ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 1 Complex Number and Complex Variables Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ▪ ▪ ▪ Differentiate Complex Number with Complex Number. Learn the different operations and relations involving Complex Number. Learn what Polar Form is. Introduction Functions of (x, y) that depend only on the combination (x + iy) are called functions of a complex variable and functions of this kind that can be expanded in power series in this variable are of particular interest. This combination (x + iy) is generally called z, and we can define such functions as z n, exp(z), sin z, and all the standard functions of z as well as of x. They are defined in exactly the same way the only difference being that they are actually complex valued functions, that is, they are vectors in this two dimensional complex number space, each with a real and an imaginary part (or component). Most of the standard functions we have previously discussed have the property that their values are real when their arguments are real. The obvious exception is the square root function, which becomes imaginary for negative arguments. Since we can multiply z by itself and by any other complex number, we can form any polynomial in z and any power series as well. We define the exponential and sine functions of z by their power series expansions which converge everywhere in the complex plane. Since all the operations that produce standard functions can be applied to complex functions we can produce all the standard functions of a complex variable by the same steps as go to producing standard functions of real variables. 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Complex Number A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers, and i represents the imaginary unit, satisfying the equation i2 = −1. Because no real number satisfies this equation, i is called an imaginary number. For the complex number a + bi, a is called the real part, and b is called the imaginary part. Complex numbers allow solutions to certain equations that have no solutions in real numbers. For example, the equation has no real solution, since the square of a real number cannot be negative. Complex numbers, however, provide a solution to this problem. The idea is to extend the real numbers with an indeterminate i (sometimes called the imaginary unit) taken to satisfy the relation i2 = −1, so that solutions to equations like the preceding one can be found. In this case, the solutions are −1 + 3i and −1 − 3i, as can be verified using the fact that i2 = −1: A complex number can be visually represented as a pair of numbers (a, b) forming a vector on a diagram called an Argand diagram, representing the complex plane. "Re" is the real axis, "Im" is the imaginary axis, and i satisfies i2 = −1. According to the fundamental theorem of algebra, all polynomial equations with real or complex coefficients in a single variable have a solution in complex numbers. In contrast, some polynomial equations with real coefficients have no solution in real numbers. The 16th-century Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano is credited with introducing complex numbers—in his attempts to find solutions to cubic equations. 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Formally, the complex number system can be defined as the algebraic extension of the ordinary real numbers by an imaginary number i. This means that complex numbers can be added, subtracted and multiplied as polynomials in the variable i, under the rule that i2 = −1. Furthermore, complex numbers can also be divided by nonzero complex numbers. Based on the concept of real numbers, a complex number is a number of the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers and i is an indeterminate satisfying i2 = −1. For example, 2 + 3i is a complex number. This way, a complex number is defined as a polynomial with real coefficients in the single indeterminate i, for which the relation i2 + 1 = 0 is imposed. Based on this definition, complex numbers can be added and multiplied, using the addition and multiplication for polynomials. The relation i2 + 1 = 0 induces the equalities i4k = 1, i4k+1 = i, i4k+2 = −1, and i4k+3 = −i, which hold for all integers k; these allow the reduction of any polynomial that results from the addition and multiplication of complex numbers to a linear polynomial in i, again of the form a + bi with real coefficients a, b. The real number a is called the real part of the complex number a + bi; the real number b is called its imaginary part. To emphasize, the imaginary part does not include a factor i; that is, the imaginary part is b, not bi. Cartesian Complex Plane A complex number z can thus be identified with an ordered pair (Re(z), Im(z)) of real numbers, which in turn may be interpreted as coordinates of a point in a two-dimensional space. The most immediate space is the Euclidean plane with suitable coordinates, which is then called complex plane or Argand diagram named after Jean-Robert Argand. Another prominent space on which the coordinates may be projected is the twodimensional surface of a sphere, which is then called Riemann sphere. The definition of the complex numbers involving two arbitrary real values immediately suggests the use of Cartesian coordinates in the complex plane. The horizontal (real) axis is generally used to display the real part, with increasing values to the right, and the imaginary part marks the vertical (imaginary) axis, with increasing values upwards. 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE A charted number may be either viewed as the coordinatized point, or as a position vector from the origin to this point. The coordinate values of a complex number z can hence be expressed its Cartesian, rectangular, or algebraic form. Notably, the operations of addition and multiplication take on a very natural geometric character, when complex numbers are viewed as position vectors: addition corresponds to vector addition, while multiplication corresponds to multiplying their magnitudes and adding the angles they make with the real axis. Viewed in this way, the multiplication of a complex number by i corresponds to rotating the position vector counterclockwise by a quarter turn (90°) about the origin—a fact which can be expressed algebraically as follows: Polar Complex Plane It is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle from a reference direction. The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system) is called the pole, and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance from the pole is called the radial coordinate, radial distance or simply radius, and the angle is called the angular coordinate, polar angle, or azimuth. The radial coordinate is often denoted by r or ρ, and the angular coordinate by φ, θ, or t. Angles in polar notation are generally expressed in either degrees or radians (2π rad being equal to 360°). Converting Between Polar And Cartesian Coordinates The polar coordinates r and φ can be converted to the Cartesian coordinates x and y by using the trigonometric functions sine and cosine: The Cartesian coordinates x and y can be converted to polar coordinates r and φ with r ≥ 0 and φ in the interval (−π, π] by: (as in the Pythagorean theorem or the Euclidean norm), and 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE where atan2 is a common variation on the arctangent function defined as If r is calculated first as above, then this formula for φ may be stated a little more simply using the standard arccosine function: The value of φ above is the principal value of the complex number function arg applied to x + iy. An angle in the range [0, 2π) may be obtained by adding 2π to the value in case it is negative (in other words when y is negative). Modulus And Argument An alternative option for coordinates in the complex plane is the polar coordinate system that uses the distance of the point z from the origin (O), and the angle subtended between the positive real axis and the line segment Oz in a counterclockwise sense. This leads to the polar form of complex numbers. The absolute value (or modulus or magnitude) of a complex number z = x + yi is If z is a real number (that is, if y = 0), then r = |x|. That is, the absolute value of a real number equals its absolute value as a complex number. 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE By Pythagoras' theorem, the absolute value of a complex number is the distance to the origin of the point representing the complex number in the complex plane. The argument of z (in many applications referred to as the "phase" φ) is the angle of the radius Oz with the positive real axis, and is written as arg(z). As with the modulus, the argument can be found from the rectangular form x+yi —by applying the inverse tangent to the quotient of imaginary-by-real parts. By using a half-angle identity, a single branch of the arctan suffices to cover the range of the arg-function, (−π, π], and avoids a more subtle case-by-case analysis Normally, as given above, the principal value in the interval (−π, π] is chosen. Values in the range [0, 2π) are obtained by adding 2π—if the value is negative. The value of φ is expressed in radians in this article. It can increase by any integer multiple of 2π and still give the same angle, viewed as subtended by the rays of the positive real axis and from the origin through z. Hence, the arg function is sometimes considered as multivalued. The polar angle for the complex number 0 is indeterminate, but arbitrary choice of the polar angle 0 is common. The value of φ equals the result of atan2: Together, r and φ give another way of representing complex numbers, the polar form, as the combination of modulus and argument fully specify the position of a point on the plane. Recovering the original rectangular co-ordinates from the polar form is done by the formula called trigonometric form Using Euler's formula this can be written as Using the cis function, this is sometimes abbreviated to 6 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE In angle notation, often used in electronics to represent a phasor with amplitude r and phase φ, it is written as Equality Two complex numbers are equal if and only if both their real and imaginary parts are equal. That is, complex numbers z1 and z2 are equal if and only if Re(z1) = Re(z2) and Im(z1) = Im(z2). Nonzero complex numbers written in polar form are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and their arguments differ by an integer multiple of 2π. Ordering Since complex numbers are naturally thought of as existing on a two-dimensional plane, there is no natural linear ordering on the set of complex numbers. In fact, there is no linear ordering on the complex numbers that is compatible with addition and multiplication – the complex numbers cannot have the structure of an ordered field. This is because any square in an ordered field is at least 0, but i2 = −1. Conjugate The complex conjugate of the complex number z = x + yi is given by x − yi. It is denoted by either 𝑧 or z*. This unary operation on complex numbers cannot be expressed by applying only their basic operations addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Geometrically, 𝑧 is the "reflection" of z about the real axis. Conjugating twice gives the original complex number 7 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The product of a complex number z = x + y and its conjugate is known as the absolute square. It is always a positive real number and equals the square of the magnitude of each: This property can be used to convert a fraction with a complex denominator to an equivalent fraction with a real denominator by expanding both numerator and denominator of the fraction by the conjugate of the given denominator. This process is sometimes called "rationalization" of the denominator (although the denominator in the final expression might be an irrational real number), because it resembles the method to remove roots from simple expressions in a denominator. The real and imaginary parts of a complex number z can be extracted using the conjugation: Moreover, a complex number is real if and only if it equals its own conjugate. Conjugation distributes over the basic complex arithmetic operations: Conjugation is also employed in inversive geometry, a branch of geometry studying reflections more general than ones about a line. In the network analysis of electrical circuits, the complex conjugate is used in finding the equivalent impedance when the maximum power transfer theorem is looked for. Addition And Subtraction Two complex numbers a and b are most easily added by separately adding their real and imaginary parts of the summands. That is to say: 8 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Multiplication Since the real part, the imaginary part, and the indeterminate i in a complex number are all considered as numbers in themselves, two complex numbers, given as z = x + yi and w = u + vi are multiplied under the rules of the distributive property, the commutative properties and the defining property i2 = -1 in the following way Reciprocal And Division Multiplication And Division In Polar Form Formulas for multiplication, division and exponentiation are simpler in polar form than the corresponding formulas in Cartesian coordinates. Given two complex numbers z1 = r1(cos φ1 + i sin φ1) and z2 = r2(cos φ2 + i sin φ2), because of the trigonometric identities 9 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE In other words, the absolute values are multiplied and the arguments are added to yield the polar form of the product. For example, multiplying by i corresponds to a quarterturn counter-clockwise, which gives back i2 = −1. The picture at the right illustrates the multiplication of Since the real and imaginary parts of 5 + 5i are equal, the argument of that number is 45 degrees, or π/4 (in radian). On the other hand, it is also the sum of the angles at the origin of the red and blue triangles are arctan (1/3) and arctan(1/2), respectively. Thus, the formula holds. As the arctan function can be approximated highly efficiently, formulas like this – known as Machin-like formulas – are used for high-precision approximations of π. Similarly, division is given by Video Links Introduction to complex numbers • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SP-YJe7Vldo Complex Variables and Functions • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUhwCfz18os&lis t=PLdgVBOaXkb9CNMqbsL9GTWwU542DiRrPB Complex Variables and Functions • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUhwCfz18os&lis t=PLdgVBOaXkb9CNMqbsL9GTWwU542DiRrPB References • https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/18/18.013a/textbook /HTML/chapter18/section02.html • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number#: ~:text=A%20complex%20number%20is%20a,is% 20called%20an%20imaginary%20number. 10 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 2 Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transform Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ▪ ▪ ▪ Identify and Understand the Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transform Lists and apply the Properties and Theorem of Laplace Transform Convert Laplace Transform into Inverse Laplace Transform Introduction In mathematics, the Laplace transform, named after its inventor Pierre-Simon Laplace (/ləˈplɑːs/), is an integral transform that converts a function of a real variable t (often time) to a function of a complex variable s complex frequency). The transform has many applications in science and engineering because it is a tool for solving differential equations. In particular, it transforms differential equations into algebraic equations and convolution into multiplication. The Laplace transform is named after mathematician and astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace, who used a similar transform in his work on probability theory. Laplace wrote extensively about the use of generating functions in Essai philosophique sur les probabilités (1814), and the integral form of the Laplace transform evolved naturally as a result. Laplace's use of generating functions was similar to what is now known as the ztransform, and he gave little attention to the continuous variable case which was discussed by Niels Henrik Abel. The theory was further developed in the 19th and early 20th centuries by Mathias Lerch, Oliver Heaviside, and Thomas Bromwich. The current widespread use of the transform (mainly in engineering) came about during and soon after World War II, replacing the earlier Heaviside operational calculus. The advantages of the Laplace transform had been emphasized by Gustav Doetsch to whom the name Laplace Transform is apparently due. Laplace Transform 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The Laplace transform of a function f(t), defined for all real numbers t ≥ 0, is the function F(s), which is a unilateral transform defined by where s is a complex number frequency parameter An alternate notation for the Laplace transform is ℒ {𝑓} instead of F. The meaning of the integral depends on types of functions of interest. A necessary condition for existence of the integral is that f must be locally integrable on [0, ∞). For locally integrable functions that decay at infinity or are of exponential type, the integral can be understood to be a (proper) Lebesgue integral. However, for many applications it is necessary to regard it as a conditionally convergent improper integral at ∞. Still more generally, the integral can be understood in a weak sense, and this is dealt with below. One can define the Laplace transform of a finite Borel measure μ by the Lebesgue integral An important special case is where μ is a probability measure, for example, the Dirac delta functions. In operational calculus, the Laplace transform of a measure is often treated as though the measure came from a probability density function f. In that case, to avoid potential confusion, one often writes This limit emphasizes that any point mass located at 0 is entirely captured by the Laplace transform. Although with the Lebesgue integral, it is not necessary to take such a limit, it does appear more naturally in connection with the Laplace–Stieltjes transform. 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Bilateral Laplace transform When one says "the Laplace transform" without qualification, the unilateral or one-sided transform is usually intended. The Laplace transform can be alternatively defined as the bilateral Laplace transform, or two-sided Laplace transform, by extending the limits of integration to be the entire real axis. If that is done, the common unilateral transform simply becomes a special case of the bilateral transform, where the definition of the function being transformed is multiplied by the Heaviside step function. The bilateral Laplace transform F(s) is defined as follows: Probability theory In pure and applied probability, the Laplace transform is defined as an expected value. If X is a random variable with probability density function f, then the Laplace transform of f is given by the expectation By convention, this is referred to as the Laplace transform of the random variable X itself. Here, replacing s by −t gives the moment generating function of X. The Laplace transform has applications throughout probability theory, including first passage times of stochastic processes such as Markov chains, and renewal theory. Of particular use is the ability to recover the cumulative distribution function of a continuous random variable X, by means of the Laplace transform as follows: 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Properties And Theorems The Laplace transform has a number of properties that make it useful for analyzing linear dynamical systems. The most significant advantage is that differentiation becomes multiplication, and integration becomes division, by s (reminiscent of the way logarithms change multiplication to addition of logarithms). Because of this property, the Laplace variable s is also known as operator variable in the L domain: either derivative operator or (for s−1) integration operator. The transform turns integral equations and differential equations to polynomial equations, which are much easier to solve. Once solved, use of the inverse Laplace transform reverts to the original domain. Given the functions f(t) and g(t), and their respective Laplace transforms F(s) and G(s), Computation Of The Laplace Transform Of A Function's Derivative It is often convenient to use the differentiation property of the Laplace transform to find the transform of a function's derivative. This can be derived from the basic expression for a Laplace transform as follows: 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Table Of Selected Laplace Transforms The following table provides Laplace transforms for many common functions of a single variable. For definitions and explanations, see the Explanatory Notes at the end of the table. Because the Laplace transform is a linear operator, Using this linearity, and various trigonometric, hyperbolic, and complex number (etc.) properties and/or identities, some Laplace transforms can be obtained from others more quickly than by using the definition directly. The unilateral Laplace transform takes as input a function whose time domain is the nonnegative reals, which is why all of the time domain functions in the table below are multiples of the Heaviside step function, u(t). The entries of the table that involve a time delay τ are required to be causal (meaning that τ > 0). A causal system is a system where the impulse response h(t) is zero for all time t prior to t = 0. In general, the region of convergence for causal systems is not the same as that of anticausal systems. 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE 6 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE 7 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Inverse Laplace Transform In mathematics, the inverse Laplace transform of a function F(s) is the piecewisecontinuous and exponentially-restricted real function f(t) which has the property: It can be proven that, if a function F(s) has the inverse Laplace transform f(t), then f(t) is uniquely determined (considering functions which differ from each other only on a point set having Lebesgue measure zero as the same). This result was first proven by Mathias Lerch in 1903 and is known as Lerch's theorem. The Laplace transform and the inverse Laplace transform together have a number of properties that make them useful for analyzing linear dynamical systems. Mellin's Inverse Formula An integral formula for the inverse Laplace transform, called the Mellin's inverse formula, the Bromwich integral, or the Fourier–Mellin integral, is given by the line integral: where the integration is done along the vertical line Re(s) = γ in the complex plane such that γ is greater than the real part of all singularities of F(s) and F(s) is bounded on the line, for example if contour path is in the region of convergence. If all singularities are in the left half-plane, or F(s) is an entire function, then γ can be set to zero and the above inverse integral formula becomes identical to the inverse Fourier transform. In practice, computing the complex integral can be done by using the Cauchy residue theorem. Post's Inversion Formula Post's inversion formula for Laplace transforms, named after Emil Post, is a simplelooking but usually impractical formula for evaluating an inverse Laplace transform. The statement of the formula is as follows: Let f(t) be a continuous function on the interval [0, ∞) of exponential order, i.e. 8 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE for some real number b. Then for all s > b, the Laplace transform for f(t) exists and is infinitely differentiable with respect to s. Furthermore, if F(s) is the Laplace transform of f(t), then the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) is given by for t > 0, where F(k) is the k-th derivative of F with respect to s. As can be seen from the formula, the need to evaluate derivatives of arbitrarily high orders renders this formula impractical for most purposes. With the advent of powerful personal computers, the main efforts to use this formula have come from dealing with approximations or asymptotic analysis of the Inverse Laplace transform, using the Grunwald–Letnikov differ integral to evaluate the derivatives. Post's inversion has attracted interest due to the improvement in computational science and the fact that it is not necessary to know where the poles of F(s) lie, which make it possible to calculate the asymptotic behavior for big x using inverse Mellin transforms for several arithmetical functions related to the Riemann hypothesis. Video Links Laplace transform • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OiNh2DswFt4 Inverse Laplace Transform Example • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c6YnYr8KsSo Inverse Laplace Transform Example • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c6YnYr8KsSo References • • • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace_transform https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_Laplace_tra nsform https://web.stanford.edu/~boyd/ee102/laplace.pd f 9 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 3 Power Series Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: • Illustrate the interval of convergence for a power series. • Differentiate and integrate a power series to obtain other power series. • Find Maclaurin series for a function. • Find Taylor series for a function. Introduction In this module you will learn to represent power series algebraically and graphically. The graphical representation of power series can be used to illustrate the amazing concept that certain power series converge to well-known functions on certain intervals. In the first lesson you will start with a power series and determine the function represented by the series. In the last two lessons you will begin with a function and find its power series representation. Power Series In this lesson you will study several power series and discover that on the intervals where they converge, they are equal to certain well known functions. Defining Power Series A power series is a series in which each term is a constant times a power of x or a power of (x - a) where a is a constant. Suppose each ck represents some constant. Then the infinite series is a power series centered at x = 0 and the infinite series 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE is a power series centered at x = a. Finding Partial Sums Of A Power Ser Ies Consider the power series Although you cannot enter infinitely many terms of this series in the Y= Editor, you can graph partial sums of the series because each partial sum is a polynomial with a finite number of terms. Defining An Infinite Geometric Series Recall that an infinite geometric series can be written as a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ... + ark…, where a represents the first term and r represents the common ratio of the series. If | r | < 1, the infinite geometric series a + ar + ar 2 + ar3 + ... + ark + ... converges to a/(1-r). The power series is a geometric series with first term 1 and common ratio x. This means that the power series converges when | x | < 1 and converges to 1/(1-x) on the interval (-1, 1). Visualizing Convergence The graphs of several partial sums can illustrate the interval of convergence for an infinite series. • Graph the second-, third-, and fourth-degree polynomials that • represent partial sums of Graph y=1/(1-x) 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE • Change the graphing style for y=1/(1-x) from the partial sums. to "thick" to distinguish it On the interval (-1,1) the partial sums are close to y=1/(1-x). The interval (-1,1) is called the interval of convergence for this power series because as the number of terms in the partial sums increases, the partial sums converge to y=1/(1-x) on that interval. Maclaurin Series In the previous lesson you explored several power series and their relationships to the functions to which they converge. In this lesson you will start with a function and find the power series that best converges to that function for values of x near zero. Suppose f is some function. A second-degree polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c that satisfies p(0) = f(0), p'(0) = f'(0), and p"(0) = f"(0), gives a good approximation of f near x = 0. The procedure below illustrates the method by finding a quadratic polynomial that satisfies these conditions for the function f(x) = ex. Let f(x) = ex and p(x) = ax2 + bx + c. Use the fact that f and p are equal at x = 0 to find the value of c. f(x) = ex f(0) = e0 = 1 p(x) = ax2 + bx + c p(0) = a(0)2 + b(0) + c = c If c = 1, the function and the polynomial have the same value at x = 0, so p(x) = ax2 + bx + 1. Using a similar procedure, set the first derivatives equal when x = 0 and solve for b. f '(x) = ex f '(0) = e0 = 1 p '(x) = 2ax + b p '(0) = 2a(0) + b = b 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE If b = 1, the function and the polynomial will have the same slope at x = 0, so p(x) = ax2 + x + 1. Set the second derivatives equal when x = 0 and solve for a. f "(x) = ex f "(0) = e0 = 1 p "(x) = 2a p "(0) = 2a If a = 1/2, the function and the polynomial will have the same concavity at x = 0. approximates y = ex near x = 0. So Graphs Of The Function And The Approximating Quadratic Polynomial • Graph the functions Y1 = e^X and Y2 = (1/2)X2 + X + 1 in a [-5, 5, 1] x [-2, 10,1] window. The parabola has the same value, the same slope, and the same concavity as y = ex when x = 0, and the quadratic polynomial is a good approximation for y = ex when x is near 0. Taylor Series In the previous lesson, you found Maclaurin series that approximate functions near x = 0. This lesson investigates how to find a series that approximates a function near x = a, where a is any real number. Given a function f that has all its higher order derivatives, the series , where is called the Taylor series for f centered at a. The Taylor series is a power series that approximates the function f near x = a. 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The partial sum is called the nth-order Taylor polynomial for f centered at a. Every Maclaurin series is a Taylor series centered at zero. The Taylor Polynomial Of Ex Centered At 1 The second-order Taylor polynomial centered at 1 for the function f(x) = ex can be found by using a procedure similar to the procedure given. The coefficient of the term (x - 1)k in the Taylor polynomial is given by . This formula is very similar to the formula for finding the coefficient of xk in a Maclaurin polynomial where the derivative is evaluated at 0. In this Taylor polynomial, the derivative is evaluated at 1, the center of the series. The coefficients of the second-order Taylor polynomial centered at 1 for ex are f(1) = e f '(1) = e So the second-order Taylor polynomial for ex centered at 1 is and near x = 1, ex P2(x). , The Taylor series for ex centered at 1 is similar to the Maclaurin series for e found in last topic. However, the terms in the Taylor series have powers of (x - 1) rather than powers of x and the coefficients contain the values of the derivatives evaluated at x = 1 rather than evaluated at x = 0. x Graphing the function and the polynomial illustrate that the polynomial is a good approximation near x = 1. 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE • Graph y = ex and in a [-2, 3, 1] x [-3, 10, 1] window. The second-order Maclaurin polynomial you found in last topic, , x x is tangent to f(x) = e at x = 0 and has the same concavity as f(x) = e at that point. The polynomial , which is centered at x = 1, is tangent to f(x) x = e at x = 1 and has the same concavity as f(x) = ex at that point. Video Links Power Series • • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EGni2-m5yxM https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DlBQcj_zQk0 Maclaurin and Taylor Series • • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDBnS4c7YbA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3d6DsjIBzJ4 References • http://education.ti.com/html/t3_free_courses/calcu lus84_online/mod24/mod24_1.html • Kreyszig, Erwin (2011). Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10th ed. Wiley https://blogs.ubc.ca/infiniteseriesmodule/units/unit3-power-series/taylor-series/the-taylor-series/ https://blogs.ubc.ca/infiniteseriesmodule/units/unit3-power-series/power-series/the-power-series/ • • 6 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 4 Fourier Series Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ▪ ▪ ▪ Define Fourier Series. Identify Complex-valued Function. Identify a superposition of an infinite number of sine and cosine function. INTRODUCTION In mathematics, a Fourier series is a periodic function composed of harmonically related sinusoids, combined by a weighted summation. With appropriate weights, one cycle (or period) of the summation can be made to approximate an arbitrary function in that interval. As such, the summation is a synthesis of another function. The discretetime Fourier transform is an example of Fourier series. The process of deriving the weights that describe a given function is a form of Fourier analysis. For functions on unbounded intervals, the analysis and synthesis analogies are Fourier transform and inverse transform. Definition of Fourier Series Consider a real-valued function, s(x) that is integrable on an interval of length P, which will be the period of the Fourier series. Common examples of analysis intervals are: The analysis process determines the weights, indexed by integer n, which is also the number of cycles of the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 harmonic in the analysis interval. Therefore, the length of a cycle, in the units of x, is P/n. And the corresponding harmonic frequency is n/P. The 𝑛 𝑛 𝒏𝒕𝒉 harmonic are sin(2𝜋𝑥 𝑃) andcos(2𝜋𝑥 𝑃), and their amplitudes (weights) are found by integration over the interval of length P. 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE • If s(x) is P-periodic, then any interval of that length is sufficient. • 𝑎0 and 𝑏0 can be reduced to 𝑎0 =𝑃 ∫𝑝 𝑠(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 and 𝑏0 = 0. • Many texts choose P=2𝝅 to simplify the argument of the sinusoid functions. 2 The synthesis process (the actual Fourier series) is: In general, integer N is theoretically infinite. Even so, the series might not converge or exactly equate to s(x) at all values of x in the analysis interval. For the "well-behaved" functions typical of physical processes, equality is customarily assumed. 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE And definitions the sine and cosine pairs can be expressed as a single sinusoid with a phase offset, analogous to the conversion between orthogonal (Cartesian) and polar coordinates: The customary form for generalizing to complex-valued (next section) is obtained using Euler's formula to split the cosine function into complex exponentials. Here, complex conjugation is denoted by an asterisk: 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Complex-valued functions If s(x) is a complex-valued function of a real variable x both components (real and imaginary part) are real-valued functions that can be represented by a Fourier series. The two sets of coefficients and the partial sum are given by: Video Links Fourier Series • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vA9dfINW4Rg Computing Fourier Series • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfRE744AFEE Fourier Series Introduction • https://www.khanacademy.org/science/electricalengineering/ee-signals/ee-fourier-series/v/eefourier-series-intro 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE References • • • https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electrical _Engineering/Book%3A_Electrical_Engineering_ (Johnson)/04%3A_Frequency_Domain/4.02%3A_ Complex_Fourier_Series https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electrical _Engineering/Book%3A_Electrical_Engineering_ (Johnson)/04%3A_Frequency_Domain/4.03%3A_ Classic_Fourier_Series 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 5 Fourier Transform Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ▪ ▪ ▪ Identify the Fourier Understand the characteristic of a Fourier Transform Identify the branches of Fourier Introduction We’re about to make the transition from Fourier series to the Fourier transform. “Transition” is the appropriate word, for in the approach we’ll take the Fourier transform emerges as we pass from periodic to nonperiodic functions. To make the trip we’ll view a nonperiodic function (which can be just about anything) as a limiting case of a periodic function as the period becomes longer and longer. Actually, this process doesn’t immediately produce the desired result. It takes a little extra tinkering to coax the Fourier transform out of the Fourier series, but it’s an interesting approach. Fourier was elected to the Académie des Sciences in 1817. During Fourier's eight remaining years in Paris, he resumed his mathematical researches, publishing a number of important articles. Fourier's work triggered later contributions on trigonometric series and the theory of functions of real variable. The Fourier transform is crucial to any discussion of time series analysis, and this chapter discusses the definition of the transform and begins introducing some of the ways it is useful. As an aside, I don’t know if this is the best way of motivating the definition of the Fourier transform, but I don’t know a better way and most sources you’re likely to check will just present the formula as a done deal. It’s true that, in the end, it’s the formula and what we can do with it that we want to get to, so if you don’t find the (brief) discussion to follow to your tastes, I am not offended. called, variously, the top hat function (because of its graph), the indicator function, or the characteristic function for the interval (−1/2, 1/2). While we have defined Π(±1/2) = 0, other common conventions are either to have Π(±1/2) = 1 or Π(±1/2) = 1/2. And some people don’t define Π at ±1/2 at all, leaving two holes in the domain. I don’t want to get dragged into this dispute. It almost never matters, though for some purposes the choice Π(±1/2) = 1/2 makes the most sense. We’ll deal with this on an exceptional basis if and when it comes up. 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Π(t) is not periodic. It doesn’t have a Fourier series. In problems you experimented a little with periodizations, and I want to do that with Π but for a specific purpose. As a periodic version of Π(t) we repeat the nonzero part of the function at regular intervals, separated by (long) intervals where the function is zero. We can think of such a function arising when we flip a switch on for a second at a time, and do so repeatedly, and we keep it off for a long time in between the times it’s on. (One often hears the term duty cycle associated with this sort of thing.) Here’s a plot of Π(t) periodized to have period 15. Here are some plots of the Fourier coefficients of periodized rectangle functions with periods 2, 4, and 16, respectively. Because the function is real and even, in each case the Fourier coefficients are real, so these are plots of the actual coefficients, not their square magnitudes. We see that as the period increases the frequencies are getting closer and closer together and it looks as though the coefficients are tracking some definite curve. (But we’ll see that there’s an important issue here of vertical scaling.) We can analyze what’s going on in this particular example, and combine that with some general statements to lead us on. Recall that for a general function f(t) of period T the Fourier series has the form so that the frequencies are 0, ±1/T, ±2/T, . . .. Points in the spectrum are spaced 1/T apart and, indeed, in the pictures above the spectrum is getting more tightly packed as the period T increases. The n-th Fourier coefficient is given by 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE We see that as the period increases the frequencies are getting closer and closer together and it looks as though the coefficients are tracking some definite curve. (But we’ll see that there’s an important issue here of vertical scaling.) We can analyze what’s going on in this particular example, and combine that with some general statements to lead us on. Recall that for a general function f(t) of period T the Fourier series has the form so that the frequencies are 0, ±1/T, ±2/T, . . .. Points in the spectrum are spaced 1/T apart and, indeed, in the pictures above the spectrum is getting more tightly packed as the period T increases. The n-th Fourier coefficient is given by Here’s a graph. You can now certainly see the continuous curve that the plots of the discrete, scaled Fourier coefficients are shadowing. The function sin πx/πx (written now with a generic variable x) comes up so often in this subject that it’s given a name, sinc: 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE How general is this? We would be led to the same idea — scale the Fourier coefficients by T — if we had started off periodizing just about any function with the intention of letting T → ∞. Suppose f(t) is zero outside of |t| ≤ 1/2. (Any interval will do, we just want to suppose a function is zero outside some interval so we can periodize.) We periodize f(t) to have period T and compute the Fourier coefficients: How big is this? We can estimate Where Fourier transform defined There you have it. We now define the Fourier transform of a function f(t) to be For now, just take this as a formal definition; we’ll discuss later when such an integral exists. We assume that f(t) is defined for all real numbers t. For any s ∈ R, integrating f(t) against e−2πist with respect to t produces a complex valued function of s, that is, the Fourier transform ˆf(s) is a complex-valued function of s ∈ R. If t has dimension time then to make st dimensionless in the exponential e−2πist s must have dimension 1/time. While the Fourier transform takes flight from the desire to find spectral information on a nonperiodic function, the extra complications and extra richness of what results will soon make it seem like we’re in a much different world. The definition just given is a good one because of the richness and despite the complications. Periodic functions are great, but there’s more bang than buzz in the world to analyze. The spectrum of a periodic function is a discrete set of frequencies, possibly an infinite set (when there’s a corner) but always a discrete set. By contrast, the Fourier transform of a nonperiodic signal produces a continuous spectrum, or a continuum of frequencies. It may be that ˆf(s) is identically zero for |s| sufficiently large — an important class of 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE signals called bandlimited — or it may be that the nonzero values of ˆf(s) extend to ±∞, or it may be that ˆf(s) is zero for just a few values of s. The Fourier transform analyzes a signal into its frequency components. We haven’t yet considered how the corresponding synthesis goes. How can we recover f(t) in the time domain from ˆf(s) in the frequency domain? Recovering f(t) from ˆf(s) We can push the ideas on nonperiodic functions as limits of periodic functions a little further and discover how we might obtain f(t) from its transform ˆf(s). Again suppose f(t) is zero outside some interval and periodize it to have (large) period T. We expand f(t) in a Fourier series, The inverse Fourier transform defined, and Fourier inversion, too The integral we’ve just come up with can stand on its own as a “transform”, and so we define the inverse Fourier transform of a function g(s) to be Again, we’re treating this formally for the moment, withholding a discussion of conditions under which the integral makes sense. In the same spirit, we’ve also produced the Fourier inversion theorem. That is A quick summary Let’s summarize what we’ve done here, partly as a guide to what we’d like to do next. There’s so much involved, all of importance, that it’s hard to avoid saying everything at once. Realize that it will take some time before everything is in place. • The domain of the Fourier transform is the set of real numbers s. One says that ˆf is defined on the frequency domain, and that the original signal f(t) is defined on the time domain (or the spatial domain, depending on the context). For a (nonperiodic) signal defined on the whole real line we generally do not have a discrete set of frequencies, as in the periodic case, but rather a continuum of frequencies.2 (We still do call them “frequencies”, however.) The set of all frequencies is the spectrum of f(t). ◦ Not all frequencies need occur, i.e., ˆf(s) might be zero for some values of s. Furthermore, it might be that there aren’t any frequencies outside of a certain range, i.e., 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The Inverse Fourier Transform is defined by Now remember that ˆf (s) is a transformed, complex-valued function, and while it may be “equivalent” to f(t) it has very different properties. Is it really true that when ˆf(s) exists we can just plug it into the formula for the inverse Fourier transform — which is also an improper integral that looks the same as the forward transform except for the minus sign — and really get back f(t)? Really? That’s worth wondering about. • The square magnitude | ˆf(s)| 2 is called the power spectrum (especially in connection with its use in communications) or the spectral power density (especially in connection with its use in optics) or the energy spectrum (especially in every other connection). An important relation between the energy of the signal in the time domain and the energy spectrum in the frequency domain is given by Parseval’s identity for Fourier transforms: A warning on notations: None is perfect, all are in use Depending on the operation to be performed, or on the context, it’s often useful to have alternate notations for the Fourier transform. But here’s a warning, which is the start of a complaint, which is the prelude to a full blown rant. Diddling with notation seems to be an unavoidable hassle in this subject. Flipping back and forth between a transform and its inverse, naming the variables in the different domains (even writing or not writing the variables), changing plus signs to minus signs, taking complex conjugates, these are all routine day-to-day operations and they can cause endless muddles if you are not careful, and sometimes even if you are careful. You will believe me when we have some examples, and you will hear me complain about it frequently Here’s one example of a common convention: If the function is called f then one often uses the corresponding capital letter, F, to denote the Fourier transform. So one sees a and A, z and Z, and everything in between. Note, however, that one typically uses different names for the variable for the two functions, as in f(x) (or f(t)) and F(s). This ‘capital letter notation’ is very common in engineering but often confuses people when ‘duality’ is invoked, to be explained below And then there’s this: Since taking the Fourier transform is an operation that is applied to a function to produce a new function, it’s also sometimes convenient to indicate this by a kind of “operational” notation. For example, it’s common to write Ff(s) for ˆf(s), and so, to repeat the full definition 6 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE This is often the most unambiguous notation. Similarly, the operation of taking the inverse Fourier transform is then denoted by F −1, and so Finally, a function and its Fourier transform are said to constitute a “Fourier pair”,; this is concept of ‘duality’ to be explained more precisely later. There have been various notations devised to indicate this sibling relationship. One is A warning on definitions Our definition of the Fourier transform is a standard one, but it’s not the only one. The question is where to put the 2π: in the exponential, as we have done; or perhaps as a factor out front; or perhaps left out completely. There’s also a question of which the Fourier transform is and which is the inverse, i.e., which gets the minus sign in the exponential. All of the various conventions are in day-to-day use in the professions, and I only mention this now because when you’re talking with a friend over drinks about the Fourier transform, be sure you both know which conventions are being followed. I’d hate to see that kind of misunderstanding get in the way of a beautiful friendship. Following the helpful summary provided by T. W. K¨orner in his book Fourier analysis, I will summarize the many irritating variations. To be general, let’s write Getting To Know Your Fourier Transform In one way, at least, our study of the Fourier transform will run the same course as your study of calculus. When you learned calculus it was necessary to learn the derivative and integral formulas for specific functions and types of functions (powers, exponentials, trig functions), and also to learn the general principles and rules of differentiation and integration that allow you to work with combinations of functions (product rule, chain rule, inverse functions). It will be the same thing for us now. We’ll need to have a storehouse of specific functions and their transforms that we can call on, and we’ll need to develop general principles and results on how the Fourier transform operates. The triangle function Consider next the “triangle function”, defined by 7 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE For the Fourier transform we compute (using integration by parts, and the factoring trick for the sine function): It’s no accident that the Fourier transform of the triangle function turns out to be the square of the Fourier transform of the rect function. It has to do with convolution, an operation we have seen for Fourier series and will see anew for Fourier transforms in the next chapter. The exponential decay another commonly occurring function is the (one-sided) exponential decay, defined by where a is a positive constant. This function models a signal that is zero, switched on, and then decays exponentially. Here are graphs for a = 2, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5, 0.25 Which is which? If you can’t say, see the discussion on scaling the independent variable at the end of this section. Back to the exponential decay, we can calculate its Fourier transform directly 8 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Which is which? You’ll soon learn to spot that immediately, relative to the pictures in the time domain, and it’s an important issue. Also note that |Ff(s)| 2 is an even function of s even though Ff(s) is not. We’ll see why later. The shape of |Ff(s)| 2 is that of a “bell curve”, though this is not Gaussian, a function we’ll discuss just below. The curve is known as a Lorenz profile and comes up in analyzing the transition probabilities and lifetime of the excited state in atoms. How does the graph of f(ax) compare with the graph of f(x)? Let me remind you of some elementary lore on scaling the independent variable in a function and how scaling affect its graph. The question is how the graph of f(ax) compares with the graph of f(x) when 0 <a< 1 and when a > 1; I’m talking about any generic function f(x) here. This is very simple, especially compared to what we’ve done and what we’re going to do, but you’ll want it at your fingertips and everyone has to think about it for a few seconds. Here’s how to spend those few seconds. Consider, for example, the graph of f(2x). The graph of f(2x), compared with the graph of f(x), is squeezed. Why? Think about what happens when you plot the graph of f(2x) over, say, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. When x goes from −1 to 1, 2x goes from −2 to 2, so while you’re plotting f(2x) over the interval from −1 to 1 you have to compute the values of f(x) from −2 to 2. That’s more of the function in less space, as it were, so the graph of f(2x) is a squeezed version of the graph of f(x). Clear? Similar reasoning shows that the graph of f(x/2) is stretched. If x goes from −1 to 1 then x/2 goes from −1/2 to 1/2, so while you’re plotting f(x/2) over the interval −1 to 1 you have to compute the values of f(x) from −1/2 to 1/2. That’s less of the function in more space, so the graph of f(x/2) is a stretched version of the graph of f(x). For Whom The Bell Curve Tolls Let’s next consider the Gaussian function and its Fourier transform. We’ll need this for many examples and problems. This function, the famous “bell shaped curve”, was used by Gauss for various statistical problems. It has some striking properties with respect to the Fourier transform which, on the one hand, give it a special role within Fourier analysis, and on the other hand allow Fourier methods to be applied to other areas where the function comes up. We’ll see an application to probability and statistics in this graph. 9 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE For various applications one throws in extra factors to modify particular properties of the function. We’ll do this too, and there’s not a complete agreement on what’s best. There is an agreement that before anything else happens, one has to know the amazing equation. Now, the function f(x) = e−x2 does not have an elementary antiderivative, so this integral cannot be found directly by an appeal to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. The fact that it can be evaluated exactly is one of the most famous tricks in mathematics. It’s due to Euler, and you shouldn’t go through life not having seen it. And even if you have seen it, it’s worth seeing again; see the discussion following this section. Evaluation Of The Gaussian Integral We want to evaluate Now we make a change of variables, introducing polar coordinates, (r, θ). First, what about the limits of integration? To let both x and y range from −∞ to ∞ is to describe the entire plane, and to describe the entire plane in polar coordinates is to let r go from 0 to ∞ and θ go from 0 to 2π. Next, e−(x2+y2) becomes e−r2 and the area element dx dy becomes r dr dθ. It’s the extra factor of r in the area element that makes all the difference. With the change to polar coordinates we have General Properties And Formulas We’ve started to build a storehouse of specific transforms. Let’s now proceed along the other path awhile and develop some general properties. For this discussion — and indeed for much of our work over the next few lectures — we are going to abandon all worries about transforms existing, integrals converging, and whatever other worries you might be carrying. Relax and enjoy the ride. Fourier Transform Pairs And Duality One striking feature of the Fourier transform and the inverse Fourier transform is the symmetry between the two formulas, something you don’t see for Fourier series. For Fourier series the coefficients are given by an integral (a transform of f(t) into ˆf(n)), but the “inverse transform” is the series itself. The Fourier transforms F and F −1 are the same except for the minus sign in the exponential.5 In words, we can say that if you replace s by −s in the formula for the Fourier transform then you’re taking the inverse Fourier transform. Likewise, if you replace t by −t in the formula for the inverse Fourier transform then you’re taking the Fourier transform. That is 10 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE This might be a little confusing because you generally want to think of the two variables, s and t, as somehow associated with separate and different domains, one domain for the forward transform and one for the inverse transform, one for time and one for frequency, while in each of these formulas one variable is used in both domains. You have to get over this kind of confusion, because it’s going to come up again. Think purely in terms of the math: The transform is an operation on a function that produces a new function. To write down the formula I have to evaluate the transform at a variable, but it’s only a variable and it doesn’t matter what I call it as long as I keep its role in the formula straight. Also be observant what the notation in the formula says and, just as important, what it doesn’t say. The first formula, for example, says what happens when you first take the Fourier transform of f and then evaluate it at −s, it’s not a formula for F(f(−s)) as in “first change s to −s in the formula for f and then take the transform”. I could have written the first displayed equation as (Ff)(−s) = F −1f(s), with an extra parentheses around the Ff to emphasize this, but I thought that looked too clumsy. Just be careful, please. are sometimes referred to as the “duality” property of the transforms. One also says that “the Fourier transform pair f and Ff are related by duality”, meaning exactly these relations. They look like different statements but you can get from one to the other. We’ll set this up a little differently in the next section. Duality and reversed signals There’s a slightly different take on duality that I prefer because it suppresses the variables and so I find it easier to remember. Starting with a signal f(t) define the reversed signal f – by Duality and reversed signals There’s a slightly different take on duality that I prefer because it suppresses the variables and so I find it easier to remember. Starting with a signal f(t) define the reversed signal f – by This identity is somewhat interesting in itself, as a variant of Fourier inversion. You can check it directly from the integral definitions, or from our earlier duality results.6 Of course then also 11 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Even And Odd Symmetries And The Fourier Transform We’ve already had a number of occasions to use even and odd symmetries of functions. In the case of real-valued functions the conditions have obvious interpretations in terms of the symmetries of the graphs; the graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis and the graph of an odd function is symmetric through the origin. The (algebraic) definitions of even and odd apply to complex-valued as well as to realvalued functions, however, though the geometric picture is lacking when the function is complex-valued because we can’t draw the graph. A function can be even, odd, or neither, but it can’t be both unless it’s identically zero. How are symmetries of a function reflected in properties of its Fourier transform? I won’t give a complete accounting, but here are a few important cases. We can refine this if the function f(t) itself has symmetry. For example, combining the last two results and remembering that a complex number is real if it’s equal to its conjugate and is purely imaginary if it’s equal to minus its conjugate, we have: • If f is real valued and even then its Fourier transform is even and real valued. • If f is real valued and odd function then its Fourier transform is odd and purely imaginary. We saw this first point in action for Fourier transform of the rect function Π(t) and for the triangle function Λ(t). Both functions are even and their Fourier transforms, sinc and sinc2, respectively, are even and real. Good thing it worked out that way. Linearity One of the simplest and most frequently invoked properties of the Fourier transform is that it is linear (operating on functions). This means: The Shift Theorem A shift of the variable t (a delay in time) has a simple effect on the Fourier transform. We would expect the magnitude of the Fourier transform |Ff(s)| to stay the same, since shifting the original signal in time should not change the energy at any point in the spectrum. Hence the only change should be a phase shift in Ff(s), and that’s exactly what happens. 12 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The Stretch (Similarity) Theorem How does the Fourier transform change if we stretch or shrink the variable in the time domain? More precisely, we want to know if we scale t to at what happens to the Fourier transform of f(at). First suppose a > 0. Then If a < 0 the limits of integration are reversed when we make the substitution u = ax, and so the resulting transform is (−1/a)Ff(s/a). Since −a is positive when a is negative, we can combine the two cases and present the Stretch Theorem in its full glory: This is also sometimes called the Similarity Theorem because changing the variable from x to ax is a change of scale, also known as a similarity There’s an important observation that goes with the stretch theorem. Let’s take a to be positive, just to be definite. If a is large (bigger than 1, at least) then the graph of f(at) is squeezed horizontally compared to f(t). Something different is happening in the frequency domain, in fact in two ways. The Fourier transform is (1/a)F(s/a). If a is large then F(s/a) is stretched out compared to F(s), rather than squeezed in. Furthermore, multiplying by 1/a, since the transform is (1/a)F(a/s), also squashes down the values of the transform. The opposite happens if a is small (less than 1). In that case the graph of f(at) is stretched out horizontally compared to f(t), while the Fourier transform is compressed horizontally and stretched vertically. The phrase that’s often used to describe this phenomenon is that a signal cannot be localized (meaning concentrated at a point) in both the time domain and the frequency domain. We will see more precise formulations of this principle. To sum up, a function stretched out in the time domain is squeezed in the frequency domain, and vice versa. This is somewhat analogous to what happens to the spectrum of a periodic function for long or short periods. Say the period is T, and recall that the points in the spectrum are spaced 1/T apart, a fact we’ve used several times. If T is large then it’s fair to think of the function as spread out in the time domain — it goes a long time before repeating. But then since 1/T is small, the spectrum is squeezed. On the other hand, if T is small then the function is squeezed in the time domain — it goes 13 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE only a short time before repeating — while the spectrum is spread out, since 1/T is large. Video Links What is the Fourier Transform • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=spUNpyF58BY Fourier series From heat flow to circle drawings • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6sGWTCMz2k Fourier Transform • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ykNtIbtCR-8 References • • • • • https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arn umber=7389485 file:///C:/Users/Jhoy/Downloads/Chapter%202_F ourier%20Transform.pdf http://web.ipac.caltech.edu/staff/fmasci/home/as tro_refs/TheFourierTransform.pdf http://www.math.ncku.edu.tw/~rchen/2016%20Te aching/Chapter%202_Fourier%20Transform.pdf http://www0.cs.ucl.ac.uk/teaching/GZ05/03fourier.pdf 14 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 6 Power Series Solution Of Differential Equations Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ▪ ▪ Understand the Power Series Solve Power Series of Differential Equations In mathematics, the power series method is used to seek a power series solution to certain differential equations. In general, such a solution assumes a power series with unknown coefficients, then substitutes that solution into the differential equation to find a recurrence relation for the coefficients. We want to continue the discussion of the previous lecture with the focus now on power series, i.e., where the terms in the series contain powers of some parameter, typically a dynamical variable, and we are expanding about the point where that parameter vanishes. (A special case is the geometric series we discussed in Lecture 2.) The power series then defines a function of that parameter. The standard examples are the Taylor and Maclaurin series mentioned at the beginning of the previous lecture corresponding to expanding in a series about x = 0 or 0 x x = , The coefficients n b are related to the derivatives of the underlying, at least when the series is convergent, i.e., when the series actually defines the function. Some specific examples of power series are These series uniquely define the corresponding functions, whenever (i.e., at values of x where) the series converges. When we apply the convergence tests of the previous lecture to these expressions, we will define a range for the variable x within which the series converges, i.e., a range in which the series expansion makes mathematical (and physical) sense. This range for x is called the interval of convergence (for the power 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE series expansion). For values of x outside of this interval we will need to find different expressions to define the underlying functions, i.e., the power series serves to define the function only in the interval of convergence. So the series absolutely converges for x 2 . At the endpoints, =1, x = 2 , the series does not absolutely converge since both the p and s parameters of Eq. (2.29) vanish. For x =−2 all terms in the series are positive and the series diverges ( S S 1 1 (− = − = 2 2 ) ( ) ). At the other endpoint, =1, x = 2 , we must be more careful due to the alternating signs. We apply test 5) (from Lecture 2) to this series with (2 1 ) ( ) n n n n a b = = − . Since lim 0 n n → a , the series again diverges. We can see both of these results explicitly by looking at the series Hence the function S x 1 ( ) is well defined (by the series, i.e., the series converges) only on the open interval − 2 2 x (open means excluding the end points). For S x 2 ( ) we find from the ratio test that So the ratio test says that the series absolutely converges for x 1. At the endpoint x =−1 the signs are all negative and the series diverges ) , just the negative Harmonic series). At the other endpoint, x =1 , the signs alternate, test 5) is satisfied (and the series converges conditionally. Hence the function is well defined (by the power series) only on the semi-open interval. Note again that we must treat the endpoints carefully. The third series may look like it is missing every other term (the even powers) and therefore you may be confused about how to apply the ratio test. This is not an issue. The idea of the ratio test is to always consider 2 contiguous terms in the series. 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Alternatively we can (re)write the series as (note that now every value of n contributes to the sum) The series converges absolutely everywhere, − x ( S x 3 ( ) is just the power series expansion of the sine function sin x ). Thus the series absolutely converges for x the open interval x . Since p = 1 2 1, 4 S diverges at the end points. For x =−1 there are no alternating signs so S4 (−1) also diverges. At x =−3 we have ( 1 1 ), which satisfies test 5) and the series conditionally converges. Hence the interval of convergence for S x 4 ( ) is x . Now that we have verified that we know how to determine the interval of convergence, we should restate what is important about the interval. For values of x within that interval of convergence the following statements are all true (and equivalent). To further develop this discussion we state the following theorems (without proof), which are true in the interval of convergence where the (infinite) power series can be treated like a polynomial. 1. We can integrate or differentiate the series term-by-term to find a definition of the corresponding integral or derivative of the function defined by the original series, i.e., S x ( ) or S x dx ( ) . The resulting series has the same interval of convergence as the original series, except perhaps for the behavior at the endpoints (see below). [This is why series are so useful. Note that the effect of integrating or taking a derivative is to introduce a factor of 1/(n+1) or n in the term bn x n±1 , which does not change the interval of convergence (you should convince yourself of this fact).] 2. If we have two series defining two functions with known intervals of convergence, we can add, subtract or multiply the two series to define the corresponding functions, S x S x 1 2 ( ) ( ) or S x S x 1 2 ( ) ( ) . The new series convergences in the overlap (or common) interval of the original 2 intervals of convergence. We can also think about the function defined by dividing the two series, which with some manipulation we can express as a corresponding power series. This function is well defined in the overlap interval of the original series except points where the series in the denominator vanishes. At these points the function may still be defined if the series in the numerator also vanishes 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE (appropriately quickly). We are guaranteed that there is an interval where the new function and its series expansion make sense, but we must explicitly calculate it. 3. We can substitute one series into another series if the value of the first series is within the interval of convergence of the second, 4. The power series expansion of a function is UNIQUE! No matter how you determine the coefficients n b in n n b x , once you have found them you are done. [This is a really important point for the Lazy but Smart!] So let’s develop power series expansions for the functions we know and love. We know the general form is given by Eq. (3.1). If we apply the Maclaurin expansion definition to x e , we find (recall the essential property of the exponential, x x de dx e = ) For this power series the interval of convergence is all values of x, x , In a similar fashion we can quickly demonstrate that Again the interval of convergence is all values of x, x . ASIDE: Note that with the definition 2 i −1, i −1 , it follows from Eqs. (3.9) and (3.11) that 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE This last result is called Euler’s formula (and is extremely useful!). We can obtain more useful relations by using the four theorems above. Recall our discussion in the last lecture of the geometric and Harmonic series. We had Note that the integral changes the behavior at one endpoint from divergent in the geometric case to conditionally convergent in the harmonic case, an example of the change at the endpoints noted above in item I). which we could have obtained directly by differentiation of (1 ) p + x . In this context the reader is encouraged to think some about this use of the factorial function even when the argument is not an integer, i.e., the expansion in Eq. (3.19) is useful even when n is not an integer (but m is). Another tool for obtaining a series expansion arises from switching from a Maclaurin series expansion to a Taylor series expansion, i.e., expand about a point other than the origin. Consider the function ln x . It is poorly behaved at x = 0 , but is well behaved at x =1 . So we can use Eq. (3.15) in the form 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The interval of convergence is then given, i.e., the series converges absolutely for 0 2 x and converges conditionally at x = 2. To repeat, the function defined by a power series expansion is well behaved within the interval of convergence. But clearly it is important to consider what it means when the series expansion for a function diverges. In general, the series will diverge where the original function is singular as is the case for ln x at x = 0 in Eq. (3.20). However, the relationship between the series and the function does not always work going the other way. A divergent series does not necessarily mean a singular function. The various possibilities are the following. 1. The series diverges and the function is singular at the same point. This typically occurs at the boundary of the interval of convergence as in the example of ln x at x = 0. 2. The series may be divergent, but the function is well behaved. For example ln x is well behaved for x 2 but the (specific) power series expansion in Eq. (3.20) diverges. Similarly the function 1 1( + x) is well behaved everywhere except the single point x =−1 while the power series expansion in Eq. (3.14) diverges for x 1 . The mathematics behind this behavior is most easily understood in the formalism of complex variables as we will discuss next (where we will develop the concept of a radius of convergence to replace the interval of convergence). In any case, it is clear as we have already noted that outside of the interval of convergence the series is no longer useful to define the function. However, it is often possible to find a different power series expansion that is useful (convergent) in a different interval of convergence. 3. The logic of how a power series expansion is used typically runs like the following. We solve a differential equation by using the equation to solve for the coefficients in a power series expansion of the solution Within the interval of convergence of that series we succeed in summing the series and writing the solution in closed form We use that closed form to define the solution to the original differential equation over a much larger range in the variable. (The essential subtext here is the uniqueness of the solution and the power series.) 4. A third and truly devious possibility is that the series looks “OK” but does not accurately describe the function. This behavior is associated with points where the function exhibits an essential singularity. Consider the function ( ) 2 1 x f x e− = . The function and all of its derivatives vanish at x = 0 suggesting a power series expansion about x = 0 of the (naïve) form f x( ) = 0 . But this is only true at the isolated point x = 0 and has no finite interval of validity, because the function has an essential singularity at the origin. A more useful series arises from expanding about the point at infinity In this form it is clear that special care must be taken at the point x = 0. If we know that a power series converges, a related important issue, especially for physicists, is the question of how rapidly the series is converging, i.e., what is the magnitude of the error if we truncate the series after N terms? There are several useful relations that address this question, which we present without derivation. 6 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Consider a Taylor series expansion about the point 0 x x = of the function f x( ) . We can define a remainder as where the point x lies somewhere in the interval between 0 x and x, i.e., the final sum in Eq. (3.21) can be written in terms of the first term in the sum but with the derivative evaluated at the point x rather than 0 x . While it may be difficult to determine the precise value of the special point x , this expression provides an easy way to obtain an approximation to the remainder. This result is often derived as part of the introductory calculus course, but recent experience suggests that we should review its derivation here. First note that functions defined by powers series (as here) are smooth and continuous (and bounded, i.e., not infinite) within the interval of convergence of the series in the sense that all derivatives of the function are (well) defined by related power series expansions which converge in the same interval (except possibly at the endpoints – see point I) on page 4). Next consider performing some nested integrals of the N +1st derivative of f(x), which is defined by its Taylor series. We have 7 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE We can evaluate this integral by using another calculus result – the mean value theorem. Consider a general function g(x) that is continuous and smooth in an interval that includes x0 to x. Thus in this interval the function g(y) will exhibit (unique) maximum and minimum values such that g g y g min max ( ) for all y in the interval from x0 to x. Further g(y) will take on all values in this range ( g g y g min max ( ) ) at least once as y varies from x0 to x. Then it follows that the mean value for this interval, defined by There must at least one value of the variable y within the interval where the function passes through its mean value. Now we can apply this result to Eq. (3.23) and establish the existence of a value x such that 8 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE We see clearly that, as we approach the edge of the interval of convergence, the convergence is slower, i.e., it takes more terms to obtain the same size remainder. Finally let’s discuss how to use such power series expansions. 1. They are extremely useful in numerical work, e.g., when working on a computer. Imagine that we wish to evaluate the difference between two very similar functions, e.g., the difference between The functions are so similar that trying to take the difference by simply evaluating the functions separately numerically requires incredible numerical accuracy, while taking the difference first analytically greatly simplifies the problem. Consider their 2. We can also turn our discussion around and use the power series expansions of known functions in order to evaluate sums of interest. This application is straightforward in principle, but requires some creativity. We used this approach in Lecture 2 to evaluate the Harmonic series with alternating signs to find ln 2 . Let’s do something more challenging here. Imagine that we want to sum the series Clearly we want to consider a function whose power series expansion has similar coefficients, but at the same time we want a power series that we can sum after, perhaps, simplifying the series using some simple operation like taking a derivative. In this case define a new function by the power series Now we simplify by taking a derivative, then perform the sum, and finally integrate (by parts) to “undo” the derivative, 9 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Showing that this sum is 1 is not at all straightforward by other means. Similar manipulations can often be used to sum a power series and obtain a closed expression for the function defined by the power series. The point is to use manipulations allowed within the interval of convergence. Consider the function defined by The ratio test tells us that this series is convergent for x 1 . The explicit form clearly suggests that integrating will yield a simpler expression, which we can sum, i.e., which we can recognize, 10 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Power series are also useful for performing integrals, at least numerically. Consider the following example, while the true answer to the same number of significant figures is 1.3780. Of course, these days one is seldom far from a computer with Mathematica or Maple. Power series expansions are also useful for evaluating indeterminate mathematical forms. This application is essentially (a careful application of) L’Hopital’s rule. Consider the example Now expand the numerator (and denominator) in power series keeping the first nonzero terms, 11 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Finally power series are useful in simplifying physics problems. The standard example is that of a pendulum. With the pendulum’s orientation specified by a polar angle (measured from the “down” direction) Newton’s equation is Using just the first term in the power series for sin we obtain the (linearized) Harmonic Oscillator problem 12 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Video Links Power Series Solutions • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oY0ItxI9xTk Introduction to Power Series • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DlBQcj_zQk0 Introduction to Power Series • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DlBQcj_zQk0 References • • • https://sites.math.northwestern.edu/~sweng/teachin g/2018su/math224/notes/lecture12.pdf https://www3.nd.edu/~apilking/Math10560/Lectures/ Lecture%2030.pdf http://courses.washington.edu/ph227814/227/ellis/P hys_227_08_Lec_3.pdf 13 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 7 Simultaneous Linear and Non Linear Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Understand Simultaneous Linear and Non Linear Equation Differentiate Linear and Non-Linear Equation Know about some back history of Simultaneous Linear and Non Linear Equation Solve Simultaneous Linear and Non Linear Equation Introduction Sometimes, one is just not enough, and we need two variables to get the job done. That is when simultaneous linear equations come into play. Imagine this situation, 2 bars of Cadbury chocolate and 3 Mars bars cost Rs.270. At the same store, someone else buys 4 bars of Cadbury chocolate and 2 Mars bars and pays Rs.300. What is the cost of one bar of Cadbury chocolate and one Mars bar? These are the types of problems that require you to solve for 2 variables and therefore the need arises for simultaneous equations. The training wheels are off from this point on and it’s time to dive into the deep end of the middle school math pool. The Big Idea: What are Simultaneous Linear Equations? A system of two equations with the same variables is called simultaneous linear equations. The important thing to remember is that there are 2 unknowns (or variables) and 2 equations (which are linear) in this system. The aim here is to get the pair of values of the variables which satisfy both the equations. For example, both the following equations are linear equations in two variables: 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE As you can see, if we treat these equations with two variables as two independent entities then we can find an infinite number of solutions for both xx and yy. That is not helpful at all! Therefore, we write them as a system of simultaneous equations. That means that the variables are the same and can have unique solutions for both x and y, for example: Now, we want to find the pair (x,y)(x,y) that satisfies both the equations at the same time. Basically, what that means is that for all the infinite solutions to equation 1, there will be a pair (x,y)(x,y) that also satisfies equation 2. That is what we are looking for. We can visualize a system of simultaneous linear equations by drawing 2 linear graphs and finding out their intersection point. The red line represents all the solutions for equation 1, and the blue line, solutions for equation 2. The intersection is the unique (x,y)(x,y) that we are looking for which will satisfy both the equations. There are three major methods to solve simultaneous linear equations: • • • Graphically Substitution Elimination 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Take a look at the example below to understand the Substitution method: you can observe how the values of the variables are obtained by substituting the variable in one equation by its solution of the other equation. The key is to represent one variable as an expression of the other variable. Take a look at the image below to understand the Elimination method: In this method we can eliminate one variable by multiplying each of the equations so that when one equation is subtracted from the other, the resulting equation contains only one variable as the coefficient of the other variable reduces to zero. Some useful tips to help you speed up the process of solving simultaneous linear equations: • • You can use the graphical, substitution or elimination methods to solve a system of linear equations. Simultaneous linear equations may have a unique solution if they intersect at one point • Infinite solutions if the two lines are overlapping: • No solutions if the two lines are parallel: 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE • • One Unique solution is obtained if the 2 lines intersect at one particular point: this will give an ordered pair (x,y)(x,y) of solution. If the 2 lines lie on top of each other, it is simple to see that the 2 equations are just multiples of one another and they will have an infinite number of ordered pairs (x,y)(x,y) as their solution. In some cases, you may find that the 2 equations actually represent a set of parallel lines; this will mean that the system has no solutions as the 2 lines will never intersect one another. It is always recommended that you should substitute the ordered pair of values (x,y)(x,y) back into the simultaneous linear equations to check whether it is indeed the correct solution. Geometric Or Graphical Interpretation The graph of a linear equation ax+by = c is a straight line. Two distinct lines always intersect at exactly one point unless they are parallel (have the same slope). The coordinates of the intersection point of the lines is the solution to the simultaneous linear equations describing the lines. So we would normally expect a pair of simultaneous equations to have just one solution. Let's look at an example graphically: 2x + 3y = 7 4x + y = 9 From the graph we see that the point of intersection of the two lines is (2, 1) Hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations is x = 2, y =1. 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE If you solved the two equations using either Gaussian elimination or substitution, you would obtain the same result. Recall that the slope of the line ax+by = c is Two lines are parallel if they have the same slope. (b 0). Thus if a1x + b1y = c1 and a2x + b2y = c2 are parallel lines then And . So, if the above equation is true, the lines are parallel, they do not intersect, and the system of linear equations has no solution. Consider the following system of linear equations: x - y = -2 x - y = 1. Using the method of substitution, we subtract the second equation from the first to obtain: 0 = -3. This is a false statement and the system, therefore, has no solution. If we look closer at the lines we see that they satisfy the condition and are therefore parallel (as can be seen below). They do not intersect explaining why the system of linear equations has no solution. What if the two equations represent the same line? 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Consider the equations x-y=1 2x - 2y = 2 Multiply the first equation by 2 to put the equations in the form 2x - 2y = 2 2x - 2y = 2 Now subtraction gives 0 = 0, which is true no matter what values x and y may have! This time the two equations represent the same line, since both can be written in the form y = x - 1. Any point on this line has coordinates which will satisfy both equations, so there are an infinite number of solutions! In general, two equations represent the same line if one equation is a multiple of the other. That is There are then three possibilities for a pair of simultaneous linear equations: (i) Just one solution (the usual situation - both lines are unique and not parallel to each other) (ii) No solution ( the lines are parallel, ) (iii) Infinitely many solutions (the equations represent the same line, ) 6 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The Elimination Method This method for solving a pair of simultaneous linear equations reduces one equation to one that has only a single variable. Once this has been done, the solution is the same as that for when one line was vertical or parallel. This method is known as the Gaussian elimination method. Example 2. Solve the following pair of simultaneous linear equations: Equation 1: Equation 2: 2x + 3y = 8 3x + 2y = 7 Step 1: Multiply each equation by a suitable number so that the two equations have the same leading coefficient. An easy choice is to multiply Equation 1 by 3, the coefficient of x in Equation 2, and multiply Equation 2 by 2, the x coefficient in Equation 1: 3 * (Eqn 1) ---> 3 * (2x + 3y = 8)---> 6x + 9y = 24 2 * (Eqn 2) ---> 2 * (3x + 2y = 7)---> 6x + 4y = 14 Both equations now have the same leading coefficient = 6 Step 2: Subtract the second equation from the first. -(6x + 9y = 24 -(6x + 4y = 14) 5y = 10 Step 3: Solve this new equation for y. y = 10/5 = 2 Step 4: Substitute y = 2 into either Equation 1 or Equation 2 above and solve for x. We'll use Equation 1. 2x + 3(2) = 8 2x + 6 = 8 Subtract 6 from both sides 7 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE 2x = 2 Divide both sides by 2 x=1 Solution: x = 1, y = 2 or (1,2). Simultaneous Non-Linear Equations A system of nonlinear equations is two or more equations, at least one of which is not a linear equation, that are being solved simultaneously. Note that in a nonlinear system, one of your equations can be linear, just not all of them. In this tutorial, we will be looking at systems that have only two equations and two unknowns. A system of nonlinear equations is a system of two or more equations in two or more variables containing at least one equation that is not linear. Recall that a linear equation can take the form Ax + By + C = 0 Any equation that cannot be written in this form in nonlinear. The substitution method we used for linear systems is the same method we will use for nonlinear systems. We solve one equation for one variable and then substitute the result into the second equation to solve for another variable, and so on. There is, however, a variation in the possible outcomes. In general, a solution of a system in two variables is an ordered pair that makes BOTH equations true. In other words, it is where the two graphs intersect, what they have in common. So if an ordered pair is a solution to one equation, but not the other, then it is NOT a solution to the system. Since we are looking at nonlinear systems, in some cases, there may be more than one ordered pair that satisfies all equations in the system. A consistent system is a system that has at least one solution. An inconsistent system is a system that has no solution. 8 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The equations of a system are dependent if ALL the solutions of one equation are also solutions of the other equation. In other words, they end up being the same graph. The equations of a system are independent if they do not share ALL solutions. They can have one point in common, just not all of them. There are three possible outcomes that you may encounter when working with these systems: 1. a finite number of solutions 2. no solution 3. infinite solutions Infinite Solutions If the two graphs end up lying on top of each other, then there is an infinite number of solutions. In this situation, they would end up being the same graph, so any solution that would work in one equation is going to work in the other. If you get an infinite number of solutions for your final answer, is this system consistent or inconsistent? If you said consistent, you are right! If you get an infinite number of solutions for your final answer, would the equations be dependent or independent? If you said dependent, you are correct! The graph below illustrates a system of two equations and two unknowns that has an infinite number of solutions: 9 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Solve by Substitution Method Step 1: Simplify if needed. This would involve things like removing ( ) and removing fractions. To remove ( ): just use the distributive property. To remove fractions: since fractions are another way to write division, and the inverse of divide is to multiply, you remove fractions by multiplying both sides by the LCD of all of your fractions. Step 2: Solve one equation for either variable. It doesn't matter which equation you use or which variable you choose to solve for. You want to make it as simple as possible. If one of the equations is already solved for one of the variables, that is a quick and easy way to go. If you need to solve for a variable, then try to pick one that has a 1 or 1 as a coefficient. That way when you go to solve for it, you won't have to divide by a number and run the risk of having to work with a fraction (yuck!!). Also, it is easier to solve for a variable that is to the 1 power, as opposed to being squared, cubed, etc. Step 3: Substitute what you get for step 2 into the other equation. This is why it is called the substitution method. Make sure that you substitute the expression into the OTHER equation, the one you didn't use in step 2. This will give you one equation with one unknown. Step 4: Solve for the remaining variable. Solve the equation set up in step 3 for the variable that is left. Most of the equations in this step will end up being either linear or quadratic. Once in awhile you will run into a different type of equation. 10 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Keep in mind that when you go to solve for this variable that you may end up with no solution for your answer. For example, you may end up with your variable equaling the square root of a negative number, which is not a real number, which means there would be no solution. If your variable drops out and you have a FALSE statement, that means your answer is no solution. If your variable drops out and you have a TRUE statement, that means your answer is infinite solutions, which would be the equation of the line. Step 5: Solve for second variable. If you come up with a finite number of values for the variable in step 4, that means the two equations have a finite number of solutions. Plug the value(s) found in step 4 into any of the equations in the problem and solve for the other variable. Step 6: Check the proposed ordered pair solution(s) in BOTH original equations. You can plug in the proposed solution(s) into BOTH equations. If it makes BOTH equations true, then you have your solution to the system. If it makes at least one of them false, you need to go back and redo the problem. Intersection Of A Parabola And A Line There are three possible types of solutions for a system of nonlinear equations involving a parabola and a line A GENERAL NOTE: POSSIBLE TYPES OF SOLUTIONS FOR POINTS OF INTERSECTION OF A PARABOLA AND A LINE The graphs below illustrate possible solution sets for a system of equations involving a parabola and a line. • No solution. The line will never intersect the parabola. • One solution. The line is tangent to the parabola and intersects the parabola at exactly one point. • Two solutions. The line crosses on the inside of the parabola and intersects the parabola at two points. 11 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE EXAMPLE: SOLVING A SYSTEM OF NONLINEAR EQUATIONS REPRESENTING A PARABOLA AND A LINE Solve the system of equations. Solve the first equation for x and then substitute the resulting expression into the second equation. Solving for y gives y = 2 and y = 1. Next, substitute each value for y into the first equation to solve for x. Always substitute the value into the linear equation to check for extraneous solutions. 12 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The solutions are (1,2) and (0,1), which can be verified by substituting these (x, y)values into both of the original equations 13 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Video Links How to - Solve Simultaneous Equation • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YoVY5JwAF9o Simultaneous equations (linear and non-linear) • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ozP-vf99DK4 Simultaneous Equations • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cWbZqWgsuY8 References • • • https://www.cuemath.com/algebra/simultaneous -linear-equations/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymakercol legealgebra/chapter/methods-for-solving-asystem-of-nonlinear-equations/ http://mathsfirst.massey.ac.nz/Algebra/Systems ofLinEq.htm 14 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 8 Numerical Differentiation and Integration Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Understand Differentiation and Integration Differentiate Differentiation and Integration Know about some back history of Numerical Differentiation and Integration Solve Differentiation and Integration problem In numerical analysis, numerical differentiation describes algorithms for estimating the derivative of a mathematical function or function subroutine using values of the function and perhaps other knowledge about the function. 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Basic Concepts This chapter deals with numerical approximations of derivatives. The first questions that comes up to mind is: why do we need to approximate derivatives at all? After all, we do know how to analytically differentiate every function. Nevertheless, there are several reasons as of why we still need to approximate derivatives: • Even if there exists an underlying function that we need to differentiate, we might know its values only at a sampled data set without knowing the function itself. • There are some cases where it may not be obvious that an underlying function exists and all that we have is a discrete data set. We may still be interested in studying changes in the data, which are related, of course, to derivatives. • There are times in which exact formulas are available but they are very complicated to the point that an exact computation of the derivative requires a lot of function evaluations. It might be significantly simpler to approximate the derivative instead of computing its exact value. • When approximating solutions to ordinary (or partial) differential equations, we typically represent the solution as a discrete approximation that is defined on a grid. Since we then have to evaluate derivatives at the grid points, we need to be able to come up with methods for approximating the derivatives at these points, and again, this will typically be done using only values that are defined on a lattice. The underlying function itself (which in this cased is the solution of the equation) is unknown. A simple approximation of the first derivative is where we assume that h > 0. What do we mean when we say that the expression on the right-hand-side of (5.1) is an approximation of the derivative? For linear functions (5.1) is actually an exact expression for the derivative. For almost all other functions, (5.1) is not the exact derivative. Let’s compute the approximation error. We write a Taylor expansion of f(x + h) about x, i.e., 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE is called a backward differencing (which is obviously also a one-sided differencing formula). The second term on the right-hand-side of (5.3) is the error term. Since the approximation (5.1) can be thought of as being obtained by truncating this term from the exact formula (5.3), this error is called the truncation error. The small parameter h denotes the distance between the two points x and x+h. As this distance tends to zero, i.e., h → 0, the two points approach each other and we expect the approximation (5.1) to improve. This is indeed the case if the truncation error goes to zero, which in turn is the case if f 00(ξ) is well defined in the interval (x, x+h). The “speed” in which the error goes to zero as h → 0 is called the rate of convergence. When the truncation error is of the order of O(h), we say that the method is a first order method. We refer to a methods as a p thorder method if the truncation error is of the order of O(h p ). It is possible to write more accurate formulas than (5.3) for the first derivative. For example, a more accurate approximation for the first derivative that is based on the values of the function at the points f(x−h) and f(x+h) is the centered differencing formula Let’s verify that this is indeed a more accurate formula than (5.1). Taylor expansions of the terms on the right-hand-side of (5.4) are which means that the truncation error in the approximation (5.4) is 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE If the third-order derivative f 000(x) is a continuous function in the interval [x − h, x + h], then the intermediate value theorem implies that there exists a point ξ ∈ (x − h, x + h) such that which means that the expression (5.4) is a second-order approximation of the first derivative. In a similar way we can approximate the values of higher-order derivatives. For example, it is easy to verify that the following is a second-order approximation of the second derivative To verify the consistency and the order of approximation of (5.6) we expand where we assume that ξ ∈ (x − h, x + h) and that f(x) has four continuous derivatives in the interval. Hence, the approximation (5.6) is indeed a second-order approximation of the derivative, with a truncation error that is given b 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Numerical Integration In analysis, numerical integration comprises a broad family of algorithms for calculating the numerical value of a definite integral, and by extension, the term is also sometimes used to describe the numerical solution of differential equations. This article focuses on calculation of definite integrals. The term numerical quadrature (often abbreviated to quadrature) is more or less a synonym for numerical integration, especially as applied to one-dimensional integrals. Some authors refer to numerical integration over more than one dimension as cubature; others take quadrature to include higherdimensional integration. The basic problem in numerical integration is to compute an approximate solution to a definite integral to a given degree of accuracy. If f(x) is a smooth function integrated over a small number of dimensions, and the domain of integration is bounded, there are many methods for approximating the integral to the desired precision. History The term "numerical integration" first appears in 1915 in the publication A Course in Interpolation and Numeric Integration for the Mathematical Laboratory by David Gibb. Quadrature is a historical mathematical term that means calculating area. Quadrature problems have served as one of the main sources of mathematical analysis. Mathematicians of Ancient Greece, according to the Pythagorean doctrine, understood calculation of area as the process of constructing geometrically a square having the same area (squaring). That is why the process was named quadrature. For example, a quadrature of the circle, Lune of Hippocrates, The Quadrature of the Parabola. This construction must be performed only by means of compass and straightedge. The ancient Babylonians used the trapezoidal rule to integrate the motion of Jupiter along the ecliptic For a quadrature of a rectangle with the sides a and b it is necessary to construct a square with the side (the Geometric mean of a and b). For this purpose it is possible to use the following fact: if we draw the circle with the sum of a and b as the diameter, then the height BH (from a point of their connection to crossing with a circle) equals their 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE geometric mean. The similar geometrical construction solves a problem of a quadrature for a parallelogram and a triangle. The Area Segment of Parabola Problems of quadrature for curvilinear figures are much more difficult. The quadrature of the circle with compass and straightedge had been proved in the 19th century to be impossible. Nevertheless, for some figures (for example the Lune of Hippocrates) a quadrature can be performed. The quadratures of a sphere surface and a parabola segment done by Archimedes became the highest achievement of the antique analysis. • • The area of the surface of a sphere is equal to quadruple the area of a great circle of this sphere. The area of a segment of the parabola cut from it by a straight line is 4/3 the area of the triangle inscribed in this segment. For the proof of the results Archimedes used the Method of exhaustion of Eudoxus. In medieval Europe the quadrature meant calculation of area by any method. More often the Method of indivisibles was used; it was less rigorous, but more simple and powerful. With its help Galileo Galilei and Gilles de Roberval found the area of a cycloid arch, Grégoire de Saint-Vincent investigated the area under a hyperbola (Opus Geometricum, 1647), and Alphonse Antonio de Sarasa, de Saint-Vincent's pupil and commentator, noted the relation of this area to logarithms. John Wallis algebrised this method: he wrote in his Arithmetica Infinitorum (1656) series that we now call the definite integral, and he calculated their values. Isaac Barrow and James Gregory made further progress: quadratures for some algebraic curves and spirals. Christiaan Huygens successfully performed a quadrature of some Solids of revolution. The quadrature of the hyperbola by Saint-Vincent and de Sarasa provided a new function, the natural logarithm, of critical importance. With the invention of integral calculus came a universal method for area calculation. In response, the term quadrature has become traditional, and instead the modern phrase "computation of a univariate definite integral" is more common. 6 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Reasons for numerical integration Here are several reasons for carrying out numerical integration. 1. The integrand f(x) may be known only at certain points, such as obtained by sampling. Some embedded systems and other computer applications may need numerical integration for this reason. 2. A formula for the integrand may be known, but it may be difficult or impossible to find an antiderivative that is an elementary function. An example of such an integrand is f(x) = exp(−x2), the antiderivative of which (the error function, times a constant) cannot be written in elementary form. 3. It may be possible to find an antiderivative symbolically, but it may be easier to compute a numerical approximation than to compute the antiderivative. That may be the case if the antiderivative is given as an infinite series or product, or if its evaluation requires a special function that is not available. Methods for one-dimensional integrals Numerical integration methods can generally be described as combining evaluations of the integrand to get an approximation to the integral. The integrand is evaluated at a finite set of points called integration points and a weighted sum of these values is used to approximate the integral. The integration points and weights depend on the specific method used and the accuracy required from the approximation. An important part of the analysis of any numerical integration method is to study the behavior of the approximation error as a function of the number of integrand evaluations. A method that yields a small error for a small number of evaluations is usually considered superior. Reducing the number of evaluations of the integrand reduces the number of arithmetic operations involved, and therefore reduces the total round-off error. Also, each evaluation takes time, and the integrand may be arbitrarily complicated. A 'brute force' kind of numerical integration can be done, if the integrand is reasonably well-behaved (i.e. piecewise continuous and of bounded variation), by evaluating the integrand with very small increments. We have now seen some of the most generally useful methods for discovering antiderivatives, and there are others. Unfortunately, some functions have no simple antiderivatives; in such cases if the value of a definite integral is needed it will have to be approximated. We will see two methods that work reasonably well and yet are fairly simple; in some cases more sophisticated techniques will be needed. Of course, we already know one way to approximate an integral: if we think of the integral as computing an area, we can add up the areas of some rectangles. While this is quite simple, it is usually the case that a large number of rectangles is needed to get acceptable accuracy. A similar approach is much better: we approximate the area under a curve over a small interval as the area of a trapezoid. In figure 8.6.1 we see an area under a curve approximated by rectangles and by trapezoids; it is apparent that the trapezoids give a substantially better approximation on each subinterval. 7 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Integration via Interpolation One direct way of obtaining quadratures from given samples of a function is by integrating an interpolant. As always, our goal is to evaluate I = R b a f(x)dx. We assume that the values of the function f(x) are given at n + 1 points: x0, . . . , xn ∈ [a, b]. Note that we do not require the first point x0 to be equal to a, and the same holds for the right side of the interval. Given the values f(x0), . . . f(xn), we can write the interpolating polynomial of degree 6 n, which in the Largenge form is The integral of f(x) can then be approximated by the integral of Pn(x), i.e., Note that if we want to integrate several different functions, and use their values at the same points (x0, . . . , xn), the quadrature coefficients (6.8) should be computed only once, since they do not depend on the function that is being integrated. If we change the interpolation/integration points, then we must recompute the quadrature coefficients. For equally spaced points, x0, . . . , xn, a numerical integration formula of the form. is called a Newton-Cotes formula. Composite Integration Rules 8 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE In a composite quadrature, we divide the interval into subintervals and apply an integration rule to each subinterval. We demonstrate this idea with a couple of Example Consider the points The composite trapezoidal rule is obtained by applying the trapezoidal rule in each subinterval [xi−1, xi ], i = 1, . . . , n, i.e., A composite trapezoidal rule A particular case is when these points are uniformly spaced, i.e., when all intervals have an equal length. For example, if 9 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The notation of a sum with two primes, , means that we sum over all the terms with the exception of the first and last terms that are being divided by 2. We can also compute the error term as a function of the distance between neighboring points, h. We know from (6.11) that in every subinterval the quadrature error is Hence, the overall error is obtained by summing over n such terms: Clearly If we assume that f 00(x) is continuous in [a, b] (which we anyhow do in order for the interpolation error formula to be valid) then there exists a point ξ ∈ [a, b] such that This means that the composite trapezoidal rule is second-order accurate. 10 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Video Links Numerical Differentiation Methods • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tcqsLqIyjmk Numerical Integration With Trapezoidal and Simpson's Rule • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RTX-ik_8i-k Simpson’s Rule & Numerical Integration • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7EqRRuh-5Lk References • • • • • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_differentiatio n http://www2.math.umd.edu/~dlevy/classes/amsc466 /lecture-notes/differentiation-chap.pdf https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/calculus_onli ne/section14.01.html https://mathworld.wolfram.com/NumericalDifferentiat ion.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_integration#: ~:text=In%20analysis%2C%20numerical%20integra tion%20comprises,on%20calculation%20of%20defi nite%20integrals. 11 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 9 Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ▪ ▪ ▪ Solve Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations Understand the characteristic of a Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations Identify the Classification of Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations Introduction In mathematics, an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) is a differential equation containing one or more functions of one independent variable and the derivatives of those functions. The term ordinary is used in contrast with the term partial differential equation which may be with respect to more than one independent variable. A linear differential equation is a differential equation that is defined by a linear polynomial in the unknown function and its derivatives, that is an equation of the form among ordinary differential equations, linear differential equations play a prominent role for several reasons. Most elementary and special functions that are encountered in physics and applied mathematics are solutions of linear differential equations (see Holonomic function). When physical phenomena are modeled with non-linear equations, they are generally approximated by linear differential equations for an easier solution. The few non-linear ODEs that can be solved explicitly are generally solved by transforming the equation into an equivalent linear ODE (see, for example Riccati equation). Some ODEs can be solved explicitly in terms of known functions and integrals. When that is not possible, the equation for computing the Taylor series of the solutions may be useful. For applied problems, numerical methods for ordinary differential equations can supply an approximation of the solution. 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Ordinary differential equations (ODEs) arise in many contexts of mathematics and social and natural sciences. Mathematical descriptions of change use differentials and derivatives. Various differentials, derivatives, and functions become related via equations, such that a differential equation is a result that describes dynamically changing phenomena, evolution, and variation. Often, quantities are defined as the rate of change of other quantities (for example, derivatives of displacement with respect to time), or gradients of quantities, which is how they enter differential equations. Specific mathematical fields include geometry and analytical mechanics. Scientific fields include much of physics and astronomy (celestial mechanics), meteorology (weather modeling), chemistry (reaction rates),biology (infectious diseases, genetic variation), ecology and population modeling (population competition), economics (stock trends, interest rates and the market equilibrium price changes). Many mathematicians have studied differential equations and contributed to the field, including Newton, Leibniz, the Bernoulli family, Riccati, Clairaut, d'Alembert, and Euler. A simple example is Newton's second law of motion — the relationship between the displacement x and the time t of an object under the force F, is given by the differential equation which constrains the motion of a particle of constant mass m. In general, F is a function of the position x(t) of the particle at time t. The unknown function x(t) appears on both sides of the differential equation, and is indicated in the notation F(x(t)). In what follows, let y be a dependent variable and x an independent variable, and y = f(x) is an unknown function of x. The notation for differentiation varies depending upon the author and upon which notation is most useful for the task at hand. In this context, the Leibniz's notation (dy/dx,d2y/dx2,...,dny/dxn) is more useful for differentiation and integration, whereas Lagrange's notation (y′,y′′, ..., y(n)) is more useful for representing derivatives of any order compactly, and Newton's notation is often used in physics for representing derivatives of low order with respect to time. Given F, a function of x, y, and derivatives of y. Then an equation of the form called an Explicit Ordinary Differential Equation of order n. More generally, an Implicit Ordinary Differential Equation of order n takes the form 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE There are further classifications: Autonomous A differential equation not depending on x is called autonomous. Linear A differential equation is said to be linear if F can be written as a linear combination of the derivatives of y: where a i (x) and r (x) are continuous functions of x.The function r(x) is called the source term, leading to two further important classifications: Homogeneous If r(x) = 0, and consequently one "automatic" solution is the trivial solution, y = 0. The solution of a linear homogeneous equation is a complementary function, denoted here by yc. Nonhomogeneous (Or Inhomogeneous) If r(x) ≠ 0. The additional solution to the complementary function is the particular integral, denoted here by yp. The general solution to a linear equation can be written as y = yc + yp. Non-Linear A differential equation that cannot be written in the form of a linear combination. System Of ODEs A number of coupled differential equations form a system of equations. If y is a vector whose elements are functions; y(x) = [y1(x), y2(x),..., ym(x)], and F is a vectorvalued function of y and its derivatives, then is an explicit system of ordinary differential equations of order n and dimension m. In column vector form: 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE These are The implicit analogue is: not necessarily linear. where 0 = (0, 0, ..., 0) is the zero vector. In matrix form For a system of the form , some sources also require that the Jacobian matrix be non-singular in order to call this an implicit ODE [system]; an implicit ODE system satisfying this Jacobian non-singularity condition can be transformed into an explicit ODE system. In the same sources, implicit ODE systems with a singular Jacobian are termed differential algebraic equations (DAEs). This distinction is not merely one of terminology; DAEs have fundamentally different characteristics and are generally more involved to solve than (nonsingular) ODE systems. Presumably for additional derivatives, the Hessian matrix and so forth are also assumed non-singular according to this scheme, although note that order, which makes the Jacobian singularity criterion sufficient for this taxonomy to be comprehensive at all orders. The behavior of a system of ODEs can be visualized through the use of a phase portrait. Singular Solutions The theory of singular solutions of ordinary and partial differential equations was a subject of research from the time of Leibniz, but only since the middle of the nineteenth century has it received special attention. A valuable but little-known work on the subject is that of Houtain (1854). Darboux (from 1873) was a leader in the theory, and in the geometric interpretation of these solutions he opened a field worked by various writers, notably Casorati and Cayley. To the latter is due (1872) the theory of singular solutions of differential equations of the first order as accepted circa 1900. Reduction To Quadratures The primitive attempt in dealing with differential equations had in view a reduction to quadratures. As it had been the hope of eighteenth-century algebraists to find a method for solving the general equation of the nth degree, so it was the hope of analysts to find 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE a general method for integrating any differential equation. Gauss (1799) showed, however, that complex differential equations require complex numbers. Hence, analysts began to substitute the study of functions, thus opening a new and fertile field. Cauchy was the first to appreciate the importance of this view. Thereafter, the real question was no longer whether a solution is possible by means of known functions or their integrals, but whether a given differential equation suffices for the definition of a function of the independent variable or variables, and, if so, what are the characteristic properties. Fuchsian Theory Two memoirs by Fuchs inspired a novel approach, subsequently elaborated by Thomé and Frobenius. Collet was a prominent contributor beginning in 1869. His method for integrating a non-linear system was communicated to Bertrand in 1868. Clebsch (1873) attacked the theory along lines parallel to those in his theory of Abelian integrals. As the latter can be classified according to the properties of the fundamental curve that remains unchanged under a rational transformation, Clebsch proposed to classify the transcendent functions defined by differential equations according to the invariant properties of the corresponding surfaces f = 0 under rational one-to-one transformations. Lie's Theory From 1870, Sophus Lie's work put the theory of differential equations on a better foundation. He showed that the integration theories of the older mathematicians can, using Lie groups, be referred to a common source, and that ordinary differential equations that admit the same infinitesimal transformations present comparable integration difficulties. He also emphasized the subject of transformations of contact. Lie's group theory of differential equations has been certified, namely: (1) that it unifies the many ad hoc methods known for solving differential equations, and (2) that it provides powerful new ways to find solutions. The theory has applications to both ordinary and partial differential equations. Sturm–Liouville Theory Sturm–Liouville theory is a theory of a special type of second order linear ordinary differential equation. Their solutions are based on eigenvalues and corresponding eigenfunctions of linear operators defined via second-order homogeneous linear equations. The problems are identified as Sturm-Liouville Problems (SLP) and are named after J.C.F. Sturm and J. Liouville, who studied them in the mid-1800s. SLPs have an infinite number of eigenvalues, and the corresponding eigenfunctions form a complete, orthogonal set, which makes orthogonal expansions possible. This is a key idea in applied mathematics, physics, and engineering. SLPs are also useful in the analysis of certain partial differential equations. Existence And Uniqueness Of Solutions Local Existence And Uniqueness Theorem Simplified The theorem can be stated simply as follows. For the equation and initial value problem: 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE if F and ∂F/∂y are continuous in a closed rectangle in the x-y plane, where a and b are real (symbolically: a, b ∈ ℝ) and × denotes the cartesian product, square brackets denote closed intervals, then there is an interval for some h ∈ ℝ where the solution to the above equation and initial value problem can be found. That is, there is a solution and it is unique. Since there is no restriction on F to be linear, this applies to non-linear equations that take the form F(x, y), and it can also be applied to systems of equations. Global Uniqueness And Maximum Domain Of Solution When the hypotheses of the Picard–Lindale theorem are satisfied, then local existence and uniqueness can be extended to a global result. More precisely: For each initial condition (x0, y0) there exists a unique maximum (possibly infinite) open interval such that any solution that satisfies this initial condition is a restriction of the solution that satisfies this initial condition with domain In the case that , there are exactly two possibilities. 6 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Partial Differential Equation Partial differential equation, in mathematics, equation relating a function of several variables to its partial derivatives. A partial derivative of a function of several variables expresses how fast the function changes when one of its variables is changed, the others being held constant (compare ordinary differential equation). The partial derivative of a function is again a function, and, if f(x, y) denotes the original function of the variables x and y, the partial derivative with respect to x—i.e., when only x is allowed to vary—is typically written as fx(x, y) or ∂f/∂x. The operation of finding a partial derivative can be applied to a function that is itself a partial derivative of another function to get what is called a second-order partial derivative. For example, taking the partial derivative of fx(x, y) with respect to y produces a new function fxy(x, y), or ∂2f/∂y∂x. The order and degree of partial differential equations are defined the same as for ordinary differential equations. A partial differential equation (or briefly a PDE) is a mathematical equation that involves two or more independent variables, an unknown function (dependent on those variables), and partial derivatives of the unknown function with respect to the independent variables. The order of a partial differential equation is the order of the highest derivative involved. A solution (or a particular solution) to a partial differential equation is a function that solves the equation or, in other words, turns it into an identity when substituted into the equation. A solution is called general if it contains all particular solutions of the equation concerned. 7 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE The term exact solution is often used for second- and higher-order nonlinear PDEs to denote a particular solution (see also Preliminary remarks at Second-Order Partial Differential Equations). Partial differential equations are used to mathematically formulate, and thus aid the solution of, physical and other problems involving functions of several variables, such as the propagation of heat or sound, fluid flow, elasticity, electrostatics, electrodynamics, etc. General Form Of First-Order Partial Differential Equation A first-order partial differential equation with n independent variables has the general form where w=w(x1,x2,…,xn) is the unknown function and F(…) is a given function. Quasilinear Equations. Characteristic System. General Solution A first-order quasilinear partial differential equation with two independent variables has the general form Such equations are encountered in various applications (continuum mechanics, gas dynamics, hydrodynamics, heat and mass transfer, wave theory, acoustics, multiphase flows, chemical engineering, etc.). If the functions f, g, and h are independent of the unknown w, then equation is called linear. Characteristic System. General Solution The system of ordinary differential equations is known as the characteristic system of equation. Suppose that two independent particular solutions of this system have been found in the form 8 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants; such particular solutions are known as integrals of system. Then the general solution to equation can be written as where Φ is an arbitrary function of two variables. With equation (4) solved for u2, one often specifies the general solution in the form u2=Ψ(u1), where Ψ(u) is an arbitrary function of one variable. Remark. If h(x,y,w)≡0, then w=C2 can be used as the second integral in (3). Example. Consider the linear equation The associated characteristic system of ordinary differential equations has two integrals Therefore, the general solution to this PDE can be written as w−bx=Ψ(y−ax), or where Ψ(z) is an arbitrary function. Second-Order Partial Differential Equations Linear second-order PDEs and their properties. Principle of linear superposition A second-order linear partial differential equation with two independent variables has the form Some Linear Equations Encountered In Applications Three basic types of linear partial differential equations are distinguished— parabolic, hyperbolic, and elliptic (for details, see below). The solutions of the equations pertaining to each of the types have their own characteristic qualitative differences. 9 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Heat equation (a parabolic equation) The simplest example of a parabolic equation is the heat equation Wave Equation (a hyperbolic equation) The simplest example of a hyperbolic equation is the wave equation Laplace Equation (an elliptic equation) The simplest example of an elliptic equation is the Laplace equation Classification Of Second-Order Partial Differential Equations Types Of Equations Any Semi linear partial differential equation of the second-order with two independent variables can be reduced, by appropriate manipulations, to a simpler equation that has one of the three highest derivative combinations specified above in examples and given a point (x,y), equation is said to be. Canonical form of parabolic equations (case b2−ac=0) Two canonical forms of hyperbolic equations (case b2−ac>0) Canonical form of elliptic equations (case b2−ac<0) 10 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE References • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differentia l_equation#CITEREFSimmons1972 • http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Partial_differ ential_equation • https://www.britannica.com/science/partialdifferential-eq Video Links PDEs: Ordinary versus Partial Differential Equations • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y3dHKNl-q-k ODEs: Introduction to Ordinary Differential Equations • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bP2Ug7Mm5RE PDEs: Classification of Partial Differential Equations • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oICjqJwRbqY&li st=PLYdroRCLMg5MLOnfJMyu4nLxtKOD7gGpz&in dex=2 11 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Chapter 10 Optimization Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ▪ Understand about Optimization ▪ Identify and understand the Characterize the major subfields of Optimization ▪ Classification of critical points and extrema ▪ Apply the Computational optimization techniques and Application of Optimization Introduction Optimization is a general term used to describe types of problems and solution techniques that are concerned with the best (“optimal”) allocation of limited resources in projects. The problems are called optimization problems and the methods optimization methods. Typical problems are concerned with planning and making decisions, such as selecting an optimal production plan. A company has to decide how many units of each product from a choice of (distinct) products it should make. The objective of the company may be to maximize overall profit when the different products have different individual profits. Mathematical optimization (alternatively spelled optimisation) or mathematical programming is the selection of a best element (with regard to some criterion) from some set of available alternatives Optimization problems of sorts arise in all quantitative disciplines from computer science and engineering to operations research and economics, and the development of solution methods has been of interest in mathematics for centuries. In the simplest case, an optimization problem consists of maximizing or minimizing a real function by systematically choosing input values from within an allowed set and computing the value of the function. The generalization of optimization theory and techniques to other formulations constitutes a large area of applied mathematics. More generally, optimization includes finding "best available" values of some objective function given a defined domain (or input), including a variety of different types of objective functions and different types of domains. 1 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Optimization, also known as mathematical programming, collection of mathematical principles and methods used for solving quantitative problems in many disciplines, including physics, biology, engineering, economics, and business. The subject grew from a realization that quantitative problems in manifestly different disciplines have important mathematical elements in common. Because of this commonality, many problems can be formulated and solved by using the unified set of ideas and methods that make up the field of optimization. The historic term mathematical programming, broadly synonymous with optimization, was coined in the 1940s before programming became equated with computer programming. Mathematical programming includes the study of the mathematical structure of optimization problems, the invention of methods for solving these problems, the study of the mathematical properties of these methods, and the implementation of these methods on computers. Faster computers have greatly expanded the size and complexity of optimization problems that can be solved. The development of optimization techniques has paralleled advances not only in computer science but also in operations research, numerical analysis, game theory, mathematical economics, control theory, and combinatorics. An important class of optimization is known as linear programming. Linear indicates that no variables are raised to higher powers, such as squares. For this class, the problems involve minimizing (or maximizing) a linear objective function whose variables are real numbers that are constrained to satisfy a system of linear equalities and inequalities. Another important class of optimization is known as nonlinear programming. In nonlinear programming the variables are real numbers, and the objective or some of the constraints are nonlinear functions (possibly involving squares, square roots, trigonometric functions, or products of the variables). Both linear and nonlinear programmings are discussed in this article. Other important classes of optimization problems not covered in this article include stochastic programming, in which the objective function or the constraints depend on random variables, so that the optimum is found in some “expected,” or probabilistic, sense; network optimization, which involves optimization of some property of a flow through a network, such as the maximization of the amount of material that can be transported between two given locations in the network; and combinatorial optimization, in which the solution must be found among a finite but very large set of possible values, such as the many possible ways to assign 20 manufacturing plants to 20 locations. Linear Programming Interest in linear programming has also extended to economics. In 1937 the Hungarianborn mathematician John von Neumann analyzed a steadily expanding economy based on alternative methods of production and fixed technological coefficients. As far as mathematical history is concerned, the study of linear inequality systems excited virtually no interest before 1936. In 1911 a vertex-to-vertex movement along edges of a polyhedron (as is done in the simplex method) was suggested as a way to solve a problem that involved optimization, and in 1941 movement along edges was proposed for a problem involving transportation. Credit for laying much of the mathematical foundations should probably go to von Neumann. In 1928 he published his famous paper 2 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE on game theory, and his work culminated in 1944 with the publication, in collaboration with the Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern, of the classic Theory of Games and Economic Behaviour. In 1947 von Neumann conjectured the equivalence of linear programs and matrix games, introduced the important concept of duality, and made several proposals for the numerical solution of linear programming and game problems. Serious interest by other mathematicians began in 1948 with the rigorous development of duality and related matters. Basic ideas A simple problem in linear programming is one in which it is necessary to find the maximum (or minimum) value of a simple function subject to certain constraints. An example might be that of a factory producing two commodities. In any production run, the factory produces x1 of the first type and x2 of the second. If the profit on the second type is twice that on the first, then x1 + 2x2 represents the total profit. The function x1 + 2x2 is known as the objective function. The simplex method To illustrate the simplex method, the example from the preceding section will be solved again. The problem is first put into canonical form by converting the linear inequalities into equalities by introducing “slack variables” x3 ≥ 0 (so that x1 + x3 = 8), x4 ≥ 0 (so that x2 + x4 = 5), x5 ≥ 0 (so that x1 + x2 + x5 = 10), and the variable x0 for the value of the objective function (so that x1 + 2x2 − x0 = 0). The problem may then be restated as that of finding nonnegative quantities x1, …, x5 and the largest possible x0 satisfying the resulting equations. One obvious solution is to set the objective variables x1 = x2 = 0, which corresponds to the extreme point at the origin. If one of the objective variables is increased from zero while the other one is fixed at zero, the objective value x0 will increase as desired (subject to the slack variables satisfying the equality constraints). The variable x2 produces the largest increase of x0 per unit change; so it is used first. Its increase is limited by the nonnegativity requirement on the variables. In particular, if x2 is increased beyond 5, x4 becomes negative. Standard formulation In practice, optimization problems are formulated in terms of matrices—a compact symbolism for manipulating the constraints and testing the objective function algebraically. The original (or “primal”) optimization problem was given its standard formulation by von Neumann in 1947. In the primal problem the objective is replaced by the product (px) of a vector x = (x1, x2, x3, …, xn)T, whose components are the objective variables and where the superscript “transpose” symbol indicates that the vector should be written vertically, and another vector p = (p1, p2, p3, …, pn), whose components are the coefficients of each of the objective variables. In addition, the system of inequality constraints is replaced by Ax ≤ b, where the m by n matrix A replaces the m constraints on the n objective variables, and b = (b1, b2, b3, …, bm)T is a vector whose components are the inequality bounds. Nonlinear Programming 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Although the linear programming model works fine for many situations, some problems cannot be modeled accurately without including nonlinear components. One example would be the isoperimetric problem: determine the shape of the closed plane curve having a given length and enclosing the maximum area. The solution, but not a proof, was known by Pappus of Alexandria c. 340 CE: An important early algorithm for solving nonlinear programs was given by the Nobel Prize-winning Norwegian economist Ragnar Frisch in the mid-1950s. Curiously, his approach fell out of favour for some decades, reemerging as a viable and competitive approach only in the 1990s. Other important algorithmic approaches include sequential quadratic programming, in which an approximate problem with a quadratic objective and linear constraints is solved to obtain each search step; and penalty methods, including the “method of multipliers,” in which points that do not satisfy the constraints incur penalty terms in the objective to discourage algorithms from visiting them. • • • • • • • • • • Convex programming studies the case when the objective function is convex (minimization) or concave (maximization) and the constraint set is convex. This can be viewed as a particular case of nonlinear programming or as generalization of linear or convex quadratic programming. Linear programming (LP), a type of convex programming, studies the case in which the objective function f is linear and the constraints are specified using only linear equalities and inequalities. Such a constraint set is called a polyhedron or a polytope if it is bounded. Second order cone programming (SOCP) is a convex program, and includes certain types of quadratic programs. Semidefinite programming (SDP) is a subfield of convex optimization where the underlying variables are semidefinite matrices. It is a generalization of linear and convex quadratic programming. Conic programming is a general form of convex programming. LP, SOCP and SDP can all be viewed as conic programs with the appropriate type of cone. Geometric programming is a technique whereby objective and inequality constraints expressed as posynomials and equality constraints as monomials can be transformed into a convex program. Integer programming studies linear programs in which some or all variables are constrained to take on integer values. This is not convex, and in general much more difficult than regular linear programming. Quadratic programming allows the objective function to have quadratic terms, while the feasible set must be specified with linear equalities and inequalities. For specific forms of the quadratic term, this is a type of convex programming. Fractional programming studies optimization of ratios of two nonlinear functions. The special class of concave fractional programs can be transformed to a convex optimization problem. Nonlinear programming studies the general case in which the objective function or the constraints or both contain nonlinear parts. This may or may not be a convex program. In general, whether the program is convex affects the difficulty of solving it. 4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE • • • • • • • • • • • • Stochastic programming studies the case in which some of the constraints or parameters depend on random variables. Robust optimization is, like stochastic programming, an attempt to capture uncertainty in the data underlying the optimization problem. Robust optimization aims to find solutions that are valid under all possible realizations of the uncertainties defined by an uncertainty set. Combinatorial optimization is concerned with problems where the set of feasible solutions is discrete or can be reduced to a discrete one. Stochastic optimization is used with random (noisy) function measurements or random inputs in the search process. Infinite-dimensional optimization studies the case when the set of feasible solutions is a subset of an infinite-dimensional space, such as a space of functions. Heuristics and metaheuristics make few or no assumptions about the problem being optimized. Usually, heuristics do not guarantee that any optimal solution need be found. On the other hand, heuristics are used to find approximate solutions for many complicated optimization problems. Constraint satisfaction studies the case in which the objective function f is constant (this is used in artificial intelligence, particularly in automated reasoning). Constraint programming is a programming paradigm wherein relations between variables are stated in the form of constraints. Disjunctive programming is used where at least one constraint must be satisfied but not all. It is of particular use in scheduling. Space mapping is a concept for modeling and optimization of an engineering system to high-fidelity (fine) model accuracy exploiting a suitable physically meaningful coarse or surrogate model. In a number of subfields, the techniques are designed primarily for optimization in dynamic contexts (that is, decision making over time): Calculus of variations seeks to optimize an action integral over some space to an extremum by varying a function of the coordinates. Optimal control theory is a generalization of the calculus of variations which introduces control policies. Dynamic programming is the approach to solve the stochastic optimization problem with stochastic, randomness, and unknown model parameters. It studies the case in which the optimization strategy is based on splitting the problem into smaller subproblems. The equation that describes the relationship between these subproblems is called the Bellman equation. Mathematical programming with equilibrium constraints is where the constraints include variational inequalities or complementarities. Feasibility problem The satisfiability problem, also called the feasibility problem, is just the problem of finding any feasible solution at all without regard to objective value. This can be regarded 5 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE as the special case of mathematical optimization where the objective value is the same for every solution, and thus any solution is optimal. Many optimization algorithms need to start from a feasible point. One way to obtain such a point is to relax the feasibility conditions using a slack variable; with enough slack, any starting point is feasible. Then, minimize that slack variable until the slack is null or negative. Existence The extreme value theorem of Karl Weierstrass states that a continuous realvalued function on a compact set attains its maximum and minimum value. More generally, a lower semi-continuous function on a compact set attains its minimum; an upper semi-continuous function on a compact set attains its maximum point or view. Necessary conditions for optimality One of Fermat's theorems states that optima of unconstrained problems are found at stationary points, where the first derivative or the gradient of the objective function is zero (see first derivative test). More generally, they may be found at critical points, where the first derivative or gradient of the objective function is zero or is undefined, or on the boundary of the choice set. An equation (or set of equations) stating that the first derivative(s) equal(s) zero at an interior optimum is called a 'first-order condition' or a set of first-order conditions. Optima of equality-constrained problems can be found by the Lagrange multiplier method. The optima of problems with equality and/or inequality constraints can be found using the 'Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions'. Sufficient conditions for optimality While the first derivative test identifies points that might be extrema, this test does not distinguish a point that is a minimum from one that is a maximum or one that is neither. When the objective function is twice differentiable, these cases can be distinguished by checking the second derivative or the matrix of second derivatives (called the Hessian matrix) in unconstrained problems, or the matrix of second derivatives of the objective function and the constraints called the bordered Hessian in constrained problems. The conditions that distinguish maxima, or minima, from other stationary points are called 'second-order conditions' (see 'Second derivative test'). If a candidate solution satisfies the first-order conditions, then the satisfaction of the second-order conditions as well is sufficient to establish at least local optimality. Sensitivity And Continuity Of Optima The envelope theorem describes how the value of an optimal solution changes when an underlying parameter changes. The process of computing this change is called comparative statics. The maximum theorem of Claude Berge (1963) describes the continuity of an optimal solution as a function of underlying parameters. Calculus Of Optimization Finding the points where the gradient of the objective function is zero (that is, the stationary points). More generally, a zero subgradient certifies that a local minimum has been found for minimization problems with convex functions and other locally Lipschitz 6 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE functions. Further, critical points can be classified using the definiteness of the Hessian matrix: If the Hessian is positive definite at a critical point, then the point is a local minimum; if the Hessian matrix is negative definite, then the point is a local maximum; finally, if indefinite, then the point is some kind of saddle point. Constrained problems can often be transformed into unconstrained problems with the help of Lagrange multipliers. Lagrangian relaxation can also provide approximate solutions to difficult constrained problems. When the objective function is a convex function, then any local minimum will also be a global minimum. There exist efficient numerical techniques for minimizing convex Functions, Such As Interior-Point Methods. Literative Methods The iterative methods used to solve problems of nonlinear programming differ according to whether they evaluate Hessians, gradients, or only function values. While evaluating Hessians (H) and gradients (G) improves the rate of convergence, for functions for which these quantities exist and vary sufficiently smoothly, such evaluations increase the computational complexity (or computational cost) of each iteration. In some cases, the computational complexity may be excessively high. • • Methods that evaluate Hessians (or approximate Hessians, using finite differences): o Newton's method o Sequential quadratic programming: A Newton-based method for small-medium scale constrained problems. Some versions can handle large-dimensional problems. o Interior point methods: This is a large class of methods for constrained optimization. Some interior-point methods use only (sub)gradient information and others of which require the evaluation of Hessians. Methods that evaluate gradients, or approximate gradients in some way (or even subgradients): o Coordinate descent methods: Algorithms which update a single coordinate in each iteration o Conjugate gradient methods: Iterative methods for large problems. (In theory, these methods terminate in a finite number of steps with quadratic objective functions, but this finite termination is not observed in practice on finite–precision computers.) o Gradient descent (alternatively, "steepest descent" or "steepest ascent"): A (slow) method of historical and theoretical interest, which has had renewed interest for finding approximate solutions of enormous problems. o Subgradient methods - An iterative method for large locally Lipschitz functions using generalized gradients. Following Boris T. Polyak, subgradient–projection methods are similar to conjugate–gradient methods. o Bundle method of descent: An iterative method for small–medium-sized problems with locally Lipschitz functions, particularly for convex minimization problems. (Similar to conjugate gradient methods) 7 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE • • o Ellipsoid method: An iterative method for small problems with quasiconvex objective functions and of great theoretical interest, particularly in establishing the polynomial time complexity of some combinatorial optimization problems. It has similarities with Quasi-Newton methods. o Conditional gradient method (Frank–Wolfe) for approximate minimization of specially structured problems with linear constraints, especially with traffic networks. For general unconstrained problems, this method reduces to the gradient method, which is regarded as obsolete (for almost all problems). o Quasi-Newton methods: Iterative methods for medium-large problems (e.g. N<1000). o Simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation (SPSA) method for stochastic optimization; uses random (efficient) gradient approximation. Methods that evaluate only function values: If a problem is continuously differentiable, then gradients can be approximated using finite differences, in which case a gradient-based method can be used. o Interpolation methods o Pattern search methods, which have better convergence properties than the Nelder–Mead heuristic (with simplices), which is listed below. Heuristics Besides (finitely terminating) algorithms and (convergent) iterative methods, there are heuristics. A heuristic is any algorithm which is not guaranteed (mathematically) to find the solution, but which is nevertheless useful in certain practical situations. List of some well-known heuristics: Mechanics Problems in rigid body dynamics (in particular articulated rigid body dynamics) often require mathematical programming techniques, since you can view rigid body dynamics as attempting to solve an ordinary differential equation on a constraint manifold; the constraints are various nonlinear geometric constraints such as "these two points must always coincide", "this surface must not penetrate any other", or "this point must always lie somewhere on this curve". Also, the problem of computing contact forces can be done by solving a linear complementarity problem, which can also be viewed as a QP (quadratic programming) problem. Economics And Finance Economics is closely enough linked to optimization of agents that an influential definition relatedly describes economics qua science as the "study of human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means" with alternative uses Electrical Engineering Some common applications of optimization techniques in electrical engineering include active filter design, stray field reduction in superconducting magnetic energy storage systems, space mapping design of microwave structures, handset 8 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE antennas, electromagnetics-based design. Electromagnetically validated design optimization of microwave components and antennas has made extensive use of an appropriate physics-based or empirical surrogate model and space mapping methodologies since the discovery of space mapping in 1993. Civil Engineering Optimization has been widely used in civil engineering. Construction management and transportation engineering are among the main branches of civil engineering that heavily rely on optimization. The most common civil engineering problems that are solved by optimization are cut and fill of roads, life-cycle analysis of structures and infrastructures, resource leveling, water resource allocation, traffic management and schedule optimization. Operations Research Another field that uses optimization techniques extensively is operations research. Operations research also uses stochastic modeling and simulation to support improved decision-making. Increasingly, operations research uses stochastic programming to model dynamic decisions that adapt to events; such problems can be solved with largescale optimization and stochastic optimization methods. Control Engineering Mathematical optimization is used in much modern controller design. High-level controllers such as model predictive control (MPC) or real-time optimization (RTO) employ mathematical optimization. These algorithms run online and repeatedly determine values for decision variables, such as choke openings in a process plant, by iteratively solving a mathematical optimization problem including constraints and a model of the system to be controlled. Geophysics Optimization techniques are regularly used in geophysical parameter estimation problems. Given a set of geophysical measurements, e.g. seismic recordings, it is common to solve for the physical properties and geometrical shapes of the underlying rocks and fluids. The majority of problems in geophysics are nonlinear with both deterministic and stochastic methods being widely used. Molecular Modeling Nonlinear optimization methods are widely used in conformational analysis. 9 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS FOR ECE MODULE Computational Systems Biology Optimization techniques are used in many facets of computational systems biology such as model building, optimal experimental design, metabolic engineering, and synthetic biology. Linear programming has been applied to calculate the maximal possible yields of fermentation products, and to infer gene regulatory networks from multiple microarray datasets as well as transcriptional regulatory networks from high-throughput data. Nonlinear programming has been used to analyze energy metabolism and has been applied to metabolic engineering and parameter estimation in biochemical pathways. Video Links Introduction to Optimization • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I1JqGiG_P_w Introduction to Optimization: What Is Optimization? • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q2dewZweAtU Introduction To Optimization: Objective Functions and Decision Variables • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AoJQS10Ewn4 References • https://www.britannica.com/science/optimization • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_optimizati on • https://www.macmillanexplorers.com/optimizationand-linear-programming/17836282 10