Assignment No.1
1. Give the definition of the following:
a. Science- From latin scientia it means knowledge is a systematic
enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the universe. Scientific methodology
includes the following:
 Objective observation: Measurement and data (possibly
although not necessarily using mathematics as a tool).
 Evidence
 Experiment and/or observation as benchmarks for testing
hypothesis
 Induction: reasoning to establish general rules or conclusions
drawn from facts or example
 Repetition
 Critical analysis
 Verification and testing: critical exposure to scrutiny, peer
review and assessment
b. History- from greek iotopia, historia, meaning “inquiry; knowledge
acquired by investigation” is the study of the past. Events before the
invention of writing systems are considered prehistory. History is an
umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery,
collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events.
Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as
written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological
markers.
c. Philosophy- from Greek, by way of Latin, philosophia, “love of wisdom”.
The rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole
or of fundamental dimensions of human existence and experience.
Philosophical inquiry is a central element in the intellectual history of many
civilizations. The subject of philosophy is treated in a number of articles.
For discussion of major system of Eastern philosophy,see Buddhism;
Chinese philosophy; Confucianism; Daoism; Hinduism;Indian philosophy;
Jainism; Japanese philosophy; Shinto; Sikhism.
d. Ontology- is the branch of philosophy that studies concepts such as
existence, being, becoming, and reality. It includes the questions of how
entities are grouped into basic categories and which of these entities exist
on the most fundamental level. Ontology is sometimes referred to as the
science of being and belongs to the major branch of philosophy known as
metaphysics. Ontologist often try to determine what the categories or
highest kinds are and how they form a system of categories that provides
an encompassing classification of all entities.
e. Metaphysics- The word “metaphysics” comes from the two Greek words
that, together, literally mean “ after or behind or among the study of the
natural. It is the branch of philosophy that studies the first principles of
being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity and
possibility. It includes questions about the nature of consciousness and the
relationship between mind and matter.Whatever the reasons may be, the
set of problems to which the word metaphysics now applies is so diverse
that it very hard to frame a definition that adequately expresses the nature
and scope of the discipline.
f. Epistemology – The term “ epistemology” comes from the Greek words “
episteme” and “logos”. Episteme can be translated as knowledge or
understanding or acquaintance while logos can be translated as account
or argument or reason.Just as each of these different translations captures
some facet of the meaning of these Greek terms, so too does each
translation capture some facet of the meaning of these Greek terms, so
too does each translation capture a different facet of epistemology itself.
g. Axiology- From Greek word axia means “value, worth’’; and logia it
means “study of ”- is the philosophical study of value. It includes questions
about the nature and classification of values and about what kinds of
things have value. It is intimately connected with various other
philosophical fields that crucially depend on the notion of value, like ethics,
aesthetics or philosophy of religion. It is also closely related to value theory
and methaethics. The term was first used by Paul Lapie, in 1902, and
Eduard von Hartmann, in 1908.
h. Logic- is an interdisciplinary field which studies truth and reasoning.
Informal logic seeks to characterize valid arguments informally, for
instance by listing varieties of fallacies. Formal logic represents statements
and argument patterns symbolically, using formal systems such as first
order logic.. Within formal logic, mathematical logic, studies the
mathematical characteristics of logical system, while philosophical logic
applies them to philosophical problems such as the nature of meaning,
knowledge, and existence. Systems of formal logic are also applied in
other fields including linguistics, cognitive science, and computer science.
2. What are the limitations of Science?
 Science doesn’t make moral judgments- Science help us describe
how the world is, but it cannot make any judgments about whether that
state of affairs is right, wrong, good, or bad
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Science doesn't make aesthetic judgments- Science can reveal the
frequency of a G-flat and how our eyes relay information about color to
our brains, but science cannot tell us whether a Beethoven symphony,
a kabuki performance, or a Jackson Pollock painting is beautiful or
dreadful. Individuals make those decisions for themselves based on
their own aesthetic criteria.
Science doesn’t draw conclusions about supernatural
explanations- Do gods exist? Do supernatural entities intervene in
human affairs? These questions may be important, but science won’t
help you answer them. Questions that deal with supernatural
explanations are, by definition, beyond the realm of nature- and hence,
also beyond the realm of what can be studied by science.
Science does not say anything. Scientist do.
Science cannot truly prove anything. It can only describe some
things
Science cannot answer a Why? Question whose answer is
fundamental to doing science.”
3. What are the hallmarks of Science?
“ The hallmark of science is not its ability to forecast the future, but its
ability to explain things- to increase our understanding of the workings
of the universe. The role of predictions in science is to help us
distinguish competing explanations.” Science is full of examples of
fields where researchers can explain phenomena and test the validity
of their explanations, without necessarily being able to make accurate
forecasts. For example, biologist can explain but not forecast the
folding of proteins, and physicists can explain but not forecast the exact
motion of a turbulent fluid.”
Science is a continuous learning process in which the logical
implications of competing explanations are tested and a body of
evidence is accumulated over time. As Karl Popper showed in the
1930s, there is no ‘final proof’ that a theory is correct, but one can say
whether a theory is disprove by data. For example, one cannot say that
Einstein’s theory of relativity has been proven, but one can say that its
predictions have been well tested, it has yet to be contradicted, and it
fits the data better than any alternative explanation proposed thus far.