommended parking layouts and stall
dimensions vary and are most often determined by local or state zoning provisions
(which should always be consulted). Commonly accepted minimum stall sizes are
9' (2 743) x 18.5'–19.5' (5 639–944),
though sizes and layouts should best
accommodate their situation; for instance,
stalls at hardware or grocery stores
should be wide enough to accommodate
easy loading and unloading of large packages, and may be up to 10' (3 048) wide.
Compact car spaces may be as small as
7'-6" (2 286) x 15' (4 572) and should be
well marked and logically grouped.
Par king
219
21
Parking Lot Flows
Two-way 90 Degrees
One-way Angled
Common Parking Space Allocations
Hospital
Auditorium/theater/stadium
Restaurant
Industrial
Church
Retail
Ofice
Shopping center
Hotels/motel
Senior high schools
Elementary schools
1.2 per bed
0.3 per seat
0.3 per seat
0.6 per employee
0.3 per seat
4.0 per 1000’ gross loor area
3.3 per 1000’ gross loor area
5.5 per 1000’ gross leasable area
1.0 per room/0.5 per employee
0.2 per student/1.0 per staff member
1.0 per classroom
Typical Car Length Classifications
Pre-1975
Subcompact
Compact
Intermediate
Standard
220
Post-1975
<100” (2 540)
101”–111” (2 565–819)
112”–118” (2 845–997)
>119” (3 025)
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Small
Medium
Large
<100” (2 540)
100”–112” (2 540–845)
>112” (2 845)
21
PARKING GARAGES
Ramp Design
length
ramp
blend
7’-0” (2 134)
minimum
blend
Straight Ramps
Length
Helical Ramps
< 65’-0” (19 812)
> 65’-0” (19 812)
Blend length
10’-0” (3 048)
8’-0” (2 438)
Blend slope
8%
6%
Ramp slope
16%
12%
width = 15’-0” (4 572)
for counterclockwise travel
width = 20’-0” (6 096)
for clockwise travel
slope = 12% maximum
(4% in transverse direction)
General Considerations
e
width
op
Express helical exit ramps are
recommended to avoid congestion
inside garage.
17’-0”
(5 182)
sl
Parking garage stalls should be
well-marked and use clear signage
to direct drivers, especially in one-way
trafic situations.
Par king
221
22
Chapter 22: Stairs
Stairs are a primary method of vertical circulation in most private residences and even
in public places where elevators or escalators are present. In elevatored buildings,
building codes will require a minimum number of enclosed exit stairs. Stair construction is typically of wood, metal, or concrete, or a combination of all three.
STAIR TYPES
Straight Run Stair
Fire codes generally restrict the total rise
of a straight stair to 12’-0” (3 658) before
an intermediate landing is required.
Landing depth should equal
the stair width.
L-shaped Stair with Landing
L-shaped stairs may contain long or
short legs, with a landing at any
change in direction.
U-shaped Stair with Landing
U-shaped stairs, which switch back
as they ascend, are useful in tight
loor plans and as one component in
a stacking multilevel circulation
system (such as an egress stair core).
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22
L-shaped Stair with Winders
Winders may help to compress the area
needed for a stair by adding angled treads
where a landing might go in a typical
L-shaped stair. Most winders do not
comply with local codes.
L-shaped Stair with Offset Winders
Offset winder treads are more generous in
proportion and, therefore, may comply with
applicable codes.
Spiral Stair
Spiral stairs occupy a minimum amount of
plan space and are often used in private
residences. Most spiral stairs are not
acceptable as egress stairs, except in
residences and in spaces of ive or fewer
occupants in 250 sq. ft. (23 m2) or less.
Curved Stair
Curved stairs follow the same layout
principles of spiral stairs. Though with a
suficient open center diameter, the treads
may be dimensioned to legal code standards for egress.
Stairs
223
22
STAIR COMPONENTS
break line
(entire run of
stair cannot
be seen in
loor plan)
arrow indicates direction of
stair (one plan might have
stairs going down and up)
dashed lines
indicate stair
continues
above break
line
UP
total run of stair
ceiling clearance: 6’-8” (2 032) min.
guard rail height: 42” (1 067) min.
total rise of stair
handrail height: 34–38” (864–965)
max. opening may
allow an 8” (203) dia.
sphere to pass through
max. opening may
allow a 4” (102) dia.
sphere to pass through
max. opening may
allow a 6” (152) dia.
sphere to pass through
Plan and Elevation of Stair
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
22
riser: 6” (152)
tread: 111/2” (292)
riser: 5” (127)
tread: 121/2” (318)
Riser and Tread Dimensions
Angle
Riser
inches (mm)
Tread
inches (mm)
22.00°
5 (127)
12 1/2 (318)
23.23°
5 1/4 (133)
12 1/4 (311)
24.63°
5 1/2 (140)
12 (305)
3/4
(146)
11
3/4
(299)
26.00°
5
27.55°
6 (152)
11 1/2 (292)
29.05°
6 1/4 (159)
11 1/4 (286)
30.58°
6 1/2 (165)
11 (279)
32.13°
6 3/4 (172)
10 3/4 (273)
33.68°
7 (178)
10 1/2 (267)
35.26°
7
1/4
10 1/4 (260)
36.87°
7 1/2 (191)
10 (254)
38.48°
7 3/4 (197)
9 3/4 (248)
40.13°
8 (203)
9 1/2 (241)
41.73°
8 1/4 (210)
9 1/4 (235)
(184)
43.36°
8 1/2 (216)
9 (229)
45.00°
8 3/4 (222)
8 3/4 (222)
46.63°
9 (229)
8 1/2 (216)
48.27°
9
1/4
(235)
8 1/4 (210)
9
1/2
(241)
8 (203)
49.90°
riser: 7” (178)
tread: 101/2” (267)
riser: 8” (203)
tread: 91/2” (241)
46.63º
40.13º
33.68º
27.55º
22.00º
TREADS AND RISERS
riser: 9” (224)
tread: 81/2” (216)
General Guidelines
The following are rules of thumb
for calculating limits; always
check appropriate local codes:
riser x run = 72”–75” (1 829–905)
riser + run = 17”–17 1/2” (432–45)
2(riser) + run = 24”–25” (610–35)
exterior stairs: 2(riser) + run =
26” (660)
Nonresidential:
minimum width = 44” (1 120)
maximum riser = 7 1/2” (191)
minimum tread = 11” (279)
Residential:
minimum width = 36” (915)
maximum riser = 8 1/4” (210)
minimum tread = 9” (229)
Blue band indicates preferred proportions
for comfort and safety.
Stairs
225
23
Chapter 23: Doors
Interior and exterior doors may be of many combinations of wood, metal, and glass,
and mounted in wood or metal frames. Interior doors may require various levels of ire
ratings; exterior doors must be well constructed and tightly weather-stripped to avoid
excessive leakage of air and moisture.
Widths
2’-0”
2’-4”
2’-6”
2’-8”
2’-10”
3’-0”
3’-4”
3’-6”
3’-8”
3’-10”
4’-0”
(610)
(711)
(762)
(813)
(864)
(914)
(1 016)
(1 067)
(1 118)
(1 168)
(1 219)
Preferred SI
Dimensions
door frame
single widths:
700 mm, 800 mm,
900 mm, 1 000 mm
head jamb
5”
(127)
double widths:
1 200 mm, 1 500 mm,
1 800 mm
st
rik
e
equal
heights:
2 100 mm, 2 200 mm,
2 400 mm
lo
ck
Thicknesses
ha
48”
nd
le
21/4” (54)
equal
13/4” (44)
(1 219)
de
ad
13/8” (35)
(2 134)
7’-2”
(2 184)
7’-10”*
(2 388)
8’-0”*
(2 438)
10”
(254)
(2 032)
7’-0”
(914)
6’-8”
36”
Heights
*13/4” thick
doors only
side jamb
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23
DOOR TYPES
Flush
Vision Panel
Narrow Lite
Glass
Glass
Louvered
Louvered
Glass and Louvered
Fire Doors
U.L. Label
Rating
Glazing Permitted: 1/4” (6.4) Wire Glass
A
3 hour
no glazing permitted
B
11/2
C
3/4
D
E
hour
100 sq. in. (64 516 mm2) per leaf
hour
1 296 sq. in. (836 179 mm2) per light; 54” (1 372) max. dimension
11/2 hour
3/4
hour
no glazing permitted
720 sq. in. (464 544 mm2) per light; 54” (1 372) max. dimension
Max. door size: 4’ x 10’ (1 219 x 3 048); door frame and hardware must have same rating
as door; door must be self-latching and equipped with closers; louvers with fusible links
are permitted for B and C label doors; no louver and glass light combinations are allowed.
Doors
227
23
WOOD DOORS
Flush Solid Core
Flush Hollow Core
Panel
Used primarily for exterior
conditions and wherever
increased ire resistance,
sound insulation, and dimensional stability are required.
Lightweight and inexpensive, used primarily for
interior applications, though
may be used on the exterior
if bonded with a waterproof
adhesive. Low sound and
heat insulation value.
Supporting framework of
rails and stiles may hold
panels of wood, glass, or
louvers. Makeup of doors
minimizes dimensional
changes brought on by
luctuating moisture content
of the wood.
rail
stile
stile
stile
rail
panel
rail
rail
Door Elevation
Door Elevation
Door Elevation
Detail Section
Detail Section
Detail Section
face
veneer
face
veneer
panel
cross
banding
cross
banding
solid core:
continuous
block, stile
and rail,
mineral
composition,
or particle
board
hollow core:
mesh grid,
ladder strips,
honeycomb,
or spiral
blanks
wood
spacers
edge strip
edge strip
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
stile or rail
23
Typical Wood Door Framing
head and side jamb
should have similar
proile to ensure
continuous frame
around doorway
wall construction
Head
shim space
casing or trim
(exterior joints may
require lashing and
caulk)
Jamb
In the prehung method,
shims help assure that
the door and frame will it
cleanly in the rough opening
provided. The resulting gap
between the frame and the
wall inish is generally
covered with a casing.
Detailing of this condition
may take many forms,
depending on the desired
result, though a common
approach is shown at left.
rabbeted door frame
(interior frames may
have applied stops)
Wood Face Veneer Types
Standard: 1/32” –1/16”
(0.08–1.6), bonded to
hardwood; crossband of
1/16” –1/10” (1.6–2.5).
Economical and widely
used; for all types of cores.
Dificult to reinish or repair
face damage.
In the interest of speed and
economy, many wood doors
have been prehung (hinged
and itted to their frames at
the mill). When they arrive
on site, the carpenter may
tilt the frame into the rough
opening, carefully plumbing
the frame and shimming as
necessary before nailing the
frame in place.
Wood Grades
Sawn veneers: 1/8” (3.2),
bonded to crossband. Easily
reinished and repaired.
Premium:
For natural, clear,
or stained inishes
Sawn veneers: 1/4” (6.4),
no crossband on stile and
rail. Face depth allows for
decorative grooves.
Standard:
For opaque
(painted) inishes
Doors
229
23
HOLLOW METAL DOORS
Meeting Stiles
top rail
hinge stile
lush or
recessed
panel
rabbeted
parallel bevel
with z astragal
bull nose
vinyl or rubber
astragal
parallel bevel
plate astragal
v-bevel
one-piece overlapping astragal
center rail
lock stile
bottom rail
Standard Double Rabbet Frame
jamb depth
rabbet 1
sofit
throat opening
rabbet 2
backbend
frame head
frame jamb
backbend
door
meeting stiles
face
stop
Jamb
Depth
230
4 3/4”
(121)
5 1/2”
(140)
5 3/4”
(146)
6 3/4”
(171)
7 3/4”
(197)
Rabbet 1
19/16” (40) standard for 1 3/8” (35) door
Rabbet 2
115/16” (49) standard for 1 3/4” (44) door
8 3/4”
(222)
12 3/4”
(324)
Backbend
1/2”
(13)
3/4”
(19)
1/2”
(13)
1/2”
(13)
1/2”
(13)
1/2”
(13)
1/2”
(13)
Throat
33/4”
(95)
4”
(102)
4 3/4”
(121)
5 3/4”
(146)
6 3/4”
(171)
7 3/4”
(197)
11 3/4”
(298)
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
23
FRAME ANCHORS
Hollow Metal
Door Gauges
GRADE
GAUGE
Residential
20 and lighter
Commercial
16 and 18
Institutional
12 and 14
High Security
steel plate
Standard Floor Knee
Jambs are attached to the
loor with powder-driven
fasteners.
Wood Stud Anchor
Jambs are anchored to wood studs
by nailing through holes in jamb
inserts.
Steel Channel Anchor
Jambs are anchored to steel
studs; sheet metal zees are
welded to jambs, and receive
screws driven through studs.
Extended Frame with Base Anchor
Floor-topping concrete is poured
around the door frame.
Masonry T Anchor
Jambs are anchored to masonry
walls: loose sheet metal tees are
inserted into the frame and built
into the mortar joints.
OTHER CORES
treated ibrous
material formed
into honeycomb
anhydrous mineral,
foam, or iber core
kiln-dried structural
wood core
z-member or channel
stiffeners (vertical,
horizontal, or gridded)
Doors
231
COMPENDIUM
232
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
4.
The art of architecture is not easily quantiied or deined. It is certainly
more than the sum of the systems and materials that give it shape,
though architecture would not exist without the standardized procedures that erect its forms. The preceding chapters have provided the
rudimentary tools for making buildings. It is in how architects use
these tools to transform limitations into possibilities that allow them
to navigate challenging situations and ultimately produce a better
built environment.
The breadth of practical information about basic systems and
concepts that this book has so far touched on is also a way of
describing the world of architecture to all its users. What follows
is a broad overview of how these basic systems have become a
history of our overlapping cultures.
We live in the built world: Whether it is well-designed or poorly
designed, it is the space and surface of our existence. By inhabiting
architecture and moving around it, we have knowledge of it. To
enhance our understanding, this book ends with a beginning: an
introduction to a range of resources within the enormous, endless
scope of architectural information and discussion.
233
233
3000
Chapter 24: Timeline
B.C.E.
24
The history of architecture is a history
of civilization. Buildings are artifacts
intrinsically linked to the epoch and
society of their creation, clearly expos-
ANCIENT
Great Sphinx of Giza
(ca. 2500 B.C.E.) Egypt
Great Pyramids of Giza
(2570–2500 B.C.E.) Egypt
•
•
ing the varied conditions of how they
came to be. To understand a piece
of architecture is to gain insight into
•
countless aspects of a place and a
moment in time—geography, weather,
social hierarchies, religious practices,
and industrialization. And because
architecture is rarely portable, it is
virtually impossible to disengage a
building from its origins.
The luidity of history can make for
unwieldy attempts to classify periods
succinctly, and architectural styles
and movements relect this dificulty:
Though some styles may have come
into sudden existence as the result of
a speciic event, most evolve slowly
and taper off gradually. The distillation
of any history presents obvious limitations; therefore, many dates shown
here are approximations, serving the
overall purpose of this timeline, which
is to illustrate relationships among
movements.
(Before Common Era) = B.C.
C.E. (Common Era) = A.D.
b. = before; c. = century; ca. = circa
B.C.E.
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Stonehenge
(ca. 2900–1400 B.C.E.)
Salisbury Plain, England
•
•
•
0
B.C.E.
1000
B.C.E.
2000
24
Hall at Karnak
• Hypostyle
)
(ca. 1300
B.C.E.
Egypt
Egyptian
(ca. 3500–30 B.C.E.)
Mortuary Temple
• Mentuhotep
)
(2061–2010
B.C.E.
Deir el-Bahari, Egypt
Temple of Ramses II
• Great
)
(ca. 1285–1225
B.C.E.
Abu Simbel, Egypt
El Castillo
(850 C.E.)
Chichen Itza,
Yucatan, Mexico
Greek
(ca. 2000–31 B.C.E.)
Palace at Knossos
(1700–1380 B.C.E.)
Knossos, Greece
•
Temple of Hera
(460 B.C.E.) Paestum, Italy
of the Rock
• Dome
)
(687–89
C.E.
•
Jerusalem
Temple of Apollo (310 B.C.E.) Turkey
Paeonis and Daphnis
•
Parthenon (448–432
)•
Athens, Greece
•
•
Temple of Paestum
(ca. 530-460 B.C.E.) Paestum, Italy
B.C.E.
Stoa of Attalus
(150 B.C.E.)
Athens, Greece
•
Romanesque
(500–1200 C.E.)
of Caracalla
• Baths
)
(215
Rome, Italy
•
of Constantine
• Arch
)
(312–15
C.E.
Pantheon
(rebuilt 118–25 C.E.)
Rome, Italy
Roman
C.E.
(510 B.C.E.–476 C.E.)
Pont du Gard
Aqueduct
(15 B.C.E.)
Nîmes, France
•
•
Rome, Italy
(72–80
• Colosseum
Rome, Italy
C.E.)
Ziggurat at Ur
(ca. 2100 B.C.E.)
Mesopotamia
Etruscan
(ca. 9th c.–50 B.C.E.)
Byzantine
(324–15th c.)
Timeline
235
1200
1100
1000
24
MIDDLE AGES
Mahadeva Temple
• Kandariya
(1025–50)
Notre-Dame
Cathedral
(1163–1250)
Paris, France
Khajuraho, India
•
Cathedral
• Chartres
(1194–1220)
Chartres, France
Cathedral
• Amiens
(1220–47)
Amiens, France
Salisbury Cathedral
(1220–60)
Salisbury, England
Cathedral (1110–81)
• Worms
Worms, Germany
Romanesque
(500–1200)
Nuovo
• S.(ca.Apollinaire
490)
Ravenna, Italy
Cathedral (1063–92)
• Pisa
and Baptistery (1153)
Pisa, Italy
Wat
• Angkor
(b. ca. 1120)
Cambodia
Vitale (526)
• San
Ravenna, Italy
Mark (1042–85)
• St.Venice,
Italy
Sophia (537)
• Hagia
Istanbul (Constantinople), Turkey
236
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Byzantine
(324–12th c.)
•
•
•
1500
1300
1400
24
College Chapel
• King’s
(1446–1515)
Cambridge, England
Gothic
(ca. 1140–1500)
•
Cathedral
• Strasbourg
(begun 1277)
Palais de Justice
(1493–1508)
Rouen, France
Milan Cathedral
(1387–1572)
Milan, Italy
•
Alsace, France
of Supreme Harmony
• Hall
(15th c.)
Forbidden City, Beijing, China
Duomo de S. Maria del Fiore
(1377–1436)
Florence, Italy
Filippo Brunelleschi
•
Villa La Rotonda (1557)
Vicenza, Italy
Andrea Palladio
Renaissance
(1350–1600)
Façade of S. Maria Novella (1458)
Florence, Italy
Leon Battista Alberti
•
Library
• Laurentian
(1524)
•
•
San Lorenzo, Italy
Michelangelo
Palazzo Rucelai (1455–70)
Florence, Italy
Leon Battista Alberti
S. Giorgio Maggiore (1566)
Venice, Italy
Andrea Palladio
•
of S. Pietro in Montorio
• Tempietto
(1502)
Rome, Italy
Donato Bramante
Timeline
237
1700
1650
1600
24
PREMODERN
Piazza of St. Peter’s
• Colonnade
(1656)
of S. Susanna
• Façade
(1603)
Rome, Italy
Carlo Maderno
Rome, Italy
Gianlorenzo Bernini
Karlskirche (b. 1656)
Vienna, Austria
Johann Fischer van Erlach
•
Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (b. 1634) Rome, Italy
• S.Francesco
Borromini
Baroque
(1600–1700)
Renaissance
(1350–1600)
Hall
• Wollaton
(1580–88)
Mahal
• Taj
(1630–53)
Agra, India
Emperor
Shah Jahan
Nottinghamshire,
England
Robert Smythson
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
•
Chiswick House
(1725–29)
London, England
Lord Burlington
Spanish Steps
(1723–25)
Rome, Italy
Francesco
de Sanctis
•
1850
1800
1750
24
Art Nouveau
(1880–1902)
“Panopticon” (1791)
Jeremy Bentham
Tassel House (1893)
Brussels, Belgium
Victor Horta
•
•
Nationale
• Bibliothèque
(1858–68)
Crystal Palace (1851)
London, England
Joseph Paxton
Salt Works (1780)
Chaux, France
Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
•
Neoclassicism
(1750–1880)
Paris, France
Henri Labrouste
•
(1819–21)
• Schauspielhaus
Berlin, Germany
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
of Virginia (1826)
• University
Charlottesville, Va., USA
Thomas Jefferson
(1771–82)
• Monticello
Charlottesville, Va., USA
Boston Public Library (1887–95)
Boston, Mass., USA
McKim, Mead & White
Thomas Jefferson
•
(1764–90)
• Panthéon
Paris, France
Jacques Germain Souflot
Houses of Parliament
(1836–68)
London, England
Charles Barry
•
Georgian
(1714–1830)
•
•
Marshall Field Wholesale Store
(1885–87) Chicago, Ill., USA
H. H. Richardson
of England
• Bank
(1788)
London, England
John Soane
Rococo
(1700–80)
Timeline
239
•
1940
1920
1900
24
MODERN
Art
Nouveau
•
(1880–1902)
•
German Pavilion (Barcelona Pavilion)
(1928; demolished 1930, rebuilt 1959)
Milà (1906–10)
• Casa
Barcelona, Spain
Barcelona, Spain
Antoni Gaudí
Ludwig
Mies van der Rohe
Savoye (1929)
• Villa
Poissy, France
•
Philip Speakman Webb
Water (1937)
• Falling
Mill Run, Pa., USA
•
Frank Lloyd Wright
•
•
Arts & Crafts
(1860–1925)
Art Deco
(1920s–40s)
State Building (1930)
• Empire
New York, N.Y., USA
Shreve, Lamb & Harmon
Internationale des Arts
• Exposition
Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes
(1925) Paris, France
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THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
•
Le Corbusier
Einstein Tower (1921)
Potsdam, Germany
Erich Mendelsohn
Ward Willits House (1902
Highland Park, Ill. USA
Frank Lloyd Wright
Bauhaus (1925)
Dessau, Germany
Walter Gropius
House (1859–60)
• Red
Bexleyheath, England
•
(1929) New York, N.Y., USA
(1900–45)
•
Eames House (1945)
Paciic Palisades, Calif., USA
Charles & Ray Eames
Style Exhibition,
• International
MoMA
Modernism
Goldman & Salatsch Store
(1910)
Vienna, Austria
Adolf Loos
•
1960
1980
2000
24
Brutalism
School (1954)
• Hunstanton
Norfolk, England
(1950s–70s)
Alison & Peter Smithson
dello Sport
• Palazzetto
(1960)
Rome, Italy
Pier Luigi Nervi
Late
Modernism
(1945–1975)
•
Kimbell Art Museum (1967–72)
Fort Worth, Tex., USA
Louis I. Kahn
Seattle Public Library (2004)
Seattle, Wash., USA
Rem Koolhaas (OMA)
Terminal (1962)
• TWA
New York, N.Y., USA
to the Louvre (1983–89)
• Addition
Paris, France
Eero Saarinen
Center (1964)
• Carpenter
Cambridge, Mass., USA
Le Corbusier
House III (1969–70)
Lakeville, Conn., USA
Peter Eisenman
•
I. M. Pei
Pompidou (1976)
• Centre
Paris, France
•
Renzo Piano & Richard Rogers
Deconstructivism
(1980-88)
House (1949)
• Glass
New Canaan, Conn., USA
de la Villette (1982–85)
• Parc
Paris, France
Philip Johnson
Bernard Tschumi
Gehry House (1977–78)
Santa Monica, Calif., USA
Frank Gehry
•
Postmodernism
Wexner Center
for the Arts (1989)
Columbus, Ohio, USA
Peter Eisenman
•
Building (1982)
• Portland
Portland, Ore., USA
Michael Graves
(1960s–90s)
Building (1978)
• AT&T
New York, N.Y., USA
Philip Johnson & John Burgee
Venturi House (1964)
• Vanna
Chestnut Hill, Pa., USA
Robert Venturi
Timeline
241
25
Chapter 25: Glossary
AASM: Association
of American Steel
Manufacturers
AGCA: Associated General
Contractors of America
AIA: American Institute of
Architects
AISC: American Institute of
Steel Construction.
AISI: American Iron and
Steel Institute
ANSI: American National
Standards Institute
APA: American Plywood
Association
ASHRAE: American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers
ASTM: American Society for
Testing and Materials
CSI: Construction Speciications Institute
IESNA: Illumination
Engineering Society of North
America
ICC: International Code
Council
ICED: International Council
on Environmental Design
ISO: International Organization for Standardization
NIBS: National Institute of
Building Sciences
ADA: Americans with Disabilities Act
NFPA: National Fire
Protection Association
Adaptive reuse: Changing a building’s function in
response to the changing
needs of its users.
RAIC: Royal Architecture
Institute of Canada
RIBA: Royal Institute of
British Architects
UIA: Union Internationale
des Architectes
UL: Underwriters’
Laboratory
A
Aalto, Alvar: (1898-1976)
Finnish architect and
designer; notable buildings
include the Municipal Library
in Viipuri, Finland, Paimio
Sanatorium, and Baker
House at MIT.
Access flooring: Removable
inish loor panels raised
above the loor structure to
allow installation of wiring
and ductwork below.
Accessible: Capable of being reached by all persons,
regardless of levels of
disability.
Acoustical ceiling: System
of ibrous removable tiles
in the ceiling that absorb
sound.
LEED: Leadership in Energy
& Environmental Design
242
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
AFF: Above inish loor.
Aggregate: Particles such
as sand, gravel, and stone
used in concrete and
plaster.
Alberti, Leon Battista:
(1404-1472) Italian architect, artist, and Renaissance humanist polymath;
notable work includes the
facade of the Santa Maria
Novella in Florence, Italy,
and numerous treatises on
art and architecture, with
scientiic study of perspective.
Alloy: Substance made
of two or more metals
or a metal and another
substance.
Anchor bolt: Concreteembedded bolt that fastens
a building frame to masonry
or concrete.
Annealed: Metal cooled
under controlled conditions.
Angle: L-shaped steel
or aluminum structural
section.
25
Arch: Structural device that
supports vertical loads by
translating them into axial
forces.
Band/banding: Continuous
horizontal division on a wall
created by different materials, colors, or textures.
Arcade: Series of arches on
columns or piers.
Bar: Small rolled steel shape
Area: Quantity expressing
the size of a igure in a
plane or surface.
Atelier: Workshop or studio.
Atrium: Open-roofed
entrance court of a Roman
dwelling; also, a manystoried court in a building,
usually skylit.
Bar joist: Truss type used
for loor and roof support,
with steel members on top
and bottom and heavy wire
or rod web lacing.
Axial: Force, load, tension,
or compression in a direction parallel to the long axis
of a structural member.
Base plate: Steel plate
between a column and
foundation that distributes
the column’s load to the
foundation.
B
Ballast: In rooing, a heavy
material such as crushed
stone installed over a roof
membrane to minimize wind
uplift; in lighting, a device
that provides starting
voltage for a luorescent
or high-intensity discharge
lamp, then regulates the
current during operation.
Bay: Rectangular area of
a building deined at its
four corners by adjacent
columns; projecting portion
of a façade.
Balloon frame: Wood-frame
construction in which vertical studs run from the sill to
the eave instead of resting
on intermediate loors.
Bearing wall: Wall that
supports loors or roofs.
Baluster: Vertical member
used to support a stair
railing or a railing in a
continuous banister.
Balustrade: Railing system,
usually around a balcony,
that consists of balusters
and a top rail.
Beam: Horizontal linear element that spans an opening
and is supported at both
ends by walls or columns.
Bed joint: Horizontal layer
of mortar between units in
a masonry wall.
Bending moment: Force acting on a structure,
causing it to curve.
Blocking: Pieces of wood
placed between joists,
studs, or rafters to stabilize
the structure or provide a
nailing surface for inishes.
Blueprint: Photographic
print on specially coated
paper; ideal for making
precise and undistorted
copies of large-scale drawings. Blueprint technology
is rapidly being superseded
by computer plotters and
printers.
Board foot: Unit of measuring lumber volume (nominally: 144 cu. in.).
Bond beam: Top course of
a masonry wall, illed with
concrete and reinforcing
steel, and used to support
roof loads.
Bramante, Donato: (14441514) Italian Renaissance
architect; notable buildings
include St. Peter’s Basilica
and the Tempietto, both in
Rome.
Brise-soleil: Shading screen
attached to the exterior of a
building.
Brunelleschi, Filippo:
(1377-1446) Italian
Renaissance architect and
engineer; notable buildings
include the Dome of the
Cathedral of Florence, and
the Basilica of Santo Spirito
in Florence.
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243
25
Building code: Legal
restrictions meant to
enforce safety and health
in the built environment.
Cavity wall: Masonry wall
with a continuous airspace
between wythes.
Built-up roof: Roof membrane composed of asphaltsaturated felt layers laminated together and bonded
with bitumen or pitch.
Cement: Dry powder that
combines chemically with
water and bonds aggregate
particles together to form
concrete. Also known as
portland cement.
Buttress: Masonry or
concrete reinforcement
applied to a wall to resist
diagonal forces from an
arch or vault.
Change order: Written document between the owner
and contractor of a project
authorizing a change in the
project.
Chase wall: Cavity wall
containing electrical runs or
plumbing pipes in its cavity.
Cold rolling: Rolling of
metal at room temperature
and stretching its crystals
to harden the metal.
Colonnade: Linear series of
columns carrying an entablature or arches.
Column: Upright structural
member.
Concrete: Mix of cement,
aggregates, and water that
forms a structural material.
Concrete masonry unit
(CMU): Solid or hollow
block of cured concrete.
Chord: Structural member
of a truss.
C
CAD: Computer-aided
drafting.
Caisson: Long cylindrical
foundation element formed
by drilling deep into irm
clay and pouring concrete
into the hole.
Clear floor space: Minimum
unobstructed loor or ground
space required to accommodate a single, stationary
wheelchair and occupant.
Clerestory: Windows placed
high in a wall, usually above
lower roof levels. Also
called clearstory.
Canopy: Projection over
doors or windows.
Coping: Protective cap or
cover on top of a wall to
throw off water.
Corbel: Series of spanning
stones or bricks in which
each successive course
projects over the course
below it; also, a projecting masonry or concrete
bracket.
Cantilever: Beam or slab
extending beyond its last
point of support.
Capital: Uppermost
element of a column.
244
Coefficient of expansion:
Fractional change in length,
area, or volume or an object
per unit change in temperature at a given constant
pressure.
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Cornice: Projecting molding
at the top of a building;
also, the uppermost element of an entablature.
25
Course: Horizontal layer of
one-unit-high masonry units.
Cricket: Component used
to divert water away from
roof curbs, platforms,
chimneys, walls, or other
roof forms.
Dome: Bowl-shaped volume
created by rotating an arch
about its vertical axis.
Dormer: Protrusion in a
sloping roof, usually containing a window.
Cripple stud: Short wood
framing member in walls
interrupted by a header
or sill.
D
Deck: Horizontal surface
spanning across joists or
beams.
Deflection: Under an applied load, the amount of
bending movement of any
part of a structural member
perpendicular to that member’s axis.
Deliverables: Set of items
such as construction
documents provided by the
architect to the client, and
as agreed on in the ownerarchitect agreement.
Detail: Drawing that
provides very speciic information about the materials and construction of a
component of a project and
that is keyed into largerscale drawings.
Dimensional stability: Ability of a section of wood to
resist changes in volume at
luctuating moisture levels.
Engaged column: Non-freestanding column attached
to a wall.
Entablature: Uppermost
part of a classical order,
comprised of architrave,
frieze, and cornice and supported on a colonnade.
Cupola: Domed roof structure rising from a building.
Curtain wall: Non-loadbearing exterior wall system
supported on the building’s
frame.
Energy efficiency: Reducing energy requirements
without reducing the end
result.
Duct: Hollow conduit for
circulating and directing air.
DWG: Computer drawing
ile.
E
Eave: Edge of a roof plane,
usually projecting over the
exterior wall.
Egress: Means of exiting
safely.
Eisenman, Peter: (1932- )
American architect; notable
buildings include House
VI, Wexner Center for the
Arts, and the University of
Phoenix Stadium.
Elevation: Architectural
drawing of a view of the vertical planes of the building,
showing their relationship to
each other.
Encroachment: Portion
of a building that extends
illegally beyond the property
owned and onto another
property.
Expansion joint: Surface
divider joint allowing for
surface expansion.
F
Façade: Face or elevation
of a building.
Fascia: Exposed vertical
face of an eave.
Fenestration: Windows and
window arrangements on a
façade.
Finial: Ornament at the top
of a spire or roof.
Fire-resistance rating: Determination of the amount
of time (in fractions of an
hour) that an assembly or
material will resist ire.
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245
25
Flashing: Continuous sheet
of thin metal, plastic, or
other waterproof material
used to divert water and
prevent it from passing
through a joint into a wall
or roof.
Float glass: Common plate
glass made by loating the
material on a bed of molten
metal, producing a smooth,
lat surface.
Footing: Widened base of
a foundation that spreads
a building’s loads across
the soil.
Foundation: Lowest portion
of a building that transfers
the building’s structural
loads into the earth.
G
Galvanic action: Corrosion
resulting from an electrical
current between two unlike
metals.
Girder: Large horizontal
beam that supports other
beams.
Girt: Horizontal beam that
supports wall cladding
between columns.
Golden section: Unique
proportional ratio of two
divisions of a line such that
the smaller of the two is to
the larger as the larger is to
the sum of the two.
246
Grab bar: Bar attached
parallel to a wall to provide
a handgrip for steadying
oneself.
Grade: Classiication of size
or quality; the surface of the
ground; the act of moving
earth to make the ground
level.
Gropius, Walter: (18831969) German architect
and founder of the Bauhaus. Notable buildings
include the Bauhaus School
and the Pan Am Building in
New York.
Hard metric: Conversion
of component sizes to fall
within a rational metric
module, not a strict translation of other units into their
exact metric equivalents.
Hardwood: Wood from
deciduous trees.
Head joint: Vertical layer of
mortar between units in a
masonry wall.
Guardrail: Protective railing
to prevent falling into stairwells or other openings.
Gusset plate: Flat steel
plate to which truss chords
are connected at a truss
joint.
Gypsum wallboard (GWB):
Interior facing board with a
gypsum core between paper
facing. Also called drywall
and plasterboard.
H
Hadid, Zaha: (1950- ) IraqiBritish architect; notable
buildings include Vitra Fire
Station in Weil-am-Rhein,
Germany, the London Aquatics Centre for the 2012
Olympics, and the Broad
Art Museum in Lansing,
Michigan.
Header: Lintel; in steel, a
beam that spans between
girders; also, masonry unit
laid across two wythes,
exposing its end in the face
of the wall.
Heavy timber: Structural
lumber having a minimum
width and thickness of
5” (127).
Hot-rolled steel: Steel
formed and shaped by
being heated and passed
through rollers.
HSLA: High-strength lowalloy grade of steel.
HUD: Housing and Urban
Development.
Half-timbered: Timber wall
with the spaces between
illed with masonry.
HVAC: Heating, Ventilating,
and Air-Conditioning.
Handrail: Railing running
parallel to the rise of a
stairway or ramp, providing a continuous gripping
surface.
IBC: International Building
Code.
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
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25
I-beam: Obsolete term for
American Standard steel section that is I- or H-shaped.
Keystone: Central wedgeshaped stone at the top of
an arch.
Koolhaas, Rem: (1944- )
Dutch architect; notable
buildings include the Kunsthal in Rotterdam, the
Seattle Central Library, and
the CCTV Headquarters in
Beijing.
Insulation: Any material that
slows or retards the low or
transfer of heat.
J
Jamb: Vertical frame of a
window or door.
Johnson, Philip: (19062005) American architect;
notable work includes the
Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, the AT&T
Building in New York, and
the Four Seasons Restaurant in New York.
Joists: Light, closely spaced
beams supporting loors or
lat roofs.
K
Kahn, Albert: (1869-1942)
German-American architect;
notable buildings include
Hill Auditorium at the
University of Michigan, the
Packard Automotive Plant
in Detroit, and the Detroit
Athletic Club.
Kahn, Louis: (1901-1974)
American architect; notable
buildings include the Philips
Exeter Academy Library
in New Hampshire, the
Salk Institute in La Jolla,
California, and the Kimbell
Art Museum in Fort Worth,
Texas.
L
Laminate: Material produced through bonding
together layers of other
materials.
Le Corbusier: (1887-1965)
Swiss architect notable for
the Villa Savoye (19xx), the
Unite d’Habitation, and the
chapel at Ronchamp.
Ledoux, Claude Nicolas:
(1736-1806) French neoclassical architect; notable
designs include the Royal
Saltworks at Arc-et-Senan,
and the Theatre of Besancon.
Lintel: Beam over a door or
window that carries the load
of the wall above.
Lite: Pane of glass; also
“light,” though often spelled
differently to avoid confusion with visible light.
Loads: Forces acting on a
structure. Dead loads are
ixed and static elements
such as the building’s
own skin, structure, and
equipment; live loads are
the changing weight on
a building and include
people, snow, vehicles, and
furniture.
Loos, Adolf: (1870-1933)
Austro-Hungarian architect;
notable buidlings include
the Kärntner Bar in Vienna,
the Villa Müller in Prague,
and Maison Tzara in Paris.
Louver: Opening with
horizontal slats that permit
passage of air, but not rain,
sunlight, or view.
M
Masonry: Brickwork, blockwork, and stonework; also,
the trade of a mason.
Metrication: Act of changing from the use of customary units to metric units.
Mezzanine: Intermediate
level between a loor and
ceiling that occupies a partial area of the loor space.
Mild steel: Steel with a low
carbon content.
Millwork: Interior wood
inish components of a
building, including cabinetry,
windows, doors, moldings,
and stairs.
Model: Physical representation (usually at a reduced
scale) of a building or building component; in computer
drafting and modeling, it is
the digital two- or threedimensional representation
of a design.
Molding: Strip of wood,
plaster, or other material
with an ornamental proile.
Longitudinal: Lengthwise.
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Mortar: Material composed
of portland cement, hydrated lime, ine aggregate
(sand), and water, used to
adhere together and cushion masonry units.
Mullion: Horizontal or
vertical bar or divider in the
frames of windows, doors,
or other openings, and that
holds and supports panels,
glass, sashes, or sections
of a curtain wall.
Muntin: Secondary system
of horizontal or vertical
divider bars between small
lites of glass or panels in
a sash.
Mylar: Polyester ilm that,
when coated, can be used
as drafting sheets.
N
Niche: Recess in a wall, usually for holding a sculpture.
Overhang: Projection
beyond the face of a wall
below.
P
Palladio, Andrea: (15081580 Italian architect;
notable work includes numerous villas in the Veneto
region of Italy, the Teatro
Olimpico in Vicenza, and his
treatise The Four Books of
Architecture.
Parametric: Having one
or more variables (parameters) that can be altered
to achieve different results.
In parametric modeling, a
database tracks changes
to all elements of a design
simultaneously.
Parapet: Low wall projecting
from the edge of a platform,
usually on a roof.
Parti: Central idea governing and organizing a work of
architecture.
Partition: Interior nonload-bearing wall.
Nominal: Approximate
rounded dimensions
given to materials for
ease of reference.
O
Occupancy: Category of
the use of a building for
determining speciic code
requirements.
Passive solar: Technology
of heating and cooling a
building naturally, through
the use of energy-eficient
materials and proper site
placement.
Pediment: Triangular space
that forms the gable end
of a low-pitched roof, often
illed with relief sculpture.
Ogee: Proile section with a
reverse-curve face (that is,
concave above and convex
below).
248
Pedestal: In classical architecture, a base supporting a
column or statue.
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Pendentive: Curved, triangular support that results
from transforming a square
bay into a dome.
Penthouse: Enclosed space
above the level of the main
roof used for mechanical
equipment; an above-roof
apartment.
Peristyle: Colonnaded
courtyard.
Pier: Caisson foundation;
also, a structural element
that supports an arch.
Pilaster: Pier engaged in
a wall.
Pillar: Columnar support
that is not a classical
column.
Pilotis: Columns or pillars
that lift a building from the
ground.
25
Pitch: Slope of a roof or
other inclined surface, usually expressed as inches
of rise per foot of run
(X:12, when X is a number
between 1 and 12).
built off-site (often in a factory), then shipped to the
site for assembly.
Rise: Vertical difference in
elevation, as in the rise of
a stair.
Purlin: Beams spanning
across the slope of a roof
that support the roof
decking.
Riser: Vertical face between
two treads of a stair; also,
vertical run of plumbing,
ductwork, or wiring.
Q
Quoin: Corner stones in a
wall made distinct from the
surrounding wall by being
larger, of a different texture,
or having deeper joints to
make the stones protrude.
Plan: Architectural drawing
of a view of the horizontal
planes of the building,
showing their relationship to
each other, and acting as a
horizontal section.
Plenum: Space between a
suspended ceiling and the
structure above, used for
mechanical ductwork, piping, and wiring.
Pointing: Process of applying mortar to the outside
surface of a mortar joint
after laying the masonry,
as a means of inishing the
joint or making repairs to an
existing joint.
Portico: Entrance porch.
Precast concrete: Concrete
that is cast and cured in a
location other than its inal
position.
Prefabricated building:
Buildings consisting of
components such as walls,
loors, and roofs that are
R
Rabbet: Notch in wood for
joining pieces or recessed
parts in a typical door
frame.
Rafter: Roof framing
member that runs in the
direction of slope.
Reflected ceiling plan:
Upside-down plan drawing
that documents the ceiling
plane.
Room cavity ratio: Ratio of
room dimensions used to
determine how light will interact with the room’s surfaces.
Rotunda: Space that is
circular in plan and covered
by a dome.
Run: Horizontal dimension of
a stair, ramp, or other slope.
Rustication: Masonry
pattern consisting of large
blocks with deep joints.
Retaining wall: Site wall
built for resisting lateral
displacement of soil, water,
or other material.
RFP (Request for Proposal): Oficial invitation
for architects to submit
qualiications and proposals
to perform a project.
R-value: Measure of the
capacity of a material to
resist the transfer of heat.
Rib: Fold or bend in a sheet
of deck.
Saarinen, Eero: (1910-1961)
Finnish-American architect
and son of Eliel Saarinen.
Notable buildings include the
Miller House in Columbus,
Indiana, the Gateway Arch in
St. Louis, and the TWA Terminal at JFK Airport.
Ridge: Horizontal line created at the connection of
two sloping roof surfaces.
S
Glossar y
249
25
Saarinen, Eliel: (18731950) Finnish architect and
father of Eero Saarinen.
Notable buildings include
the Kleinhans Music Hall in
Buffalo, New York, and the
Cranbrook Educational Community in Bloomield Hills,
Michigan.
Schedule: Chart or table
in a set of architectural
drawings, including data
about materials, inishes,
equipment, windows, doors,
and signage; also, plan for
performing work.
Schinkel, Karl Friedrich:
(1781-1841) Prussian
architect, city planner and
painter; notable buildings
include the Altes Museum,
the Neues Schauspielhaus,
and the Neue Wache, all in
Berlin.
Scope of work: Written
range of view or action for a
speciic project.
Section: Architectural drawing of a view of a vertical
cut through the building’s
components, acting as a
vertical plan.
Shaft: Trunk of a column
between base and capital;
also, enclosed vertical clear
opening in a building for
the passage of elevators,
stairs, ductwork, plumbing,
or wiring.
Sheetrock: Brand name
for gypsum wallboard,
often incorrectly used to
describe any gypsum board
or drywall.
Sitecast: Concrete that is
poured and cured in its inal
position; also called cast-inplace or poured-in-place.
Slab on grade: Concrete
slab that rests directly on
the ground
Soane, Sir John: (17531837) English architect;
notable buildings include
the Bank of England and Sir
John Soane’s Museum.
Soffit: Finished underside
of a lintel, arch, or overhang.
Soft metric: Precise conversion between customary
and metric units.
Stile: Framing member in
a door.
Stud: Vertical structural
member used in light-frame
wall construction and made
of dimension wood or
metal.
Stringer: In a stair, the sloping wood or steel member
that supports the treads.
Softwood: Lumber from coniferous (evergreen) trees.
Spall: Splitting off from
a surface, in concrete or
masonry, as a result of
weathering.
Span: Distance between
supports.
Spandrel: Exterior panels of
a wall between vision areas
of windows that conceal
structural loors; the triangular space between the
curve of an arch and the
rectangular outline enclosing it.
Specifications: Written
instructions about the
materials and means of
construction for a building,
and included as part of the
construction document set.
SI: Système International
d’Unités (metric system).
250
STC: Sound Transmission
Class, a number rating of
airborne sound transmission loss as measured in
an acoustical laboratory
under carefully controlled
test conditions.
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Strut channel: Standardized
metal framing system used
for light structural support
of electrical wiring, mechanical ductwork, and plumbing.
Commonly referred to by
many of its manufacture
trade names, including Unistrut, Flex-Strut and G-Strut
Sustainable design: Environmentally aware design
using systems that meet
present needs without
compromising the needs
of future generations.
T
Thermal performance: Ability of a glass unit to perform
as a barrier to the transfer
of heat.
25
Transom: Opening above a
door or window that may be
illed with a glazed or solid
operable panel.
U
Undressed lumber: Lumber
that is not planed.
V
Valley: Trough formed at the
intersection of two sloping
roofs.
Transverse: Crosswise.
Tread: Horizontal surface
between two risers of a
stair.
Value engineering:
Analyzing the materials and
processes in a project in an
effort to achieve the desired
function at the lowest overall cost.
van der Rohe, Ludwig
Mies: (1886-1969) German
architect; notable buildings
include the New National
Gallery in Berlin, the Seagram Building in New York
(with Philip Johnson), and
Crown Hall and other buildings at the Illinois Institute
of Technology.
W
Waler: Horizontal support
beam used in concrete
formwork.
Winder: L-shaped staircase
that used wedge-shaped
treads to turn a 90-degree
corner.
Wright, Frank Lloyd: (18671959) American architect;
notable buildings include
Fallingwater, the Johnson
Wax Building, and the
Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum.
Wythe: One-unit-thick vertical layer of masonry.
Z
Ziggurat: Stepped-back
pyramid temple.
Vault: Arched form.
Trompe-l’oeil: Twodimensional painting or
decoration made to look
three-dimensional; literally,
“trick the eye.”
Truss: Structural element
made up of a triangular arrangement of members that
transforms the nonaxial
forces acting on it into a set
of axial forces on the truss
members.
Veneer: Thin layer, sheet, or
facing.
Vernacular: Structures built
with indigenous materials,
methods, and traditions.
Vitruvius: (c. 80 BCE - 15
BCE) Roman architect, engineer and writer; most notable
for his treatise De Architectura (On Architecture).
Glossar y
251
26
Chapter 26: Resources
The contents of this book offer a quick-reference relection of numerous sources of
information on architectural design and construction—the tip of a formidable iceberg.
Any reader wishing to ind out more on a speciic topic is advised to consult the listing
of sources that follow, which is itself an abridged acknowledgment of a wealth of available information. Many of these sources can be found in a well-stocked architecture
irm’s in-ofice library, in the libraries of most schools of architecture, and even in some
local libraries. Websites have quickly established themselves as excellent
resources for (usually) free information on many subjects, and are especially invaluable for exploring the offerings of product manufacturers or trade-related information.
It should be noted, however, that Web-based content and addresses are always
subject to change.
Architecture and Design Professions
JOURNALS & PERIODICALS
Architecture (monthly, USA); www.architectmagazine.com
Architectural Record (monthly, USA); www.archrecord.construction.com
Architectural Review (monthly, UK); www.architectural-review.com
Arquitectura Viva (bimonthly, Spain); www.arquitecturaviva.com
a+u (Architecture and Urbanism) (monthly, Japan); www.japan-architect.co.jp
Casabella (monthly, Italy)
Detail (bimonthly, Germany); www.detail.de
El Croquis (ive times yearly, Spain); www.elcroquis.es
JA (Japan Architect) (quarterly, Japan); www. japanarchitect.co.jp
Lotus International (quarterly, Italy); www.editorialelotus.it
Metropolis Magazine (monthly, USA); www.metropolismag.com
WEBSITES
www.archinect.com
www.dezeen.com
www.archinform.net
www.designboom.com
www.architectureweek.com
252
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26
Primary Sources
Architectural Graphic Standards, 11th ed.
Charles George Ramsey, Harold Sleeper, and John Hoke; John Wiley & Sons, 2007
CD-ROM also available.
previous editions: 1 (1932); 4 (1951); 5 (1956); 6 (1970); 9 (1994); 10 (2000)
Neufert Architects’ Data, 4th ed.
Blackwell Publishers, 2012
Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods, 5th ed.
Edward Allen and Joseph Iano; John Wiley & Sons, 2008
Pocket Ref, 4th ed.
Thomas J. Glover, Sequoia Publishing, 2010
Understanding Buildings: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Esmond Reid; MIT Press, 1994
Building Construction Illustrated, 4th ed.
Francis D. K. Ching and Cassandra Adams; John Wiley & Sons, 2008
The Architect’s Studio Companion, 4th ed.
Edward Allen and Joseph Iano; John Wiley & Sons, 2006
Skins for Buildings: The Architect’s Materials Sample Book
David Keuning et al.; Gingko Press, 2004
Annual Book of ASTM Standards
American Society for Testing Materials, 2013
Seventy-plus volumes contain more than 12,000 standards available in print,
CD-ROM, and online formats.
www.ansi.org (American National Standards Institute)
www.nist.gov (National Institute of Standards and Technology)
Resources
253
26
01_MATERIALS
01
Wood
Laminated Timber Construction
Christian Müller; Birkhäuser, 2000
Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material
Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Timber Construction Manual
Thomas Herzog et al.; Birkhäuser, 2004
Detail Praxis: Timber Construction—Details, Products, Case Studies
Theodor Hughs et al.; Birkhäuser, 2004
AITC Timber Construction Manual, 5th ed.
American Institute of Timber Construction, 2004
AWI Quality Standards, 7th ed., 1999
www.awinet.org (Architectural Wood Institute)
www.lumberlocator.com
02
Masonry and Concrete
Masonry Construction Manual
Günter Pfeifer et al.; Birkhäuser, 2001
Masonry Design and Detailing for Architects and Contractors, 5th ed.
Christine Beall; McGraw-Hill, 2004
Complete Construction: Masonry and Concrete
Christine Beall; McGraw-Hill
Design of Reinforced Masonry Structures
Narendra Taly; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2000
Reinforced Masonry Design
Robert R. Schneider; Prentice-Hall, 1980
Indiana Limestone Handbook, 21st ed.
Indiana Limestone Institute, 2002
www.bia.org (Brick Industry Association)
254
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26
Concrete Construction Manual
Friedbert Kind-Barkauskas et al.; Birkhäuser, 2002
Construction Manual: Concrete and Formwork
T. W. Love; Craftsman Book Company, 1973
Precast Concrete in Architecture
A. E. J. Morris; Whitney Library of Design, 1978
Concrete Architecture: Design and Construction
Burkhard Fröhlich; Birkhäuser, 2002
www.fhwa.dot.gov (Federal Highway Administration)
www.aci-int.org (American Concrete Institute)
03
Metals
SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual, 7th ed.
2012
Metal Architecture
Burkhard Fröhlich and Sonja Schulenburg, eds.; Birkhäuser, 2003
Steel and Beyond: New Strategies for Metals in Architecture
Annette LeCuyer; Birkhäuser, 2003
www.corrosion-doctors.org
04
Finishes
The Graphic Standards Guide to Architectural Finishes: Using MASTERSPEC
to Evaluate, Select, and Specify Materials
Elena S. Garrison; John Wiley & Sons, 2002
Interior Graphic Standards
Maryrose McGowan and Kelsey Kruse; John Wiley & Sons, 2003
Detail Magazine—Architectural Details 2003
Detail Review of Architecture, 2004
Extreme Textiles: Designing for High Performance
Matilda McQuaid; Princeton Architectural Press, 2005
Sweets Catalog
McGraw-Hill Construction, ongoing; www.sweets.com
Resources
255
26
02_STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
05
Structural Systems
LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) Manual of Steel Construction, 3rd ed.
American Institute of Steel Construction, 2001; www.aisc.org
Steel Construction Manual, 14th ed.
American Institute of Steel Construction, 2010
Steel Construction Manual
Helmut Schulitz, Werner Sobek, and Karl J. Habermann; Birkhäuser, 2000
Structural Steel Designer’s Handbook
Roger L Brockenbrough and Frederick S. Merritt; McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999
Steel Designers’ Manual
Buick Davison and Graham W. Owens, eds.; Steel Construction Institute (UK).
Graphic Guide to Frame Construction: Details for Builders and Designers
Rob Thallon; Taunton Press, 2000
www.awc.org (American Wood Council)
06
Mechanical Systems
Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Construction and Architecture, 4th ed.
Frank Dagostino and Joseph B. Wujek; Prentice Hall, 2004
Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 9th ed.
Ben Stein and John S. Reynolds; John Wiley & Sons, 1999
Mechanical Systems for Architects
Aly S. Dadras; McGraw-Hill, 1995
www.buildingwell.org
www.homerepair.about.com
www.efftec.com
www.salex.com
Sustainable Architecture White Papers (Earth Pledge Foundation Series
on Sustainable Development)
David E. Brown, Mindy Fox, Mary Rickel Pelletier, eds.; Earth Pledge Foundation,
2001
Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things
William McDonough and Michael Braungart; North Point Press, 2002
256
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26
www.greenbuildingpages.com
www.buildinggreen.com (Environmental Building News)
www.usgbc.org (U.S. Green Building Council)
www.ashrae.org (American Soc. of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Cond. Eng.)
07
Electrical Systems
Lighting Handbook Reference, 9th ed.
Mark S. Rea, ed.; IESNA, 2000
Lighting the Landscape
Roger Narboni; Birkhäuser, 2004
1000 Lights, vol. 2: 1960 to Present
Charlotte and Peter Fiell; Taschen, 2005
www.archlighting.com
www.iesna.org (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America)
www.iald.org (International Association of Lighting Designers)
08
Plumbing and Fire Protection Systems
Fire Protection Systems
A. Maurice Jones, Delmar Cengage Learning, 2008
Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook
American Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2004
09
Building Enclosure Systems
Glass Construction Manual
Christian Schittich et al.; Birkhäuser, 1999
Detail Praxis: Translucent Materials—Glass, Plastic, Metals
Frank Kaltenbach, ed.; Birkhäuser, 2004
www.GlassOnWeb.com (glass design guide)
www.glass.org (National Glass Association)
www.nrca.net (National Rooing Contractors Association)
Resources
257
26
03_STANDARDS
10
MEASURE AND DRAWING
Measurement and Geometry
Measure for Measure
Thomas J. Glover and Richard A. Young; Sequoia Publishing, 2001
Metric Handbook Planning & Design, 2nd ed.
David Adler, ed.; Architectural Press, 1999
www.onlineconversion.com
www.metrication.com
11
Architectural Drawing Types
Design Drawing
Francis D. K. Ching and Steven P. Juroszek; John Wiley & Sons, 1997
Graphics for Architecture
Kevin Forseth with David Vaughan; Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980
Basic Perspective Drawing: A Visual Approach, 4th ed.
John Montague; John Wiley & Sons, 2004
12
Architectural Documents
The Architect’s Handbook of Professional Practice, 13th ed.
Joseph A. Demkin, ed.; American Institute of Architects, 2005
www.uia-architectes.org
www.aia.org
www.iso.org
www.constructionplace.com
www.dcd.com (Design Cost Data)
258
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26
MasterSpec Master Specification System for Design Professionals
and the Building/Construction Industry
ARCOM, ongoing; www.arcomnet.com
Construction Specifications Portable Handbook
Fred A. Stitt; McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999
The Project Resource Manual–CSI Manual of Practice
Construction Speciications Institute and McGraw-Hill Construction, 2004
www.csinet.org (Construction Speciications Institute)
Masterformat 2012
CSI Construction Speciications Institute, 2012
13
Hand Drawing
Architectural Drawing: A Visual Compendium of Types and Methods, 2nd ed.
Rendow Yee; John Wiley & Sons, 2002
Architectural Graphics, 4th ed.
Francis D. K. Ching; John Wiley & Sons, 2002
14
Computer Standards
U.S. National CAD Standard, version 3.1
2004; www.nationalcadstandard.org
AutoCAD User’s Guide
Autodesk, 2001
AutoCad 2006 Instructor
James A. Leach; McGraw-Hill, 2005
www.nibs.org (National Institute of Building Sciences)
www.pcmag.com
Resources
259
26
03_STANDARDS
15
PROPORTION AND FORM
The Human Scale
The Measure of Man and Woman: Human Factors in Design, rev. ed.
Alvin R. Tilley; John Wiley & Sons, 2002
Human Scale, vol. 7: Standing and Sitting at Work, vol. 8: Space Planning
for the Individual and the Public, and vol. 9: Access for Maintenance, Stairs,
Light, and Color
Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley, and Joan Bardagjy; MIT Press, 1982
Both above-cited books draw on information produced by Henry Dreyfuss
Associates, a leading irm in the development of anthropometric data and
its relationship to design.
16
Residential Spaces
In Detail : Single Family Housing
Christian Schittich; Birkhäuser, 2000
Dwell Magazine (bimonthly, USA); www.dwellmag.com
www.residentialarchitect.com
www.nkba.org (National Kitchen & Bath Association)
Time-Saver Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning, 2nd ed.
Joseph De Chiara, Julius Panero, and Martin Zelnik; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001
The Architects’ Handbook
Quentin Pickard, ed.; Blackwell Publishing, 2002
In Detail: Interior Spaces: Space, Light, Material
Christian Schittich, ed.; Basel, 2002
260
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26
17
Form and Organization
Architecture: Form, Space and Order, 2nd ed.
Francis D. K. Ching; John Wiley & Sons, 1995
Harmonic Proportion and Form in Nature, Art and Architecture
Samuel Colman; Dover Publications, 2003
18
Architectural Elements
A Visual Dictionary of Architecture
Francis D. K. Ching; John Wiley & Sons, 1996
De architectura (Ten Books on Architecture)
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, ca. 40 B.C.
The Four Books of Architecture
Andrea Palladio, 1570
On the Art of Building
Leon Battista Alberti, 1443-1452
Seven Books of Architecture
Sebastiano Serlio, 1537
Resources
261
26
03_STANDARDS
19
CODES AND GUIDELINES
Building Codes
2012 International Building Codes
International Code Council, 2012
The complete collection is available in book or CD-ROM format at
www.iccsafe.org.
Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding the International Building
Code, 4th ed.
Francis D. K. Ching and Steven R. Winkel; John Wiley & Sons, 2012
Code Check series
Redwood Kardon, Michael Casey, and Douglas Hansen; The Taunton
Press, ongoing
This series is available at www.codecheck.com.
Illustrated 2009: Building Code Handbook
Terry L. Patterson; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2009
20
ADA and Accessibility
ADA Standards for Accessible Design
U.S. Department of Justice - www.ada.gov
1991 and 2010 Standards
ADA and Accessibility: Let’s Get Practical, 2nd ed.
Michele S. Ohmes; American Public Works Association, 2003
Guide to ADA & Accessibility Regulations: Complying with Federal Rules
and Model Building Code Requirements
Ron Burton, Robert J. Brown, and Lawrence G. Perry; BOMA International,
2003
Pocket Guide to the ADA: Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility
Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities, 2nd ed.
Evan Terry Associates; John Wiley & Sons, 1997
262
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
26
21
Parking
Parking Structures: Planning, Design, Construction, Maintenance & Repair, 3rd ed.
Anthony P. Chrest et al.; Springer, 2001
The Dimensions of Parking
Urban Land Institute and National Parking Association, 2000
The Aesthetics of Parking: An Illustrated Guide
Thomas P. Smith; American Planning Institute, 1988
Parking Spaces
Mark Childs; McGraw-Hill, 1999
www.apai.net (Asphalt Paving Association of Iowa – Design Guide)
www.bts.gov (Bureau of Transportation Services)
22
Stairs
Stairs: Design and Construction
Karl J. Habermann; Birkhäuser, 2003
Staircases
Eva Jiricna; Watson-Guptill Publications, 2001
Stairs: Scale
Silvio San Pietro and Paola Gallo; IPS, 2002
23
Doors
Construction of Buildings: Windows, Doors, Fires, Stairs, Finishes
R. Barry; Blackwell Science, 1992
Resources
263
26
04_COMPENDIUM
24
Timeline
History of Architecture on the Comparative Method: For Students, Craftsmen
& Amateurs, 16th ed.
Sir Banister Fletcher; Charles Scribner’s, 1958
Modern Architecture: A Critical History, 3rd ed.
Kenneth Frampton; Thames & Hudson, 1992
A World History of Architecture
Marian Moffett et al.; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003
Source Book of American Architecture: 500 Notable Buildings from the 10th
Century to the Present
G. E. Kidder Smith; Princeton Architectural Press, 1996
Architecture: From Prehistory to Postmodernism, 2nd ed.
Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman; Prentice-Hall, 2003
Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture
V. M. Lampugnani, ed.; Thames and Hudson, 1986
Modern Architecture Since 1900
J. R. Curtis, Phaidon Press, 1996
264
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26
25
Glossary
The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, 5th
ed.
John Fleming, Hugh Honour, and Nikolaus Pevsner; Penguin, 2000
Dictionary of Architecture, rev. ed.
Henry H. Saylor; John Wiley & Sons, 1994
Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, 3rd ed.
Cyril M. Harris; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2000
Means Illustrated Construction Dictionary
R. S. Means Company, 2000
Architectural and Building Trades Dictionary
R. E. Putnam and G. E. Carlson; American Technical Society, 1974
Resources
265
Index
A
accelerating admixtures, 34
access aisle, 206
accessibility, 197, 206–217
elevators, 216
means of egress, 209
parking spaces, 210
ramps, 216
signage, 208–209
stairs, 217
terminology, 206–208
wheelchair space allowances, 211–215
accessible, 206
accessible design dimensions, 166–167
accessible element, 206
accessible route, 206
accessible space, 206
acid-etched glass, 105
acoustic ceiling tiles (ACT), 53
adaptability, 206
adaptive reuse, 77
addendum, 132
addition, 206
adjustable triangle, 150
administrative authority, 206
admixtures, concrete, 34
air and water systems, 72
air duct, 72
air handling unit (AHU), 73
air-entraining admixtures, 34
Alberti, Leon Battista, 194
all-air systems, 72
alloys, 36, 38
all-water systems, 72
alteration, 206
alternate, 132
aluminum, 38, 39
aluminum alloys, 38
ambient lighting, 78
American National Metric Council (ANMC), 108
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA),
206–217
ampere (amp), 78
ancient architecture, 234–235
annealing, 36
anodic index, 40
anodizing, 36
ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 132
antirelective glass, 105
appliances, 173
arches, 58, 191–192
architectural documents, 132–147
abbreviations, 140–141
common paper sizes, 136
construction documents, 143
drawing set order, 138–139
drawing sheet layout and set assembly, 137
sheet folding, 136
and speciications, 144–147
terminology, 132–135
architectural drawing types, 120–131
architectural elements, 186–195
arches, 191–192
classical elements, 186
classical orders, 188–189
Gothic elements, 190–192
modernism, 193
architectural publications, 194–195
architecture, history of, 234–241
area formulas, 116–119
area measures, 108, 110
area of rescue assistance, 206
area units, 108, 109
art deco, 240
art nouveau, 239, 240
arts & crafts, 240
as-built drawings, 132
ash, 18
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers), 72
aspect ratio, 155
assembly area, 207
266
assembly use group, 200
attached ceilings, 53
Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ), 199
AutoCAD, 154–161
external references, 157
ile-naming conventions, 160–161
model space, 158
paper space, 158
terminology, 155
text scale chart, 159
windows, 156
automatic doors, 207
automatic sprinklers, 86–87
awning windows, 97
axial force, 58
B
bafle, 78
ballast, 78
balloon framing, 62
Baroque architecture, 238
bars, 178
base lashing, 89
baseboards, 51
bathrooms, 174–175, 214–215
bathtubs, 215
beam, 58
bearing walls, 93
bed molding, 51
beds, 176
Belgian truss, 71
bid, 132
birch, 18
black water, 77
blast furnace slag, 34
block, 155
board foot, 10, 16
body-tinted glass, 104
boiler, 73
bond paper, 149
book-matched, 10
Boolean operations, 183
booths, 178
bowstring truss, 71
braced frame, 65
brass, 39
brazing, 37
bricks, 24–29
bond types, 27
colors, 29
grades, 24
manufacturing, 25
orientations, 27
standard coursing, 28
standard sizes, 26
types, 24
units, 26
bronze, 39
brownields, 77
brutalism, 241
building, 207
building codes, 198–205
building elevations, 124–125
Building Oficials and Code Administrators
International (BOCA), 198
building permits, 132
built-up roof (BUR), 91
bulbs, 78, 82–83
burl, 10
business use group, 200
butternut, 18
buttress, 58
Byzantine architecture, 235
C
cabinets, 173
CAD (computer-aided design), 155
cadmium, 38, 39
caissons, 61
candela, 78
candlepower (CP), 78
cantilever, 59
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
carpet, 52
caryatid, 187
casement windows, 97
casework, 54
cast iron, 38
cast or channel glass, 103
casting, 37
cathedral grain, 10
caulk, 96
cavity walls, 72, 93
cedar, 18
ceiling moldings, 51
ceilings, 53
attached, 53
suspended, 53
cella, 186
cement, portland, 32
ceramic tile, 52
certiicate of occupancy, 133
Certiied Construction Speciied (CCS), 144
chair rail, 51
chair widths, 180
change order, 133
charrette, 133
chase wall, 72
check, 10
chemically strengthened glass, 105
chestnut, 19
chiller, 73
chip board, 149
chloroluorocarbons (CFCs), 77
chromium, 38, 39
circles, 118, 182
circular zone, 118
circulation path, 207
circumference, 118
classical elements, 186
classical orders, 188–189
clear, 207
clear loor space, 207
clearway allowances, for wheelchairs, 211–215
closed loop, 72
closets, 177
coated metals, 36
codes
building codes, 198–205
and occupancy type and use groups, 200–201
coeficient of utilization (CU), 78
cold rolling, 36
cold-worked metals, 36
color rendering index (CRI), 78
color temperature, 78
coloring agents, 34
columns, 59, 63
combustible materials, 202
command line, 155
common use, 207
compact luorescent, 78, 83
compass, 150
competitions, design, 142
Complete Works (Le Corbusier), 195
composite orders, 189
composite walls, 93, 95
compression, 58
computer programs, 154. see also AutoCAD
computer standards and guidelines, 154–161
concrete, 32–35
admixtures, 34
casting, 33
colors, 35
composition, 32
inishes, 35
loor and roof systems, 64–67
placing and curing, 34
sitecast, 33
slabs, 66
concrete blocks, 30–31
concrete masonry units (CMUs), 30–31
decorative, 31
grades, 31
production, 31
standard sizes, 30
types, 31
weights, 31
condensation, 96
condenser unit, 75
cones, 117, 182
connections
in heavy-timber construction, 63
steel-frame, 70
conoid, 183
conservative disassembly, 77
construction administration, 143
construction cost, 133
construction documents, 143
construction management, 133
construction management contract, 133
Construction Speciications Institute (CSI), 144
construction types, 202
consultant, 133
contract administration, 133
contract over- (or under-) run, 133
contractor, 133
control joints, 33
convection, 96
cooling tower, 73
coordinates, 155
copper, 38, 39
Corinthian orders, 189
corrosion inhibitors, 34
counters, 178
countertops, 54
cove molding, 51
cross slope, 207
crosshairs, 155
crown molding, 51
CSI MasterFormat system, 144–147
cubes, 182
curb ramp, 207
cursor, 155
curtain wall, 99
curved stairs, 223
customary units, 108–109
cylinders, 117, 182
D
date of substantial completion, 133
daylight compensation, 78
dead loads, 58
decay, 63
decking, in heavy-timber construction, 63
Declaration of Interdependence, 76
deconstructivism, 241
decorative glass, 105
deep foundation, 60, 61
desiccant, 96
design development, 142
design-build construction, 133
desk lamp, 81
detail drawings, 127
detectable warning, 207
dew point, 96
diffuser, 78
dimensional stability, 10
dimetric drawings, 128, 129
direct glare, 78
directional signs, 208
dome, 59
doors, 226–231
dimensions, 226
egress, 204
ire, 227
hollow metal, 230–231
types, 227
wood, 228–229
Doric orders, 188
double-curved solids, 119
double-hung windows, 97, 98
dovetail joints, 23
downlight, 78
drafting
by hand, 148–153
supplies, 150–151
drafting brush, 150
drafting powder, 150
drawing ile, 155
drawing interchange format (DXF), 155
drawing metal, 36, 37
drawing web format (DWF), 155
drawings, 107. see also architectural documents
abbreviations, 140–141
architectural, 120–131
drawing set order, 138–139
drawing sheet layout and set assembly, 137
hand drawings, 148–153
symbols, 122
three-dimensional, 128–129
working, 143
drilled pier, 61
dry bulb, 72
drywall. see gypsum wallboard (GWB)
dual-sealed units, 96
DWG, 155
E
early growth/late growth, 10
eating areas, 178–179
edge joints, 22
educational use group, 200
egress, means of, 203–205, 207, 209
egress doors, 204
egress stairs, 204
egress widths, 204, 205
Egyptian architecture, 234–235
electrical outlets, in bathrooms, 175
electrical systems, 78–83
electrically heated glass, 105
electroluminescent, 78
electroplating, 36
elements, 207
elevation drawing, 121, 124–125, 127
elevator control panels, 208
elevators, 209, 216
ellipses, 119
ellipsoid, 119
embodied energy, 77
emissivity, 96
enameled glass, 105
enclosure systems, 88–105
exterior walls, 94–95
lashing, 89
glass and glazing, 102–105
masonry bearing walls, 93
roofs, 88, 90–91
stone, 92
windows, 96–101
end joints, 22
energy, 78
energy distribution systems, 72–75
English units, 108
entasis, 187
entity, 155
entrance, 207
equilateral triangles, 116
erasing shield, 150
estimating, 133
Etruscan architecture, 235
exit passageways, 204
exits, 203–204
explode, 155
exterior walls, 94–95
external reference, 155
external reference (X-Ref) drawings, 157
extraction, 183
extrusion, 37
F
fabrication techniques, for metal, 37
factor and industrial use group, 200
fan coil units (FCUs), 74
farmed wood, 14
fast-track construction, 133
feet and meters scale, 112
ferrous metals, 36, 38
FF&E, 133
Fibonacci sequence, 185
ibrous admixtures, 34
ield order, 134
igure, 10
inish carpentry, 54–55
inishes, 44–55
ceilings, 53
inish carpentry, 54–55
looring, 52
plaster, 50–51
wall systems, 46–49
ink truss, 71
ire doors, 227
ire protection systems, 86–87
ire-resistance ratings, 202
irst and second (FAS) grade, 16
ixed windows, 97
lashing, 89
lat beam and slab, 64
lat howe truss, 71
lat pratt truss, 71
loat glass, 102
loor lamp, 80
loor plans, 123
looring, 52, 63, 175
luorescent, 78, 82
lush hollow core doors, 228
lush solid core doors, 228
ly ash, 34
foam board, 149
foam board models, 9
foot-candle (FC), 79
footings, 61
forced air duct system, 75
forging, 37
form and organization, 182–185
formulas
area, 116–119
circumference, 118
perimeter, 116–119
volume, 117, 119
foundation systems, 60–61
The Four Books of Architecture (Palladio), 195
4-pipe system, 74
fraction to decimal equivalents, 109
framed connections, 70
framing
balloon, 62
doors, 229
hollow slab, 67
platform, 62
precast concrete, 66–67
steel, 68–71
stemmed deck, double tree (DT), 67
wood light-framing, 62
French curve, 150
French doors, 97
furnace, 72
G
galvanic action, 40
galvanic series, 40
galvanizing, 36
garages, 177
gas-illed units, 96
gauging plaster, 50
general contractor, 134
geodesic domes, 183
geodesic spheres, 183
geometry
plane igure formulas, 116–119
slopes and percentage grade, 114–115
Georgian architecture, 239
girder, 59
glass and glazing, 102–105
in bathrooms, 175
glass forms, 103
glass production, 102
thickness, 102
types, 104–105
glass block, 103
Index
267
glaze, 96
golden mean, 184
golden rectangle, 184
golden section, 184
Gothic architecture, 237
Gothic elements, 190–192
grain, 10
granite, 92
gray water, 77
Greek architecture, 235
grille, 96
grinding, 37
ground line (GL), 130
gum pocket, 11
gypsum, 46, 50
gypsum plaster, 50
gypsum wallboard (GWB), 46–49
board thickness, 47
common partition assemblies, 49
edge types, 47
ireprooing, 49
panel types, 46
partition wall installation, 48
H
habitable rooms, 176–177
hand drawing, 148–153
drafting supplies, 150–151
papers and boards, 149
pencils for, 152
technical ink pens, 153
work surface, 148
handrails, 217
hard conversions, 111
hardness, 11
hardwood, 16
heartwood, 11
heat pump, 72
heat-treated metals, 36
heavy timbers, 63
high output (HO), 79
high-density overlay plywood, 55
high-density plywood, 55
high-hazard use group, 201
high-intensity discharge (HID), 79
high-strength basecoat, 50
hollow core slab, 66
hollow metal doors, 230–231
hollow slab framing system, 67
hopper windows, 97
horizon line (HL), 130
horizontal console, 74
horizontal FCU, 74
human scale, 164–171
HVAC (heating, ventilating, and airconditioning), 72, 73
hydro chloroluorocarbons (HCFC), 77
hydronic heating, 77
hydronic systems, 75
hyperbolic paraboloid, 183
hyperboloid of revolution, 183
I
IALD (International Association of Lighting
Designers), 79
IAQ (indoor air quality), 72
icosahedron, 183
IESNA (Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America), 79
igneous rock, 92
illuminance, 79
illustration board, 149
incandescent, 79, 83
indirect cost, 134
information signs, 208
inspection list, 134
institutional use group, 201
insulating glass, 104
interior elevations, 127
International Building Code (IBC), 198–199
International Code Council (OCC), 198
268
International Conference of Building Oficials
(ICBO), 198
Interprofessional Council on Environmental
Design (ICED), 76
intersection, 183
interviews, with potential clients, 142
Ionic orders, 188
iron, 38
isometric drawings, 128, 129
J
Janka hardness test, 11
joints
control, 33
mortar, 29
wood, 22–23
K
Keenes cement, 50
kitchens, 172–173
L
laminate counters, 54
laminated glass, 105
laminated veneer lumber (LVL), 15
lamp, 79
lap joints, 23
late modernism, 241
lavatories, wheelchair space allowances, 215
layer, 155
lay-in troffer, 79
Le Corbusier, 193, 195
lead, 39
LEED (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design), 76
LEED Green Building Rating System, 76
length units, 108, 109
lens, 79
life cycle analysis (LCA), 77
light (lite), 96
light ixtures, 80–81
light-emitting diode (LED), 79
light-gauge framing, 42
lighting, 78–83, 175
limestone, 92
linear measures, 108, 110
lines, regulating, 185
lintel, 59
live loads, 58
loads, 58
louver, 72
low-E glass, 104
L-shaped stair with landing, 222
L-shaped stair with offset winders, 223
L-shaped stair with winders, 223
lumber, 12–13
lumber grades
hardwood, 16
softwood, 13
lumen, 79
luminaire, 79
luminance, 79
lux (LX), 79
M
machining, 37
magnesium, 38, 39
mahogany, 19
malleable iron, 38
manganese, 38
maple, 19
marble, 92
marked crossing, 207
marketing, 142, 143
masonry, 24
bearing walls, 93
bricks, 24–29
concrete, 32–35
concrete masonry units (CMUs), 30–31
mortar, 29
preferred SI dimensions for, 27
stone, 92
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
masonry opening (Mas Opg), 98
mat foundation, 61
materials
inishes, 44–55
masonry and concrete, 24–35
metals, 36–43
selection of, 9
structural, 59
wood, 10–23
mattress sizes, 176
means of egress, 203–205, 207, 209
measurement, 108–113
measuring line (ML), 130
mechanical systems, 72–77
energy distribution systems, 72–75
HVAC systems, 73
and sustainable design, 76–77
medium-density iber core hardwood plywood, 55
medium-density overlay plywood, 55
melamine, 55
mercantile use group, 201
metal doors, 230–231
metal panel roofs, 91
metal roofs, 90
metal stud wall, 94
metal studs, 15, 42
metals, 36–43
alloys, 36, 38
anodic index, 40
coated, 36
cold-worked, 36
ferrous, 36, 38
forms and sheets, 43
gauges and mils, 40–41
heat-treated, 36
joining, 37
modifying properties of, 36
nonferrous, 36, 39
rooing seams, 43
sheet thickness, 43
types, 38–39
metamorphic rock, 92
metric conversions, 109, 111–113
metric system, 108–113
metrication, 108
Microllam, 15
middle ages, architecture of, 236
mild steel, 38
millwork, 54–55
mils, 40–41
miscellaneous use group, 201
miter joints, 22
mixed-use occupancy, 200
model iles, 160–161
model space, 155, 156, 158
modeling programs, 154. see also AutoCAD
models, 9, 155
modern architecture, 240–241
modernism, 193, 240
modiied bowstring truss, 71
moisture content, 11
molding plaster, 50
moldings, 51
molybdenum, 38
moment frame, 65
mortar, 29
mortar joints, 29
mortise and tenon joints, 23
movement in performance, 11
mullion, 96
multi-faceted relector (MR), 83
muntin bar, 96
Mylar, 149
N
nadir, 79
National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), 110
neoclassic architecture, 239
NIBS (National Institute of Building Sciences), 134
NIBS Standard sheet layout, 137
nickel, 38
noncombustible materials, 202
nonferrous metals, 36, 39
O
oak, 19–20
oblique drawings, 128, 129
occupancy loads, 205
occupancy types, 200–201
occupancy use groups, 200–201
ofice workspaces, 181
On the Art of Building (Alberti), 194
one-point common method perspective, 131
one-way beam and slab, 64
one-way ribbed slab, 64
opaque, 79
open loop, 72
operable part, 207
opisthodomos, 186
optics, 79
owner-architect agreement, 134
P
Palladio, Andrea, 195
panel doors, 228
panel molding, 51
paper sizes, 136
paper space, 155, 156, 158
paper space scales (XP), 159
parabolic aluminized relector (PAR), 83
paraline drawings, 128
parallelograms, 116
parking, 218–221
parking garages, 221
parking spaces, 210, 220
Parthenon, 186
parti, 134
particle board core plywood, 55
partition walls, 49
passive solar, 77
passive solar gain, 96
pecan, 20
pencils, 152
pendant, 81
pens, 153
percentage grade, 114–115
perimeter formulas, 116–119
peripteros, 186
perspectives, 121
one-point common method perspective, 131
two-point common method perspective, 130
photovoltaic glass, 105
photovoltaics, 77
picture frame, 131
picture plane (PP), 130
picture rail, 51
piles, 61
pine, 20
pipes, 85
pitched howe truss, 71
pitched pratt truss, 71
plainsawn, 11
plan drawing, 120
plane igure formulas, 116–119
plaster
lath assemblies, 50–51
over masonry, 51
types, 50
wall assemblies, 51
plasterboard. see gypsum wallboard (GWB)
plastic laminate counters, 54
platform framing, 62
platonic solids, 182
plenum, 53, 72
plumbing, 84–85
plywood, 11, 17, 55, 62
Pollio, Marcus Vitruvius, 194
polygons, 117
polyhedra, 183
polyline, 155
polymer-modiied bitumen sheet membranes, 91
portland cement, 32
postmodernism, 241
power-assisted door, 207
pozzolans, 34
precast concrete framing, 66–67
pre-design phase, 142
prehung doors, 229
premodern architecture, 238
pressure-treated lumber, 11
prestressing, 59
primary elements, 182
primary shapes, 182
prisms, 117
program, 134
progress schedule, 134
project cost, 134
project directory, 134
project manager, 134
project manual, 134
Project Resource Manual, 144
project timeline, 142–143
pronaos, 186
proportion, and human scale, 164–171
public seating, 180
public use, 208
punched opening, 99
pyramids, 117, 182
Q
quadrilaterals, 116
quarry tile, 52
quarter-round molding, 51
quartersawn, 11
R
radiant heat, 72
radiation, 96
raft foundation, 61
ramps, 114, 208, 216, 221
rebar, 33, 34–35
recessed lighting, 80–81
rectangles, 116
reduction coeficient (NRC), 53
relectance, 79
relected ceiling plans (RCPs), 126
relective glass, 104
relector, 79
refractor, 79
regular polygons, 117
regulating lines, 185
reinforcing masonry, 93
reinforcing steel bars, 33, 34–35
Renaissance architecture, 237–238
renewable, 77
requests for information (RFIs), 134
requests for proposal (RFPs), 134, 142
requests for qualiications (RFQs), 142
residential spaces, 172–181
bathrooms, 174–175
habitable rooms, 176–177
kitchens, 172–173
residential use group, 201
resilient looring, 52
resources, 252–265
retaining wall, 59
retarding admixtures, 34
Rheims Cathedral, 190
riftsawn, 12
right-angle joints, 22–23
risers, 225
Rococo architecture, 239
rolling, 37
Roman architecture, 235
Romanesque architecture, 235, 236
roof forms, 88
roof windows, 97
rooing seams, metal, 43
roofs
lashing, 89
low & lat slopes, 91
steep slopes, 90
types, 90–91
room cavity ratio (RCR), 79
room signs, 209
rosewood, 21
rough lumber, 12
rough opening (Rgh Opg), 98
row spacing, 180
rules surfaces, 183
running slope, 208
R-value, 96
S
Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, 209
safety glass, 105
sand-blasted glass, 105
sandstone, 92
sapwood, 12
sash, 96
sash opening (Sash Opg), 98
scales, 151, 158–159
schedule, 134
schematic design, 142
scheme, 134
scissors truss, 71
scope of work, 134
screen-printed glass, 105
seated dimensions, 168–169
seating, 176
clearances, 179
public, 180
types, 178
section drawing, 120
sector of circle, 118
sector of sphere, 119
sedimentary rock, 92
segment of circle, 118
segment of sphere, 119
select, No. 1 common grade, 16
select, No. 2 common grade, 16
select, No. 3 common grade, 16
self-cleaning glass, 105
Serlio, Sebastiano, 195
Seven Books of Architecture (Serlio), 195
shading coeficient, 96
shaft, 72
shallow foundation, 60, 61
shear, 59
sheet ile, 155
sheet iles, 157, 160–161
sheet folding, 136
sheet metal, 37, 40, 43
Sheetrock. see gypsum wallboard (GWB)
shingles, 90
shop and factory lumber, 12
shop drawings, 134
shoring, 59
showers, wheelchair space allowances, 215
signage, 208–209
silica fume, 34
silicon, 38
sill lashing, 89
single-hung windows, 97
SIP (structured insulated panel) wall, 94
site, 135
sitecast concrete framing, 33
skylights, 97
slab on grade, 61
slate, 92
sliding doors, 97
sliding windows, 97
slopes, 114–115
slump test, 59
soft conversions, 111
soft costs, 135
softwood, 12
softwood lumber, 12–13
soldering, 37
solid lat slab, 66
solid surface countertops, 54
Southern Building Code Congress
International (SBCCI), 198
space, 208
specialty glass, 105
speciications, 144–147
spheres, 182
Index
269
spiral stairs, 223
split, 12
spray polyurethane foam board (SPF), 91
sprinkler head distribution types, 87
squares, 182
stain, 12
stainless steel, 38
stairs, 222–225
accessibility, 217
components, 224
egress, 204
plan and elevation of, 224
treads and risers, 225
types, 222–223
stamping, 37
standard units, 108
standards of professional practice, 135
station point (SP), 130, 131
steel, 36, 38
fabrication techniques, 37
ireprooing at steel structural members, 49
galvanic action, 40
light-gauge framing, 42
steel alloys, 38
steel framing, 68–71
connections, 70
structural shape designations, 68–69
truss design, 70–71
Steel Stud Manufacturers Association
(SSMA), 42
stemmed deck, double tree (DT), 66, 67
stemmed deck, single tree (ST), 66
stone, 92
stone countertops, 54
storage use group, 201
straight grain, 12
straight run stairs, 222
strain, 59
stress, 59
structural systems, 58–71, 135
concrete loor and roof systems, 64–67
foundation systems, 60–61
heavy timbers, 63
and loads, 58
materials, 59
steel framing, 68–71
terminology, 58–59
wood light-framing, 62
stucco, 50
stucco walls, 95
studs, 12
subcontractors, 135
substitution, 135
substructure, 60
super-plasticizers, 34
superstructure, 60
surfaced (dressed) lumber, 12
suspended ceilings, 53
sustainable design, 76–77, 197
symbols, drawing, 122
Système International d’Unités (SI). see
metric system
T
T12 lamp, 79, 82
table lamps, 80
tables, 178
tactile, 208
teak, 21
technical ink pens, 153
tempered glass, 96, 105
tempering, 36
template, 150
Ten Books on Architecture (Pollio), 194
tenant improvements (TIs), 135
tension, 58
terrace doors, 97
terrazzo, 52
text telephone, 208
texture, 12
thermal performance, 96
three-coat plaster, 50
270
three-dimensional drawings, 128–129
three-dimensional representations, 121
tiles
acoustic ceiling tiles (ACT), 53
loor, 52
roof, 90
time and materials (T&M), 135
timeline of architecture, 234–241
tin, 39
titanium, 38, 39
toilets, wheelchair space allowances, 214
total solar energy, 96
tracing paper, 149
translucent, 79
transparent, 79
trapezium, 116
trapezoids, 116
treads, 225
triangles, 116, 182
triangular architect’s scale, 151
trim shapes, 51
trimetric drawings, 128, 129
troffer, 79
truss design, 70–71
tube, 65
tungsten, 38
Tuscan orders, 188
two-coat plaster, 50
2-pipe system, 74
two-point common method perspective, 130
2x6 studs, 14–15
two-way lat plate, 64
two-way lat slab, 64
two-way wafle slab, 64
U
UCS icons, 155
UHPC concrete walls, 95
ultraviolet (UV), 79, 96
Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL), 79
union, 183
Union Internationale des Architectes
(UIA), 76
unit conversions, 109, 111–113
United States Metric Association (USMA), 108
units of measure, 108–113
universal design, 166–167
upstream/downstream, 77
U.S. customary units, 108–109
U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), 76
user coordinate system (UCS), 155
U-shaped stair with landing, 222
utility use group, 201
U-value, 96
V
value engineering, 135
vanishing point, 130, 131
variable air volume (VAV), 72
vault, 59
vellum, 149
veneer core hardwood plywood, 55
veneer grades, 17
veneer plaster, 51
vertical stack, 74
viewport, 155
vinyl looring, 52
visible light, 96
volatile organic compound (VOC), 77
volume, 117, 119
W
walk, 208
wall sconce, 81
walls
bearing, 93
cavity, 72, 93
chase, 72
common conigurations, 93
composite, 93, 95
exterior, 94–95
lashing, 89
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
gypsum board, 46–49
plaster, 50–51
retaining, 59
trim shapes, 51
walnut, 21
warp, 12
Warren truss, 71
water-reducing admixtures, 34
welded moment connections, 70
welding, 37
wet bulb, 72
wheelchair space allowances, 211–215
wheelchairs, 166–167
wind loads, 58
window wall, 99
windows, 96–101
considerations for, 100–101
sizing, 98
terminology, 96
types, 97
windows (AutoCAD), 155, 156
wired glass, 105
wood, 10–23
board feet, 16
dimensional variations of 2x6 stud, 14–15
doors, 228–229
exposure durability, 17
looring, 52
grades, 229
hardwood, 16
joinery, 22–23
light-framing, 62
plywood, 17
softwood lumber, 12–13
stud wall, 94
terminology, 10–12
types and characteristics, 18–21
veneer grades, 17
wood-based board types, 55
worked lumber, 12
working drawings, 143
workspaces, 181
written speciications, 107, 144–147
wrought iron, 38
X
X-Acto knife, 150
XP scales, 159
X-ray protection glass, 105
Y
yard (structural) lumber, 12
Z
zebrawood, 21
zinc, 38, 39
zoning, 135
zoning permit, 135
PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS
Pyramid of Giza: Erich Lessing, Art Resource, New York; 236
Stonehenge: Anatoly Pronin, Art Resource, New York; 236
Parthenon: Foto Marburg, Art Resource, New York; 237
Colosseum: Alinari, Art Resource, New York; 237
El Castillo: Vanni, Art Resource, New York; 237
San Vitale: Scala, Art Resource, New York; 238
Notre-Dame: Scala, Art Resource, New York; 238
Duomo, S. Maria del Fiore: Scala, Art Resource, New York; 239
S. Maria Novella: Erich Lessing, Art Resource, New York; 239
Villa La Rotonda: Vanni, Art Resource, New York; 239
S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane: Scala, Art Resource, New York; 240
Salt Works of Chaux: Vanni, Art Resource, New York; 241
Crystal Palace: Victoria & Albert Museum, Art Resource, New York; 241
Marshall Field Wholesale Store: Chicago Historical Society / Barnes-Crosby; 241
Barcelona Pavilion: Museum of Modern Art / licensed by Scala, Art Resource, New York.
© 2006 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn; 242
Einstein Tower: Erich Lessing, Art Resource, New York; 242
Bauhaus: Vanni, Art Resource, New York. © 2006 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn; 242
Fallingwater: Chicago Historical Society / Bill Hedrich, Hedrich-Blessing; 242
Vanna Venturi House: Rollin R. La France, Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates; 243
Seattle Public Library: LMN Architects / Pragnesh Parikh; 243
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to Anna Buzolits, Adam Balaban, Dan Dwyer, John McMorrough, Rick Smith, and
Ron Witte.
Every attempt has been made to cite all sources; if a reference has been omitted,
please contact the publisher for correction in subsequent editions.
271
About the Author
Julia McMorrough has designed a wide range of project types, including hospitals,
libraries, university buildings, and schools for architecture irms in Boston, Kansas City,
New York, and Columbus, Ohio. Currently, she practices as a partner of studioAPT, a
design and research collaborative, and is associate professor of practice at Taubman
College of Architecture at the University of Michigan. She received a Bachelor of Architecture from the University of Kansas and a Master of Science in architecture from
Columbia University.
DEDICATION
For Walter, Matthew, and John
272
THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
© 2013 by Rockport Publishers, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the copyright owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the artists
concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or printer for any infringement of copyright
or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure that credits
accurately comply with information supplied.
First published in the United States of America by
Rockport Publishers, a member of
Quayside Publishing Group
100 Cummings Center
Suite 406-L
Beverly, Massachusetts 01915-6101
Telephone: (978) 282-9590
Fax: (978) 283-2742
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Originally found under the following Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
McMorrough, Julia.
Materials, structures, and standards : all the details architects need to know but can
never ind / Julia McMorrough.
p. cm.
ISBN 1-59253-193-8 (vinyl)
1. Architecture—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Building—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I.
Title.
NA2540.M43 2006
720—dc22
2005019669
CIP
ISBN-13: 978-1-59253-848-5
Digital edition published 2013
eISBN: 978-1-61058-781-5
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
DISCLAIMER
The content of this book is for general information purposes only and has been obtained from many sources,
professional organizations, manufacturers’ literature, and codes. All illustrations in this book (except photographs) are those of the author. The author and publisher have made every reasonable effort to ensure that
this work is accurate and current, but do not warrant, and assume no liability for, the accuracy or completeness
of the text or illustrations, or their itness for any particular purpose. It is the responsibility of the users of this
book to apply their professional knowledge to the content, to consult sources referenced, as appropriate, and
to consult a professional architect for expert advice if necessary.
Editor and Art Director: Alicia Kennedy
Design and Illustrations: Julia McMorrough
Production Design: Leslie Haimes
Cover Design: Burge Agency, www.burgeagency.com
Printed in China