© 2017 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria MNM1520/1/2018-2020 70486808 Shutterstock.com images used IMPORTANT INFORMATION: Please register on myUnisa, activate your myLife e-mail address and ensure that you have regular access to the myUnisa module site MNM1520 as well as your group site. MNM1520/1 Dear Student You are receiving this document to provide you with insight as to what information is being presented on myUnisa, the official learning management system of the University. If at all possible, we would like to encourage you to set up your myLife account at https://my.unisa.ac.za/portal and join the online learning environment. myLife FIGURE 1: myUnisa portal Other information in this document includes: 1 2 3 4 5 6 Getting Started Letter Welcome message on the home page Outcomes and assessment criteria Frequently asked questions (FAQs) Discussion forums and discussions Learning units p2 p9 p 11 p 13 p 21 p 23 1|Page MNM1520/1 1 GETTING STARTED LETTER Welcome to the module on Fundamentals of Public Relations (MNM1520). We hope that your experience of this module will be enjoyable and enriching. This letter contains important information to get you started. 1.1 Going online As a registered Unisa student, you will have access to the myUnisa electronic portal. EXAMPLE 1: myUnisa electronic portal home page From here you can access various online resources to assist you in your studies. Please ensure that you have activated your myLife e-mail account and familiarise yourself with the Study @ Unisa brochure and other guidelines. You might also find it helpful to access the following links relating to studying online: Study @ Unisa (1) Study @ Unisa (2): What does it mean to be an ODL student at Unisa? Get connected before you start to register on myUnisa Once you have registered and have your myUnisa login details, you will have access to the module sites of all the modules you have registered for. 2|Page MNM1520/1 1.2 Using the navigation bar and myUnisa tools You can use various navigation options to navigate the sites of the modules you have enrolled for. These options are displayed on the left-hand side of the screen of all the sites. Click on the specific navigation option and it will open the page containing the information you are looking for. The first page you will see when opening any site is the home page. EXAMPLE 2: Home page of module site Remember, from the MNM1520 home page, your lecturers are just a click away! We will follow a weekly schedule indicating what needs to be done for a specific week and thus the home page will be updated regularly. The following is an alphabetical list and accompanying explanation of other myUnisa tools that we will use for this module: myUnisa tools Additional Resources Explanation This tool allows you to access different types of resources relevant to your studies such as links to articles on Fundamentals of Public Relations, assessments and assessment rubrics and OERs. The Additional Resources tool contains a number of folders with files, links, graphs and other information. These additional resources will support your learning, and new resources might be uploaded during the semester. 3|Page MNM1520/1 myUnisa tools Announcements Assignments Discussions/Discussion Forums Explanation From time to time an announcement will alert you to important information. You will sometimes also receive an e-mail notification in this regard. In addition, the most recent announcements will be displayed on the home page. This tool allows you to submit assignments and monitor your assessment results. We will provide clear guidelines on the submission of assignments. This tool is used mainly for interactive discussions and activities relating to the various topics and themes associated with the field of Marketing Management. The forums and learning activities are created to assist and support you in mastering the learning outcomes. Participating in the discussions will also help you to be better prepared for the assignments. The module site contains a variety of discussion forums. There are forums where you can meet and chat with your fellow students (Forum 1: Student Lounge) and ask questions to your lecturers (Forum 2: Queries to my lecturer). In some instances, your participation in the discussion forums will be assessed and the mark awarded will form part of your year mark. However, this will be clearly indicated to you. In Forum 1: Student Lounge, you will be able to create your own discussions should you wish to do so. To find out more about how to create your own discussions, consult the category “Technical issues” under the tool FAQs (frequently asked questions). FAQs (frequently asked questions) The FAQs tool provides questions and answers relating to the module. These are grouped in various categories ranging from assessment matters to technical issues. If you have any queries about the module, start by consulting the FAQs. Should you not find an answer to your question, you are most welcome to contact us. Glossary The Glossary tool allows you to access an alphabetical list of terms or terminology, usually specialised terms and their definitions, and which are related to the field of Marketing Management. In printed format, glossaries usually appear at the end of a book or sometimes at the end of chapters. By selecting the Glossary tool, you can easily access such 4|Page MNM1520/1 myUnisa tools Explanation a list of specialised terms and the accompanying explanations if you do not understand the meaning of the word or concept used in this discipline. Learning Units Official Study Material Prescribed Books Schedule Self-assessment This tool is the one that you will use most often. Here you will find content supporting the learning outcomes. The Learning Units tool also provides information on learning activities, assessments and links to other valuable resources. Please note that the Learning Units tool will be used in conjunction with your learning guide. This tool allows you to access and download the official study material such as the tutorial letters. This tool is used in all the modules to display the prescribed books for the module. This tool displays the dates of the compulsory assignments and examinations. The calendar on the home page will also display all the dates of the various learning activities captured in the schedule. To access the information on scheduled events, click on the date in the calendar (which will be highlighted and underlined if activities are scheduled for that day), or click on the Schedule tool in the navigation bar, which gives you the option to view the calendar by week, month or year. You can also use the Schedule tool to help you plan and manage your time so that you can keep up with the various learning activities for this module. Unfortunately you will not be able to add or change schedule entries. This tool allows you to access a variety of self-assessment activities related to the outcomes and various parts of the module. Some of the self-assessments will allow you to test your knowledge about a specific theme or topic presented in the Learning Units tool. On such self-assessments you will receive immediate feedback. The assessments that will be graded and that count towards your year mark will be clearly indicated. 5|Page MNM1520/1 1.3 Planning and managing your time There are 24 hours, 1 440 minutes, and 86 400 seconds in each day. Yet there never seems to be enough time to get everything done! Does this sound familiar? Attempting to balance study, work, family life and extracurricular activities is a challenge requiring you to manage ever-increasing and competing demands. You therefore need to plan an appropriate schedule that will suit your individual needs and circumstances. Apart from the suggested study timetable (which you can access by selecting the Learning Units tool – Overview), and the due dates for assignments (which you can access by clicking on the Schedule tool), we do not prescribe a study timetable. However, here are some recommendations. Given the time constraints, you may want to follow some of these recommendations. Browse through the module site Take time to browse through the module site and familiarise yourself with the requirements and demands of the module. This will enable you to see the “big picture” of the whole module. The FAQs tool (on the navigation bar of the module site) is a valuable resource and could be a useful starting point. Evaluate the demands, opportunities and challenges of your personal circumstances and determine how they relate to the assignment due dates and the other relevant learning activities you need to attend to. It may be a good idea to enter these dates in your personal diary immediately. Compile a personal study timetable Decide on strategies for planning ahead and compile your personal study timetable. We recommend being disciplined in keeping to your schedule. Perhaps you could start with some preliminary reading and exploring the recommended material. The amount of information presented on the module site and the number of assignments to be completed may seem overwhelming at first, but don't be disheartened! Approach your studies systematically Work your way systematically through the various learning activities, reflective questions and assignments based on them. Make sure that you meet all the requirements for the learning activities. Use the learning outcomes and assessment criteria, the supporting material and learning activities (stipulated in the Learning Units tool) to give you a foundation for the knowledge and skills you need to develop. To help you approach your studies with confidence, you may find it helpful to start by browsing through the module site and to acquaint yourself with the learning outcomes and assessment criteria, the additional resources and the learning units. The learning units are designed and developed in the form of manageable “chunks” to help you achieve the learning outcomes logically and systematically. 6|Page MNM1520/1 Contact your lecturers Do not hesitate to contact us, your lecturers, if you experience any difficulties with any aspects of the module. You can contact us either via e-mail, telephone or the Discussions tool. Our contact details are available on the home page of the module site. Remember, help is just a click away. Contact your peers Please make regular contact with your peers (via the Student Lounge and other forums accessible by means of the Discussions tool). Engage with your fellow students to clarify and broaden your understanding of challenging concepts and themes. You will find that by participating in discussions and continuously reflecting on your learning you will expand your knowledge base and develop new skills that you can apply in the workplace. Most students find these discussions with their lecturers or fellow students extremely useful when preparing their assignments. 1.4 Participating in the online learning community If you have taken online courses before, you may well be familiar with how to participate in online environments. However, if this is the first time you are taking an online course, you may be interested in how to go about communicating in cyberspace. An important issue of online communities is how people relate to each other. As you may know, the internet – cyberspace – has its own culture and accompanying conventions for e-mails, social networks and more formal online environments such as myUnisa, our educational learning management system. When communicating electronically, people often forget that the person on the receiving end is someone with feelings, facial expressions, gestures and a unique tone of voice. Without being able to observe these communication cues, it is quite possible to misinterpret participants' meaning – in the case of online communication, meaning is usually conveyed by written words only. Because online communication tends to be less personal, it would be a good idea to familiarise yourself with The core rules of netiquette (social codes or etiquette for the internet – available at http://www.albion.com/netiquette/ corerules.html). These guidelines will give you useful information about participating in online discussions, such as how to address one another and making sure that you “know what you're talking about and make sense” (see rule 5). Please note that when participating in the online discussions, we strongly recommend that you direct your responses to your lecturers and fellow students by addressing them at the opening of your response. Also, when you end your contribution, sign off by using your name (or title and surname). This will serve as an indication of how you would like your lecturers and fellow students to address you. We urge you to make an effort and commit to following these guidelines to ensure that your communication and actions online are respectful. Now, to get started, please access Forum 1: Student Lounge and introduce yourselves to each other (Discussion 1). 7|Page MNM1520/1 1.5 Closing remarks Familiarise yourself with the online environment before the module commences in January 2017. We look forward to witnessing your progress at a personal and professional level during the year. It is truly a pleasure having you as a student, and we would like to take this opportunity to wish you every success with your studies. Your lecturer Ms C Prinsloo 8|Page MNM1520/1 2 WELCOME MESSAGE ON THE HOME PAGE Welcome to the MyUnisa Learning Management System for Fundamentals of Public Relations (MNM1520) The purpose of this module is for students to acquire knowledge of fundamental concepts in public relations and develop their understanding of public relations principles. The field of public relations is extremely dynamic and challenging. Nowadays the business environment is much more dynamic than in the past and in this dynamic environment, the interaction between an organisation and its publics is of critical importance. The module will cover the following topics: • • • • Public relations: an introduction Public relations practitioner skills Public relations and the media Planning and managing public relations communication and campaigns Fundamentals of Public Relations (MNM1520) provides a basis of understanding of the basis of public relations being communication, to what public relations entails. Students are introduced to the skills necessary for a public relations practitioner to perform his or her tasks, as well as the communication media public relations practitioners can use to communicate with stakeholders. This webpage is dedicated to supporting your learning for this module. If you make a regular habit of checking your module webpages, you can take full advantage of these features: 9|Page MNM1520/1 Go to Official Study Material and you should find PDF files for your tutorial letters and your study guide, if available. Any other documents provided by your lecturer will be available in the Additional Resources tool. Go to Prescribed Textbooks and look to see if there are any prescribed texts for this module. Go to Discussion Forums and you will find a topic called “General subject-related discussions”. This is a space for you to talk with your fellow students about this course. The lecturers may include other topics and forums for you. Go to the Schedule tool and you can check your official assignment and examination dates. Other things you might find in your module webpage include the following: Your lecturer may use the Announcements tool to inform you about special meetings, local conferences, or important course-related issues. When they add an announcement, you may also receive an e-mail reminding you to check the website. The myUnisa team and us, your lecturers, hope that you will take full advantage of these additional features to make your studies more exciting and successful. Please do not hesitate to contact us by means of myUnisa, via e-mail or by visiting at our offices at the Muckleneuk Campus in Pretoria. Should you wish to visit us on campus, please remember to arrange an appointment beforehand (office hours: 08:00–16:00). Good luck!! Ms C Prinsloo Department of Marketing and Retail Lecturer's contact details: Ms C Prinsloo Office number: AJH Van der Walt Building, 5-58 Telephone number: :+27(0)12 429 8303 E-mail address: marketing@unisa.ac.za 10 | P a g e MNM1520/1 3 OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA Outcomes Identify and discuss a public relations practitioner's role in business communication. Assessment criteria • • • • • • Demonstrate a fundamental knowledge of the essential practical skills that a public relations practitioner should possess relating to listening, speaking and reading. • • • • • • • • • • • Discuss a fundamental knowledge of writing skills required for the different types of media used by public relations practitioners. Illustrate an understanding of communication in different communication contexts relating to verbal and non-verbal messages. Evaluate the antecedents and components of integrated communication. Discuss public relations planning related to components that are targeted at relevant stakeholders. Identify and explain public practitioner's characteristics, skills and tasks. Identify and discuss public relations' role in the business world. Critically evaluate the different tools and techniques utilised by public relations practitioners. Discuss listening and its levels. Discuss and apply the steps in the listening process. Identify and discuss barriers to listening. Identify a good listener and discuss the relevant skills to improve listening. Identify and discuss the different speech styles or types. Discuss the factors that can cause a public speaker to be nervous. Explain the different speaking environments. Discuss the preparation, delivery and aftermath of public speaking. Discuss the importance of reading and its different strategies or techniques. Identify application of reading in different forms of written communication. Explain how to improve reading skills. • Identify and discuss print media in public relations. • Discuss newsworthiness in print media. • Explain how to identify and write an effective news release. • Identify the structure of a feature story and utilise structure to a feature story. • Identify the structure of a brochure and utilise the structure to write an effective brochure. • Identify and discuss broadcast media in public relations. • Discuss the utilisation of guidelines on how to write for radio. 11 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • Discuss the utilisation of guidelines on how to write for television. • Discuss what makes electronic media different from other media. • Explain and understand how to write an e-mail in accordance with the relevant literature. • Explain and understand how to write an SMS in accordance with the relevant literature. • Discuss guidelines on how to write for online media. • Discuss and understand how to write formal business letters in accordance with the relevant literature. • Explain and understand how to write business reports in accordance with the relevant literature. • Explain and understand how to write business proposals in accordance with the relevant literature. Demonstrate a fundamental knowledge on planning and managing public relations communication and campaigns. 12 | P a g e • • • Identify and discuss the elements of public relations planning and management. Explain communication campaigns and its elements. Identify and discuss the different campaign models. MNM1520/1 4 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQs) Category Tutorial letters Questions and answers Question 1: What information do the tutorial letters contain? Answer: The tutorial letters contain important information about the scheme of work, resources and assignments for this module. We urge you to read them carefully and to keep them at hand when working through the study material, preparing the assignments, preparing for the examination and addressing questions to your lecturers. More specifically, in Tutorial Letter MNM1520/101, you will find the assignments and assessment criteria as well as instructions on the preparation and submission of the assignments. This tutorial letter also provides all the information you need with regard to the study material, other resources and how to obtain it. Tutorial Letter MNM1520/201 contains feedback on Assignment 01; Tutorial Letter MNM1520/202 contains feedback on Assignment 02 and the self-assessment assignment, while Tutorial Letter MRMALL8 contains important information, which applies to all students registered in the Department of Marketing and Retail Management. Right from the start, we would like to point out that you must read all the tutorial letters you receive during the semester, as they always contain important and, sometimes, urgent information. Please make sure that you work through the tutorial letters before you embark on any work in the study units or assessment tasks. Question 2: Will I receive all my tutorial matter when I register? Answer: Please note that not all of your tutorial matter may be available when you register. Such tutorial matter will be posted to you as soon as possible. Please note: It is not possible to fax outstanding tutorial letters to students. It is, however, possible to download them from the module site under the tools Official Study Material and Additional Resources. It is therefore to your benefit to register as an online student so that you can access and obtain your study material immediately. 13 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Student support services Question 1: Whom should I contact regarding administrative queries? Answer: All administrative enquiries in the Department of Marketing and Retail Management should be directed to the departmental helpdesk: E-mail address: marketing@unisa.ac.za Tel: +27 (0)12 429 8303 Question 2: Whom should I contact regarding academic queries? Answer: All queries about the content of this module (MNM1520) should be directed to your lecturer. Telephone calls should be made during office hours (08:30–16:00). Lengthy problems should rather be dealt with by e-mail. You are welcome to visit your lecturer at her office on the Muckleneuk Campus, but please make sure that you have made an appointment beforehand. Appointments should be made at least a week in advance. The lecturer cannot guarantee that she will be able to attend to you if you arrive at the Department of Marketing and Retail Management without an appointment. Question 3: What support can I expect from my lecturers? Answer: Your lecturer will use the home page to post regular messages to guide you through the semester. Furthermore, you will receive regular announcements to draw your attention to important learning events and assessment tasks. Your lecturer has also prepared supporting learning resources and various discussion forums and topics, which you will be able to access through myUnisa. You can thus expect regular communication from your lecturer. Remember, help is just a click away. Question 4: What resources will I be able to access via myUnisa? Answer: We realise that, as a distance education student, you cannot always visit the library when you are searching for information. Therefore, we have included online resources on our module site which you can access at any time. On this site, you will find the following material: 14 | P a g e electronic copies of the study guide and tutorial letters (under Official Study Material) MNM1520/1 Please note: There are no prescribed books or books reserved via the electronic e-reserves system. Question 5: What other support services are available regarding general student matters? Answer: If you need to contact the University about matters not related to the content of this module, please consult the publication Study @ Unisa that you received with your study material. This booklet contains information on how to contact the University (e.g. to whom you can write for different queries, important telephone and fax numbers, addresses and details of the times certain facilities are open). Always provide your name, student number and module code when you contact the University. Question 6: Are there any study groups for this module? Answer: There are no official study groups for this module. However, we strongly recommend that you form your own study groups with fellow students living in your area. To form study groups, you can share your contact details with your fellow students in the Student Lounge forum. Contact students who live near to you and invite them to form a study group. Learning material Question 1: Do I need to study all the material in both the learning units and textbook? Answer: Yes. In some cases where the learning units and the textbook do not correspond with one another, the lecturer will provide you with a page reference guide that indicates what to study in your textbook. Assignments Question 1: How do I submit my assignments? Answer: Refer to Tutorial Letter 101. You can submit assignments electronically via myUnisa, at your regional office or by registered mail. You cannot e-mail your assignment to your lecturer. 15 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Question 2: What are the assignments' due dates? Answer: Semester 1: Refer to Tutorial letter 101 Semester 2: Refer to Tutorial letter 101 Question 3: Will I be penalised if I submit my assignment late? Answer: Yes, no late submissions are accepted. Examinations Question 1: Any tips for the examination? Answer: No. You have to study all the prescribed material – the questions asked in the examination will come from either the prescribed book or the learning units. Question 2: Are there any past examination papers? Answer: The lecturer will not provide you with past examination papers. If there are any past papers available, the examination department uploads them under the Official Study Material tool. The lecturer will not give you the memorandums of past papers. Please take note: You will not pass if you only study past examination papers! Working out a past examination paper will only provide you with the skill to answer an examination paper. Question 3: What is the format of the examination? Answer: The examination counts for a total of 70 marks. The paper consists of one section, namely section A, which has multiplechoice questions. 16 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Online learning Question 1: Is it easier to learn online than through printbased material? Answer: No. The course content of an online class is usually identical to that of a print-based distance learning course on the same topic. Compared to regular face-to-face classes, the workload is even more demanding because you have to be a selfdirected learner and stay motivated to keep on top of your work. The most successful online students tend to share the following characteristics. They: are self-motivated and self-starters have good organisational and time-management skills are fairly familiar with computers and the internet are resourceful and actively seek answers and solutions to questions and problems Question 2: What are the benefits of learning online? Answer: In the online world you can study anytime, anywhere and at a pace that suits your individual learning style. Remember, though, that you will still have to meet the required deadlines for assignment submissions. Question 3: What internet skills would be useful for online learning? Answer: The most successful students tend to have the following skills: familiarity with their web browser familiarity with an e-mail program (including attaching documents and reading attachments) some familiarity with web-based interactions – e-mail, social networks, learning management systems familiarity with word processing (MS Word) experience in successful internet searches, using a variety of browsers and search engines Question 4: How important is attitude in achieving success in Study and in an online learning environment? Answer: Your attitude is very important to ensure success. We know that you are interested in the fundamentals of public relations; otherwise you would not have enrolled for this module. We want to encourage you to develop a positive attitude towards your 17 | P a g e MNM1520/1 studies and online learning environment. To achieve this, there are a number of things to bear in mind. TIME is important for a distance learning student. You must be in control of your time and manage it effectively. Draw up a study programme at the beginning of the semester. This requires discipline, but will ensure that you: have sufficient time to work through all the relevant study material are able to submit the relevant tasks and assignments on the due dates have sufficient time for revision and preparing for the assignments and examination We would like to encourage you to follow the guidelines below: Do NOT fall behind in your planning. Work regularly and consistently. Make sure that you understand the work as you go along. Do NOT give up on difficult work; rather seek help as soon as possible. We hope that this information will make your studies easier, and that you will do well. Question 5: How should I approach my online learning? Answer: We all have different learning styles and preferences. However, consider the following pointers or guidelines: 18 | P a g e Allocate time to work through each learning unit and do the activities. Allow extra time for work that seems difficult or with which you know you have a problem. When you compile a study plan, allow time for personal responsibilities (e.g. family responsibilities, work obligations, social obligations, leave). Make use of your most productive time for study (e.g. late in the evening after the children have gone to bed or early in the morning before the rest of the family wake up). Remember that it is more effective to study for one hour on a regular basis (e.g. every day) than for ten consecutive hours every two weeks. Decide now how many hours you are going to spend on your studies per week. We recommend that you put one to two hours aside each day. Keep a record of your progress. It will be gratifying to see what you have accomplished, and it will inspire you if you fall behind. Be prepared for disruptions to your study programme due to unforeseen circumstances. You should therefore monitor your progress so that you can catch up immediately if MNM1520/1 you fall behind. Remember that it is easier to catch up one week's lost hours than an entire month's. Technical issues related to myUnisa Question 1: How do I create a new topic using the Discussion Forums tool? Answer: To create a new topic in a forum, you need to do the following: 1. Select and access the Student Lounge forum from the list of forums in the Discussion Forums tool. 2. Now, at the top of the page select the option Add a New Topic. 3. Give your topic a descriptive name in the Topic Title box. 4. In the Message box, write down the instructions for the discussion. 5. Click on the Submit button to create your topic for discussion. Question 2: What is expected of me when I participate in discussion forums? Answer: Remember, online discussion forums are not the same as e-mail messages, or a letter to the lecturer, or a chat room. Therefore, the myUnisa discussion forums must not be used for personal messages to your lecturers or to one another. You are, however, welcome to use the forum marked Student Lounge to introduce yourself to your fellow students, form study groups and create your own topics. In this module, we will be using the online discussion forum for academic purposes. For this reason, the discussions will be based on topics related to module outcomes, the assessments and the supporting content. Online discussion forums are more like class discussions in a face-to-face classroom, where the lecturers raise discussion points and ask questions. All the students can then respond to the lecturer's questions as well as to one another's responses. The lecturer can then clarify uncertainties and perhaps provide a summary at the end of a discussion. Participating in discussion forums provides you with opportunities to: discuss and clarify issues in the subject area share experiences and ideas with peers and lecturers solve problems collaboratively debate topical issues raise questions about the topic under discussion introduce the most recent developments in the subject area 19 | P a g e MNM1520/1 receive immediate feedback on assignments access additional resources related to relevant topics in this subject or discipline Question 3: How do I set up my own blog? Is this needed? Answer: The Blogs tool is a useful way of sharing your views and thoughts on this module with your fellow students. What I would like you to do is to create your own blog in this site and to use it as a place where you reflect on your progress in this module. You can also read and write comments on your fellow students' blogs, as long as they are positive and uplifting! To get your own blog started, follow these instructions: 1. Go to the Blogs tool. 2. Click on Add blog entry link at the top to start your blog. 3. Give your blog entry a title. You could use something like Reflections on my learning experience in this module. This is just an example for a title. Your name will automatically show next to this blog entry. 4. Then type your message inside the text box provided. 5. After the text box, you are asked to "Choose who can see this entry". 6. The default setting of the blog is ticked: This entry is publicly viewable. You should NOT change this, because this is the only way that anyone can read your reflections and leave comments. If you have not quite finished, you can click on the Save Draft button. No one else will be able to read your blog until you click on Publish entry. (Note: If you save a draft, you need to click on This entry is publicly viewable when you have finished and want to publish.) 7. If you want to add a comment to someone's blog, just click on the link Leave a comment at the bottom of the blog you are reading. You can add links, bullets, lists, colour, and so forth, by using the editing buttons. You can also go back, delete and edit your blogs. You can create new blogs on different topics under your name by just clicking on Add blog entry again. 20 | P a g e MNM1520/1 5 DISCUSSION FORUMS AND DISCUSSIONS Forums Forum 1: Student Lounge Use this forum to discuss general matters amongst yourselves. Topics Discussion 1: Introduce yourself Use this space to get to know your fellow students. Tell one another about your current work situation, professional background and anything else you would like to share (± 250 words). Discussion 2: Fellow student contact details Use this space to share your contact details with your fellow students and to form study groups. Forum 2: General subject-related discussions Discussion 1: General discussion Use this space for general discussions about the subject. Use this forum to raise general queries regarding the content of the module. Forum 3: Learning unit discussion Use this forum to raise general queries regarding each learning unit. Discussion 1: Learning unit 1 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 1: An overview of communication and public relations. Discussion 2: Learning unit 2 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 2: The public relations practitioner. Discussion 3: Learning unit 3 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 3: Practitioner skills in listening. Discussion 4: Learning unit 4 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 4: Public speaking in the public relations function. Discussion 5: Learning unit 5 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 5: Reading in the public relations function. 21 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Discussion 6: Learning unit 6 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 6: Writing text intended for print media. Discussion 7: Learning unit 7 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 7: Writing text intended for broadcast media. Discussion 8: Learning unit 8 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 8: Writing text intended for online communication. Discussion 9: Learning unit 9 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 9: Writing text intended for business. Discussion 10: Learning unit 10 Use this space to raise queries and have general discussions around Learning unit 10: Planning and managing public relations communication campaigns. 22 | P a g e MNM1520/1 6 LEARNING UNITS Learning unit 1: An overview of communication and public relations Learning unit 2: The public relations practitioner Learning unit 3: Practitioner skills in listening Learning unit 4: Public speaking in the public relations function Learning unit 5: Reading in the public relations function Learning unit 6: Writing text intended for print media Learning unit 7: Writing text intended for broadcast media Learning unit 8: Writing text intended for online communication Learning unit 9: Writing text intended for business Learning unit 10: Planning and managing public relations communication campaigns 23 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 1 An overview of communication and public relations Contents Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 1.1 Defining communication 1.1.1 Verbal communication 1.1.2 Non-verbal communication 1.1.3 Principles of communication 1.1.4 Levels of communication 1.1.5 Media channels 1.2 Integrated communication 1.2.1 Evolution of integrated communication 1.3 Difference between integrated communication and integrated marketing communication 1.4 Defining public relations 1.4.1 Public relations roles 1.4.2 Public relations key tasks 1.5 Difference between public relations and marketing 1.6 The role of the Public Relations Institute of South Africa 1.7 Self-assessment questions 1.8 Reflection 1.9 Summary 1.10 References 1. Introduction Communication is a vital element of our daily lives. It is important not only in a personal sense, but also in a business sense. However, we need to do more than just communicate: We need to be able to communicate effectively. All business enterprises regard effective communication as essential for their survival. Effective communication is the most important aspect in public relations, as it can make or break a company. The public relations department relies on both written and verbal communication in interacting with various stakeholders, both internal and external, every day. In order to understand public relations and its place in the business world, one must first understand communication, which is a means for public relations practitioners to accomplish the public relations tasks. 24 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Overview of this document The Fundamentals of Public Relations (MNM1520) document is structured to provide an understanding of the basis of public relations being communication, to what public relations entails. Students are then introduced to the skills necessary for a public relations practitioner to perform his or her tasks, as well as the communication media public relations practitioners can use to communicate with stakeholders. The document is completed with a learning unit on public relations campaigns, which brings together all the skills and communication media to perform a public relations campaign. To enrich the document, open education resources (OER) have been included at the beginning of each learning unit (except for learning unit 5), which serves as enrichment. For more information on OERs, you can visit the Unisa website at: http://www.unisa.ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&Content-ID=27755. Overview of this learning unit This learning unit deals with communication in public relations. It covers two main topics, namely communication and public relations. Communication is discussed first, and we begin the learning unit by defining communication and examining the communication process. We then devote some time to the difference between integrated marketing communication and integrated communication, after which we explore the evolution of integrated communication. The next topic is public relations, and here we begin with a definition of public relations. We also take a look at the various internal and external stakeholders. Next, we discuss the role of public relations in marketing and the organisation, and we end with a discussion of the role of PRISA in public relations. 25 | P a g e MNM1520/1 This learning unit unfolds as follows: Learning outcomes After completing this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • • define communication (including principles and level of communication) explain the difference between integrated marketing communication and integrated communication explain the evolution of integrated communication define public relations explain the public relations roles, tasks and theories explain the internal and external stakeholders in public relations explain where public relations fits in the organisation explain the role of PRISA in public relations Key concepts Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • define communication explain verbal and non-verbal communication explain principles of communication 26 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • • • • • define integrated marketing communication explain integrated communication define and explain public relations explain public relations roles define internal stakeholders define external stakeholders explain PRISA VERY IMPORTANT! Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please follow the URL below and download the material: http://bookboon.com/en/marketing-communications-ebook [pages 283–302] 1.1 DEFINING COMMUNICATION Study the section that follows: Communication is sharing information, ideas and feelings through a communication medium with one or more individuals (Daniels, Hunter, McGhie, Middleton Horn, Van Jaarsveldt & Van Vuuren 2014:32). Communication involves a sender, who sends the message or initiates the dialogue, and a receiver of the message. The receiver of the message becomes the sender when she or he responds to the message. The dialogue is a cyclic process because it is a dialogue or back and forth, communication, which allows for communication between the sender of the message and the receiver of the message, therefore communication, becomes a cyclic process. Figure 1 illustrates the communication model below. FIGURE 1.1: Basic communication model Source: Adapted from Baker (2014:401); Daniels, Hunter, McGhie, Middleton Horn, Van Jaarsveldt & Van Vuuren (2014:38) 27 | P a g e MNM1520/1 The communication process occurs as follows (O'Rourke 2013:27): • • • • • • The sender creates a message with the intended message. The sender transmits the message by means of a communication medium. The receiver receives the message and decodes the message. The receiver creates a message in response. The sender determines whether the message was interpreted accordingly, hence the cyclical nature of communication. In the event that communication was misunderstood due to a barrier or noise in the communication process, the sender of the communication can then recreate or rephrase a message. There are basic reasons for why people or individuals would want to communicate a message (Smith 2013:173), which are: • To convey a certain message, which will assist the receiver in some manner: o For example: informing employees of a new information technology in place that will assist with their jobs. • To persuade the receiver(s) to agree and support a certain cause: o For example: persuade employees to support the Walk the Talk campaign, which is in support of a number of causes. • To clarify messages that was not understood: o For example: to clarify a statement made by management regarding Walmart acquiring a majority stake in Mass Holdings Limited. There are two types of communication through which messages can be conveyed, namely verbal and non-verbal communication. Both are discussed below. Activity 1.1 Tandie's Beauty Warehouse has implemented a new information technology system that processes orders from hair salons faster and allows employees to keep better record of the orders. Tandie's clients are also able to track their orders on the system. For which reason will Tandie's Beauty Warehouse communicate the implementation of the new IT system? Provide the reason and discuss why it is relevant to the scenario. Feedback In relation to the scenario, the IT system will make the operational tasks easier for the employees in terms of processing speed and record keeping of orders. Tandie's Beauty Warehouse will be communicating the message as it will assist the receiver in some 28 | P a g e MNM1520/1 manner. In addition, it allows clients to track their orders themselves, therefore preventing the need to contact Tandie's Beauty Warehouse for a progress report, which in turn allows for more time for the employees to process orders. Verbal communication Two types of verbal communication exist: oral and written communication. Oral communication is the transferal of a message by means of the spoken word or vocal communication. Oral communication is direct and personal and allows dialogue to occur. Examples of verbal communication are one-on-one conversations, telephonic calls, meetings and interviews (Daniels et al 2014:43). Oral communication is useful when comprehensive descriptions are required, which allows for high information richness (meaning conveying) also non-verbal communication, such as social convention cues like tone, urgency of a matter, professionalism or formalities (Miller 2011:53). In certain instances, oral communication is best suited, especially when emotion needs to be conveyed such as a meeting to inform employees of a manager stepping down or resigning. Oral communication is created through language; therefore, it is essential that individuals improve their language in order to clarify the meaning of their message being communicated. To enrich oral communication in the case of meetings and interviews, audio and visuals can accompany the oral message. Written communication is a message which appears on paper or in a computer programme – thus a message that can be read. Written communication is also communicated through language, although in the written form. Written communication is best suited when facts are conveyed or legal matters which for legal purposes need to be in writing. It allows for a single or a number of individuals to contribute to the message. Similarly, a large amount of information can be shared, where many individuals can access 29 | P a g e MNM1520/1 the message many times after it has been sent. Memos, proposals, news releases, business letters, electronic newsletters and websites are examples of written communication (Bauer & Erdogan 2013). Public relations practitioners require communication skills, which allow him or her (1) to convey messages in such a way that they clearly structured; while (2) clearly explaining what the message is; (3) through using powerful words that have an impact on the audience and; (4) a masterful language use that can be used to comprehensively convey the intended message (Fourie 2014:230). Non-verbal communication A large part of communication is non-verbal, which is demonstrated through body language, hand gestures, body movement, tone and facial expressions (Hurn 2014:188). Non-verbal communication emphasises, contradicts or enriches verbal communication (Machado 2014:25). It also contributes to high information richness as the visible cues enrich the communication, although the sender and receiver need to be in the same location to notice the visual cues (Hume 2010:12). Non-verbal communication also plays a number of functions (Machado 2014:27–28; Hamilton 2011:122; Duck & McMahan 2010:62–66; Martin & Nakayama 2007:256): • Emblems are gestures that have a specific agreed-on meaning that can be generally translated directly into words, which: o reinforces verbal communication such as waving when saying goodbye o replaces verbal communication, where a non-verbal gesture is provided instead of verbally communicating, such as shaking your head instead of saying no o emphasises verbal communication by indicating a non-verbal gesture which means the same as the verbal communication, such as pointing the way when giving directions to the service desk o contradicts verbal communication, for example, when an individual is lying about something, she or he rubs his or her nose, which is an indication of lying 30 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Regulators accompany speech to control or regulate what the speaker is saying, which: • o regulates others behaviour such when the boss stands up to show the end of the meeting Identifiers are physical attributes of individuals, such as: • o the physical ques individuals display like their gender, skin colour, having a beard, their hair type, and so forth • Adaptors serve as unintentional clues of how a person is feeling, such as: o conveying attitudes about another person, for example a woman sitting closer to a man and playing with her hair while smiling and looking at the man suggests she finds him attractive o conveying an attitude towards a situation, for example standing up and leaving during a theatre production showing disapproval of the theatre production o conveying attitude towards yourself, such as keeping to one side, not talking to people in the room, while wringing hands could show nervousness and uncertainty • Relational meaning and understanding refers to how your relationships with others are regulated through societal interaction that stands for different relational connections. It: o controls social interaction and acts as relational controller in the sense that it informs others of your relationship with them in terms of politeness towards a stranger, coordination of actions with someone that you know well, and a sense of pleasure of interaction when you laugh with someone or smile at someone Activity 1.2 Study the image in section 1.1.2 and indicate what each image says about the individual's emotional state. How will learning to read an individual's non-verbal communication help you as a public relations practitioner? Feedback Top left image: shows the individual is relaxed Top right image: shows the individual is anxious Left bottom image: shows the individual is stressed Right bottom image: shows the individual is defensive It will assist you in showing what the other person is feeling, which will be a point of reference for your communication approach towards that person. 31 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Principles of communication Numerous characteristics of communication are relevant across many varying external factors of time, culture and economies. These principles are the things we know to be true about human communication. The communication principles are (O'Rourke 2013:27–28): • • • • • • Dynamic: Constant change is present in communication, as one message builds on another, and as one experience builds on another. Imagine an organisation communicating the following: (1) We do not like our customers – this will make you think the organisation hates the customers. However, it changes when the next message the organisation communicates is: (2) We do not like our customers, we love our customers – this changes your perception of the organisation and its perception of its customers. Continuous: Communication continues to take place, even when it is to continue a conversation after many weeks, reread an e-mail the next day for better understanding in order to respond, or not having a reply to a difficult answer, which shows an inability to communicate at the time. Cyclic: Communication is a dialogue, which relies on feedback even in some cases where it is not direct, for example a complaint to the human resource manager about a colleague, which is then discussed between the human resource manager and that particular colleague. Unrepeatable: As the listeners' perceptions are also involved in the communication process, it is not possible to repeat a message to an audience and expect the same understanding of the message. For example, if a company informs stakeholders that they are financially stable during a recession and that same company repeats the statement although clear evidence of the contrary is evident, the same message will be perceived differently by the stakeholders, perhaps as deception or as desperation. Irreversible: Communication cannot be reversed or taken back. The individual(s) can only apologise for, correct or explain what the communication conveyed. In a misunderstanding, a company that "scolds" it customers for being unethical can never reverse that scolding message when it is discovered to be unfounded. Complex: Communication is more than the message being conveyed with words. A message being communicated has many layers, such as the verbal message (which includes language nuances, cultural meanings and perceptions) along with the nonverbal messages (tone, body language and voice quality). Activity 1.3 During a press conference to inform external stakeholders about the unexpected crisis that a major fishing company from Saldanha is experiencing, the manager accidentally makes a comment to his colleague, which is overheard as the microphone was not switched off. He stated that “these people will not believe us anyway on what happened to cause the crisis”. He did not intend for the audience attending the press conference to hear his comment, as he was just making an observation that the cause of the crisis seemed to be bizarre and unbelievable. His mistaken comment was broadcasted on television and 32 | P a g e MNM1520/1 appeared in the newspaper, painting the manager as dishonest and irresponsible. What principle of communication does the manager's mistake represent and what are the implications thereof? Feedback The mistaken comment represents the irreversible principle of communication. The manager of Saldanha fishing company made the mistake of communicating a message that was not intended for that particular audience, being those that attended the press conference. Implications of the mistaken comment are a deepening of the crisis perhaps (loss of clients/loss of reputation). The manager cannot take back the communication, but only apologise for it and explain the purpose of the communication and why it was conveyed. Levels of communication Communication by individuals takes place at different levels, which are directed at different audiences (O'Rourke 2013:28), including the following: • • • • Intrapersonal: Individuals communicate within themselves, such as thinking over complex problems and sending different messages to parts of our body, such as facial expressions. Interpersonal: Communicating with an individual, verbally and non-verbally, where messages are communicated between two or more individuals. Organisational: Communicating within an organisational setting with the purpose of performing organisational tasks such as receiving instructions from a manager, and informing colleagues of a crisis situation or having cross-functional operations (function being a department). Mass/publicly: Messages communicated to reach a broad external stakeholder such as customers to inform them of the positive health campaigns an organisation is involved with or informing customers of a sports personality who is endorsing the organisation's brand. Media channels There are many communication media to choose from to communicate with the different organisational stakeholders. The public relations practitioner needs to consider the suitability of the communication medium to the message and goal of achieving effective public relations communication. Communication media include interpersonal (person-toperson) communication, printed media, IT-based media or broadcast media (Argenti 2006:358; Hume 2010:12–15). The appropriateness and effectiveness of the communication medium need to be considered. As the communication medium affects message receipt accuracy, the public relations practitioner needs to consider the 33 | P a g e MNM1520/1 communication medium information richness – information-rich media convey more nonverbal communication, such as social convention cues like tone, urgency of a matter, professionalism or formalities (Bauer & Erdogan 2013). The different possible internal communication media that the organisation can use are illustrated in the following table. 34 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Table 1.1: Media channels Communication media Media Information richness In-person communication All-staff meetings, individual meetings and recognition meetings, formal speeches, panel discussions, question-and-answer sessions, oral testimonials, employee counselling, committee meetings, demonstration and training programmes, interviews, personal instructions and office grapevine High Printed communication Internal newsletters, staff handbooks, resource library and notice boards, house journals, information brochures, handbooks and manuals, bulletins, bulletin boards, annual reports, commemorative stamps, exhibits and displays, mobile displays, suggestion boxes, instructions, orders, pay inserts, flyers, written reports, financial statements and training kits IT-based communication Broadcast media Source: Advantages Disadvantages Personal, direct and conducive to two-way communication Audience must be in one location, communication is time-consuming and not anonymous Medium/low Easy to communicate a large amount of information, audience can access it in their own time, meets requirements in legal matters Can be costly, can be avoided, conducive to one-way communication and can have legal implications E-mail, listservs, telephone or video conferencing, discussion forums, blogging, social networking sites and intranets or websites, video blogs, forums, wikis, mobile platforms, digital signage, internet protocol, television and RSS Medium Easily disseminated, cheaper, not location specific, reach a large audience and can overcome large distances easily Information overload and not everybody has access to technology-based communication, can be uncontrolled media Radio and television Medium Easily disseminated, cheaper, easy to communicate a large amount of information, reach a large audience and can overcome large distances easily, in some instances interactions are possible Can be costly conducive to one-way communication (in certain instances) Adapted from Ahmed and Rafiq (2002:31); Van Riel and Fombrun (2007:190); Welch and Jackson (2007:188); Pergamon Flexible Learning (2009:60); Rensburg and Cant (2009:145–146); Hume (2010:12–15); Mazzei (2010:229); Bovée and Thill (2012:212–240) 35 | P a g e MNM1520/1 1.2 INTEGRATED COMMUNICATION Study the section that follows: Integrated communication is a constant, comprehensive and integrated communication programme (Rensburg & Cant 2009:116), which aligns internal and external communication across all communication channels to build a consistent message. Ultimately, integrated communication creates a favourable reputation with the organisation's stakeholders while achieving the organisation's goals and objectives (Mutinta 2015:56; Thulkanam 2014:75). Internal stakeholders are those who have a direct influence on the organisation, such as employees, while external stakeholders are those outside of the organisation, such as customers. Thus, integrated communication can be defined as “a cross-functional process of creating and nourishing strategically determined relationships with stakeholders by ensuring that messages to these groups are as appropriate and beneficial to the business relationship as possible, and engaging in purposeful dialogue with them” (Angelopula & Barker 2013:41). When referring to a cross-functional process, it means that integrated communication attempts to get all departments who are involved in any form of communication with stakeholders to communicate with one voice, one message and one tone. Integrated communication can be applied to many disciplines (fields of study) such as integrated marketing communication, corporate marketing, corporate branding and corporate communication. In order for integrated communication to succeed, all internal stakeholders or employees need to communicate with the same message or message around the same organisational values. In other words, all employees must speak with the same voice, same tone and same value systems in place (Smith 2012:14). It requires the assistance of all employees to work together in endeavouring to be consistent and collaborate to achieve aligned communication. Thus, all communication (including logos, symbols, messages, procedures and behaviours) from employees is aligned and consistent to create an impact that echoes throughout internal and external communications channels. Using the most effective and relevant communication channels for the relevant stakeholders is essential as the stakeholder groups have a preference, which also delivers a greater impact on the specific stakeholder group. The communication created is directed at employees, external stakeholders or both stakeholder groups; however, the constant being that the message directed at all stakeholders is consistent with the values of the organisation (Smith 2012:5–6). 36 | P a g e MNM1520/1 For more information on integrated communication, you can check out the following website: http://www.slideshare.net/tombarat/integrated-communication. Evolution of integrated communication Due to changes in society such as technology, consumerism, human rights, environmental impacts, communication revolution, and development in the public relations field, it affected the evolution of integrated communication. Based on the changes over the eras, organisations have realised over time the importance of building a relationship with customers and stakeholders in general as it will positively affect the organisations sales and operations (Berndt & Tait 2014:156). It has become more important to ensure that the organisation communicates with the employees effectively as well considering that the employees deliver the service to the customers, thus are the front line when interacting with customers. Therefore, if the employees understand the values of the organisation and communicate that with the external stakeholders, it is then aligned and consistent communication. In addition, there has been an increased interest in consumer consciousness, which means that external stakeholders are demanding more and more and that organisations must show integrity, environmental consciousness, social responsibility and transparency. This has led to stricter regulations, policies and rules being put in place to govern these responsibilities. During the pre-industrial age, interactions took place between the manufacturer and the customers through direct contact, and therefore personal relationships were formed. However, with the rise of the industrial age, mass production became more important and fewer interactions took place. This meant that there was less emphasis on forming personal relationships. Throughout the ages, as advertising became more popular and integrated communication became more important, personal relationships with stakeholders became less important. After the 2000s and more recently, organisations realised the importance of having a relationship with stakeholders as technology has increased communication opportunities between the organisation and the stakeholders. The evolution of integrated communication can be seen in the bulleted list and figure 1.2 below (Angelopulo & Barker 2013:41–42). 37 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • Manufacturer and customers had direct contact • Relationships were formed (personal) • Communication was interpersonal and hardly mediated • Mass production thus less involvement between manufacturer and customer • Less interactions meant no relationships formed • Mediated and mass produced communication • Advertising and personal selling became important, however rise to other marketing communication arose • More emphasis on marketing (thus no relationships) • Manuals and co-ordinated communication control communication • Less advertising and more emphasis on other marketing communication; united and integrated communication is necessary • Realisation of importance of relationship with customers is starting to take root • Messages about product but also organisation should be integrated. • Operational communication integrating for linkages to all functions in organisation becomes important • Communication about the organisation or corporate brand become important • Information technology advances make relationships with all stakeholders possible • Communication about the organisation can come from the organisation or external stakeholders (i.e. social media comments) • Increasing communication channel options (social media, online media) • Stakeholders are increasingly demanding transparency and ethical behaviours • Two way communication has become the norm • Integrating functional support, communication, behaviours etc. is a necessity FIGURE 1.2: Evolution of integrated communication Source: Adapted from Angelopulo & Barker 2013:41–42 38 | P a g e MNM1520/1 1.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTEGRATED COMMUNICATION INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION AND Study the section that follows: Integrated communication can be defined as “a cross-functional process of creating and nourishing strategically determined relationships with stakeholders by ensuring that messages to these groups are as appropriate and beneficial to the business relationship as possible, and engaging in purposeful dialogue with them” (Angelopula & Barker 2013:41). Integrated marketing communication is a marketer-initiated process, which combines techniques directed to target audiences in order to influence their attitudes and behaviours (Koekemoer 2011:2). In literature, it is suggested that integrated communication and integrated marketing communication is one in the same; however, there are differences to take note of (Smith 2012:6): Table 1.2: Differences between integrated communication and integrated marketing communication Integrated communication Integrated marketing communication Stakeholders Customers only Two-way communication One-way communication as messages are sent to customers Internal and external External Strategic intent of the organisation as a whole Marketing or communication functional drives all the communications of the strategy drives the messages of the organisation organisation Strategic in nature Contributes to technical aspects Integrated communication is consistent communication from all functions (departments) in an organisation to foster relationships with both internal and external stakeholders, which will be beneficial to the organisation (Angelopula & Barker 2013:41). Integrated marketing communication is consumer centric (focused on the customer) communication, which is clear and consistent and delivered through numerous communication channels, to foster a profitable relationship with customers and other stakeholders to create and maintain brand equity (Šeríć, Gil-Saura & Ozretíć-Došen 2015:960). 39 | P a g e MNM1520/1 1.4 DEFINING PUBLIC RELATIONS Study the section that follows: Public relations is a strategic function (at management level) in the organisation to communicate with all relevant stakeholders; to develop positive relationships; and to create a consistency between organisational goals and societal expectations. In addition, public relations should lead and manage the adoption of organisational objectives and values; and facilitate organisational change (Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman & Toth 2012:4). Furthermore, public relations assess stakeholders' attitudes towards the organisation; it identifies organisational policies and procedures of public interest and executes an action plan regarding communication to earn public understanding and acceptance (Rensburg & Cant 2009:35). The Public Relations Institute of South Africa defines public relations as follows: Public relations is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between the organisation and its various publics – both internal and external. The fundamentals of public relations include the following (Guth & Marsh 2012:6–7): • • • • • • It is a management function as public relations should be at management level in terms of leading where public relations issues are concerned. It is not only about sending messages but about also listening to the messages from stakeholders about the organisation, thus two-way communication is essential. Public relations plans and aligns communication and relating actions to the organisation's values and goals. Public relations include researching the occurrences in the business environment, as communication cannot be made without information relating to the environment in which the organisation operates. Public relations practitioners must perform relationship-building activities in order to foster beneficial relationships with stakeholders. Finally, a public relations practitioner needs to act in a socially responsible manner and ensure that the organisation itself is acting socially responsible too. Watch this video on public relations on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCiK5-R2c0I 40 | P a g e MNM1520/1 In order to understand the situations where the use of public relations is necessary, we will discuss the various roles of public relations in the next section. Public relations roles The implementation and completion of public relations strategies require particular techniques in order to communicate with target audiences. The different roles of public relations practitioners are performed with particular goals in sight, which requires particular resources. To achieve the goals of public relations and build relations with different stakeholders, the following roles are discussed in table 1.3 below: Table 1.3: Roles of public relations in the organisation Media relations 1 A public relations practitioner builds connections with media entities in order to have a connection with the public through media channels. Tasks include: exploring available media channels; securing media contracts; providing briefings to obtain media contracts; arranging meetings and interviews; drafting feature articles and press releases; drafting broadcast interviews, background material, film and photography for broadcast media and encouraging discourse (discussions) on important issues. Publications 2 The public relations practitioner is involved with the preparation, production and creation of both internal and external publications for communication campaigns in terms of written and spoken communication. External publications include newsletters, social media postings and annual reports; while internal publications include intranet postings, internal newsletters, memos and notice boards. Corporate image 3 As corporate image is the culmination of experiences, impressions, beliefs, feelings and knowledge that stakeholders hold of the organisation, the public relations practitioner should ensure that the corporate branding relating to image of the product, services, branding, any communication and touch point (any point that customer comes into contact with organisation or its communication) should be upheld. 41 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Corporate advertising 4 This entails strengthening the organisation's image and corporate brand through paid advertising. Sponsorship and events 5 Sponsoring events, which are associated with an organisation and its brand, can be a beneficial tool for integrated marketing communication. Promotional activities 6 Conferences, teleconferences, exhibitions, direct mail and other special events associated with high profiles, and which are media sensitive, are beneficial in promoting the organisation's image. Public relations practitioners should be equipped with the appropriate skills to plan and arrange these promotional activities. Internal communication 7 This is communicating with employees the process of the organisation, such as context, news, plans and performance. Crisis management 8 Despite the unpredictable and sudden nature of crises, public relations practitioners need to have contingency plans in place to handle such situations. In addition, public relations practitioners should perform issues management, which is expecting, detecting and evaluating issues in order to respond to the issues. Reputation management 9 This is maintaining and, in some cases, enhancing the organisational reputation by incorporating economic and social considerations into operational processes. Policies are implemented where the organisation’s core values, based on the welfare of stakeholders, concern for local communities and quality products with environmental and technological aspects, are being taken into consideration. Lobbying 10 Public relations practitioners build and maintain relations with the government in order to understand legislative processes and, when necessary, petition against legislative processes, which are not beneficial for the organisation and its environments in which it operates. Networking 11 Public relations practitioners build relations with individuals within the industry or who are influential in their own industries in order to build contacts with whom to exchange experiences, expertise and contacts for professional social purposes. Source: Adapted from Theaker (2012) To achieve the roles of public relations as discussed in the above table, a public relations practitioner has specific tasks to perform. These key tasks are discussed in the subsequent section. 42 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Activity 1.4 Cheryl works as a public relations practitioner for a major pharmaceutical organisation in the Johannesburg area. She is a member of the Public Relation Institute of South Africa and attends as many public relations conferences as she can. Cheryl believes in having discussions with fellow public relations practitioners from different organisations, in different industries and different countries in order to keep updated with the latest trends in the public relations industry and to build connections who can assist her in the future if any crises should occur. What role of public relations is Cheryl performing in relation to public relations in the organisation and why is it so essential that she continues to do so? Feedback Cheryl is performing the networking role of public relations in an organisation. It is essential that Cheryl continues to network as she is building relationships with individuals who are influential in the industry and she is able to exchange experiences, expertise and contacts that could improve her skills as a public relations practitioner. Public relations key tasks The fundamentals of public relations are the strategic (managerial) roles public relations perform. To break it down to operational level, public relations practitioners are expected to perform the following key tasks: Table 1.4: Key tasks of public relations practitioners Key tasks Strategic communication Boundary spanning/ situation analysis Counselling Planning and organising Research, monitoring and evaluation Copywriting Editing Description Identify problems and analyse situations to provide solutions to reach organisational goals through communication Involves analysing the occurrences in the environment and keeping up to date with the latest news Discussion on situations and providing solutions to problems surrounding stakeholder relations Planning around a set of goals, objectives and organisational values Arranging public relations related events such as media conferences, publicity events, sponsorship and so forth Researching business and social related issues that could affect the organisation Monitor and evaluate current public relations campaigns in order to make corrections where necessary and report on its success rate Writing internal and external communications, such as electronic newsletters, memos, brochures and news releases; writing for broadcast media; writing for print media, trade papers, corporate advertising, and so forth Edit all the material that was written 43 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Key tasks Production Speaking Training Management Media relations Source: Description Incorporating multimedia in communication such as design, photography and audio-visual presentations Ability to speak in public (such as at a press conference) Prepare a speech, in some cases for another individual Prepare specific speeches and corresponding communication relating to a specific situations Instruct management on public speaking in certain situations (impromptu interview, crisis communication etc.) Manage activities relating to the public relations process (budgeting, personnel etc) Build relationships with media houses Placement of publishing organisational communication in print or broadcast media Koekemoer (2014:330–332); Lattimore et al (2013:8–9) Activity 1.5 Due to public uproar about the use of genetically modified chemicals that are used in maize (mielie) plants, which have shown to cause cancer cells in adults, the maize association of the region decided to communicate with the public their safety measurements in place. The communication is intended to be similar to international organisations that also communicate with the public in their regions to calm the public and assure them their health safety. Name and discuss six public relations key tasks that will be necessary to produce material and send to broadcast and print media, to communicate with the public the intended message. Feedback The following key tasks have been identified as necessary to produce the material for communication: • Researching, monitoring and evaluation: Firstly, the organisation needs to research what the international organisations have done to communicate with their publics, in 44 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • • • addition to the business- and social-related issues that the organisation will experience. Copywriting: The public relations practitioner will have to write the communication for the print media. Editing: The public relations practitioner will have to edit that which has been written. Production: The public relations practitioner will produce the multimedia material that should be incorporated into the broadcast media message. Speaking: In the case of press conferences, the public relations practitioner will have to prepare the speech for the individual speaking – usually a spokesperson or senior manager. Media relations: The public relations practitioner will have to rely on the relationships he or she has built in order to place the print and broadcast material. The key tasks mentioned above are further discussed in learning units further on. Often, individuals misunderstand what the role of public relations is and what it is not. What public relations is not (Koekemoer 2014:332) is: • • • • • • a barricade between the truth and the external stakeholders propaganda that forces a point of view which disregards ethics, truth and the good of society publicity with the aim of achieving direct sales (publicity has an indirect effect on sales) a smokescreen using ploys to hide the truth or to constantly sell ideas free advertising – a lot of resources and work goes into public relations tasks political agendas – to advance a single party's policy See the learning material on public relations: https://www.boundless.com/marketing/textbooks/boundless-marketingtextbook/integrated-marketing-communications-12/the-promotion-mix-83/publicrelations-416-10590/ 1.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PUBLIC RELATIONS AND MARKETING Study the section that follows: Public relations is often confused with marketing; however, there are differences between the two despite the many similarities. Public relations focuses on building relationships with all stakeholders by building goodwill and fostering a positive corporate image. Marketing focuses solely on the customer by offering a product or service to satisfy the wants and needs of the customer (external stakeholder) in exchange for something of value to the organisation in most cases, monetary 45 | P a g e MNM1520/1 transaction (Tripathy 2011:130). The difference between public relations and marketing is illustrated in the table below: Table 1.5: Difference between public relations and marketing Public relations Marketing Focus Assists organisations and publics to reach mutual goals Promotion of goods and services for transfer between producer and provider for the consumer Immediate goal Shared understanding and positioning of the organisation with the publics Sales numbers Implicit goal Creating positive perceptions and predispositions of audience towards the organisation To make a profit Measure of Evident in public opinion or support success Source: Evident in the number of sales and the revenue generated Adapted from Tripathy (2011:130) While public relations focus on building relationships with all stakeholders, marketing is focused on building relationships with customers only. The confusion comes in when public relations uses marketing techniques such as advertising to “market” the organisation, while public relations techniques are used in marketing such as product publicity to assisting in promoting a product (Rensburg & Cant 2009:47). 1.6 THE ROLE OF THE PUBLIC RELATION INSTITUTE OF SOUTH AFRICA (PRISA) Study the section that follows: PRISA is an association for public relations professionals and communication management throughout the Southern African region. All registered members of PRISA commit themselves to adhering to the institute's code of ethics and professional standards. PRISA's registration system can be used to identify excellent communicators who will add value to a company. The registration system is based on both academic qualifications and experience, and practitioners are registered at the level of APR (accredited public relations practitioner), CPRP (chartered public relations practitioner) or PRP (public relations practitioner). “PRISA has developed a set of standards for the consulting industry – with different measurements for small, medium and large businesses. Accreditation ratings will be based on criteria including transformation, business plans, new business, resources, 46 | P a g e MNM1520/1 client campaigns, human resources and training. The benefits of being an accredited consultancy are for both the companies and their clients. Consultancies can use their achievement as a marketing tool and clients will have recourse if something does go wrong” (Public Relation Institute of South Africa 2015). For more information on PRISA, visit their website at http://www.prisa.co.za/. 1.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS The following exercises are very good revision questions. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the feedback given in the learning unit. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1.8 What level of communication will be used when communicating with employees? Discuss the important of integrated communication. What is the purpose of non-verbal communication in relation to verbal communication? What are the functions of public relations that will be used when interacting with the media houses? Define public relations and discuss the role it plays in the organisation. What are the misconceptions of public relations? REFLECTION Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 1.9 In what areas of your professional life do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit? What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme? SUMMARY This learning unit progressed from the communication model and the related verbal and non-verbal communication that takes place. Communication principles and levels are discussed to provide a broader view of communication in context of the organisation. Integrated communication and the need for communication to be consistent are discussed, followed by a public relations discussion. Public relations key tasks and roles are discussed to provide students with an understanding of the scope of public relations. To understand where public relations fit in, in relations to marketing, the difference is discussed and emphasised with the role of PRISA. The next learning unit deals with the characteristics, skills and tasks, and personal and professional behaviour of a public relations practitioner. 47 | P a g e MNM1520/1 1.10 REFERENCES Angelopula, G & Barker, R. 2013. Integrated organisational communication. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Juta. Baker, MJ. 2014. Marketing strategy & management. 5th edition. London: Palgrave. Bauer, T & Erdogan, B. 2013. Organizational behavior v. 1.0. Flat World Education. [Online] Available at: http://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/bookhub/reader/3?e=bauer-ch08_s03 (accessed on 18 September 2013). Berndt, A & Tait, M. 2014. Relationship marketing and customer relationship management. 3rd edition. Cape Town: Juta. Cepero, Á, Clapés, A & Escalera, S. 2015. Automatic non-verbal communication skills analysis: a quantitative evaluation. AI Communications, 28:87–101. [Online] Available at: DOI 10.3233/AIC-140617. Daniels, D, Hunter, A, McGhie, V, Middleton Horn, J, Van Jaarsveldt, M & Van Vuuren, T. 2014. Business communication. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Duck, S & McMahan, DT. 2010. Communication in everyday life. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Fourie, L. 2014. Public relations: theory & practice. Cape Town: Juta. Guth, DW & March, C. 2012. Public relations: a value-driven approach. 5th edition. Boston: Pearson. Hamilton, C. 2011. Communicating for results: a guide for business and the professions (international edition). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Hume, J. 2010. Civicus internal communication toolkit. [Online] Available at: http://jessicahume.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/internal_communication_toolki t.pdf (downloaded on 20 December 2012). Hurn, BJ. 2014. Body language – a minefield for international business people. Industrial and Commerial Training. 46(4):188–193. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ICT-01-2014-0004 (downloaded on 4 February 2016). Koekemoer, L. 2011. Introduction to integrated marketing communication. Claremont: Juta. Koekemoer, L. 2014. Marketing communication: an integrated approach. Cape Town: Juta. Lattimore, D, Baskin, O, Heiman, ST & Toth, EL. 2012. Public relations: the profession & the practice. 4th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Machado, R. 2014. Customer service. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Juta. 48 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Martin, JN & Nakayama, TK. 2007. Interculteral communication in contexts. 4th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Miller, K. 2011. Organizational communication: approaches and processes. Mason: Cengage Learning. [Online] Available at: https://books.google.co.za/books?id=HOPKAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq =Organizational+communication:+approaches+and+processes&hl=en&sa=X& ved=0ahUKEwijncOc2vzNAhXkD8AKHVloB6MQ6AEIIzAA#v=onepage&q=Organ izational%20communication%3A%20approaches%20and%20processes&f=fals e (accessed on 18 September 2013). Mutinta, GC. 2015. Analysing integrated communication applied in the University of KwaZulu-Natal aids programme, Westville Campus. Unpublished masters dissertation. University of South Africa. O’'Rourke, JS. 2013. Management communication: a case-analysis approach. 5th edition. New Jersey: Pearson. Public Relation Institute of South Africa. 2015. [Online] Available at: http://www.prisa.co.za/index.php/about-us/what-is-prisa (accessed on 1 April 2016). Rensburg, R & Cant, M. 2009. Public relations: African perspective. Sandown: Heinemann. Šeríć, M, Gil-Saura, I & Ozretíć-Došen, Ɖ. 2015. Insights on integrated marketing communications: implementation and impact in hotel companies. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(5):958–979. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-12-2013-0568 (downloaded on 14 March 2016). Smith, BG. 2012. Organic integration: the natural process underlying communication integration. Journal of Communication Management, Vol 16:4–19. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13632541211198012 (downloaded on 14 March 2016). Smith, R. 2013. Public relations: the basics. New York: Routledge. Thulkanam, M. 2014. The role of integrated communication (IC) in stakeholder engagement: a strategic corporate social responsibility (CSR) perspective. Unpublished masters dissertation. University of South Africa. Tripathy, M. 2011. Public relations: bridging technologies and monitoring public and the media. Dehli: Authorspress. 49 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 2 The public relations practitioner Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 2.1 Definition of a public relations practitioner 2.2 Characteristics of the public relations practitioner 2.3 The role of the public relations practitioner 2.4 Essential skills for a public relations practitioner 2.4.1 Listening as a public relations practitioner 2.4.2 Listening process 2.4.2.1 Obstacles in listening 2.4.2.2 Skills to improve listening 2.4.2.3 How to be a better listener 2.4.3 Importance of reading in public relations 2.4.4 Reading strategies or techniques 2.4.4.1 Reading print publications, electronic media and e-mail 2.4.4.2 How to be a better reader 2.5 Key tasks of a public relations practitioner 2.6 Personal and professional behaviour 2.7 Verbal and written communication as a public relations practitioner 2.8 Speech styles 2.9 Self-assessment questions 2.10 Reflection 2.11 Summary 2.12 References 2. Introduction Public relations practitioners are valuable assets to any organisation, particularly in an era where internal and external stakeholders are informed and kept abreast of the developments in the industries. A public relations practitioner is key in establishing efficient two-way interaction between the organisation and its stakeholders. Think about it; basically public relations practitioners are communication strategists in an organisation. Do you agree with the statement or not? The discussions that will follow in this learning unit will help you get clarity on this issue. The public relation practitioners' primary task or responsibility is to manage communication about the organisation’s reputation and image to both internal and external stakeholders. Internal stakeholders are the employees and management. External stakeholders, on the other hand, are communities, you, and I as consumers of the products and services that the practitioners' companies offer. Think about the recent price fixing cartels that have made the news. Who does the media briefings 50 | P a g e MNM1520/1 to address such reputation and image damaging association strategies? What makes the public relations practitioners work more intriguing in this day and age is the fact that technology has made it easy for the public to be vocal about issues on social media using various platforms. It is therefore important to understand the public relations practitioner. Overview of this learning unit The previous learning unit concentrated on the communication model with the focus on verbal and non-verbal communication. The unit further touched on integrated communication and an overview of public relations, its key tasks and fit. Now that we have read about communication and public relations, and understand it, it is important to discuss public relations practitioners. The key and common theme in the previous learning unit was communication and communication with stakeholders. Does that mean it is what public relations entails and what public relations practitioners are employed for primarily? This learning unit deals with the public relations practitioner, as well as the characteristics of the public relations practitioner, so that we have an understanding of who these people are. Then we look at the roles they play in an organisation. We then outline and discuss the essential skills that the public relations practitioner must possess as every job position has specific skills requirements. I am certain that you will agree that a director and a supervisor have specific skills that distinguish them. Since public relations is characterised by communication, it is important to talk about listening as a necessary skill for public relations practitioners. Then the importance of reading in public relations is discussed, followed by reading strategies or techniques. Next, the key tasks of the public relations practitioner is, discussed followed by a discussion on personal and professional behaviour. Verbal and written communication is also discussed in this unit, expanding on what was discussed in learning unit 1. We then conclude with a discussion on speech styles. Consider the quote below when reading this learning unit and its relevance or irrelevance to the unit, then sum up the public relations practitioner. “I have been asked to talk about what I consider the most important challenge facing mankind, and I have a fundamental answer. The greatest challenge facing mankind is the challenge of distinguishing reality from fantasy, truth from propaganda. Perceiving the truth has always been a challenge to mankind, but in the information age (or as I think of it, the disinformation age) it takes on a special urgency and importance.” Crichton, M 51 | P a g e MNM1520/1 This learning unit unfolds as follows: Learning outcomes After completing this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • • • • • • give a definition of a public relations practitioner provide the difference between a public relations officer and practitioner identify and discuss the characteristics of a public relations practitioner discuss the role of a public relations practitioner identify and discuss the essential skills of a public relations practitioner discuss listening as a public relations practitioner discuss the listening process discuss the importance of reading in public relations list and discuss the reading strategies identify and discuss the key tasks of a public relations practitioner discuss personal and professional behaviour list and discuss speech styles 52 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Key concepts Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • • • define proactive characteristic define lifelong learning define objectivity define problem-solving skills explain research skills explain communication skills define counselling explain media relations explain ethics Very important! Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please follow the URL below and download the material: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/choral-department-public-relations/view 2.1 DEFINITION OF A PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER Study the section that follows: The one thing that is certain is change; it is inevitable and therefore we see changes in titles and designation. Before we define a public relations practitioner, let us reflect on the evolution in this area of specialisation and qualification. What is a public relations practitioner? Is it a public relations officer? Is it a public speaker? Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organisations and their publics. Public relations can also be defined as the practice of managing communication between an organisation and its publics. Galloway (2004) theorises that public relations practitioners (PRP) see themselves and are seen by others as professional communication, reputation and issue problem-solvers. Now let us look at what a public relations practitioner is and does. The public relations practitioner (PRP) practises different forms of communication to establish an efficient two-way interaction between the organisation and other groups of people (Fourie 2014). These other groups are external stakeholders. The PRP is more of a mediator as he or she helps people and organisations to gain public acceptance by explaining the aims, objectives and methods of their organisation. This they do by building and maintaining a favourable image. The PRP gives out 53 | P a g e MNM1520/1 information for newspaper release, magazine articles and news spots so that the public are made aware of the employer's projects and accomplishments, in this case the organisation they work for. The PRP's work also entails arranging and conducting public contact campaigns, which may include setting up speaking engagements, writing speeches, speaking for employers at community functions, planning organisation conferences and managing fundraising initiatives. The public relations practitioner may prepare stakeholders' reports or work to improve employer – employee relations. For information on a public relations practitioner, listen to video reviews that look at the definition of PR, and explores the different types and functions of PR, such as: employee relations (internal PR), campaigns and politics, government relations and media relations. You can check out the links at: • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WdLReWbda78 In the next section, we look at the characteristics of the public relations practitioner. 2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER Study the section that follows: It is important that you are able to identify and discuss the characteristics of the public relations practitioner. As you work through this section, you will notice that being a public relations practitioner is very demanding, and that you will be working in a high-pressure environment most of the time. Most careers require certain characteristics and the public relations industry is not any different. These characteristics are: • • • • • • Proactiveness: You will need to have a hands-on approach and the ability to anticipate problems before they happen and to solve problems before they get worse. Ability to work well under pressure: You should be able to cope with stress and long hours, and be able to meet deadlines. Enthusiasm and determination: You must enjoy solving problems and always be on the lookout for new ways of doing things. Lifelong learning: You must constantly update yourself on the trends and new technologies in the industry, as well as with regard to the client, service and products that you will represent. Objectivity: You should be able to motivate and provide factual information, not your personal opinion. Flexibility and the ability to understand other people's point of view: You must be able to work with different types of people, actively listen and take an interest in others. 54 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • Interest in helping others: You should focus on building relationships and showing an interest in helping others, as this is vital for building relationships. Attention to detail: You should be able to focus on detail and double check everything, especially in administration and in proofreading and editing all documentation to check for spelling and grammar mistakes. Creativity and the ability to generate new ideas: You should always be on the lookout for creative and new ideas or ways in which you can better serve your client or organisation. In the next section, we look at the role of the public relations practitioner. 2.3 THE ROLE OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER Study the section that follows: It is important for organisations to include public relations practitioners as part of top management decision makers, especially where they can facilitate two-way communication between an organisation and its stakeholders. Because of the strategic role of public relations practitioners, it is important to maintain close contact with the upper level of management. In South Africa, a young democratic country, there is a trend of outsourcing services although some of the industries have taken the organisations and the government to task challenging the outsourcing. The debates have centred on outsourcing and insourcing. The trend to outsource has also affected the public relations fraternity where companies outsource the public relations role, although many organisations do employ their own specialists. Public relations must not only keep the firm's "public" informed of new products, policy changes and staff changes, but it must keep top management informed of the public's reaction to the organisation and its products. Now the following questions can be asked: What do public relations practitioners do? What is their role in an organisation? Broom (1982) studied what public relations practitioners did and suggested four dominant roles (see table 2.1). Further Broom classified these roles as one technical and three managerial functions in nature. However, in 1995, Broom reduced the roles to two more general categories of technician and manager. The technician focused on technical, tactical tasks such as writing, editing, production of materials, maintaining contacts and issuing press releases. The communication manager, on the other hand, is more likely to participate in management decisions, advise on the implications of policy decisions with regard to public reaction, social responsibility, and evaluate the results of communication programmes. Study table in order to gain a greater understanding of the positions of public relations practitioners. 55 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Table 2.1: Broom's four practitioner positions ROLES CHARACTERISTICS Communication technician Carries out communication programmes, prepares and produces communication materials; and not part of the management team. Expert prescriber The authority on communication problems and their solutions. While this person can be part of the management team, he or she is often regarded as the "expert" so that the other members are generally passive. Communication facilitator A go-between, liaising between the organisation and its stakeholders. A boundary-spanner, conveying organisational views externally and publics' views internally. Problem-solving facilitator Collaborates with other managers to define and solve communication problems. More likely to play an active part in strategic decision making for the organisation. Source: Cornelissen (2008) The roles outlined in table 2.1 are described in accordance to the roles that public relations practitioners do. So, let us look at the main roles as stated by Fawkes (2012). Table 2.2 below depicts the main roles in public relations that practitioners perform. These are the roles they spend their time on both internally and externally. Study table 2.2 in order to gain a greater understanding of the roles of public relations practitioners. Table 2.2: Guide to the main roles of public relations practitioners Public relations activity Explanation Examples Internal communications Communicating with employees In-house newsletter, suggestion boxes Corporate PR Communicating on behalf of the organisation Annual reports, conferences, ethical statements, visual identity, images Media relations Communicating with journalists, specialists, and editors from local, national, international and trade media, including newspapers, magazines, radio, TV and web-based communication Press releases, photocalls, video news release, off-the-record briefings, press events Business to business Communicating with other organisations, e.g. suppliers, retailers Exhibitions, trade events, newsletters Public affairs Communicating with opinion formers (example, Presentations, local and national politicians), monitoring briefings, private political environment meetings, public speeches 56 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Community relations/corporate social responsibility Communicating with local community, elected representatives, head teachers etc Exhibitions, presentations, letters, meetings, sports activities and other sponsorship Investor relations Communicating with financial organisations/individuals Newsletters, briefings, events Strategic communication Performs identification and analysis of situations, problem and solutions to further organisational goals Researching, planning and executing a campaign to improve ethical reputation of organisation Issues management Monitoring political, social, economic and technological environment Considering effects of South African economy on businesses Crisis management Communicating clear messages in fastchanging situation or emergency like political instabilities in South Africa Dealing with media after major crisis depending on the nature of the industry Copywriting Writing for different audiences to high standards of literacy (Statistics shows that the number of illiterate South Africans is high) Press releases, newsletters, webpages, annual reports Publications management Overseeing print/media processes, often using new technology Leaflets, internal magazines, websites and social media Events management, exhibitions Organisation of complex events, exhibitions Annual conference, press launch, trade shows Source: Fawkes (2012) In the next section, we look at the essential skills for a public relations practitioner. 2.4 ESSENTIAL SKILLS FOR A PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER Study the section that follows: As a public relations practitioner who performs tasks for the public relations function (department), there are particular skills that a public relations practitioner must obtain. These skills include problem-solving, research skills, excellent communication, and the ability to organise and plan. After studying this section, you need to be able to discuss these skills in detail. The essential skills for a public relations practitioner are: 57 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • Problem-solving skills: Johnston and Zawawi (2003) identify “problem-solver and/or manager” as one of the primary roles public relations practitioners hold. However, Hendrix (2004) argues that the public relations process is a method for solving problems. Moreover, practitioners also view their work in a problem-related framework. This essential skill speaks to and confirms one of the key characteristics of a public relations practitioner mentioned earlier in section 2.2, that is, being proactive. The challenge with being reactive is that by the time the practitioners address the problem, the damage might have already been done to the reputation, and thus image, of the organisation. Think about the technology era we are living in. How much of information goes out to social media society in a second? Yes, bad publicity goes viral to the global world instantly. Problem-solving skills and research skills go hand in hand, as a public relations practitioner will always need to conduct proper research in order to solve problems successfully. • Research skills: Public relations practitioners seek to solve problems through research. This can be on an informal basis and often in the early stages of a project and through use of their own insights gained through previous work. A public relations practitioner cannot put any of his or her skills to good use without a foundation of research and information gathering. Since their roles are to manage the communication, reputation and image of an organisation, it is important to know their organisational needs, target market (stakeholders), and available resources in order to draw up a good public relations plan. There are various types of research involved in public relations, for example market research, industry research and news tracking. The benefits of research are that the practitioner can make objective decisions and present factual information. • Excellent communication skills: As public speakers, effective communication skills are critical for practitioners. Even though there is an increase in new technologies, solid writing skills remain critical for public relations practitioners. It is therefore important that for effective public relations practices, writing is clear, concise, compelling and error-free. • The ability to organise and plan: It goes without saying that organising and planning are key skills in public relations and public relations practitioners must master the skills. The fact that practitioners deal with the public means that they will have meetings, media briefs and even coordinate some events for the organisation, which in most cases has to do with charity initiatives. 58 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Activity 2.1 Do you think you have the communication skills required for a public relations practitioner? Feedback Public relations practitioners must be confident as they talk to a wide range of people. For example, your role may involve presenting to clients, dealing with journalists and meeting with groups of people important to your organisation. You also need to have excellent writing skills as you could be producing press releases, annual reports, articles and newsletters. It is also important to remember that public relations practitioners are judged on their ability to express themselves, either in writing or orally. Listening as a public relations practitioner Since public relations is characterised by communication, it is important for public relations practitioners to be able to listen. Social media has emerged as an essential tool for public relations professionals. However, over the years particularly in South Africa, the internet in general was a low priority for practitioners (Hill & White 2000). The Report on the Transformation of Print and Digital Media (PDMTTT) forecasts that the number of internet users will reach 29,8 million by 2016 (Neville 2013:22). In actual fact, “digital's share of consumer spending (excluding internet access) in South Africa is set to grow from 1% in 2008 to 4% by 2017” (PWC 2013:22). The mobile device has been described as Africa's computer. This is true considering the reliance on smartphones. How often do you rely on your smartphone? It can be 59 | P a g e MNM1520/1 reliance on the calendar feature, data storage, navigation through the country or access to the internet and downloading of information. The AMPS 2008 to 2012 trend data revealed that there is mass mediums dominance on the South African media landscape. Although internet consumption was not as high as the values recorded for television, it has shown remarkable growth and is set to continue its upward path. Hence, the social media landscape has undergone a huge transformation in the last couple of years. Brands have gradually increased awareness regarding the importance of monitoring what their target audience says about them in the online environment. The concept of listening to stakeholders has been part of the public relations industry for decades. Conversations, engaging and developing relationships with publics online – particularly social media through an organisation’s social site – are some of the roles that public relations practitioners assume in this day and age. Most organisations have a Twitter account, Facebook page or Instagram and Flickr accounts, which are all social media platforms. You hear companies say “follow us on Twitter” or “visit our Facebook page”. These platforms afford practitioners the opportunity to build and maintain a good and positive relationship with the public. It is through listening and keeping abreast with what the public says about a practitioner's organisation that a formidable relationship with stakeholders can be built. The incapacity of controlling what is being said on social media platforms about their products, services, and so on leads to a single outcome: keeping an eye on these channels and making sure that all mentions are appropriately dealt with. From a public relations practitioner's perspective, social media has always been perceived as an amazing tool of free publicity that allows direct communication with the target audiences without any external filters such as media, for example. As public relations practitioners often face the challenge of dealing with positive as well as negative publicity, monitoring social media is essential. There are benefits of tracking your organisation's online activity: • • • Public relations practice is about anticipation and interpretation of public opinion and attitudes that might affect the future of an organisation. Social media monitoring can be used to avoid issues management that might eventually turn into a crisis. There are numerous examples of when companies neglected the negative feedback they were receiving from customers via social media sites and, consequently, individual posts got astounding numbers of likes, shares and comments, and thus creating a negative buzz and harming the organisation's reputation. When planning public relations campaigns, social media monitoring is crucial at several stages, including market research and investigating the overall sentiment that the public has in reverence to the organisation and its services; competitor analysis; and getting a honed insight into the public categories by finding out more about their location, preferences and online habits. Traditional public relations used to rely on media scanning. Basically, one of the everyday activities of a public relations practitioner used to be flipping through newspapers, aiming to find mentions of their clients. In using a monitoring tool, 60 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • this can be done now just with a simple click. This facilitates evaluation in terms of determining the success of journalistic engagement and mentions in the media. Social media monitoring tools can support the evaluation of public relations campaigns by analysing key aspects and by facilitating the planning of strategy and tactics for future campaigns. For example, a monitoring tool can provide information revealing on which social media platforms there was the most and the least interaction, which topics drove conversations and which were the third parties that supported the campaign. Social media monitoring is a great way of turning complaints and negative feedback into positive publicity. It is widely known that no one can control what is being said about a brand in the online environment and it is simply impossible to please everybody. Listening process It is important for listening to be an outside-inside approach as the public's opinion about an organisation matters the most. Think about those cases and situations where consumers boycotted organisations in various industries. Some of the reputational risks could have been avoided had the organisation and public relations practitioners listened to the public. feedback input comments reviews success FIGURE 2.1: Active listening, outside-inside approach 2.4.2.1 Obstacles in listening Public relations and communication management are commonly acknowledged the custodians of an organisation's image and reputation. Practitioners have the mandate to manage all messages directed at their organisations and the responsibility for most relationships with external stakeholders. Therefore, public relations practitioners are expected not just to communicate, but also to listen to 61 | P a g e MNM1520/1 stakeholders and to be their voice within organisations. Listening is a skill that not all of us will master; it seems to be the weakness of some public relations practitioners. Steve Covey said: “[M]ost people do not listen with the intent to understand, they listen with the intent to reply.” It is therefore important for public relations practitioners to have the ability to listen effectively, as that would help overcome obstacles in listening. There are obstacles that hinder public relations practitioners from listening, including the lack of awareness of their stakeholders' dynamic expectations, and lack of capacity to integrate those expectations into the organisation's decision-making processes. Hargie (2011) lists some of the obstacles to listening: Environmental and physical barriers to listening: Lighting, temperature and furniture affect our ability to listen and are environmental barriers to listening. Think about a time you were attending a function, workshop, training or class and the room temperature was cold. Were you able to listen in class? Those who are sensitive to cold could not listen most probably, as they would be too focused on feeling the cold. Seating arrangements could be a barrier to listening as individuals might be placed with their backs towards the speaker, which can be prevented if individuals can make eye contact, which increases their confidence in their abilities to receive and process information. Physical proximity is also a factor, considering that being placed out of hearing range from the speaker could affect the listener's ability to listen to the speech. Physiological noise: Is also a factor that can interfere with our ability to process information. It arises from our physical body in the form of a physical illness, injury, or bodily stress. An individual's mood or state of emotions can prevent message reception and processing. Fatigue, for example, is usually a combination of psychological and physiological stresses that exhibits stress (psychological noise) and weakness, sleepiness and tiredness (physiological noise). Additionally, mental anxiety (psychological noise) can also manifest itself in our bodies through trembling, sweating, blushing, or even breaking out in rashes (physiological noise). Cognitive and personal barriers to listening: Whether you call it multitasking, daydreaming, glazing over, or drifting off, we all cognitively process other things while receiving messages. Cognitive limits, a lack of listening preparation, difficult or disorganised messages, and prejudices can interfere with listening. The fact that we have the capability to process more than one simultaneously has its advantages and disadvantages. Our ability to process more information than what comes from one speaker or source creates a barrier to effective listening. More often than not, we are challenged when presented with messages that we do not find personally relevant. Lack of listening preparation: This is another barrier to effective listening. It is a general lack of listening preparation. Most people have never received any formal training or instructions related to listening. Although some people think listening 62 | P a g e MNM1520/1 skills just develop over time, competent listening is difficult, and enhancing listening skills takes determination. Listening is often viewed as an annoyance or a chore, or just ignored or minimised as part of the communication process. Our society values speaking more than listening. Listening competence is a crucial part of social interaction and although many of us value others we perceive to be “good listeners”, listening just does not get the same kind of praise, attention, instruction, or credibility as speaking. Bad messages and/or speakers: An ill-prepared speaker as well as an irrelevant message could present a barrier to effective listening. A speaker who “uhms” and “ahs” could cause listeners to lose focus as they realise that the speaker is not prepared. A speaker who is also providing too much information can lose listeners attention. Irrelevant messages, poorly structured messages, topics being discussed that are too vague, or information that is too simple can cause listeners to lose focus. Prejudice: This is formed through misinformation, fear and rigid thinking, which could cause some of the default ways of processing information by the listener and perceiving others that lead to rigid ways of thinking. When engaging in prejudiced listening, avoid being convinced of something different. This type of prejudice is a barrier to effective listening, because when individuals prejudge a person based on his or her identity or ideas, they usually stop listening in an active and/or ethical way. Bad listening practices: Physical barriers, cognitive limitations and perceptual biases exist within all of us. Bad listening practices may be habitual, but they are easier to address with some determination. These bad listening practices include interrupting, distorted listening, eavesdropping, aggressive listening, narcissistic listening and pseudo-listening. Interrupting: One of the most frequent glitches in the turn-taking process is interruption, but not all interruptions are considered bad listening. An interruption could be unintentional if cues are misread and think a person is done speaking only to have him or her start up again at the same time as listeners do. Sometimes interruptions are more like overlapping statements that show support or excitement about the conversation. Unintentional interruptions can still be considered bad listening if they result from mindless communication. Distorted listening: This occurs in many ways. Sometimes it is because the order of information was incorrect. Rationalisation is another form of distorted listening through which people or stakeholders adapt, edit, or skew incoming information to fit their existing ideas. It can easily happen if stakeholders join a conversation late, overhear part of a conversation, or are being a lazy listener and miss important setup and context. Eavesdropping: This is a bad listening practice that involves a calculated and planned attempt to listen secretly to a conversation. There is a difference between eavesdropping on and overhearing a conversation. Eavesdropping entails 63 | P a g e MNM1520/1 intentionally listening in on a conversation that one is not a part of, which is considered as unethical as it is a violation of people's privacy. Overhearing is unintentional listening to a conversation. The links below contain slides that show and teach about the obstacles in listening and the type thereof: • • http://www.slideshare.net/phamqduy/obstacles-to-ineffective-listeningw3 http://www.slideshare.net/amirsmile16/barriers-to-communication-2075597 Activity 2.2 Think about any organisation or search for an organisation that has public relations practitioners managing their stakeholder communication and relations. What are examples of exceptionally engaging and listening activities that they practise? Feedback The reality is every organisation has its way of engaging and listening to its stakeholders. However, there are those that do exceptionally well in this area. Perhaps consider structural and cultural conditions that are in place in organisations as they may influence how thing are done. 2.4.2.2 Skills to improve listening Flynn, Valikoski and Grau (2008:144) state that “listening is considered by some to be the single most important element in the communication process, even more highly valued than speaking as a communication skill necessary in the business world”. Communication is vital to society as a whole as such listening is an integral part of communication. It is important to improve listening skills where there is a need, especially in the public relations sphere. What does it take to be a great communicator? You might have stated skills such as the skill to explain things clearly (articulation), the ability to inspire others (being a motivator), or a strong delivery to hold listeners' attention. Few of you might have mentioned listening skills. It is therefore important to develop good listening skills, as that allows the listener to gather more information more easily and to communicate more effectively. It takes practise and discipline to be a good listener. How many of us have chanted a mantra that goes something like “do less talking and listen more”? Quite a lot of us in fact and that is in a way our strategy to enhancing our listening skills. Let us then look at the skills to improve listening. A good question is: What makes a good listener? There are several techniques for effective listening and they are discussed below: Attending behaviour: A vital first step in effective listening is making the decision to listen and preparing yourself physically and mentally. Good body language and eye contact are essential. 64 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Mental preparation: Put aside what you are working on and concentrate on the speaker. If you are in the middle of a project, ask that the person to come back when you can give your full attention. Appropriate silences and supporting statements: It is essential not to interrupt a speaker; rather wait to be sure that the speaker is finished. However, it is appropriate to make encouraging and positive sounds or gestures. Head nodding, for example, makes a speaker more comfortable. Questions: Be prepared to respond to a speaker with a question that is relevant, but do not shift your concentration away from what is being said to think of a question. Also, be careful not to begin judging the statement halfway through. Most of us fall into this trap; this will hinder a person to hear the entire presentation. 2.4.2.3 How to be a better listener Public relations practitioners these days are faced with a challenge of being able to listen and master listening from various stakeholders, social media platforms and traditional media. In as much as technology is advancing, there is no way that traditional media cannot be ignored. The following links provide valuable information on how to be a better listener: • • • http://study.com/academy/lesson/becoming-a-better-listener-tips-strategies.html http://quickbooks.intuit.com/r/management-and-training/5-tips-for-becoming-abetter-listener/ https://hbr.org/2015/02/everything-you-need-to-know-about-becoming-a-betterlistener Importance of reading in public relations Generally, it is important to read. Now considering that public relations practitioners are responsible for two-way communication and stakeholder relations, it is important that they read to keep abreast with developments inside and outside their organisations. Reading is fundamental to function in public relations. 65 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Reading strategies or techniques 2.4.4.1 Reading print publications, electronic media and e-mail There is still significant public relations value in reading print editions of newspapers as well as consumer magazines and trade journals. Public relations practitioners have a chance to get stories and refer back to them with easy as papers can be stored. There is a saying that no news is old news. Public relations practitioners can reach an audience that may not bother looking for the digital information. Most print publications now publish stories first in digital media to be timelier. Therefore, public relations practitioners must rely on social media to monitor breaking news and search for stories and newsworthy trends that might influence their organisational operations. Media is becoming more integrated with digital and social tools. Moreover, the growing trend of social journalism positions public relations practitioners as more credible sources in the eyes of the media. 2.4.4.2 How to be a better reader There are certain guidelines that a public relations practitioner can use in order to improve reading skills. The guidelines to improving reading are discussed below. Think it through: Look at the book or article you will be reading and think seriously about it. What is the topic? What do you already know about that topic, and what would you like to learn? This helps you get in the right frame of mind to read and tells your brain to start focusing on the right topic and subject. Scan the headings: Look at the title of what you will be reading. Get a feel for how the work is organised and what it covers so there will not be any surprises. Predict: Before you read, try predicting the kind of information you will find in the book, journal or e-mail. Then while you are reading, pay attention to see if what you find agrees with your expectations. Ask questions: This must be done constantly while reading. Take notes: Many people think better with a pencil in their hand. It is a way to keep the mind engaged and active. Highlighting, underlining and writing down information force the mind to think about what it is reading. Pay attention to organisation: Every sentence and paragraph is connected to every other sentence and paragraph. 66 | P a g e MNM1520/1 2.5 KEY TASKS OF A PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER Study the section that follows: You should be able to discuss the eight most important functions of the public relations practitioner in detail and give practical examples. Public relations practitioners fulfil a range of functions in an organisation, including the following: • • • • • • • • Counselling: Public relations practitioners, as stakeholder relations managers, find themselves as counsellors at times as they have to nurture relationships. Research, monitoring and evaluation: For public relations practitioners to write credible pieces, they must have read, done research, monitored developments and evaluated the environment where their organisations operate. Media relations: The activities of media relations include pitching content to reporters. Public relations practitioners' goals are creating a story or developing a narrative that keeps readers, listeners and viewers informed. Programming: Public relations practitioners describe the various methods a company uses to disseminate messages about its products, services, or overall image to its customers, employees, stockholders, suppliers, or other interested members of the community. Writing and editing: Public relations practitioners spend most of their time writing and editing speeches or articles concerning the image of their organisations. Production: Public relations practitioners are producers of communications send to stakeholders that have to do with the reputation and image of organisations. They give out information for newspaper items, magazine articles and news spots so that the public are made aware of that employer's projects and accomplishments. Event coordination: Practitioners are responsible for events coordination; these events are generally organised to generate publicity and are effective for public relations practitioners. Speaking: Public relations practitioners are often involved in crisis communications whenever there is a major accident or natural disaster affecting an organisation and its community, that is, stakeholders. Practitioners engage in debates, media briefs and community events concerning their organisations. 67 | P a g e MNM1520/1 2.6 PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOUR Study the section that follows: After reading this section, you should understand why ethics is important in public relations. You should also understand the five pillars of public relations ethics. While reading this section, bear in mind that public relations generally suffers from a bad reputation. The public usually perceives public relations practitioners as misrepresenting the facts or not telling the truth. A public relations practitioner has a responsibility towards the greater good, and should always operate with that in mind. It is in the nature of the public relations profession to persuade publics to change their behaviour or perception, but a public relations practitioner should be very careful not to use unethical means to achieve this outcome. It is worth noting that you cannot talk about public relations practitioners without touching on ethics and morals. Ethics are fundamental to public relations and define how practitioners should act or behave. Morally, public relations practitioners should distinguish between what is good and bad, right or wrong. The moral behaviour will determine whether the public regards the practitioner as being credible and trustworthy. Activity 2.3 Ethics and morals can be practised at a personal and professional level when you are a public relations officer. Now having said that, reflect on your own ethics and what you feel is right or wrong. and then list companies that you would proudly work for and those that you would not. In addition to that, motivate your choices. Feedback The reality is that what one person considers being ethical and morally grounded might not be what the next person think. Therefore, the choices will pretty much depend on your values and beliefs. So, the answer provided can be very different. The discussions that follow below are on ethical dilemmas and code of ethics. Code of ethics governs the conducts of public relations practitioners. Familiarise yourself with the five pillars of public relations ethics, illustrated in the diagram below. These five pillars will provide you with guidance when you are faced 68 | P a g e MNM1520/1 with ethical dilemmas in the public relations context, which are veracity, beneficence, confidentiality, fairness and non-maleficence. FIGURE 2.2: Five pillars of ethics Ethics in public relations relates to how public relations practitioners behave. Personal integrity is extremely important. Public relations practitioners must both respect the public interest and deal fairly and honestly with clients, employers, colleagues, publics and media communication. They must preserve the confidences of their past and present clients and employers, and not use or reveal information obtained in confidence from them. In public relations arena, practitioners would need to use their moral instincts and sound judgement to assess and address the issues they face. The pillars of ethics are discussed below (Parsons 2008:20–21): Veracity: This refers to telling the truth about a matter, which stakeholders have a right to know about. This pillar of ethics is in contrast to the pillar of confidentiality. Confidentiality: This relates to respecting the privacy of others, which is often contradicted by journalists who feel that the public has a right to know all information. There is always a conflict between the ethical pillars of respecting a person's privacy versus the need to tell the truth. 69 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Non-maleficence: This refers to doing no harm, therefore avoiding doing harm to stakeholders. Public relations practitioners have to ask themselves if their actions will cause any harm to the stakeholders. Fairness: This relates to trying to respect all stakeholders and society as a whole, in the decisions that are made within an organisation that not only affects internal stakeholders, but that also affects external stakeholders. Beneficence: This is the proactive pillar of ethics, as it relates to the effort of a public relations practitioner looking for opportunities to do good for stakeholders. This ethical pillar is helpful in making decisions regarding the relative morality of public relations activities. Activity 2.4 Companies are operating in industries where “tenderpreneurship” is the norm. Let us assume that you, as a public relations practitioner at Organisation A, have a personal relationship with one of your employer's suppliers. Would you consider it ethical to employ their services for a project you are working on? Could you prove that supplier's work was the best available and that you were not acting out of personal favour? Feedback Professional or industry codes of conduct provide basic standards for PR professionals and every PR organisation has a code of ethics by which its members are expected to abide. The main objective of these codes is to form guidelines for professional behaviour. In Southern Africa, public relations practitioners have a professional representation by the Public Relations Institute of Southern Africa (PRISA). The institute represents professionals in public relations and communication management throughout the Southern African region and has registered practitioners in Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa. Colleagues in America are represented by the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA). Both the South African institute and American society provide professional development, set standards of excellence and uphold principles of ethics for their members. Kang and Berger (2010:368) posit that gaining a seat at a decision-making table is of the utmost importance to public relations as organisations benefit from public relations practitioners' expertise when they are included. Thus, they can facilitate two-way communication between the organisation and its publics and external stakeholders. Public relations practitioners are pivotal in advising on ethics-related 70 | P a g e MNM1520/1 matters in an organisation. Kang and Berger (2010:369) state that public relations practitioners are skilful and knowledgeable to perform as ethics advisors. However, when communication is poor within an organisation, the power relations in the organisation make it difficult for them to perform their tasks. In most cases, it leaves the practitioner with the challenge to decide whether to internally take up or resist unethical decisions. 2.7 VERBAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION AS A PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER Study the section that follows: Since speech will be covered in a subsequent unit, in this section we will briefly discuss verbal and written communication as a public relations practitioner. In addition to that, verbal and written communication as a public relations practitioner will be discussed in depth in learning unit 4. Communication is key in a public relations practitioner's career. Moreover, public relations practitioners must have good if not excellent interpersonal qualities and professional communication skills. Non-verbal communication and it signals are often natural in human behaviour, which are usually subtly communicated (Cepero, Clapés & Escalera 2015:88). There are different elements that influence non-verbal communication, including culture, personal communication and ambiguousness. Culture: In African culture, it is disrespectful to look an older person in the eyes when talking to them and men enter a room first, as it is derived from when it was considered safer for the man to enter first in case an enemy is standing inside the hut. In Western culture, it is seen as a sign of confidence when looking an individual in the eyes when talking to them, while it is considered as polite to allow a woman to enter the room first. Personal communication: Some individuals see no fault grasping another's hand for a lengthy period when giving a handshake, while other individuals prefer brief handshakes. Some individuals prefer to stand close to another person when in conversation, while others may feel they need their personal space and prefer to stand a meter away from those they are in conversation with. Ambiguousness: When a person puts his or her hands in their pockets, it could mean the person is withdrawn, or that they are getting cold and warming their hands in their pockets. When a person has his or her arms folded, it could be a sign of being shy or it could mean the person is being defensive while talking. 71 | P a g e MNM1520/1 2.8 SPEECH STYLES Study the section that follows: Speeches are tangible pieces of writing, constructed with attention to detail. They are often a key component in a public relations practitioner's tasks. For information on a public relations practitioner listen to video reviews that look at the public relations speech, and creating and executing a powerful speech. You can check out the links at: • • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KG6dWPZoVS4 http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/tag/speech-examples/ This section is discussed in detail in learning unit 4. 2.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers to the theory provided in the learning unit. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Define public relations practitioners. List and discuss the roles that public relations practitioners play in their respective organisations. Identify and briefly discuss essential skills of public relations practitioners. What is the importance of reading in public relations and why? It is important for public relations practitioners to personally and professionally behave in ethical manner that espouse their practise. Discuss personal and professional behaviour in public relations. 2.10 REFLECTION Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. In what areas of your professional life do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit? What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme? 72 | P a g e MNM1520/1 2.11 SUMMARY We have considered discussions on public relations practitioner importance in an organisation and its management team. We then discussed the characteristics that epitomise their work values. This made it mandatory to look at the roles that public relations practitioners play in organisations considering the fact that they facilitate two-way communication between organisations and stakeholders in a technological era. Moreover, the essential skills with the focus on listening were discussed. Reading is important in public relations; as such, practitioners must keep abreast with developments internally and externally to their organisations to remain relevant and credible to stakeholders. The key tasks of public relations practitioners were discussed followed by their personal and professional behaviour, which tapped on issues of ethics. The unit concluded with discussions on verbal and written communication and speech styles that public relations practitioners use. In the next learning unit, we discuss public relations practitioner skills in listening, as it is pivotal in the South Africa we live in. 73 | P a g e MNM1520/1 2.12 REFERENCES Broom, G. 1982. A comparison of sex roles in public relations. Public Relations Review, 8(3):17–22. Broom, GM & Dozier, DM. 1986. Advancement for public relations role models. Public Relations Review, 12(1):37–56. Flynn, J, Valikoski, TR & Grau, J. 2008. Listening in the business context: reviewing the state of research. The International Journal of Listening, 22:141–151. Galloway, C. 2004. Appreciative public relations: an alternative to the problemsolution loop PRism 2. Available at: http://www.prismjournal.org/fileadmin/Praxis/Files/Journal_Files/Issue2/Commentary/Galloway.pdf Hargie, O. 2011. Skilled interpersonal communication: research, theory and practice. London: Routledge. Hendrix, JA. 2004. Public relations cases. 6th edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Hill, LN & White, C. 2000. Public relations practitioners' perception of the world-wide web as a communications tools. Public Relations Review, 26(1):31. Johnston, J & Zawawi, C. 2003. Public relations: theory and practice. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. Luttrell, R. 2015. Social media: how to engage, share and connect. New York, London: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Parsons, P. 2008. Ethics in public relations: a guide to best practice. London: Kogan Page. Stephen, M. 1998. Listening methods. Journal of Property Management, 63:4. 74 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 3 Practitioner skills in listening Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 3.1 What is listening? 3.1.1 Benefits of listening 3.1.2 Bad listening habits 3.1.3 Differences between hearing and listening 3.1.4 Different levels of listening 3.1.5 Types of listeners 3.2 The listening process 3.3 How to improve listening 3.4 Why listening is important in the organisation 3.5 Possible obstacles to listening 3.6 Self-assessment questions 3.7 Reflection 3.8 Summary 3.9 References 3. Introduction Many people think that the most important skills to learn from an early age are reading, writing, maths and science. As listening is seldom taught, most people assume that it is something that we all do automatically. However, effective listening is a skill that can be acquired through study and practice. Listening is as important to learn as all the other skills. How many times do parents say to their children, “I need you to listen now”, or “Are you listening to me”? Think about how good your listening skills are, and remember that when you really listen to someone, they tend to like talking to you more. If you were a public relations practitioner at a leading automotive manufacturer, and the company was launching a new car, you would have to listen to the technical department, the marketing department and the financial department to get all the necessary information before you made a statement to the public. Overview of this learning unit Now that you have read how important listening skills are, you need to understand what listening entails and also what the difference is between simply hearing and actual listening, since they are two different actions. There are also various factors that can influence one's listening skills and, to become a better listener, you need to know what these are. In this learning unit, you will learn about the different types of listeners and the levels of listening. We then discuss how to become a better 75 | P a g e MNM1520/1 listener, and what may prevent you from listening effectively. Once you have a better idea of the listening process, you will find it easier to communicate effectively with others. Excellent listening skills are crucial, since as a practitioner you are required to communicate effectively as part of your job. This learning unit unfolds as follows: Why listening is important in the organisation Learning outcomes After completing this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • explain explain explain explain explain explain what listening entails and how it is different from hearing factors that affect listening, levels of listening and types of listeners the listening process the obstacles that can be encountered in listening skills that can help you improve your listening tips on how to become a better listener Key concepts Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • define listening explain the benefits of listening explain bad listening habits explain the levels of listening 76 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • • • • • • explain the listening process define speech registers define faker define dependent listener define interrupter define self-conscious listener define intellectual listener define listening obstacles Very important! Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please follow the URL below and download the material: http://bookboon.com/en/what-is-active-listening-ebook 3.1 WHAT IS LISTENING? Study the section that follows: Listening is a complex process that involves more than just hearing the words. Listening is a large part of the communication process as it is during listening that decoding occurs. Many people think that listening is an action that everyone performs naturally, but it is in fact a neglected skill and we all need to strive continuously to improve our listening skills. People listen much faster than they speak; therefore, listeners' minds tend to wonder because of the different pace between listening and speaking (Bauer & Erdogan 2013). If this gap in pace of speaking and listening can be understood in the business world, then we can make more intelligent communication choices based on the kind of information we intended to convey. Listening is the “process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or non-verbal messages; an art and an intellectual and emotional 77 | P a g e MNM1520/1 process in which the receiver searches for meaning” (Daniels, Hunter, McGhie, Middleton Horn, Van Jaarsveldt & Van Vuuren 2014:263). Listening occurs for specific reasons, which are: (1) to interact socially, (2) to receive information, (3) to solve problems, and (4) to share emotion with others. Each communication purpose requires a different listening style. There are three styles of listening, namely informational listening, critical listening and empathetic listening (Thill & Bovee 2013:87–88; Waldeck, Kearney & Plax 2013:50–51; Lehman & Dufrene 2011:52; Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:85). Casual listening is listening for recreation purposes or relaxation such as listening to music or a novel reading recorded on CD. Informational listening is when the focus is on the content of the message in order to gather information. Critical listening involves critically evaluating the message, which is especially relevant when an individual has an important decision to make based on the information provided. Empathetic listening is listening without judgement to understand the speaker's point of view. Empathetic listening is relevant when a customer speaks to the employee about his or her problem and the employee listens without countering the customer, criticising or judging the customer in order to understand the customer's perspective. Active listening involves decoding the message and verifying that the message was decoded correctly, according to what the speaker wanted you to understand (Drollinger & Comer 2013:51). Active listening fosters interpersonal relationships with colleagues, employers and customers. For a public relations practitioner to excel in the business environment and build interpersonal relationships with individuals within the business environment, he or she needs to be an active listener. Otherwise the opposite occurs, where passive listening simply receives the message without an attempt to understand the message in terms of verification and feedback (Waldeck, Kearney & Plax 2013:52). Activity 3.1 Ask a fellow student, colleague, family member or friend about a situation where he or she was discussing a matter with another person and felt as if that person was really listening to what he or she was saying (empathetic listening)? What made the speaker feel that the listener was really listening, referring to body language, responses and facial expressions? Feedback Considering that every situation is different, with every context being different, the answer provided can be very different. However, compare what you have heard to the rest of the theory provided in this unit. 78 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Benefits of listening Study the section that follows: There are benefits of listening, which especially public relations practitioners should keep in mind. The benefits of listening include (Lehman & Dufrene 2011:51): • • • • • Good listeners make people happy because they satisfy people's basic human need to be heard. Good listeners are more capable of differentiating between fact and fiction, are better equipped to withstand false persuasion, and avoid being used by others. Sensitivity and tolerance towards others is an advantage of listening, especially towards stakeholders such as employees, customers and suppliers. Good listeners are more willing to engage and constantly learn from others and thus gain knowledge and skills that contribute towards increased creativity, job performance, job satisfaction and advancement. Good listeners partake in good communication, which increases job satisfaction as a result of understanding what is occurring within the organisation and being able to respond based on what they know. Activity 3.2 What would the benefit be of a public relations practitioner listening to a client’s brief in terms of a public relations campaign? Feedback There are a number of points that can be provided: • • • • • The client would feel satisfied that the public relations practitioner is listening to the client’s brief so attentively, making the client happy. The public relations practitioner is able to better discern between fact and fiction and will be able to immediately indicate to the client what is possible and what is outside the scope of the company's services. The public relations practitioner is able to be more tolerant and sensitive towards the client, especially if the client is rather difficult and demanding. The public relations practitioner will be able to gather information about the client's brief and become more knowledgeable about the client's needs. For the public relations practitioner, greater job satisfaction is involved when knowing that a job is being well done from the start of the process. 79 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Bad listening habits Study the section that follows: Bad listening habits are often non-physical and are developed over time. Most people have practised one of the following bad habits a few times (Lehman & Dufrene 2011:54): • • • • • • Faking attention: This is when you are pretending to listen to the speaker, but you are actually not listening and perhaps day dreaming about summer holidays. Allowing disruptions: This refers to allowing interruptions in the communication process and thus interrupting the physical and emotional effort in listening. Over-listening: This refers to when a listener tries too hard to record the message details, either in writing or in memory. He or she therefore misses the message as a whole. Stereotyping: This is making judgements on the speaker based on the listener's prejudice and perceptions regarding the speaker's appearance, mannerisms, dress, speech delivery or accent. Dismissing subjects as uninteresting: A listener who perceives the subject matter to be uninteresting is more likely to ignore the speech. Failing to observe non-verbal aids: A speech by the speaker is accompanied by non-verbal communication. If the listener misses this communication, the entire message is not received by the listener. Difference between hearing and listening Study the section that follows: People use the words “hearing” and “listening” as if it is the same thing. This is not the case, as there are differences between the definitions of hearing and listening. Hearing is the physical ability to detect sounds. Hearing is what is tested at the doctor's office, where the physical ability to hear at the average decimal levels for your particular age group (Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:81). Listening, on the other hand, requires the listener to concentrate on the verbal and non-verbal message sent and to decode the meaning of the message. You can hear the words that are coming out of the mouth of your student, colleague, family member or friend, but you need to listen to the words in order to make sense of it. Essentially, being good at hearing does not mean you will be good at listening (Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:81). For example, Tina is deaf and thus unable 80 | P a g e MNM1520/1 to physically hear when others communicate with her. However, she is able to listen as she can use an interpreter, lip-reading or her ability to read non-verbal cues. Tina was even able to outperform her colleagues in listening despite their perfect hearing ability, as they failed to overcome obstacles to listening. Obstacles to hearing prevent people from performing effective listening, which can lead to misunderstandings and uncomfortable situations. Therefore, it is essential that you constantly strive to improve your listening skills in order to avoid uncomfortable situations (Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:81). Obstacles to hearing include failing to limit distractions, failing to focus on the message, and failing to be an active listener. To measure you listening skills, you can ask yourself the following self-monitoring questions: Self-monitoring questions related to listening • • • • • • How would you rate yourself in terms of listening skill? What strengths as a listener do you possess? What obstacles often make it difficult for you to listen to messages? What distracts you the most, thus preventing you from listening effectively? Do you make an effort to practise active listening? Which steps can be taken to improve your listening? Different levels of listening Study the section that follows: There are essentially three levels of listening namely, internal listening, focused listening and global listening. The listening levels are discussed in the table below. Table 3.1: Description of listening levels Listening level Alternative term Listening level 1 Internal listening Description At this level, you will be more interested in the content of the discussion and the personal meaning that you will derive from the discussion. Internal listening pertains to you being concerned with the information for your own purposes, whether it may be instructions on what you need to do next in terms of your daily tasks or the new operational processes you need to follow. The level represents everyday dialogue, which is mutually interpreted. 81 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Listening level 2 Focused listening You will listen with intent to the speaker and the focus will be on what is being said, in order to serve as a reflection of what the client is saying, thus so that you are able to paraphrase what the speaker has said for clarification. At this level, you are must also maintain an awareness of the impact that your listening has on the client in terms of making them feel satisfied that you are paying attention and making them feel like the focus of your attention, especially as personal thoughts cease to compete with the listening process. "Empathy, creativity, clarification, collaboration and innovation" occur at this level. Listening level 3 Global listening This is also known as environmental listening as the listener notices aspects of his or her surroundings, such as the temperature, difference in light, "tension in the air" and so forth. Intuition now comes into play where you will also listen to your gut. This is where you will look out for emotions and energy of the situation. Think of how awkward it feels in a setting where someone talks about something controversial in a group setting, and how emotionally charged it can also feel. This is where intuition comes into play. Source: Adapted from Cox (2013:3) For information on the levels of listening where the levels are discussed in a different manner, although it covers the same theory as above, you can check out the links at: • • http://www.barryovereem.com/the-three-levels-of-listening/ http://www.thecoaches.com/learning-hub/fundamentals/res/FUN-Topics/FUNCo-Active-Coaching-Skills-Listening.pdf Types of listeners Study the section that follows: There are different types of listeners, ranging from those who can be very good at listening, to those listeners who are very bad at listening, to those who are in between. The different types of listeners are summarised in the diagram below. 82 | P a g e MNM1520/1 FIGURE 3.1: Types of listeners There are different types of listeners who listen differently to the message being communicated. We have all probably been one of these types of listeners at one point in life, as the type of listener you are can depend on the nature of the communication and the context in which the communication occurs. The different types of listeners are (Finley 2010; Palazzolo 2012): • The pre-occupied listener: This refers to those people who are rushed and constantly looking to doing something else, such as be on their phone or working on something in meetings. This type of listener has to make added efforts to pay attention and constantly ask themselves if the message being communicated requires their full attention. When speaking to a "preoccupied" listener, the speaker can ask “Is this a good time”, which usually gets their attention, but then the speaker needs to be brief and get to the point as this type of listener has a short attention span. • The faker listener: This refers to people who are physically present, but who are simply mentally absent. Often a blank look gives this type of listener away as they are usually thinking of something else or simply daydreaming. This type of listener has to attempt to be alert, maintain eye contact and show interest in the topic by asking questions. When speaking to a "faker" listener check that they are listening by asking questions and ensuring that they understand the discussion. • The interrupter listener: This refers to people who constantly interrupt the conversation to make added comments or to ask questions (when it could have been asked at the end of the conversation). "Interrupters" will not be listening to the message but would be concentrating on guessing what the 83 | P a g e MNM1520/1 speaker will say next. This type of listener should try to apologise every time they interrupt someone, thus making them more aware of their habit. When speaking to an "interrupter" listener let them talk as they will not listen to your otherwise, alternatively make them aware of their habit by asking them if you can finish your communication before they communicate further. • The “whatever” listener: This refers to people who remain aloof and show very little emotion when listening to the speaker. This type of listener needs to concentrate on the full message (including verbal and non-verbal communication) in order to understand why the speaker is directing the message towards him or her. When speaking to the "whatever" listener involve your listener in the conversation by asking questions. • The combative listener: This refers to people who find fault with everything that the speaker says and continues to disagree and blame others. This type of listener needs to attempt to be an empathetic listener by understanding, accepting and finding merit in the speaker's view point. When speaking to a “combative” listener, rather continue the discussion as intended and afterwards discuss the matter and request for an alternative suggestion. • The analyst listener: This refers to people who are constantly take on the role of therapist, prepared with many unsolicited answer and perceiving themselves as great listeners and love to help. Analysts constantly attempt to analyse what is being said and provide numerous suggestions to "fix" the situation. This type of listener needs to understand that there is not always a need for an answer or advice, but in certain situations they just need someone to listen to the speaker verbally communicate a matter to clarify it for himself or herself. When speaking to an "analyst" listener, you need to clarify the purpose of your communication. • The dependent listener: This refers to people who pay so much attention to how they are listening and reacting to the speaker that they miss what is actually being said. Often dependent listeners focus so much on making all the right moves in terms of what makes a good listener, that they miss the actual communication. This type of listener needs to focus less on making on all the right moves and actually concentrate on the message. When speaking to a dependent listener, you need to engage with the listener in order to confirm that they are receiving the intended message. • The self-conscious listener: This refers to people who focus too much attention on themselves instead of involving themselves in the content and the meaning of the conversation. Often these listeners are self-conscious about their attire, sitting position, or how they are perceived by others in the meeting or conversation. This type of listener needs to focus less on themselves and focus rather on the message and attempt to engage with the speaker to fully understand the message. When speaking to a selfconscious listener, you need to engage with the listener in order to confirm that they are receiving the intended message. 84 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • The intellectual or logical listener: These listeners listen only with their heads, hearing only what they want to hear. Often these listeners perform selective hearing, where they only hear those aspects that serve their purpose rather than the information they perceive as unimportant. These type of listeners needs to focus on actively listening. When speaking to an intellectual listener, you need to engage with the listener to clarify the message and the importance of each aspect of the conversation. • The engager listeners: This refers to people who are the consciously aware of the message. Engagers focus on all aspects of the communication by listening with their eyes, ears, and are empathetic in their listening. Engagers are at the highest level of listen, which encourage the speaker to continue talking and give them an opportunity to discuss the matter at hand to find solutions and to come up with ideas. These types of listeners need to continue truly engaging with the speaker on different levels. When speaking to an engager listener acknowledge their attention on the message and thank them for their interest in the topic. Activity 3.3 Below are four boxes describing different listening scenarios. Choose which match the type of listener. Discuss why you have chosen these answers. A) Jerry listens to his female colleague's discussion on why a particular public relations campaign will not be suitable for a nationwide roll-out. Jerry wishes to impress his boss and thus only focuses on the aspects that will strengthen his response, rather than listening to his colleagues entire discussion. Dependent listener B) Being the only female in the meeting, Dineo does not want to attract unwanted attention and therefore is aware that she needs to sit in a particular manner and ensure that she is dressed suitably to avoid drawing too much attention to herself. She hears parts of the speeches but focuses more on her mannerisms. Self-conscious listener C) Devon is the junior public relations practitioner who just joined the agency. He wants to make a good impression and stand out, so he vigorously nods his head in agreement to the speech the boss makes on ethical behaviour in the workplace. Pre-occupied listener D) Halima is very bad at time management and is thus always busy with many tasks at once. Her colleagues know that if you want her to listen to you, you need to clarify if the discussion is taking place at an appropriate time for Halima to give her attention to the topic at hand. Intellectual listener 85 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Feedback This matches the intellectual listener, as Jerry only focuses on those aspects that will strengthen his argument. He is thus selective about what he will listen to. A) This matches the self-conscious listener, as Dineo is self-conscious about the clothes she wears and how she presents herself in a male-dominated scenario. B) This matches the dependent listener, as Devon is focussing on impressing his boss as he attempts to show his support through vigorous nodding. C) This matches the pre-occupied listener, as Halima is constantly working on many tasks at once. She is frustrated and worked up and therefore does not focus on the message. Can you provide additional motivation for the above matchings? 3.2 THE LISTENING PROCESS Study the section that follows: After studying this section, you should know that the process of listening involves receiving messages, attending to and giving meaning to what you hear. The listening process involves a number of interrelated steps that may in fact take place simultaneously. You should be able to discuss the eight steps of listening and describe how each can add value and quality to conversations in social and business situations. The purpose of this section is to familiarise you with the listening process. A process consists of the steps that one goes through in order to successfully complete something. To be an effective listener, you need to go through the listening process, which consists of six steps. The listening process is an important topic in this learning unit, but do not view it in isolation as the other topics dealt with in the learning unit can also contribute to effective listening in various ways. 86 | P a g e MNM1520/1 FIGURE 3.2: The listening process The listening process steps are discussed below (Hamilton 2011:112–114; Waldeck, Kearney & Plax 2013:60–61): Step 1: Mental preparation A receiver has to mentally prepare herself or himself to listen to the message the sender wants to communicate. Mentally preparing yourself is made easier when you know you need to remind yourself why it is important to listen to the sender, and why you concentrate on the message being communicated. Mentally preparing oneself to listen to the sender includes anticipating the need to expend effort, assessing the speaker's intent, be ready to provide feedback if necessary, understanding the implications of the context, and recognising the repercussions when overreacting to the message. For instance, you know that you will be attending a meeting where the changes in policy and its implications will be discussed. Therefore, you are more motivated to listen to what is being said as it could affect your daily business tasks. 87 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Step 2: Stimulus reception When listening to the message being communicated, the receiver must be aware of the different distractions or barriers to the listening process. The receiver will be in a situation where different sounds are heard; however, the receiver needs to concentrate on the message being communicated rather than on the distracting sound. You need to be selective and pay attention to only that which is important or that which interests you. For instance, while the meeting is taking place, there are gardeners mowing the lawn someplace close to the meeting venue, and therefore there is background noise. You, as the receiver, need to make an effort to listen only to that which is important, which in this case is the meeting discussion. Step 3: Active listening Active listening requires the receiver (listener) to concentrate on what the sender is saying and commit to actively listen to the message. Especially when the conversation or meeting occurs for a lengthy period of time, the listener could lose focus due to fatigue, hunger or other factors. How often have you been in a meeting or discussion where the individual talked slowly and in a monotone that you seemed to be falling asleep? For instance, when listening to the supervisor in a meeting, you are more likely to pay less attention when he starts discussing his move to a bigger office in the building and lose focus, but when he starts talking about a change in policy that will affect you, you are more likely to pay more attention to the supervisor as the topic has now become more relevant for you. Step 4: Decoding At this step, the receiver is decoding the message sent by the sender. In other words, the receiver is trying to make sense of what the sender communicated. Decoding involves deciphering the verbal communication, but not only with the assistance of the sound stimulus, but also the knowledge of the person's background, personal characteristics, psychological characteristics and particular mannerisms, possible connotative meanings and contextual implications. The receiver also considers previous knowledge of the topic, additional information about the sender that could give meaning to the topic. Therefore, to understand the message correctly, the listener needs to “think about the message and make more extensive inferences, evaluate and judge the speaker and the message”. Thus, during this stage the listener brings together the verbal communication, non-verbal communication and any additional information when decoding the message. Problems in decoding the message arise when the receiver assumes understanding of the message and does not bother to ask the sender to clarify the meaning. For instance, consider the supervisor has been in the company for longer than you know and therefore knows the office politics better than you do, then his phrasing and mannerisms may be affected, especially if the senior management is also in the meeting. The supervisor may be speaking in a language that is not his mother 88 | P a g e MNM1520/1 tongue; therefore he may get certain words mixed up in meaning causing a semantic barrier. Step 5: Message storage The memory stage involves either writing down what is understood and making notes for future reference or simply remembering the discussion intending to provide feedback. Attempting to remember is rather tricky considering that we do not store as much information as we hoped into our short-term memory. For instance, at the beginning of the meeting, a colleague indicates an additional item to the meeting agenda to be discussed at the end of the meeting. The supervisor agrees to the additional item and continues with the meeting; however, at the end of the meeting, the supervisor forgets what the additional agenda item is as he did not write it down. Therefore, it is essential that especially public relations practitioners, who sometimes perform verbal briefing sessions with clients, need to have a recoding mechanism at hand, whether it may be writing on paper, typing it up on a computer or recording the meeting, in order to prevent missing pertinent details to a campaign. Step 6: Responding If the listener has effectively gone through the listening process, the responding process can now take place. This step is the confirmation stage, where the listener confirms that he or she understood the intended message. Confirmation of understanding the message can come through the form of oral communication, written communication or non-verbal communication. For instance, the supervisor may want the opinion of the meeting attendees, which the listeners can then provide based ideally on the notes they have made. Consider how a public relations practitioner could use the steps in the listening process practically. Here are some examples to help you: • • • • • Motivation to listen: Right from the start, even if you do not feel like listening to a difficult client or customer, as a public relations practitioner you need to create the motivation within yourself to listen. Receiving actual stimulus: As a public relations practitioner, you must be sensitive to and aware of non-verbal cues that can help you to understand and interpret meaning. For example, if someone starts to shout or bang the desk with their fist, you will know that they are angry or irritated. Paying attention: Even if a customer or client is sometimes wrong, it is important to be a dedicated listener and to avoid interrupting them. Rather listen to everything they have to say before reacting. Understanding: As a public relations practitioner, you need to get all the facts right. Intelligent questioning is necessary to ensure that you have understood the message correctly. If the client did not mention certain facts, be sure to ask. For example, ask: "Where did the incident happen?'' or "Is this the first time that this has happened to you?'' Interpreting: It is important to use careful judgement when interpreting 89 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • 3.3 someone's message. Try not to hear only what you want to hear; make sure that you understand the message in the way it was intended to be understood. Evaluating: As a public relations practitioner, you must separate facts from your own assumptions. If a client received bad service and complains, do not just assume that the client had has a bad day and is overreacting; there may, in fact, really be a problem with the service. Remembering: Too often in business, practitioners almost immediately forget what they have heard. Make notes to help you remember. Reacting: Giving the speaker feedback is one way of reacting. As a public relations practitioner, you can do this by requesting more information or by giving an explanation. Always try to indicate positive support for the speaker's message. HOW TO IMPROVE LISTENING Study the section that follows: There are several ways to improve listening in general, which include (Lehman & Dufrene 2011:55–56; Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:86) the following: Minimising environmental and mental distractions: Avoid being distracted by unnecessary noises, thus rather ensure that the room where a meeting is taking place has a door to close to block off most noise. Make the time and effort to listen, especially when in important situations such as listening to instructions from the boss. Connect with the speaker: Keep an open mind when listening to the speaker and avoid falling back on prejudices about the speaker. Be aware of non-verbal communication such as tone, body language, gestures, facial expressions and eye movements. Rely on your knowledge of speakers to your advantage: By relying on your knowledge of public speaking and through experience, you will recognise unique speaking and speech structure traits of individuals. For instance, some speakers prefer to give a fully detailed speech and provide background on the topic, while other speakers prefer to give the main points and only some background detail. Make the speaker know you are actively involved: By showing interest, whether with body language such as sitting forward, or gestures such as nodding your head or even the absence of certain actions such as avoiding checking your smart phone, or avoiding whispering comments to your colleague, you are indicating that you are 90 | P a g e MNM1520/1 listening. The most active a listener can be is when he or she asks questions or provides feedback. Do not interrupt the speaker: Avoid interrupting the speaker as it might distract him or her from the speech, thus losing the full meaning of the speech. Clarify by asking questions: Clarify what the speaker discussed by asking relevant and meaningful questions. Paraphrasing is a useful tool when wanting to correct misunderstandings. Probing questions: These questions can direct the speaker in order to assist in the speaker defining the issue more clearly, concretely and specifically. Encourage a speaker: Inspire the speaker to talk more about the topic at hand. For example, ask questions such as: “Can you elaborate on the topic that you are discussing?” Restate what the speaker has said: Repeat what was said, although in a different manner. For example, rephrase by starting with the words: “Are you saying that … ?”. Reflect on what was said: Contemplate out loud about what the speaker said. For example, you could indicate: “You are saying that you …”. Summarise what was said: Briefly conclude what the speaker said. An example would be stating the following: “You are unhappy with the workload and would like for me to reassign the duties.” Validate what was said: Reiterate key points of the message, for example by stating, “I appreciate your efforts in completing the project on time, despite the short notice”. Use non-words and non-verbal action: Demonstrate that the listener is listening through body language or non-words, for example by nodding while listening or murmuring in agreement with a "hmmmmm". For additional information on improving listening, check out the following link: https://www.boundless.com/communications/textbooks/boundless-communicationstextbook/learning-to-listen-and-helping-others-do-the-same-5/understandinglistening-29/listening-and-critical-thinking-133-4210/ Activity 3.4 Copy the following link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gl9EPBYNZIo and paste it into your URL bar. The video is a young man delivering a speech about his 91 | P a g e MNM1520/1 tendency to deliver monotone speeches. Once you have watched the video, answer the following questions: 1 Did you find yourself losing focus? 2 What could you have done if you did lose focus of the speech because of the man's monotone speech? 3 What obstacles interfered with your ability to fully focus on the speech? Feedback This is an entirely personal experience and the answers can be found in this learning unit. 1 The answer is dependent on your experience. 2 The answer can be found in section titled “How to improve listening”. 3 The answer is dependent on the specific circumstances in your experience, although the relevant obstacles to listening can be found in the section titled “Possible obstacles to listening”. 3.4 WHY LISTENING IS IMPORTANT IN THE ORGANISATION Study the section that follows: As public relations is about building relationships with stakeholders (Guth & Marsh 2012:6–7), listening supports public relations aims as listening also fosters relationships with stakeholders (Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:85), and it is thus so important when dealing with all stakeholders, both internal and external of the organisation. It is important to listen to the customers, employees and supervisors for many different reasons, which are discussed below (Hamilton 2011:102): Listening to customers enables an organisation to gather information about what customers think about their products and services, or of the competition. A successful way to obtain customers opinions is by using social networking sites. By listening to customers and considering their opinions, the organisation can make changes to the products and services offered, which could lead to an increase in customer satisfaction and sales. When customers perceive the organisation is listening to them, they feel they can trust the organisation, are more satisfied with the organisation and more likely to do business with the organisation (Drollinger & Comer 2013:51). Listening to the customers from a public relations perspective could also increase the perception that the customers' opinions matter, which could create a reputation for the organisation as being considerate of the customer. Media 92 | P a g e MNM1520/1 tracking of the organisation's name can allow the public relations practitioner an opportunity to respond to false statements made or to act on negative statements, which if it escalates could damage the organisation's reputation. Listen to employees is essential considering that the operations of an organisation depend on the employees. Employees, who perceive that the organisation is listening to them, feel supported, more comfortable in an open climate, which increases employee satisfaction and productivity. Especially in crises, employees are a source of good suggestions that could improve the organisations productivity. Listening to supervisors may be considered as an obvious statement but it is often not performed correctly. Often employees do listen but without actively listening in terms of confirmation of listening and asking questions, which leads to a supervisor repeating themselves or getting frustrated with the lack of confirmation of understanding the message by the employees. Listening to the supervisor can be beneficial in that it assists with building a relationship with a supervisor for optimum teamwork and productivity. Listening to colleagues is essential for positive interpersonal relationships among colleagues. Considering that colleagues often need to work on projects, obstacles in communication is made more difficult with lack of communication richness through technology, cultural differences between colleagues, or lack of personal knowledge about fellow colleagues. 3.5 POSSIBLE OBSTACLES TO LISTENING Study the section that follows: Obstacles to listening are the barriers preventing you from actively listening to the message being communicated by the sender. Obstacles to listening include: Failing to limit distractions refers to a number of distractions, which can prevent listeners from performing effective listening. Noise, an element in the communication model, is a major distraction for listeners. There are however two types of noise: external noise and internal noise (Hamilton 2011:106–107; Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:83). The following are examples of barriers to listening: • Physical barriers relate to distinct sounds such as conversations in the office, a ringing cellphone, a loud radio or construction noises from outside the building. Failing to limit the distractions of external noises is failing to minimise chattering in a meeting, or failing to communicate that cellphones should be on silent when in a meeting. Overcoming the external noises is accomplished by communicating certain rules, which will minimise external noises. For example, the public relations practitioner will communicate to the journalists who are attending the 93 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • press conference to switch off their cellphones in order to avoid a ringing phone during the recoding of the press conference. Personal barriers are those distractions that encompass the internal condition that hinders the speaker's ability to focus on the message. Internal condition includes emotional distress, hunger, physical pain or physical discomfort. Overcoming internal responses is more difficult in some instances as it is harder to predict than external noise. Physical well-being distractions relate to physical discomfort such as pain or being cold. Psychological distractions relate to being worried about an issue or frustrated about a work situation. Attitudinal distractions relate to judgements, stereotypes or prejudice we have of other people. For example, needing the bathroom during an important meeting is physical discomfort, which can be overcome by allowing bathroom breaks. Telling customers bad news could lead to emotional distress, which is more difficult to lessen. Thus, with internal noise, especially causing great discomfort, the speaker must allow the listener time to deal with the news before giving additional information, which enhances the chances of the listener listening or remembering the message. When the listener is you, then you must attempt to lessen the internal noise, whether it is asking for a bathroom break during a meeting or asking to take a moment to digest bad news. Gender barriers are distractions created based on society's perception of male and female characteristics and behaviours. For example, society often assumes a female supervisor will be more lenient on employees, whereas a male supervisor will be stricter in terms of rules and deadlines. Semantic barriers are distractions created as a result of misinterpreting a message due to semantics. Semantics are the meanings of words, where words sound the same but have different meanings such as red and read. Semantics barriers are worsened by cultural differences and language differences, as people have different frames of reference and therefore interpret words differently. Failing to focus on the message is purposefully done by the listener because of jargon or message overload. In other words, the listener does not understand the message because the language is too technical or because too much detail is being communicated (Hamilton 2011:106–107; Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:84). • • Jargon refers to technical words usually used by a specialised group, making it difficult for the listener to comprehend if he or she is not a part of that group. The listener does not comprehend what the technical words mean and therefore will lose focus of the primary message being communicated. Message overload occurs when the speaker provides too many details in the message, which is difficult to keep track of and understand. As the listener attempts to understand the many details, he or she loses focus of the primary message. Message overload particularly occurs during presentations when the speaker provides too many points, graphs and figures on slides in discussing a particular topic. As a public relations practitioner, you will be expected to make notes of the main points and request the slides when the specific detail is required. 94 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Failing to be an active listener occurs when the listener decides not to listen to the information provided by the speaker. An active listener actively attempts to make sense of the communication and to verify the communication. An active listener will often paraphrase what the speaker is saying in order to confirm that the listener understood the message as the speaker intended (Thill & Bovee 2013:88; Hamilton 2011:106–107; Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:81). For example, a meeting may take place where the boss provides information to the employees (listeners) about progress on current projects, but because it is only feedback there is no need for the employees to actively listen, especially if they know more or less what the progress is based on their involvement in the projects. After the meeting, the boss will complain to one of the employees that nobody actually listens and understands the importance of being up to date with regard to the progress of current projects. The employee will then ask: “You feel frustrated because you feel the progress meetings are a waste of time as none of the employees seem to make an effort to properly listen to the progress report.” The employee thus summarises the boss' comments. 3.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the feedback given in the prescribed book. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 3.7 Briefly discuss the differences between listening and hearing. Discuss the different types of skills a practitioner can make use of to improve his or her listening skills. Describe the various types of listeners and how each of them listens differently to a speaker's message. Distinguish between the different levels of listening, stating each level, and describe the typical characteristics of a listener operating at that level. Discuss the categories of obstacles to listening. Give a practical example of how you would overcome each of these obstacles. Assume that you are a manager in a business organisation. You have recently received numerous customer complaints arising from the fact that your employees are not listening to customer requests and instructions. Discuss five tips that you could give your employees to help them become more effective listeners. REFLECTION Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions: 1. 2. In what areas of your professional life do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit? What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? 95 | P a g e MNM1520/1 3. 4. 3.8 What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme? SUMMARY Listening is a complex process that involves more than just our ears. Listening is not a skill that people are automatically equipped with, but it can be acquired through effective study and practice. Although we often use the words “listening” and “hearing” as if they were synonyms, they actually refer to different actions. As a public relations practitioner, you need to listen to people, not just hear them, as you will then be able to interpret and assign meaning to a conversation. There are three levels of listening that represent how in-depth a listener is listening. There are a number of different types of listeners, there are ways to improve yourself to most effective listener and there are ways in which you can handle every type of listener. The listening process is a step-by-step process that can assist in improving your listening skills. During the listening process, you will experience obstacles to listening that can be overcome with particular methods to improve listening. Tips for improving your listening include listening to the content of a message, controlling all interferences and not speaking until it is your turn to do so. It is important for any public relations practitioner to become a better listener, because being a better listener enables you to become a better communicator, and effective communication is essential in the public relations industry. In the next learning unit, we will consider how you can improve your speaking skills. This information will be helpful to you because public relations practitioners often need to do presentations or speak in public. 96 | P a g e MNM1520/1 3.9 REFERENCES Bauer, T & Erdogan, B. 2013. Organizational behavior v. 1.0. Flat World Education. [Online] Available at: http://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/book hub/reader/3?e=bauer-ch08_s03 (accessed on 18 September 2013). Co-active. Co-active coaching skills: listening. 2012. [Online] Available at: http://www.thecoaches.com/learning-hub/fundamentals/res/FUN-Topics/FUNCo-Active-Coaching-Skills-Listening.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2016). Cox, E. 2013. Listening. Chapter in: Coaching understood: a pragmatic inquiry into the coaching process. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446270134.n4 (downloaded on 3 May 2016). Daniels, D, Hunter, A, McGhie, V, Middleton Horn, J, Van Jaarsveldt, M & Van Vuuren, T. 2014. Business communication. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Drollinger, T & Comer, LB. 2013. Salesperson's listening ability as an antecedent to relationship selling. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 28(1):50–59. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/08858621311285714 (accessed on 8 March 2016). Finley, E. 2010. Seven types of listeners and tips for better listening skills. [Online] Available at: http://www.dalecarnegiewaysf.com/2010/08/24/seven-types-oflisteners-and-tips-for-better-listening-skills/ (accessed on 8 March 2016). Guth, DW & March, C. 2012. Public relations: a value-driven approach. 5th edition. Boston: Pearson. Hamilton, C. 2011. Communicating for results: a guide for business and the professions (international edition). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Lehman, CM & Dufrene, DD. 2011. Business communication. 16th edition. Mason: South Western Cengage. Overeem, B. 2015. The three levels of listening. http://www.barryovereem.com/the-three-levels-of-listening/ 29 April 2016). Available (accessed at: on Palazzolo, P. 2012. 7 Types of listeners – part 2. [Online] Available at: http://leadchangegroup.com/7-types-listeners-part-2/ (accessed on 21 April 2016). Quinttanilla, KM & Wahl, ST. 2011. Business and professional communication: keys for workplace excellence. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Thill, CL & Bovee, JV. 2013. Excellence in business communication. 10th edition. London: Pearson. Waldeck, JH, Kearney, P & Plax, TG. 2013. Business and professional communication in a digital age. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage. 97 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 4 Public speaking in the public relations function Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 4.1 The difference between oral and written communication 4.2 What is public speaking? 4.3 Methods of speech delivery 4.4 The process of preparing a speech 4.5 Microphone techniques 4.6 Tips for better public speaking 4.7 Things that make public speakers nervous 4.8 Self-assessment questions 4.9 Reflection 4.10 Summary 4.11 References 4. Introduction When last did you hear a very good speech made by a confident and well-prepared presenter? When you have the opportunity (if you have not yet watched it), watch Barack Obama's speech delivered at Nelson Mandela's memorial: https://youtu.be/4vUB363cRqE When last did you hear a speech that was unprepared and delivered by a speaker that was not a good public speaker? When you have the opportunity, watch the following clip of a very nervous speaker: https://youtu.be/IPIvwu-573Y Unfortunately, we hear a lot more “bad” speeches than “good” speeches! Many people find speaking in public extremely stressful. However, if you are planning to follow a career in public relations, you can expect to make oral presentations frequently. Public speaking requires real skill. No one is born with the ability to speak well in front of an audience; it takes confidence and practice. As an aspiring public relations practitioner you need to master this skill, because your ability to speak well in public could mean the difference between failing and succeeding at your job. Overview of this learning unit This learning unit will help you obtain the skills you need to become a better public speaker. To start off with, you need to be able to differentiate between oral and written communication, as both are important. The focus of this learning unit, however, is oral communication. Any public relations practitioner wanting to learn a new skill must identify and try to eliminate the factors that could stand in the way of success, and so we discuss the factors that make public speakers nervous. You will 98 | P a g e MNM1520/1 also learn the steps to follow when preparing a speech. We explore the various methods of delivering a speech and we will also look at microphone techniques. We end the learning unit with a discussion of skills for improving public speaking. This learning unit unfolds as follows: Learning outcomes After completing this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • explain the difference between oral and written communication explain the concept of preparing a speech explain why public speakers feel nervous discuss skills for improving your performance as a public speaker Key concepts Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • define public speaking explain speech delivery methods explain impromptu speaking discuss microphone techniques define visual aids 99 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Very important! Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please follow the URL below and download the material: http://bookboon.com/en/successful-public-speaking-ebook#download OR file:///C:/Users/prinsck/Downloads/successful-public-speaking.pdf 4.1 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION Study the section that follows: Oral presentations are a normal part of activities in most workplaces – at one time or another you might be asked to speak to at least a small group of people if not more (Luchuk 2013:299). You may at first think that there is not much of a difference between oral and written communication, since the purpose of both is to convey a message. Although they are different, they both play an important role in helping the public relations practitioner achieve certain objectives. You should also know how speech differs from writing. The differences involve the fact that the written word, in the form of news releases, brochures and publications is quite impersonal while oral communication is much more personal and presents an opportunity for discussion between parties (Botha, Chaka, Du Plessis, Krause, Rawjee, Porthen, Veerasamy & Wright 2007:101). Oral communication is also much more flexible than the written word, as speakers are free to alter the presentation to fit the response of the audience as they go along (Botha et al 2007:101). Often speakers can tell from the audience's reaction if a speech and its contents is being understood and enjoyed by an audience or not – a good public speaker is one that can adapt their speech to suit the audience's needs. Written words remain as a permanent document and spoken words, unless recorded, last only a fraction of a second. You should be able to explain how these differences affect both parties involved. For example, the advantage of a presentation compared to using written words is that you have more flexibility, and you are free to adapt or change the presentation as you go along. Because writing and speaking differ so much from each other, becoming a good speaker means mastering new skills that are different from writing skills. For example, to be a good speaker you have to understand the dynamics of speaking and listening and you need to master the process of preparing a speech, which will be examined later in this unit. 100 | P a g e MNM1520/1 In the next section, we will be looking at what public speaking is and why it is important. 4.2 WHAT IS PUBLIC SPEAKING? Study the section that follows: The Merriam-Webster (2016) dictionary defines public speaking as “the act or skill of speaking to a usually large group of people”. Other definitions provided are “the act or process of making speeches in public” or the “art of effective oral communication with an audience”. These definitions have remained the same since the origin of public speaking, which originated more than 2 500 years ago, even before any civilization wrote about it. Public speaking took place without slides, television, radio, internet and movies, but it was the time when public speaking was first systemised in a set manner or structure (DeCaro 2016). Today, public speaking is very different with various approaches that can be used such as a story telling method or formal beginning, middle and end. Additional material can also be used to enrich speeches, such as audio, images, graphs and diagrams and even videos. Public speaking is not only relevant in business settings, but also in personal settings (Schrieber & Hant nd:1). Think of a time you attended a wedding, public event, church sermon, or conference where someone gave a short speech. Personal setting speeches are usually shorter than speeches delivered in professional settings, but it is still important that they are delivered well. Many speeches, such as those focused on in this learning unit, are delivered in a professional setting (Schrieber & Hantranft nd:1). Most professions, such as television announcers, teachers, lawyers and entertainers must be able to speak well. Other professions also require speaking to some extent, although statistics show that up to 70% of jobs today require some form of public speaking. Speaking in a public setting is an essential skill, even if you do not wish to be a politician one day! According to Schrieber & Hantranft (nd:1–2), public speaking is important in creating and sustaining a society, and helps young to listen more carefully and to even critically evaluate other's speeches. 101 | P a g e MNM1520/1 There are different types of presentations used in the business context (Daniels, Hunter, McGhie, Middleton Horn, Van Jaarsveldt & Van Vuuren 2014:291), which include: Informative presentations: These types of presentations mainly inform or teach the audience by delivering material and data with interpretations. Persuasive presentations: These types of presentations aim to bring about action and change the attitudes, beliefs and opinions of the target audience. They can also motivate the audience to act on or to believe in something. Goodwill presentations: These types of presentations entertain and validate the audience. Energising presentations: These type of presentations aim to mobilise the target audience and inspire them to do something. As a public relations practitioner, in the corporate setting, you will be faced with situations where you will need to deliver speeches, whether it may be in one-on-one meetings, small group setting or large group setting the principles remain the same. The various methods of speech delivery will be discussed next. 4.3 METHODS OF SPEECH DELIVERY Study the section that follows: Which speech delivery method to use is an important decision for any speaker. The following questions will help you to decide on the best method of delivering a speech: How long is the speech? How formal is the speech? How complex is the speech? What method (or combination of methods) are you most comfortable with? 102 | P a g e MNM1520/1 The four methods of speech delivery are summarised in the figure below. Source: Reading from a manuscript Memorising Impromptu delivery Speaking from notes Adapted from MNM1520 study guide FIGURE 4.1: Methods of speech delivery Reading from a manuscript is best whenever the potential for misunderstanding • is great and misunderstanding could have serious consequences. Typical occasions where reading would be the best option include the president's State of the Nation address. Memorising should be used only for extremely short speeches, such as introductions, speeches of acceptance and toasts. Impromptu delivery is usually used in everyday circumstances. For example, if the company CEO suddenly calls you and expects feedback on a campaign you are working on, or a journalist phones at the last minute for comment on your company's dealings, you haven't got the time to deliver a fully prepared presentation. By keeping the presentation simple and brief, you can ensure that you will be effective in impromptu speaking. Speaking from notes is the most popular method for most speakers. If you are informing the media about a new product launch, you will have notes with you containing the most important information. This method allows you to combine preparedness with spontaneity and liveliness. • • • In the section that follows, the process of preparing a speech will be looked at in more detail. 4.4 THE PROCESS OF PREPARING A SPEECH Study the section that follows: “Just keep in mind," Liaro said, "they're not going to remember the words. They'll remember how you made them feel. Make them feel something.” (Hurley nd) 103 | P a g e MNM1520/1 In order to deliver the best speech possible, one where you make your audience feel and understand the message you want to convey, you must follow certain steps in the preparation of your speech. Make sure that you understand the process as a whole and that you also know what the individual steps involve. The following figure summarises the steps in the process of preparing a speech: Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Source: • Planning the speech • Researching the topic • Organising the speech • Develop visual aids • Rehearse the speech • Deliver the speech Adapted from the MNM1520 study guide FIGURE 4.2: Steps in preparing a speech In the sections that follow, we will explore these steps in more detail. Planning the speech If you were given the task of preparing a speech, what is the first thing you would do? Most people would probably just sit down at their desk and start writing or typing. However, after studying this section, we hope that you will realise that there are several important steps that must come before the actual writing begins. Before you start writing, you need to: • • • determine the purpose of the speech (find out why the speech is to be delivered) determine the occasion where the speech will be presented (find out when and where the speech is to be delivered) analyse the audience that the speech will be presented to (find out who will be listening to the speech) As a public relations practitioner, how would you go about planning what you were going to say if you were given the task of presenting the company's latest social responsibility initiative of sponsoring a previously disadvantaged soccer team to clients at the end of the year? As part of your planning, you would carry out the three steps listed above: The purpose of your presentation is to presenting the 104 | P a g e MNM1520/1 company's latest social responsibility initiative of sponsoring a previously disadvantaged soccer team; the occasion will be a year-end function held for clients at a function venue; and the audience will consist of current and potential clients. Be sure to know the following: • The possible purposes of the speech. If you are presenting a proposal to clients, the purpose of the speech is to persuade them to accept the idea that you are presenting For example, if you are addressing management to give feedback on a project, the purpose of the speech is to be informative. There are four possible purposes of a speech in public relations that you should know (McKensie 2012:1): o Informative: In this type of speech, information is provided to the audience which is interesting and useful, for example, a teacher telling her class about important historical South African events. o Demonstrative: This type of speech is similar to informative, but also includes a demonstration of how to do the things that are being taught, for example, how to bake bread. o Persuasive: This type of speech tries to convince people to change in some way, such as the way they think or act, for example, a speech encouraging teenagers to be more active and start playing soccer. o Entertainment: In this type of speech, the speaker aims to provide pleasure and enjoyment through his speech, for example, a humorous section where the talker explains to American tourists what the South African term “runaways”, used to describe a chicken delicacy, means. • • What you choose to talk about and the way you approach the subject will be partly determined by what is best suited for the occasion. For example, in a business presentation, humour may not be appropriate, but at a fundraiser or sponsorship event, it could work really effectively. In addition to identifying demographic factors such as the race, size, age and organisational status of your audience, you will also need to determine their level of knowledge about your topic. For example, if the audience is large, you may want to keep the presentation more formal, but if the group is smaller, you could allow for more questions and encourage an interactive session. It is also very important not to offend anyone in your audience on the grounds of racial or religious orientations. This is why it is essential to do your “homework” on your audience before you begin planning your speech. Researching the topic Public relations practitioners have been using research from the 1950s and today, with the advent of technology, public relations research has also changed as more information becomes available at the touch of a button (Fourie 2014:64). Public relations research can be defined as the effort aimed at discovering the facts or opinions pertaining to an identified issue, need or question. According to Fourie (2014:65), the importance of public relations research is highlighted as the cost of 105 | P a g e MNM1520/1 campaigns and demand for accountability and transparency in organisations increase. Usually, when preparing for a speech, the speaker would conduct secondary research, which occurs when the researcher consults published works of other authors on relevant topics, such as those found in journals or even in online newspapers. Very rarely would a speech writer conduct primary research, which occurs when the data has to be collected for the first time, usually in the form of surveys or even observation (Fourie 2014:71). Organising the speech Organisation is even more important in speaking than in writing, because the spoken word passes the ear quickly and, once it has gone, you cannot get it back. If you have ever listened to good speeches, you will have noticed that they all have an introduction, a body and a conclusion. It is important to organise your speech in this way as, if you don't, your audience may easily become confused. By making sure that your speech has an introduction, a body and a conclusion, you make it clear and easy to follow and you will have a better chance of achieving the purpose you intend. Here is some good advice: • • • Plan the introduction. This section should be short. To get your audience's immediate attention, you could open with an unusual question, or even a short funny story to introduce the concept to be discussed. Plan the body. Include three to five main points, as this is easier for the audience to grasp and helps them hang onto your message. Plan the end. The ending of your speech is your last opportunity to achieve your objective, and your closing should summarise the main points that you covered in the body of your speech. An important concept to keep in mind when planning your speech is that your speech should meet the needs of all the people in your audience, not just those with the same listening and learning style as yourself (Bowden 2013:40). In order to achieve this, Bowden suggests that speakers incorporate the 4MAT model, originally developed by Dr Bernice McCarthy. According to this model, four key questions must be addressed and these are summarised next in figure 4.3 (Bowden 2013:41–42). 106 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Source: What if? and What else? Why? How? What? Adapted from Bowden (2013:41) FIGURE 4.3: The 4MAT model for structuring a presentation • • • • Why? Here the speaker must clarify the context and rationale of the speech. What? Here the speaker must clarify what detail is to be learnt during the speech. How? Here the audience member has a need to explore how to use and apply what has been learnt. What if? and What else? Here the speaker should add any relevant extra information and remind the audience about the key message that he or she is trying to convey. According to Bowden (2013:45), there are many benefits to using the 4MAT model when preparing speeches, which include the following: • • • • • It makes the speaker think about the needs of the audience. It is much more thorough than only covering the parts the speaker thinks are interesting. It does not assume that the audience wants to be there. It is simple and is logical to use. The model can be used for a whole range of presentations, such as formal speeches, to set up meetings and even in interviews. Activity 4.1 Assume that as the public relations manager of the National Stokvel Association of South Africa, an organisation specialising in providing support to Stokvel groups' terms of information, services, opportunities and products, you have been tasked with delivering a speech on the importance of social responsibility to all Stokvel groups that are present at your Stokvel conference. Apply the 4MAT model in helping you prepare your presentation. 107 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Feedback Remember that when you attempt this activity, one of the main reasons to apply the 4MAT model is to ensure that all members of the audience (in this case, Stokvel groups) feel included in the speech and that all members of the audience understand and can associate with the contents of the speech. • Why? Here the speaker must clarify the context and rationale of the speech. Here you would have explained why corporate social responsibility is so important for an organisation today. Make your speech interesting, as many audience members would have heard the topic and felt forced to attend – but not feel that the content applies to them at all. Establish the usefulness of the information in their lives and remember to include video clips and even humorous cartoons (if applicable) to grab the audience's attention. • What? Here the speaker must clarify what detail is to be learnt during the speech. Here you should include the facts on corporate social responsibility, as well as to include important data and statistics in your presentation. Be sure to remember your audience throughout – so not try to “dazzle” them with fancy figures that no one in the audience understands, but rather engage them and make it interesting. Remember that this audience comes from all walks of life, from the Gogo (grandmother) in the rural area to the modern young woman in the city. • How? Here the audience member has a need to explore how to use and apply what has been learnt. In the how part of your presentation, you need to show how the principles being introduced will be implemented in the association, or how certain concepts work. In the case of the importance of social responsibility, you might introduce the new organisational policy and discuss how it will affect them in their Stokvel groups, as well as what they will have to do in the future. • What if? and What else? Here the speaker should add any relevant extra information and remind the audience about the key message that he or she is trying to convey. Here all the “loose” ends should be tied up and any questions should be addressed. Audience members might ask “What would happen if …” and you should be prepared to answer these kinds of questions. Remember to make this as practical as possible to illustrate the importance of your topic, as well as the relevance to the audience, as the audience needs to understand what you are trying to communicate. 108 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Once you have planned your speech, decide whether you need visual aids and, if so, which ones. PowerPoint presentations, whiteboards, flipcharts or handouts are all examples of visual aids that you could use in a presentation. Developing visual aids “Well-designed visuals do more than provide information; they bring order to the conversation.” (Ludwig & Owen-Boger nd) You should be aware of the different types of visual aids that are available to presenters to use, depending on their needs and the purpose and occasion of the speech. Visual aids add interest and help an audience understand and remember your speech. Types of visual aids include Powerpoint presentations, the use of a blackboard or whiteboard, handouts that the audience can take home with them or even flipcharts. Be sure to know what the advantages and disadvantages of the different visual aids are. In this regard, you may find the table below helpful: Table 4.1: Advantages and disadvantages of various visual aids in presentations Visual aid Advantages Disadvantages PowerPoint presentation • You can use colour. • It is easy to transport. • You are able to produce photocopies. Blackboard or white board • It is good for a small to • You are not able to prepare medium- sized group. it beforehand. • You can use pens of different • You can make only limited colours for emphasis. use of pictures or diagrams. • You have to limit • You can write important information, otherwise it phrases instead of full text. becomes cluttered. Handouts • They are easy to transport. • You can prepare them beforehand. • They are easy to photocopy or duplicate. • You can summarise and highlight important information by using bold or italics. Flip chart • Is easy to transport. • You can give only limited • It is effective in a small information, otherwise the group context. page becomes cluttered. • You are not able to produce • You can prepare it photocopies of the beforehand. information. • You can use coloured pens to highlight important points. • You can paste on pictures or diagrams. Source: • You need a data projector and computer for display. • It takes time to compile. • Handouts can be costly. Adapted from Botha et al (2013:107) 109 | P a g e MNM1520/1 An important rule when using Powerpoint is to remember the “six” rule (adapted from Daniels et al 2014:302–303): • • Maximum of six lines per slide Maximum of six words per slide Remember the following when preparing visual aids: Information subtracted is value added – in other words, your visual aids will be more effective if you don't include too much information. Activity 4.2 Look at the two power point slides below. Decide which of the two you think is the most effective for use during a presentation and provide reasons for your answer. Now, improve each slide based on what you have learnt above. Slide 1 Source: Author's own 110 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Slide 2 Source: Author's own Feedback After studying the two slides, which one did you select? Slide 1 is has a lot of information and the font used is quite small, which could distract the audience. Slide 2, on the other hand, has only two bullet points of information and an illustration to show the audience exactly what is meant by the term “servicescape”. How would you improve both slides? Did you remember the “six” rule of only six lines per slide, and six words per line? Rehearsing the speech Just as you schedule time for revising a written document, be sure to schedule time for rehearsing a speech. Rehearsing a speech involves more than just rereading your notes a couple of times to improve your delivery. Rehearsing means critically examining and polishing the speech. The steps for rehearsing the speech are summarised in the figure below. 111 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Step 1: Critically examine your speech Step 5: Make the necessary arrangements Step 4: Anticipate questions Source: Step 2: Evaluate your voice Step 3: Evaluate nonverbal communication Adapted from MNM1520 study guide FIGURE 4.4: Steps for rehearsing a speech In step 1, evaluate where you could shorten phrases or words. In step 2, see whether the volume and pitch of your voice are appropriate, and whether the pace is suitable (are you speaking too fast, or too slowly?). In step 3, you need to evaluate things such as your personal appearance, posture and body movement (remember the clip you watched right at the beginning of the learning unit?). In step 4, make sure that you are prepared for any questions that the audience may ask. And last of all, in step 5, make sure that you have made all the necessary arrangements, such as making sure that the venue is available, contains enough chairs, and whether there is suitable equipment for the visual aids you will be using. Another good idea is to test the microphone before the time if you can (Bowden 2013:274). Delivering the speech This is the last step in the process of preparing a speech: the actual delivery. Deliver your speech clearly, confidently and efficiently. Working through all the steps we have already discussed should equip you to deliver a speech effectively in front of your desired audience. Being a good speaker will make you a better public relations practitioner, as you will be able to get your ideas across. When delivering a speech, keep the following guidelines in mind: • Your clothing is part of what you communicate to your audience. Dress in comfortable-but-business-like clothing that is appropriate for the occasion as the audience should be focused on what you are saying and not what you are wearing (Botha et al 2007:105). 112 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • Try to make eye contact with members of the audience. If your mind goes blank, try to keep talking, even if you repeat what you have just said. Always keep some notes of key points with you in case you forget your speech – these can be on paper or even on a tablet. Remember to only include key words to prevent you from reading and not interacting with your audience. In addition, keep in mind the characteristics of a successful speaker (Daniels et al 2014:294): • • • • • • • Poise: The speaker should show the audience that they are in control of the situation. Competence: The audience must be convinced that the speaker is an expert in the discussed topic. Trustworthiness: The audience must believe that the speaker is fair, objective, reliable and honest. Commitment: The speaker must demonstrate a willingness to go the extra mile for the audience, such as staying afterwards to answer any questions that the audience might have. Dynamism: The speaker must be enthusiastic and engage in a positive and exciting manner with the audience. Sincerity: The speaker must come across as sincere and believable in both verbal and non-verbal communication. Respect: The speaker must be respectful of the audience and the topic being presented. Activity 4.3 Imagine you are the public relations practitioner for STAR BANK and you have to deliver a speech at the opening of the Soweto Derby at STAR BANK Stadium to welcome all the players, sponsors and spectators. Apply the steps of rehearsing a speech to the speech you would deliver on this occasion. Feedback Step 1: Critically examine the speech Go back to your written speech and review its content and structure. For example, make sure that you have included the names of the players and sponsors, and that these names are all correct. If you included any dates and times or previous winners, be sure that this information is correct. Make sure that the structure and flow of your speech is logical and clear. 113 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Step 2: Evaluate your voice Not everybody has a pleasing voice. However, if a speaker is enthusiastic about the message they are conveying, and does so with warmth and sensitivity to the audience, the audience may not even notice if the speaker's voice is thin, squeaky or harsh. It is possible to practise and improve many aspects of vocal delivery. Volume is particularly important. There will be a microphone, but speak loudly, since the event will be outside and the audience will be large. Practise any words that may be difficult to pronounce beforehand so that you feel confident and to prevent mistakes. Step 3: Evaluate non-verbal communication Rehearse in front of a mirror to see your own non-verbal communication. Focus on the way that you stand, your facial expressions, and your gestures (the movements of your hands). Think about what you will wear. Smart casual or traditional clothing would be suitable for this type of function. Step 4: Anticipate questions This step is not really applicable for this type of presentation, as it is only a welcoming speech. However, it would be a good idea to know something about the history of the tournament, previous winners, STAR BANK's involvement as a sponsor and so on, so that you will be able to answer any questions directed at you. Step 5: Make the necessary arrangements Any time you plan to speak in front of a group, you must take responsibility for the necessary arrangements. Make sure that the microphone is in working order and that a podium will be available if needed on the day of your presentation. In the section that follows, microphone techniques will be discussed. 4.5 MICROPHONE TECHNIQUES Study the section that follows: Microphones are tools we use to make our voices louder, and speakers often use them when delivering a speech to a large audience. You have probably attended a function at which speakers made use of microphones, and perhaps you have even used one yourself. However, a microphone 114 | P a g e MNM1520/1 does not have the ability to change the pitch or tone of your voice, nor does it have any magical powers to make your voice more interesting. If you have to give a speech, practise beforehand, because if you get nervous this could change the sound of your voice. Try to keep your voice sounding as natural as possible. According to Bowden (2013:274) and Botha et al (2007:111–112), some tips for better microphone use include the following: • • • • • • • • Conduct a sound-check before you begin the presentation to ensure that all equipment is working properly. Hold the microphone away from the speakers, because when they are held too close, it makes a very irritating noise called feedback, which will distract people from your speech. Always check where the microphone switch is before you begin – it looks unprofessional to the audience if you are still finding the switch just before you begin speaking. Remember to wear a belt if you are using a clip-on microphone. The best sound system is the one the audience does not notice. Do not place your mouth directly onto the microphone, as this could distort your voice. Hold the microphone a few centimetres from your mouth. Keep a good posture when speaking and breathe slowly – this will allow your voice to carry well over the microphone. In the last section in this learning unit, we will be looking at some tips for better public speaking. 4.6 TIPS FOR BETTER PUBLIC SPEAKING Study the section that follows: Because the ability to deliver a speech is so important to the public relations practitioner in both business and everyday communication, this last section offers some important suggestions on how to become a better speaker. You may find that some of these tips have already been mentioned in a previous section, but because this is such good advice, we will look at them again. According to Luchuk (2014:308), Bowden (2013:272–274) and Botha et al (2007:105–106), some tips for becoming a better public speaker include the following: • • Eliminate the factors that make you feel nervous by rehearsing. It is a good way to warm up your mind and the more you rehearse, the more unscripted and natural you will sound. Know what you want to achieve – what is the deep inner question that is driving your presentation? 115 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • • • • • • • • • Make eye contact by looking at everyone in the audience – even if they are not looking at you. When our voice sounds confident, our audience is much more likely to relax and listen. A pause is a powerful and necessary tool for any audience – watch the Obama speech again to see how well Barack Obama used pauses during his Nelson Mandela memorial speech. Pausing also allows you to breathe deeply, which helps you to relax and maintain control of yourself when you present a speech. Make sure you smile (where appropriate) to convey the correct emotional objectives relevant to your speech. Use a variety of methods to stimulate the audience's interest – such as visual and auditory aids. Be careful not to use too many slides or slides with too much information on them! Music can also be effective in creating the perfect mood for a presentation. Pay attention to disruptive behaviour from the audience and “nip it in the bud” so as not to disrupt the rest of your presentation. Ask for feedback after the presentation as this will help you to become a better presenter in the future. Do not be sensitive to the feedback received, but rather view it as positive and constructive. Can you add any others to the list from your own experiences? 4.7 THINGS THAT MAKE PUBLIC SPEAKERS NERVOUS Study the section that follows: Think about the last time you had to give a speech. How did you feel Sweaty hands, dry mouth, increased heart rate, shortness of breath nervous feeling we refer to as “butterflies in your stomach” before speech are all symptoms of anxiety. Does this illustration summarise felt? about it? and that giving a how you As we said at the beginning of this learning unit, there are some important factors that can cause fear when you have to speak in public. However, identifying these fears is the first step in overcoming them. A public speaker may feel nervous because he or she: • • has not prepared well enough has not researched the topic fully 116 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • is unsure about what the audience or client expects lacks confidence does not feel confident about speaking the audience's language According to Ledden (2014:60–61), behaviours that happen when a speaker feels nervous include: • • • • avoiding eye contact with listeners moving from one foot to another talking too quickly general fidgeting such as touching one's hair and adjusting one’s reading glasses These behaviours, according to Ledden (2014:60-61), help speakers cope with anxiety during a speech but will unfortunately take away from the message the speaker is trying to portray and perhaps even the overall communication goal. There is no sure method of preventing nerves, but the best is to accept and manage nerves so that they do not overwhelm you when you are speaking. Can you think of situations where you were nervous before giving a speech because of any of these factors? If you were the public relations practitioner for a tinned foods manufacturer and you had to inform the media and customers that the company's entire chakalaka relish range had to be recalled, how would you feel if you had to make this announcement, but you hadn't done proper research and you weren't completely prepared? Compare this with how you would feel if you had done the necessary research, and prepared properly before speaking to the media and customers. If you prepare a speech properly, you will capture and keep your audience's attention, and they will perceive you as knowledgeable and informed. If you have not prepared properly, this may reflect badly on your organisation, and your organisation could even lose a client or potential business. 4.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the feedback given on myUnisa: 1. Briefly discuss the difference between oral and written communication. 2. Discuss the various factors that can cause a public speaker to feel nervous. 3. Discuss the three steps that are important when planning a speech (the first step in the process of preparing a speech) and provide a practical example to illustrate each. 4. Discuss the five steps that a speaker must follow when rehearsing his or her speech. 5. List four types of visual aids that a speaker can make use of and state the advantages and disadvantages of each. 117 | P a g e MNM1520/1 6. Assume that you are the public relations practitioner at a national crafts company, and that you were recently assigned the task of delivering a speech about your company and its business practices. You will be delivering the speech at an industry indaba. Briefly discuss all the steps you will follow to prepare your speech. 4.9 REFLECTION Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions: 1. Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit in your professional life? 2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? 3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? 4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme? 4.10 SUMMARY At first glance, oral and written communication may seem to be essentially the same, but they are very different! Every public relations practitioner needs to be a good public speaker. You need to be aware of the factors that can contribute to nervousness, namely: not being prepared, not having researched the topic fully, being unsure about the audience or client's expectations, lack of confidence, and not feeling confident about speaking your audience's language. Following the steps in the process of preparing a speech will definitely help you become a better speaker. You need to start by planning the speech. You then research the topic, organise the speech, develop appropriate visual aids, practise the speech, and finally deliver the speech. In the planning phase, you need to determine the purpose, determine the occasion and analyse the audience. To research the topic, you could make use of primary or secondary sources. You need to organise the speech so that it consists of an introduction, a body and a conclusion or ending. At this stage, you need to decide whether visual aids will be necessary. The speech then needs to be rehearsed and finally presented. This learning unit also contained a section on the use of microphones in speeches and concluded with some tips for becoming a better public speaker. In the unit that follows, written communication in public relations will be examined. 118 | P a g e MNM1520/1 4.11 REFERENCES Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veerasamy, D & Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson Education South Africa. Bowden, M. 2013. How to present: the ultimate guide to presenting your ideas and influencing people using techniques that actually work. Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Daniels, D, Hunter, A, McGhie, J, Middleton Horn, V, Van Jaarsveldt, M & Van Vuuren, T. 2014. Business communication. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Fourie, L (editor). 2014. Public relations: theory and practice. Cape Town: Juta. Hurley, K. No date. [Online] Available at: www.goodreads.com/quotes/tag/publicspeaking (accessed on 1 May 2016). Ledden, E. 2014. The communication book: how to say it, mean it and make it better. Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited. Luchuk, D. 2013. Successful business communication: bridging the gap. Ontario: Oxford University Press. Ludwig, D & Owen-Boger, G. No date. Quotes about public speaking. [Online] Available at: www.goodreads.com/quotes/tag/public-speaking (accessed on 1 May 2016). Merriam-Webster. 2016. Public speaking. [Online] Available at: http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/public%20speaking (accessed on 4 May 2016). Mckenzie, I. 2012. 4 basic types of speeches. [Online] Available at: www.ismckenzie.com/4-basic-types-of-speeches (accessed on 1 May 2016). Schreiber, L & Hartranft. No date. Introduction to public speaking – chapter 1. [Online] Available at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/PDF%20Files/Introduction%20web%201.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2016). Unisa. Only study guide for MNM1520. Department of Marketing and Retail Management. 2013. 119 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 5 Reading in the public relations function Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 5.1 What is reading? 5.2 Reading as a cyclical process 5.3 Reading techniques 5.4 Reading different types of materials and different devices 5.5 Strategies to improve your reading 5.6 The relationship between reading and writing 5.7 Self-assessment questions 5.8 Reflection 5.9 Summary 5.10 References 5. Introduction Reading is an important, achievable and meaningful skill (Zimmerman, Rasinski & Melewski 2015; Khreisat & Kaur 2014), which is necessary in many areas of life such as reading road directions to a holiday destination, cooking instructions, warning signs for trespassers on private property, criteria to apply for a job, or even reading how to assemble a cupboard. Reading is the centre of formal learning, whether in print, digital, or multimedia environments. Reading is a never-ending learning process and not mastered in primary or secondary school, because as adults we should continue to improve our reading skills. Masterful reading helps us to learn information about the world around us and of ourselves. Reading is not only a tool for learning but it is also about the interaction of what we have already learned with that which we can still learn (Ortlieb, Verlaan & Cheek 2015; Botha, Chaka, Du Plessis, Krause, Rawjee, Porthen, Veerasamy & Wright 2007). Readers develop their reading skills through the practice of reading. People who struggle to read often read much less than successful readers, and the texts they read are often less challenging. Limited reading hinders the development of reading fluency and comprehension and has a negative impact on one's general achievement (Dalton & Jocius 2015). A study by Zimmerman et al (2015) has shown that lowerachieving students are reading far less than their high-achieving peers. Reading contributes significantly to job success, career development and the ability to respond to change (Comcowich 2011), because as an individual reads more, more knowledge about a given topic is accumulated. 120 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Overview of this learning unit Reading is an essential skill for a public relations practitioner, and this learning unit will help you obtain the skills you need to become a better reader and to actively and accurately comprehend (understand) written text, which is the purpose of reading in the first place. This learning unit aims to give you a better idea of what reading is all about and why it is so important. We will introduce you to the cyclical reading process and you will also learn about the various materials that are available for reading, and how to go about reading each of these. We end the learning unit with strategies and techniques for improving reading skills. This learning unit unfolds as follows: Reading different types of materials and different devices Strategies to improve your reading Learning outcomes After completing this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • define reading explain why reading is important explain the cyclical process of reading explain reading different materials explain the reading techniques and strategies for improving reading explain the relationship between reading and writing 121 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Key concepts Having worked through this study unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • • • • 5.1 define reading explain the cyclical reading process define phonemic awareness define automaticity define fluency define intonation define comprehension explain different reading materials define scanning explain critical reading WHAT IS READING? Study the section that follows: Reading is often referred to as “making meaning from text” (Ortlieb et al 2015). Reading literacy is the skill to understand and use written language or text. We must be able to make meaning from text (Ortlieb et al 2015; Mullis, Martin & Sainsbury 2016). We read to learn new information, to take part in everyday life and for enjoyment (Mullis et al 2016). When you read, you will learn new conceptual or theoretical information, new insights and new perspectives (Davis, McElhone & Tenore 2015; Botha et al 2007). Meaning is an internal mental construction by which we make sense the world around us. Our human minds are capable of making meaning using a variety of language systems, including reading. The concern is that unless we change our reading priorities and practices, the modern generation will not have the critical reasoning and high-level skills, which we need to fully participate in the world around us (Laster 2015). 122 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Reading involves both your awareness and thoughts. For reading to occur, it requires two linked building blocks namely word recognition and comprehension. When you recognise words, it is your knowledge of the word that enables you to you know how these written symbols are linked to the spoken language. Comprehension is the process by which you make sense of or understand words and sentences (Comcowich 2011). Lately, the focus of the importance of reading is shifting from being able to read fluently and to understand what one is reading to having the skill to use what you have read and to apply it to new situations or tasks (Mullis et al 2016). 5.2 READING AS A CYCLICAL PROCESS Study the section that follows: Before, during and after reading, we use a variety of language skills. As reading is a cyclic process, meaning it does not have a beginning and an end. Reading involves fundamental elements known as: phonemic awareness, automaticity, fluency, vocabulary knowledge, decoding and comprehension (McCulley, Katz & Vaughn 2015; Zimmerman et al 2015). Reading is also a constructive and interactive process. While you are reading, you are making sense of what you are reading through your interaction with the text, by making use of the different elements in the reading cycle and by using different reading strategies (Mullis et al 2016). 123 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Comprehension Phonemic awareness Decoding Vocabulary Fluency Source: Automaticity Adapted from McCulley, Katz & Vaughn (2015); Zimmerman et al (2015) FIGURE 5.1: The elements of the cyclical reading process The elements in the cyclic process are: Phonemic awareness is the understanding of the ways that sounds or phonemes function in words. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that holds meaning. Almost all words are made up of a number of sounds or phonemes blended together. Think of the word “ball”. It is made up of three phonemes: /b/ /aw/ /l/. Each of its sounds affects the meaning. Take away the /b/ sound and replace it with /w/ and you have an entirely different word (K12 reader 2016). Phonemic awareness impacts fluency and fluency, in turn, impacts both phonemic awareness and comprehension. Although these separate components of reading are important individually, when put together they create a powerful and cyclical formula to increase your reading ability (McCulley et al 2015). Reading vocabulary is a skill especially lacking in people who struggle with their vocabulary. Vocabulary is the words in a language or a special set of words you are trying to learn. Underdeveloped vocabulary minimises your ability to read automatically and reduces your reading speed. The end result is that you spend excessive time thinking about the words you are reading rather than understanding the text (McCulley et al 2015). Automaticity is when you can recognise words fast and without effort. Automaticity comes with a great deal of reading practice. Continued reading practice 124 | P a g e MNM1520/1 helps word recognition become more automatic, rapid and effortless. Automatic word recognition is necessary, but not sufficient for fluency (Reading Rockets 2016). Fluency means that you are be able to read connected words automatically and it is one of the most crucial components of successful reading. When you read fluently, your mind is freed up to think about what you are reading and it improves your understanding of the text. Before you can read fluently, you need to be proficient with phonemic awareness and automaticity. Fluency is commonly measured using a formula calculating the number of words a student can read accurately in a set amount of time – typically one minute (McCulley et al 2015). However, fluency changes depending on what you are reading, your familiarity with the words, and how often you read. Even skilled readers may read slowly when they read texts with many unfamiliar words or topics (Reading Rockets 2016). For example, as a public relations practitioner working in the financial services industry, you may not be able to read technical material fluently, such as a textbook about nuclear physics or an article in a medical journal. Decoding is a process whereby you make meaning of the text being read. If text is decoded incorrectly and therefore not understood, it could lead to slow and inaccurate reading, as dysfluent readers normally decode at the word level which makes it difficult for them to understand. Incorrect decoding leads to the reader seeing the words as chunks of short phrases put together rather than logical and whole sentences and paragraphs to form connected text (McCulley et al 2015). In addition, decoding includes a frame of reference or knowledge background, which is the understanding of the context of the text. For example, a Physical Science student will have the frame of reference when reading Physical Science material, while a Public Relations student will have a frame of reference when studying a Public Relations textbook. During this cycle, sentence patterns must be assigned, and through them meaning. You need to understand that, at this level, unless the reader can deal with text as structured language, comprehension is impossible. For example, if the reader simply reads words independently, and not in the context of structured sentences, he or she will not understand the meaning of the text. Reading cannot be described as simply the recognition of letters or even words; the meaning of a text is far more than the sum of the meaning of the words. It is important to take note of the whole syntactic cycle, where words are part of sentences and sentences form part of the general context. To derive the meaning of texts, you should do the following to make sense of the grammar and sentence structure: • • Construct grammar while constructing meaning (readers use their knowledge of grammar and language to make texts more understandable). Assign structure (texts are organised into sentences and paragraphs to create structure and make it more understandable and easier to read). 125 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • Assign intonation (full stops, commas, exclamation marks and question marks are used to make texts easier to understand). Assign wording (the mind gives words meaning within sentences, even if the words are not that familiar to you). Consider if the words are relevant to the context (for example, law jargon might be understood differently to a public relations practitioner as certain words are used differently in certain situations). Comprehension is the attempt to bring together all the fundamental reading skills to create understanding. Comprehension is to understand what you are reading. Therefore, your mind goes through a series of complex thought processes such as knowing how to read the word, its meaning, and bringing your own suitable background knowledge to the text that you are reading (McCulley et al 2015). In other words, to fully understand a text being read, the following is necessary: • • • • Previous knowledge of the topic: The ability to make sense of what you read is always limited by how much you already know about what you are reading. For example, in a company crisis, a public relations practitioner will be better equipped to know how to read criticism from other companies in order to provide a professional news release. Integration and accommodation: If we understand a piece of text more easily because it fits well with what we already know and are aware of, we integrate it better in our minds and therefore remember it better. Influence of context and situation: The efficiency of reading will depend on the reader's purpose. For example, if you are reading for relaxation, you will be less likely to read with full attention than if you were reading for the purpose of doing a project for work. Comprehension: If you know that you understand what you are reading, you will continue to read. But as soon as you can't make sense of something, your brain will automatically want to rethink and get meaning from what is being read. Comprehension is considered as a combination of reading skills and cognitive processes such as vocabulary, word reading (decoding, encoding), background knowledge, fluency and automaticity. Therefore, readers who have the ability to read and find the meaning of words automatically have a huge advantage in reaching comprehension over those whose word reading and understanding are weak. A shortfall in the combination of these skills will leave you with difficulties with comprehension (McCulley et al 2015). The reason why you read will motivate you to make meaning of the text that you are reading (Mullis et al 2016). For example, if you as a public relations practitioner have to write an article on a specific topic that you enjoy, you will be motivated to read up on that topic and you will be motivated to understand what you are reading. The opposite is also true. For example, if you are under pressure to write an article on a topic that you don't have any knowledge on, you may feel stressed and demotivated to read up on this topic. 126 | P a g e MNM1520/1 5.3 READING TECHNIQUES Study the section that follows: There are various reading techniques for various reading purposes. We all use a range of reading techniques in everyday situations. The normal reading style for reading a novel is to read in detail, focusing on every word from start to finish. If you are reading a magazine, you might browse through the pages to find articles you may like to read at a later stage. When you use a dictionary for a particular word, you purposefully ignore all other entries and focuses on spotting the word you are looking for (University of Leicester 2016). Therefore, the purpose of reading a particular text affects how you read the text in terms of time spent on reading and level of comprehension necessary, as the reason why you read the text is important and contributes greatly to your reading processes (Solak 2014). How can there be a difference in time spent and level of comprehension when reading a text? It could be for the following reasons: • • • When looking for the due date for a news release to be submitted (or sent) to the newspaper, the public relations practitioner will quickly scan over all the information in the client brief to find the date. To fully understand the conditions in the environment, the public relations practitioner will read a research report on the analysis of the business environment in detail. In-depth reading regarding all business factors is done to make a decision on what to do for the client experiencing problems as a result of environmental conditions. The public relations practitioner briefly looks over the main points of the meeting agenda in order to get an idea of what the CEO at general meeting will discuss. Reading consists of different sequential steps namely, previewing the text, reading the structure, reading for understanding and finally critical reading, which are displayed in figure 5.2. 127 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • Skimming • Scanning Step 1 Previewing the text Step 2 Reading for structure • • • • Identifying different parts of the text The introduction The body The conclusion • Detailed reading and re-reading • Fully understand the text and its meaning Step 3 Reading for understanding • Questions the actions of the author and the information presented in the text • Questions the deeper meaning of the text Step 4 Critical reading Source: Comcowich 2011; Solak 2014; Daniels, Hunter, McGhie, Middleton Horn, Van Jaarsveldt & Van Vuuren 2014; University of Leicester 2016 FIGURE 5.2: The different sequential steps in reading text The reading steps are discussed below. Step 1: The preview phase The first step in reading comprehensively is the preview phase. Pre-reading activities allow you to get a sense of the structure and content and to make predictions about text you are about to read (Comcowich 2011) and involve two pre-reading techniques: • • Skimming Scanning 1 Skimming is the most basic type of reading. We use skimming to get a quick overview or a general sense of what we are reading and to identify the main ideas, as quickly as possible (Comcowich 2011; Solak 2014; Daniels, Hunter et al 2014; University of Leicester 2016). When you skim read, you pick out what is 128 | P a g e MNM1520/1 important and cover all the text without reading it from the beginning to end. Skimming can be used if you want to find out if a particular text contains the kind of information you need. Skimming is an effective and quick way of finding relevant sources and information when you have to write for example, an academic essay, a brochure or a public relations piece on new a product. It also saves time because you don't have to read each source in detail to determine whether it is useful or not. If it doesn't contain the information you need, then you do not have to read the text in detail from start to finish (Daniels et al 2014). When you skim read, your existing knowledge about an issue will help you to quickly make sense of what the text is about. When skimming, you look at the surface features of the text such as the author's name and surname, the title, the length of the text, visuals such as pictures or drawings, or words in bold or in italics. You can also preview the preface or abstract, then the content page, the glossary and index. If you still need more information about the text, you can read the introductory section because it usually introduces the central theme. Another method to get a general sense of what you are about to read is to read the first sentence of each paragraph because these sentences normally include the topic of what the paragraph will discuss (Daniels et al 2014). Daniels et al (2014) offers examples of how to skim a textbook, a chapter and a long article, a one-page article, a short written text, or a newspaper article. How to skim a textbook Look at: Ask yourself: The title page What is the title of the book? How might the book cover this subject? Who is the author? Is the author an expert in this field? Have I read any other books by the author? Abstract/summary What is this book about? When was this book written? Will the information be current or outdated? Who is the audience? Glossary and index Are the main concepts and terminology used in the book explained in the glossary? How are they explained? Are they explained in clear and simple language? Do they give an overview of what will be discussed in this book? Content page How is the content structured in terms of headings and subheadings? How many chapters are in the book? What are the chapters about? How long is each chapter? References How much have the author(s) read about this subject? 129 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Do I know any of the author's references used? Are these references credible and reliable and current? Addendums Does the book have addendums? What kind of information is contained in the addendums? Source: Daniels et al (2014) How to skim a chapter or a long article Look at: Ask yourself: The title What do I really know about this topic? Is the title giving me a sense of what the chapter or article is about? The introduction Are there chapter objectives or goals? What is the purpose of this chapter? What am I supposed to learn? How is the content organised? Conclusion / summary and review questions What are the key ideas in this chapter or article? What do I need to learn and know? Headings What are the main headings and sub-headings? What do I really know about them? What might I expect to learn from them? Words in bold and italics Do I know these words? If yes, what do I already know about these words? If no, what do I need to know about these words? Visuals What can I learn from the tables, graphs, diagrams or pictures? Do they give me an indication of what will be discussed? Source: Daniels et al (2014) How to skim a one-page article / short written text / newspaper article Look at: Ask yourself: The title Does the title give me an idea of what will be discussed? What do I already know about the title? The structure Are Are Are Are Are Introduction Is there an attention grabber or background information? Is there a central thesis statement that states what the text is about? What are the issues that will be discussed, and what is the plan or outline? 130 | P a g e there main and sub-headings? the main and sub-headings numbered? there only paragraphs in the text? some words in bold or italics? there visuals included in the text? MNM1520/1 Conclusion Source: Is there a summary of what was discussed? How did the author conclude the discussion? Did the author leave the reader with positive thoughts? Daniels et al (2014) 2 Scanning is to read quickly while you are looking for a fact or specific information, for example when you are looking for the answer to a known question, key words and definitions. When you are scanning text, you should start at the top of the page and then move your eyes quickly toward the bottom (Comcowich 2011; Solak 2014). Scanning is best understood when you think of what you do when you are looking for the meaning of a word in dictionary, or when you are looking for a person's telephone number in a telephone directory. You move your eyes down or across the page until you find the word or concept that you are looking for. When you scan text, you are not necessarily concerned with the rest of the information, only with what you are trying to find. By scanning the text, you will find out if you can use that specific text as one of your sources because it contains the key words of the topic (Botha et al 2007). Activity 5.1: Pre-reading exercise Read the article below, using scanning and skimming, and then answer the questions. 1. 2. 3. Can you guess what the text is about based on reading the title only? What do you think the following figures have to do with the story? What do you know or what have you heard about the subject you are going to read about? SA's population hits 52.98 million (Source: http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/SAs-population-hits-5298m-20130514) Johannesburg – South Africa's population has increased by more than a million people since the 2011 census, Statistic SA (Stats SA) said on Tuesday. According to its mid-year estimate, the country now had a population of 52.98 million people. According to the estimates, the HIV prevalence rate was approximately 10%. "The total number of people living with HIV is estimated at approximately 5.26m in 2013. For adults aged 15 to 49 years, an estimated 15.9% of the population is HIV positive," Lehohla said. The infant mortality rate for 2013 was estimated at 41.7 per 1 000 live births. The life expectancy of South Africans had increased by almost a year from the previous reporting period to 59.6 years. Life expectancy at birth for 2013 was estimated at 57.7 years for males and at 61.4 years for females. 131 | P a g e MNM1520/1 For the period 2006 to 2011, it was estimated that about 264 449 people would migrate from the Eastern Cape. Limpopo was estimated to experience a net out-migration of 227 919 people. During the same period, it was estimated Gauteng would have a net inflow of 1 046 641 migrants, and the Western Cape of 307 411. Feedback The purpose of this feedback is to provide an opportunity for you to test your prereading skills. 1. 2. 3. An increase in South Africa's population. The figures show by how much the population has increased to. This answer is dependent on the student's experience. Step 2: Reading for structure phase The second step in the comprehensive reading process is reading for structure. When you read for structure, you use your existing knowledge of how written text is structured. You analyse the text by identifying different parts of the text and reading for clues, signals, asking questions and trying to find the answers, and making notes in the margins (Daniels et al 2014). Reading for structure in terms of rational build-up of thinking is a logical and systematic way in which you work through the structure of the text to understand its contents. Reading for structure allows you to analyse the text and break it into smaller parts namely: introduction, body and conclusion. When you read for structure, you are busy with text analysis. The introduction is the first part of the text, which introduces the reader to the text and its topics, the body follows, which discusses the relevant topics, and the conclusion ends off the text by forming a summary of the text (Daniels et al 2014). To identify the three different parts of text is fairly easy in textbooks and articles that have numbered main and sub-headings. The introduction is always the main heading numbered 1, while the conclusion will always be the last numbered heading. Everything between the introduction and the conclusion will be part of the body (Daniels et al 2014). If the text does not have numbered headings that you can use to identify the different parts, you can use other clues to help you to identify the three parts. The author could have divided and structured the paragraphs by using an active verb or adjective, bullet points, numbering or words written in bold or italics, cohesive devices, sign posts, signals, or transition words or phrases (Daniels et al 2014). The discussion on the three parts namely, introduction, the body and the conclusion is found below. 132 | P a g e MNM1520/1 5.3.2.1 The introduction The introduction is always the first part of the text and informs the reader of what the text is about. The writer will firstly give some background, followed by the central theme, and finishing by naming the issues that will be discussed in the text (Daniels et al 2014). 5.3.2.2 The body The body of the text starts immediately after the introduction. It is the most important part of a written text, because it is the part where the writer discusses the issues in detail. The body is normally divided into main headings and sub-headings, and well-developed paragraphs. Main headings and sub-headings identify the logical order in which the issues in the text will be discussed. Topic sentences are used to introduce the main ideas at the beginning of the paragraphs. Supporting sentences will follow after the topic sentences to explain the main ideas and to offer support for the central theme (Daniels et al 2014). 5.3.2.3 The conclusion The last part of the written text, the conclusion, follows immediately after the body to conclude the issues discussed in the text. The conclusion consists of a summary of what was discussed and a positive thought to leave the reader with something positive about the issues discussed (Daniels et al 2014). Activity 5.2: Reading for structure Read the article below and ask yourself the following questions: Did the author: 1. 2. 3. 4. Start with an attention grabber? Provide some background information about the issues that will be discussed? State the central theme of what the text is about? Provide an outline or plan for the text? Festive season road deaths: SA figures “deeply worrying” (Source: http://www.wheels24.co.za/News/holiday-road-deaths-sa-figures-deeplyworrying-20160112) Johannesburg – The release of the 2015/16 festive season road deaths shows a 14% increase in road deaths over the 2014/15 festive season, reports the Department of Transport. The Department reports that 1 755 road users lost their lives in 2015 compared to 1 535 in 2014. 133 | P a g e MNM1520/1 AA responds The Automobile Association (AA) said the department's figures are alarming and concerning and they point to a need for concerted intervention to address the problem of road safety in our country. The AA noted: “Many causes such as drunk driving, speeding, driving without seatbelts and risky overtaking, have been forwarded as reasons for the fatalities, but all of these, essentially, point to poor driver attitudes. If drivers don't take responsibility for their actions, and carry on making decisions that they know to be wrong for their own sake, these figures will simply not improve.” In addition to improved driver behaviour, the AA believes that better, and stricter, law enforcement is needed. Reliable stats needed The AA also said it is important that government makes the latest in-depth statistics for annual road deaths in South Africa available to enable road safety campaigners to assess which initiatives and interventions are working, and which are not. The AA said: “Unfortunately, the data currently available is from 2011 and does not provide a clear indication of the trends of road deaths. Road crash statistics need to be widely available and accurate to ensure that everyone is working towards reducing crashes and fatalities through an understanding of the true nature of the current problem.” Feedback 1 Yes, the article does start with an attention grabber, as shocking statistics will always grab the readers' attention. 2 Festive season accident statistics, irresponsible driving, annual road deaths and outdated data. Can you find any more? 3 The need for more updated road death statistics for improved road safety campaigns. 4 (1) Current road statistics, (2) Automobile Association’s perception of irresponsible driving and law enforcement, and (3), only available data is outdated. Step 3: Reading for understanding phase Reading for understanding or active reading is the most important step in our reading process and you must know what your purpose is for reading the text. It is a slow and thorough process to make sure that you understand the text and gain knowledge from what you are reading. When you read for understanding, you must read the text in detail and you need to re-read the text a few times for full understanding (Daniels et al 2014; Botha et al 2007). 134 | P a g e MNM1520/1 While you read each part again, ask yourself some questions and try to find the answers in the text while you read. You can mark or note the answers as your work through the text. You can only read for understanding once you have skimmed and scanned the text. When you read for understanding, you want to fully understand what a text is about and what the author's intended meaning is and how the information links to other texts we have read before (Daniels et al 2014; Botha et al 2007). When you read for understanding, you empower yourself by learning new knowledge. When you understand what the text is about, you will be able to discuss the issues and give your own informed opinion on the topic. Public relations practitioners should be knowledgeable about the topics that they cover in their daily tasks. You can only write with confidence if you have sufficient knowledge of the subject. When you read for understanding, you are storing information in your short-term and eventually long-term memory and it will help you remember the information (Daniels et al 2014). Step 4: Critical reading phase Critical reading is the last step in the reading process. You first need to read a text comprehensively to understand its content and meaning and then you are ready to read the text critically. When you read text critically, you “challenge” the author by asking questions about the information given in the text, for example which issues are addressed in the text and what are the author's reasons for his or her statements or beliefs. You should ask questions about the deeper meaning of the text so that you can critically discuss and evaluate the content. You must be able to make conclusions about the information given by the text, although it is not explicitly written in the text (Daniels et al 2014; Botha et al 2007). 5.4 READING DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATERIALS AND DIFFERENT DEVICES Study the section that follows: Reading material is available in many forms and combinations of forms. Traditional written forms include books, magazines, documents and newspapers. Digital forms include e-mail, text messaging and internet websites where text often is integrated with various multimedia formats (Mullis et al 2016). The new modern lifestyles we live, the city culture, the time we take to travel and our increased levels of tiredness have an impact on the time we have available for reading. Even the youth have less time available for reading due to their study programmes. According to research, 68% of young people between the ages of 11 135 | P a g e MNM1520/1 and 18 years prefer to read in bed. The way information technology has changed has also changed the focus of reading from gaining knowledge to gaining knowledge with entertainment. The arrival of the internet age and the progress in information technology are also changing our reading habits (Walia & Sinha 2014). Our learning environment has changed drastically. Previous generations used to wake up and skimmed or scanned the headlines of the sports pages in the newspaper, whereas today's generation wakes up to their cellular phones, checking their messages and their favourite websites for news alerts (Ortlieb et al 2015). Reading represents the second largest online activity type (21%) (Hsiu-Sen & Chia-Chen 2014). Different electronic reading devices With the advancement of information technology, people's reading activity gradually moved from paper-based reading to digital reading (Huang, Chen & Ho 2014). Nowadays, people make use of e-books, smart phones and tablets to read their preferred material. • • • An electronic book (also e-book, ebook or digital book) is a text and imagebased publication in digital form produced on, published by, and readable on an electronic digital device (Zhang & Ma 2011). Tablets are becoming very popular for digital reading. Compared with PC-based reading, our reading behaviour on a tablet is more like paper-based reading. With reading on a tablet, as with reading a book, we can read in a more relaxed way, any time, any place. Although a tablet is a portable device, few people would carry it around (Huang et al 2014). Research has shown that people feel that reading on a PC is like doing a task on a computer. They feel rushed into completing it. On the other hand, reading on a tablet allows you to read at a slower pace, allowing you to really get involved in what you are reading and getting a deeper understanding of what you are reading (Huang et al 2014). Mobile phones are mostly used for unplanned reading, for example when you quickly want to look up some information. Instead, when we have more reading time, we usually spend in on a tablet. Most tablet users spend their spare time reading on the tablet just before going to bed (Huang et al 2014). A total of 26.4% of users usually do mobile reading about one to three times per day and 21.7% of users use mobile reading services one to three times per week (Zhang & Ma 2011). Reading electronic texts or media Electronic media refers to digital channels of communication such as the internet, e-mail and SMS (short message service) (Botha et al 2007). New forms of short messages are also becoming very popular, such as WhatsApp and WeChat. Online reading, whether on tablet or mobile phone, includes reading for relaxation, updates on trends, updates on current news, and research on particular products and services. Online reading has extended people's information search beyond the confines of printed page. Online learning gives us immediate access to a wealth of 136 | P a g e MNM1520/1 historic and current information that would take hours or days to find in a printed environment. Reading and learning online differs considerably from printed mediums in terms of the approach, reading style, search and concept mapping (Ortlieb et al 2015). When we read digital text, we tend to follow different reading practices, sometimes similar to reading traditional print, from left to right, but also reading from the bottom up. Online reading comprehension skills and strategies are very different from those used when we read traditional printed materials. Internet webpages appear different than typical printed pages (Mullis et al 2016). Electronic text allows you to decide how and when you are going to access the information you are looking for (Botha et al 2007). Reading different electronic media forms discussion follows: 5.4.2.1 • • • The internet and websites Can online information be trusted? We judge the credibility of information every time we read (Botha et al 2007). Here are some suggested questions to ask yourself about the reliability of online text: o o o o o o o Who is the author? If the author is not listed, you should question the trustworthiness of the information. If the author is listed do an online search to find out more about the writer. When was the information published? Online information has the tendency to date rather quickly. Try to find out when the site was last updated and if the information is still relevant. Does the text make reference to any other sources? Find out if the text refers to especially offline sources. A well-researched document will refer to other sources. What is the intention of the author who wrote the text? Make sure that the information is not biased to the opinion of the author only. Is the information that you are reading part of an offline publication, for example, a printed magazine? If the information is published by an organisation or brand that you trust, you can assume that the information is trustworthy. Is the information useful to your purpose? Make sure that the information that you get is in line with what you already know about the topic. Do other reliable sites link to this text? To find out, you can type “link” followed by the URL of the document into the into a search engine. URL stands for “uniform resource locator”. A URL is the address of a specific webpage or file on the internet (TechTerms 2016). For more definitions of technical terms visit http://techterms.com. The internet and the world-wide web (WWW) are actually not the same thing as most people think. The internet is a big, complex network of computers linked to 137 | P a g e MNM1520/1 each other all around the world forming a communication and information-sharing pool. The world-wide web is only a part of the internet, which includes videos, audio and graphics. E-mail is also a part of the internet (Botha et al 2007). Online text contains hypertext and hyperlinks that are non-linear text that takes you other online pages or websites when you click on it. Information overload is a big challenge when you read online and one can easily become distracted in search for the information you are looking for (Botha et al 2007). To read effectively online, one needs to know how and where to search on the internet for the information you are looking for. Here are some tips for effective information searching on the internet (Botha et al 2007): • • • • • Use phrases instead of just keywords. Try different phrases of the same terms instead of only one phrase. Put your phrases in inverted commas. Use a metasearch engine like Dogpile or Metacrawler to search multiple search engines at the same time. Meta search engines are search engines that search other search engines and submit your search to a few other search engines and return a summary of the results (TechTerms 2016). If you find a website that offers some of the information you are looking for click on “find similar pages”, which should return a list of pages where you can find similar information. Reading online is not the same as reading on paper. Here are a few tips for reading online text (Botha et al 2007): • • • Decide what you are looking for and what information you need: What is the most important information you need? Are you looking for only one source of information or for many sources? o o o o 5.4.2.2 When you find the source of the information you are looking for use the “sitemap” to pinpoint the location of the information. A “sitemap” gives you an overview of the pages within a website and how the site is organised (TechTerms 2016). Scan through the headings, sub-headings and bullet points on the site in the same way that you will use your skimming and scanning techniques for printed material. You can right click on the hypertext and hyperlinks on the page to open additional pages in new windows so that you can refer to both pages at the same time. Look at the video, audio and graphic features on the page, which may help you to understand the information offered by the website. Reading e-mails An e-mail is an instant written digital message send via the internet to a particular person or group of people. The biggest challenge with reading an e-mail is to try and understand what the writer means as there is no tone of voice, no non-verbal cues 138 | P a g e MNM1520/1 and no eye contact. The words on the screen can be misunderstood (Botha et al 2007. Nowadays, people use emoticons, like smiley faces, to help the reader to understand the intended message. Be careful not to jump to conclusions about what the writer means by the e-mail. If you are not sure, rather ask the writer what the intention of the message is and what he or she actually means by the words used (Botha et al 2007). Difference between reading online and printed text There are differences between reading online and reading printed material. The table below illustrates the most obvious differences between reading online and printed text. Table 5.1: The most obvious differences between reading online and printed text Digital material Printed material Digital forms include e-mail, text messaging and internet websites where text is often integrated with various multimedia formats. A print publication is any printed document that offers information, for example books, newspapers or magazines. Fewer words are used. More words are used. Your eyes need to adjust to the online medium and we find it more difficult to concentrate and to understand the online information. We concentrate and understand better when we read printed documents. Reading speed is slower when we read online text. Reading speed in faster when we read printed documents. Reading online in a non-linear manner can be confusing because there is no structured beginning, middle and an end to the text. We need to learn to adjust to the new structure of reading on the internet. Most print publications are divided into different sections, such as articles in magazines or chapters in books to help readers find that they are looking for. Texts and information are spread across multiple websites and not in a chronological order. You must search for information and create your own chronological path and constantly reconstruct your concept of the webpage. Text and information are organised in a chronological order and the printed pages are clearly numbered. Books are normally linear in nature, which means that you read them from the beginning to the middle to the end. You do not start with the ending and then jump to the middle. Newspapers and magazines are not as linear in nature, though they are structured into different sections to help the reader to what the information he or she is looking for. For example, you can start by reading the business section first, then move the back sports pages and then read the main stories normally printed at the beginning of a newspaper. Contains interactive, dynamic and experiential features, for example, videos and audio clips; animated graphics; pop-up windows and No interactive features are used in printed text. 139 | P a g e MNM1520/1 code-based features, such as information that appears and disappears, revolves, or changes colour. Readers first must access the appropriate website, and then use navigation menus (e.g. multiple navigation and sub-navigation menus, tabs and links) to move efficiently within and across one webpage or website to the next to find information that meets their needs. Readers will page through the printed document in a chronological order from the start of the document to the end. When browsing the internet for reading material, one has to be focused on the task at hand not be distracted by other interesting topics or advertising. Readers are less often distracted as they are engaged in the material they are reading. Information is presented in various forms, such as photos, illustrations, graphs, charts, tables, maps and timelines. Information is presented in various forms, such as photos, illustrations, graphs, charts, tables, maps and timelines. Reading on the internet requires you to make assumptions about the text that you have not yet seen to determine if it will be useful while you are trying to ignore distractive information and advertising. The reader can use skimming and scanning techniques before reading the entire document to make sure the document will be useful. Most readers scan a webpage instead of reading it. Most readers read printed documents in more detail than when they read online. When you read online text, you are likely to read and process the information on a macro-level, identifying the section of the webpage that contains the information you are looking for before you can focus on the sentence, phrase, or part of the graphic that has the information. When you read printed text, you are likely to read and process the information at a micro-level, focusing on individual phrases or sentences. When you read the internet, you must be able to read and process information from multiple online sources. You must blend and understand information across texts. When you read a printed text you only have to process and understand the document from one source. Because anyone can publish anything on the internet, you must make judgments about the credibility of the source of the information and clarify the author's perspective, point of view, and bias in the text. Not everyone can publish a printed text and therefore printed texts are more credible. Source: 5.5 Adapted from Ortlieb et al (2015); Mullis et al (2016). STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE YOUR READING Study the section that follows: It is essential that you improve your reading at every chance you get as it will improve many other aspects of your career. Strategies for improving reading include: your motivation for reading, improving your fundamental reading process, 140 | P a g e MNM1520/1 increasing your reading speed and fluency, increasing your reading volume, improving your vocabulary, reading aloud, and improving your reading comprehension. These reading strategies are discussed below; ensure that you are study these strategies and are able to discuss each. Your motivation for reading Many organisations and countries go to great lengths to reduce illiteracy amongst the employees and citizens of the country. However, many countries are now concerned with the uprise of “aliteracy”, which is defined as choosing not to read. Aliteracy means that those who have the ability or proficiency to read and write don't have the desire or interest to do so (Olufowobi & Makinde 2011). Recently, peoples' reading habits are competing with other leisure activities such as watching TV, social networking or playing sports. The benefits of recreational reading or reading for fun include improvement in vocabulary, grammar, writing and spelling. Improving your reading skills will reduce unnecessary reading time and help you to read in a more focused and selective manner. You will also be able to increase your levels of understanding and concentration (University of Leicester 2016). Enhancing your vocabulary is not the result of learning from textbooks or instructors, but from practising your reading skills more and more. Therefore, the best place to start if you want to improve your reading skills is with your self-motivation, because your new improved reading skills will help you to achieve your academic and career ambitions and give you a better view of yourself and your life (Khreisat & Kaur 2014). Improve your fundamental reading process Your ability to see clearly, your binocular coordination and fusion (use of your two eyes in a coordinated manner that produces single vision), ocular motility (the ease with which your eyes move) and accuracy in tracking influence your reading ability. These visual capabilities influence the accuracy with which you perceive words and how comfortable you feel while you are reading. We read through a series of small glimpses of print, but these visual impressions overlap each other so quickly that you experience a continuous flow of words. When you read, you may not even be aware of rereading a section of the content that you did not understand. You are not always aware of your reverse eye movements, but they can take up one third or more of your total reading time. This reverse eye movement does not help you to understand the text, but it rather hinders your reading and steals your time and energy. Studies show that between 30% and 60% of students and adults suffer from a lack of these visual capabilities (Taylor 2012). If you consider yourself to be a less than average reader, it might be in your interest to have your reading abilities tested by a professional. The Tina Cowley Reading Centre will perform a scientific test of your reading ability to find out how to address the problem. Visit http://tinacowley.co.za/ for more information. 141 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Activity 5.3 Read the following two articles to demonstrate how your knowledge of the words used in the articles will influence your level of understanding of the text: Article 1: Rhinos in the Kruger National Park By 1896, white rhinos were extinct in the Lowveld, while elsewhere a relic 50 animals survived between the White and Black Umfolozi rivers in Zululand. Successful conservation measures made it possible to re-introduce 337 rhinos from 1961 onwards, and the Kruger Park now safeguards the world's largest population. White rhinos require a reliable supply of water, both for drinking (every two to three days). In the Kruger National Park, 85% of the white rhino population occurs in the southern region, where rainfall is higher than average and water holes are evenly distributed. Their senses of smell and hearing are good, but their eyesight is poor. A white rhino bull marks his territory by spray-urinating along its boundaries. Only territorial males do this; subordinate males are allowed to live within the territory so long as they remain submissive. Females are free to wander across the territories of several males. White rhinos coat their hides in mud to reduce bites from irritating flies, and during the hot summer months, mud wallows help to regulate body temperature. With a considerable body mass of up to 2 300 kilograms, and a vast surface area that is increased by folds of skin, white rhinos can remove large quantities of mud from a wallow with each visit. Over the decades, this has the effect of excavating significant depressions in the veld, which are rapidly filled during the rainy season to form pans. Source: http://www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_National_Park_Wildlife-travel/images-ofkruger-the-big-five.html Article 2: Active vs passive investment strategies The ongoing debate around passive versus active investment management has received a lot of attention in recent years thanks to the explosion of exchange traded funds that have become available to South African consumers. Unfortunately for active managers, a lot of the facts that have emerged in this debate do not make for pleasant reading. Depending on what unit trust survey you consult, and the time frame over which the analysis was conducted, only between 15% and 25% of active unit trust managers in South Africa manage to outperform the All-Share index over a five-, ten- and 20-year horizon. 142 | P a g e MNM1520/1 You may think that you can deliberately lose at asset management, but that is not necessarily the case. Sometimes a bull market can drag up the shares of even poorly managed companies. The general consensus is that asset management generally lies closer to the luck side of the continuum than pure skill. However, some argue that this is only the case in the short term. Over the long term, active managers are able to present some powerful evidence in their favour. It is worthwhile doing some research to find out whether your asset manager follows a deeply value-based investment strategy or whether they are more fundamental or perhaps quantitative in their decision making. Value investors tend to favour assets that are trading below their intrinsic value, whereas quant funds typically use complex computer-based algorithmic models to determine whether or not a share is worth buying. Understanding your fund manager's investment philosophy, and more importantly deciding if it is right for you, means you are much more likely to ride out short-term market volatility and remain invested for the long term. That will help prevent the tendency of many investors to switch out of funds every time their portfolio experiences a minor downturn. Source: http://www.fin24.com/Wealth-and-Investment/Investments/Active-vs-passiveinvestment-strategies-20151012 There are many websites that you can visit to test your reading speed and comprehension skills. The following website may be helpful to test your skills: http://www.readingsoft.com/. Further detail on how to improve your reading is discussed in the subsections below. Increasing your reading speed and fluency Reading speed is calculated by how many words you read per minute (WPM). When you read for pleasure, your reading speed may be around 250 to 400 WPM because you only need an average level of understanding of the text. When you read your text book in preparation for text, your reading speed may reduce to around 150 to 250 WPM because you need a high level of comprehension (Botha et al 2007). For the average reader, the eye fixes on each word individually (University of Leicester 2016). In figure 5.3, each dip of the curve represents the word that the average reader fixates on or concentrates on. Fixations White rhinos coat their hides in mud to reduce bites from irritating flies FIGURE 5.3: How the eye fixes on one word at a time 143 | P a g e MNM1520/1 It is easy for your eye to recognise four or five words in a single fixation without a loss of understanding (University of Leicester 2016). In figure 5.4, each dip of the curve represents the grouping or words a reader should fixate on or concentrate on. Fixation Fixation White rhinos coat their hides in mud to reduce bites from irritating flies Figure 4: How the eye can fix on more than one word at a time. FIGURE 5.4: Fixations on groupings or words To increase your reading speed, you don't have to increase the speed at which your eyes move across the page, but you should increase the word span for a single fixation. Instead of fixing your eyes on one word at a time, you should practise to see four or five words at a time (University of Leicester 2016). Activity 5.4 Take a page from your favourite book and divide it lengthwise into three sections with two lines drawn down the page. Using a pen or pencil as your pointer, read each line of text by allowing your eye to fall only in the middle of each of the three sections, as indicated by your pointer as shown in figure 5.4. Concentrate on reading the line in only three fixations and now on how quickly you are reading. As this becomes easier for you, practise without drawing lines. Try and reduce the number of fixations to two per line. When your increased word span becomes a comfortable habit, you will notice that your reading speed will increase as well (University of Leicester 2016). A proven strategy to improve your reading skills is repeated reading. Read the same text multiple times. Keep on reading the text until you can read it fluently and you have reached your required reading rate. If you get bored with reading the same text, don't be discouraged, you can also read another text with the same length and difficulty level to keep you from getting bored (McCulley et al 2015). Increasing your reading volume If you struggle to read, make it your priority to increase the volume that you read. By increasing the volume of your reading, you will enhance your word recognition, fluency, vocabulary, reading speed and comprehension (Dalton & Jocius 2015; Botha et al 2007). Nowadays, there are many text-to-speech technology options available on e-readers, computers and other mobile devices to help you to increase the volume of your reading (Dalton & Jocius 2015). 144 | P a g e MNM1520/1 For many struggling readers, their listening comprehension is stronger than their reading comprehension. An exciting development is the design of e-books produced for a particular mobile platform such as the iPad or smartphone, which includes voice overs that can be used to read along with the narrator (Dalton & Jocius 2015). Improving your vocabulary A well-developed vocabulary plays an important role in how likely you will be able to read a specific text with understanding. There is a strong relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension. For many readers, it is their difficulty with vocabulary that hampers their understanding of the text (Dalton & Jocius 2015). There are powerful digital solutions to help you to increase your vocabulary. There are many free dictionary and thesauri reference tools available on e-reader devices and on the internet. Some tools can be installed on your browser tool bar (e.g. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/add2ie.htm#addon). These tools give you just-in-time support while you read. Translation tools such as Babelfish (http://babelfish.yahoo.com/) and Google translator (http://translate.google.com/) allow you to type or paste in the English word for a translation in your native language. If we have the concept in our first language, we can then connect it to the English word (Dalton & Jocius 2015). “Learner” dictionaries, originally designed for students whose first language is not English, can also be useful for English speakers as well, particularly struggling readers (McCulley et al 2015). As a public relations practitioner, technology and media should be part of your career life to better prepare you to read, learn, compose and communicate (Dalton & Jocius 2015). Activity 5.5 Use your dictionary or an online dictionary to find the meaning of the words printed in bold in the article below. 8 ways climate change is already affecting Africa (Source: http://350africa.org/2014/12/12/8-ways-climate-change-is-already-affectingafrica/December_12,2014) Right now, the effects of climate change are already being felt by people across Africa. Evidence shows that the change in temperature has affected the health, livelihoods, food productivity, water availability and overall security of the African people. Africa has seen a decrease in rainfall over large parts of the Sahel and Southern Africa, and an increase in parts of Central Africa. Over the past 25 years, the number 145 | P a g e MNM1520/1 of weather-related disasters, such as floods and droughts, has doubled, resulting in Africa having a higher mortality rate from droughts than any other region. Flooding is the most prevalent disaster in North Africa, the second most common in East, South and Central Africa, and the third most common in West Africa (AWDR 2006). Observable effects of climate change on water resources in Africa include: flooding, drought, change in distribution of rainfall, drying-up of rivers, melting of glaciers and the receding of bodies of water. Great stretches of the river is now facing environmental devastation as a result of pollution. Across Africa the landscape is changing. Droughts, heat stress and flooding have led to a reduction in crop yields and livestock productivity. Severe flooding and intense droughts have led to the destruction of many homes, shelters and villages across Africa. Conflicts over resources also exacerbate these impacts and, in turn, contribute to the ongoing migration within and between countries in Africa. Children and the elderly face graver risks due to susceptibility to infectious diseases, such as Malaria, limited mobility and reduced intake of food. Climate change impacts have the potential to exacerbate national security issues and increase the number of international conflicts. Conflicts often occur over the use of already limited natural resources, fertile ground and water. The changes in precipitation and temperature are already affecting crop yields in Sub-Saharan Africa. Climate change has already led to changes in freshwater and marine ecosystems in eastern and southern Africa, and terrestrial ecosystems in southern and western Africa. The extreme weather events have demonstrated the vulnerability of some of South Africa's ecosystems. The migration patterns, geographic range and seasonal activity of many terrestrial and marine species have shifted in response to climate change. Reading aloud According to some scholars, reading aloud is probably the most highly recommended activity for encouraging language and literacy (Warner & Crolla 2015). Whether you read aloud or silently, comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading (Johns, L'Allier & Johns 2015). Improve your reading comprehension Every one of us has room for reading improvement. Often it is because of our struggles with ‘‘meaning-making” or comprehension that we need significant reading improvement. It may appear as repetition to say that ‘‘one needs to know the meaning of the words one is reading to know the meaning of what one is reading”, but there is a definite connection between knowing the meaning of words and our ability to understand what we read (Ortlieb et al 2015). 146 | P a g e MNM1520/1 McCulley et al (2015) shares practices that are used during early elementary years to enhance our comprehension before reading, during reading and after reading. These practices have been proven to be effective for readers of all ages. Strategies to improve your reading include the following: Before reading: • • • • Ask yourself what is the purpose for the reading you are about to do. When you understand the reason why you are reading, you will interact with the text according to your purpose. Delve inside yourself for background knowledge that you already have on the topic. When you can connect your background knowledge of a topic to the text you are reading, are more likely to understand the content of your reading. Draw you existing knowledge in the form of a mind map or chart. Remember to use the different pre-reading techniques (skimming and scanning) and to read for structure before you start to read for comprehension. During reading: • • Monitor yourself while you are reading to identify if, and when, you have read something you don't understand. You can re-read the parts that you don't understand, investigate the text for clues, compare what you have read with your existing background knowledge, and even ask someone for help if you are still struggling. Remember to pause at stopping points that you have set for yourself to monitor your comprehension up to that point and to identify key information from what you read. You can generate your own questions based on the work that you are reading, think aloud, or even think-pair-share with a friend or colleague to check your comprehension. When you generate questions about what you are reading, you become more involved with the text and the processing of information happens at a deeper level. You can also write a brief summary statement that highlights the main points. After reading: • Summarise the most important parts of the text by using, for example, mind maps. Graphic organisers will help you to visually represent what you have identified as important in the text and will help you to memorise the information. Only summarise the relevant and most important information. Ask yourself inferential questions about the text that you have read. Try and look for information that is implied by the text, even though it is not printed in words. Source: McCulley et al (2015) Competent readers fluidly weave their knowledge of language, word reading, vocabulary and background knowledge to make meaning of written text. While reading, they monitor their understanding and possess an arsenal of coping mechanisms so that when comprehension breaks down, they are able to get back on track and resume understanding the text. 147 | P a g e MNM1520/1 5.6 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING AND WRITING Study the section that follows: To many of us reading is a chore – something to do that is less interesting than most other activities. There is a saying that “the poorest man in the world is the man limited to his own experience, the man who does not read” (Ortlieb et al 2015). A positive attitude towards reading and writing may begin with your interest in a specific topic. Many people are particularly interested in some subject areas over others. Math, science, social studies, art, sport and English comprise a few of the possibilities. Building the love of reading and writing is a complex venture that involves reading for pleasure, which will enhance the scope of reading, language consciousness, attitude towards reading and interests (Ortlieb et al 2015). Similarly to reading, writing is also a cyclic process in terms of the constant reading, understanding, rewriting and restructuring of written work in order to improve what is written. When rereading the written work, we think of the accuracy and authenticity of the writing. Thus, reading and rereading our writing is the means of testing whether what we have written can be improved in any way. The attempt to improve writing is the link between writing, thinking and reading. Engaging with the writing process allows you to read, reread, think about improvements and then rewrite. By attempting to improve your writing, you also become a more critical reader (Ortlieb et al 2015). The best writers are avid readers and vice versa. As a public relations practitioner you have to not only read text but you will also be required to write text. For example: • • • • You may need to write a media briefing on a new product launch for your company, but in order to write the media brief, you need to read the product descriptions as provided by the company. Once you understand what the product entails, how it is used and how it is different to the competitors' product, then only can you write the media release which is suited for your purposes. To write a high quality media release, you will be required to make sure you have improved the writing until it meets your satisfaction. How will you know the media release is of high quality? You will know based on your experience of reading other public relations practitioners' media releases, which are clearly of high quality. You may have a preference for either reading or writing, but you can use your strengths in the one to improving the other (Ortlieb et al 2015). 148 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Visit these websites for more reading and language and comprehension exercises: • • • • • • 5.7 https://za.ixl.com/promo?partner=google&campaign=1090&adGroup=story+pr oblems&gclid=CNW624yelcwCFUSVGwodBhMP4w http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/reading.php http://www.englishmaven.org/Pages/Reading%20Comprehension.htm http://www.ereadingworksheets.com/free-reading-worksheets/readingcomprehension-worksheets/ http://www.agendaweb.org/index.php http://www.agendaweb.org/reading/comprehension_interm2.html SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS The following exercises are very good examples of what you can expect in the examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the feedback given in the prescribed book. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5.8 Briefly discuss the differences between print and electronic reading materials. Discuss the six elements that make up the cyclical reading process. Describe the various reading techniques and give a practical example of when each is suitable. Explain what critical reading entails. Assume that you are responsible for training your fellow public relations practitioners. Discuss what practical tips you would give them for reading online. REFLECTION Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.9 Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit in your professional life? What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme? SUMMARY People read in many different contexts and for different reasons. Reading is a vital skill for all people, but particularly for public relations practitioners, as it contributes to effective communication. 149 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Reading is a constructive and cyclical process. It does not necessarily start or end with one of the elements of the cycle; they all happen concurrently (at the same time) as you read. For public relations practitioners reading different types of material is necessary, whether it may be books, newspapers or magazines to gather information about what is being said about the company that they work for. Different types of devices are used alongside print media to communicate to stakeholders, including e-readers, tablets and smartphones. To read for certain purposes requires a particular reading technique, which could include pre-reading, scanning, skimming, underlining and marking and active reading. You now know how important reading is for a public relations practitioner, and you can use different methods to improve your reading skills. In the next learning unit, we look at how to write text intended for different media formats. 150 | P a g e MNM1520/1 5.10 REFERENCES Botha, D, Chaka, M, du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D & Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson Prentice Hall. Comcowich, WJ. 2010. Media monitoring: the complete guide. [Online] Available at: http://www.cyberalert.com/downloads/media_monitoring_whitepaper.pdf (accessed on 10 April 2016). Dalton, B & Jocius, R. 2015. From struggling reader to digital reader and multimodal composer – school-based interventions for struggling readers, K-8. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2048-0458(2013)0000003008 (accessed on 9 March 2016). Daniels, D, Hunter, A, McGhie, V, Middleton Horn, J, Van Jaarsveldt, M & Van Vuuren, T. 2014. Business communication. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Davis, DS, McElhone, D & Tenore, FB. 2015. A dialogic account of reader-text interactions. English Teaching: Practice & Critique, 14(3):335–349. [Online] Available at: http://dx doi.org/10.1108/ETPC-04-2015-0026 (accessed on 27 April 2016). Hsiu-Sen, C & Chia-Chen, C. 2014. Exploring switch intention of users' reading behaviour. The Electronic Library, 32(4):434–457. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EL-06-2012-0070 (accessed on 27 April 2016). Huang, K, Chen, K & Ho, C. 2014. Enhancement of reading experience. Library Hi Tech, 32(3):509–528. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/LHT-012014-0002 (accessed on 27 April 2016). Johns, JL, L'Allier, SK & Johns, B. 2012. Making the most of informal reading inventories: moving from purposeful assessment to targeted instruction. In Using Informative Assessments towards Effective Literacy Instruction: [Online] Available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/S20480458%282012%290000001005 (accessed on 10 March 2016). K12 reader. 2016. Phonemic awareness vs phonological awareness. [Online] Available at: www.k12reader.com/phonemic-awareness-vs-phonologicalawareness/ (accessed on 10 March 2016). Laster, BP. 2013. A historical view of student learning and teacher development in reading clinics. Advanced Literacy Practices, 3–20. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2048-0458(2013)0000002004 (accessed on 10 March 2016). 151 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Oludare, OO & Olanrewaju, MK. 2011. Aliteracy: A threat to educational development. Educational Research, 2(2):824–827. [Online] Available at: http://www.interesjournals.org/er/february-2011-vol-2-issue-2/aliteracy-a-threatto-educational-development (2013)0000002009 (accessed on 10 March 2016). Ortlieb, E, Verlaan, W & Cheek. EH. 2015. Vocabulary/comprehension-based models of reading clinics. Advanced Literacy Practices, 7(1):117–136. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2048-0458(2013)0000002009 (accessed on 10 March 2016). McCulley, LV, Katz, S & Vaughn, S. 2013. Reading instruction and students with learning disabilities. In Learning Disabilities: Practice Concerns And Students With LD. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S02704013(2013)0000025005 (accessed on 8 March 2016). Mullis, IVS, Martin, MO & Sainsbury, M. 2016. PIRLS 2016 Reading Framework. [Online] Available at: http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/downloads/P16_FW_Chap1.pdf (accessed on 15 March 2016). Reading Rockets. 2016. Fluency: an introduction [Online] Available at: http://www.readingrockets.org/article/fluency-introduction (accessed on 27 April 2016). Solak, E. 2014. Computer versus paper-based reading: a case study in English language teaching context In Mevlana International Journal of Education, 4(1):202–211. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.13.78.4.1 (accessed on 1 April 2016). Taylor, SE. 2012. The fundamental reading process. [Online] Available at: http://www.gio.co.za/wpcontent/uploads/2012/06/FundamentalReadingProcess .pdf (accessed on 1 April 2016). Techterms. 2016. Meta search engine. [Online] Available at: http://techterms.com/definition/metasearchengine (accessed on 1 April 2016). University of Leicester. 2016. Succeed in your studies. [Online] Available at: http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld?uol_r=7cd00ee5 (accessed on 15 March 2016). Walia, PK & Sinha, S. 2014. Changing trend in reading habits of teenagers in Delhi. In Library Review, 63(1/2):125–137. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/LR-03-2013-0038 (accessed on 15 March 2016). 152 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Warner, L & Crolla, C. 2015. The practice of reading aloud in the high school: a preliminary investigation. In English Teaching: Practice & Critique, 14(3):419– 426. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ETPC-06-2015-0045 (accessed on 15 March 2016). Zhang, L & Ma, W. 2011. Correlation analysis between users' educational level and mobile reading behaviour. In Library Hi Tech, 29(3):424–435 [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07378831111174396 (accessed on 15 March 2016). Zimmerman, B, Rasinski, T & Melewski. M. 2013. When kids can't read, what a focus on fluency can do: the reading clinic experience at Kent State University. In Advanced Literacy Practices, 2:137–160. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2048-0458(2013)0000002010 (accessed on 15 March 2016). 153 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 6 Writing text intended for print media Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 6.1 Print media 6.2 Internal communication print media 6.3 External communication print media 6.4 Writing for print 6.5 Self-assessment questions 6.6 Reflection 6.7 Summary 6.8 References 6. INTRODUCTION Print content allows writers to control their readers. Writers can write from introduction to conclusion and carefully build arguments. They know what the readers have already read, and what they are going to read next. For example, in writing an article discussing how to secure your finances, the writer knows that the reader is now aware of his or her financial situation and that in the next section of the article, the reader will read about the possible solutions. Written communication is more permanent than oral communication. It can be either formal or informal, personal or official. The information about how to secure your finances as published in the article we used as an example above will remain available, and the reader can read it again. A face-to-face conversation, however, will in time become just a memory. Writing is one of the main communication tools that public relations practitioners use. Overview of this learning unit In this learning unit, we explore the nature of print media. You should be able to discuss and differentiate between the internal and external print media. It is important to understand the characteristics of the various print media types. In this learning unit, you will be equipped with the necessary tools and guidelines for writing a news release, a feature story and a brochure. This learning unit unfolds as follows: 154 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Writing for print Learning outcomes After completing this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • explain what print media are discuss what makes something newsworthy explain what the difference is between internal and external print media discuss what the guidelines are for writing news release, feature story and brochure discuss the difference between controlled and uncontrolled media explain what guidelines to follow when writing news releases, feature stories and brochures Key concepts Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • define define define define define define define print media controlled media uncontrolled media print publications newspapers feature stories brochures Very important! Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please follow the URL below and download the material: http://bookboon.com/en/practical-pr-ebook 155 | P a g e MNM1520/1 6.1 PRINT MEDIA Study the section that follows: Print media can be defined as the vehicle that distributes printed material. These are generally books, newspapers and magazines, but can also include advertising brochures and pamphlets. This is the oldest type of mass media. Newspapers tend to be the primary source of news, whereas magazines tend to be more targeted mediums, with magazines aimed at men, women, hobbies and so forth (Kurylo 2013:237–238). Due to the increased usage and availability of online resources, the print media industry is looking into ways of reinventing itself. There have been cases where newspapers and magazines had to close down due to the increased usage of the internet for news and information (Mochiko 2015). Print media, as an industry, can refer to the printing and distribution of news through the use of printed material, such as magazines and newspapers, to name but a few. It can be said that print media is more permanent than other forms of media such as broadcast or social media (Fourie 2014:87–88). The most widely known types of print media include newspapers, magazines, classifieds, circulars, journals, yellow pages, billboards, brochures, posters and catalogues. Examples of print media in South Africa are the Citizen and Mail & Guardian newspapers, and The Economist and Getaway magazines. Print media is normally divided into two categories, namely controlled and uncontrolled media. For interesting information on media in South Africa, follow the link to the Media Club South Africa at http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/. Media control A public relations practitioner has different types of control over what is presented in the published print media. 6.1.1.1 Controlled media This form of media allows the public relations practitioner to have control over what is published and how it is published (Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman & Toth 2013:145). With controlled media, the PR practitioner not only has full control over all elements of the message, words, images and so forth, but also controls when, where and how often the message is communicated. Controlled media is generally paid for by the sender of the message and include such forms as leaflets, brochures, corporate print material and posters (Guth & Marsh 2012:257– 258; Fourie 2014:83). 156 | P a g e MNM1520/1 6.1.1.2 Uncontrolled media Generally, this type of media is out of the PR practitioner's hands; the content is decided on by the management of that specific publication. This is a non-paid form of communication and can thus be seen as a more credible source of information (Fourie 2014:83–84; Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman & Toth 2013:145). Publishers and broadcasters of uncontrolled media have gatekeepers that control what information is published and what is not. Even though gatekeepers exist, companies still have no control over what, when or how often it is published. In many cases, uncontrolled media can create stories and conversations against the wishes of a company (Guth & Marsh 2012:260). Examples of uncontrolled media include newspaper articles, PR releases and magazine articles. There might be situations where it is difficult to differentiate between controlled or uncontrolled media; in some instances, a type of media might represent both types (Guth & Marsh 2012:260). 6.2 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION PRINT MEDIA Study the section that follows: Internal print communication, also known as organisational communication, can be defined as the type of communication directed towards internal stakeholders; this communication normally takes place between management and employees (Fourie 2014:91; Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman & Toth 2013:213; O'Rourke 2013:28). Internal print communication can be used to communicate strategy to employees that provide direction and purpose, keep employees informed, create and strengthen relationships with employees, as well as informing and encourage employees to support the marketing activities. Internal print communication is also very important vehicle to facilitate change management. It is important to remember also that internal communication should not be an organisation's primary means of communication. Even though it is a very effective way of communicating, interpersonal communication is still the most preferred. As organisations grow, they need to adapt their means of internal communication. E-mail has primarily taken over internal communication, but the sheer volume can overwhelm and cause employees to take exception (Newsom & Haynes 2011:299–301). Examples of internal print communication vehicles include newsletters, staff handbooks, libraries, house journals, information brochures, bulletin boards and flyers (Fourie 2014:91– 92). 157 | P a g e MNM1520/1 6.3 EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION PRINT MEDIA Study the section that follows: Essentially, this form of communication includes all communications that take place outside of the organisation. This will include all forms of marketing communication, media relations (news releases), and any form of written communication relating to corporate image, corporate advertising, sponsorship and events, promotional activities, crisis management, lobbying and networking. The public relations practitioner makes use of external communication to satisfy the needs and wants of the company's target markets. External marketing is used to educate potential consumers about the company's services. The most important external print publications used by public relations practitioners are newspapers and magazines. Public relations practitioners use magazines and newspapers to publish important press releases so that their customers know exactly what is going on. 6.4 WRITING FOR PRINT Study the section that follows: A public relations practitioner will have to be able write newspaper articles, news releases, feature stories and brochures for different types of print media, including newspapers and magazines. Definition of a newspaper A classic newspaper is a collection of stories, pictures, advertisements and puzzles assembled as a printed package made of lightweight paper. Newspapers tend to have a limited shelf life depending on whether it is a weekly or a daily newspaper. (Reeves & Keeble 2015:1). In the 21st century, news can also be available on a website, an app, a Facebook page, multiple Twitter accounts, a YouTube channel, blogs and even a series of podcasts, which are created by ordinary people. These updates about news provide newspapers with fresh content to update readers, and for online newspapers, this increases searchability (Theaker 2012:419). Even though this type of news is not published by official sources and is largely consumer– generated, people still deem it newsworthy (Reeves & Keeble 2015:6). When writing for news releases, there are different types of foci, namely hard news and soft news. Hard news relates to circumstances of an event such as issues, 158 | P a g e MNM1520/1 politics, economics, international relations, welfare and scientific development. Soft news relates to news that can be considered as information and entertainment, which relates to human interest stories that are more personality-centred (Rogers 2015). Writing a news release A news release is a statement written by the public relations department when something important or noteworthy happens within an organisation. This will normally include the information you as a public relations practitioner wishes to publish about the organisation or its employees. For information to be newsworthy, it must display one or more of these characteristics (Botha, Chaka, Du Plessis, Krause, Rawjee, Porthen, Veerasamy & Wright, 2007:136–137; Media-studies.ca 2015): • • • • • • • • • Conflict – between individuals, organisations or countries Oddity – anything strange or unusual that will attract media attention Proximity – anything that affects the local community and be newsworthy for that community Prominence – high profile individuals Timeliness – should always be recent Impact – anything that will have an effect on or consequence for the reader Human interest – the inclusion of a human element Progress – any medical, scientific or technological breakthrough Goals – meeting the goals of the editorial team Then you need to decide on the media outlets available to you. It could be helpful in deciding by answering the following three questions: 1. What type of coverage are you looking for – local, national or international? 2. Is this a story for public interest or is it time sensitive? 3. Does it need to be a full story or would a brief write-up do? (James & Wosh 2011:86) 6.4.2.1 Models for writing a news release There are various models that PR practitioners can use when writing a news release. Let's look at a few of these models, namely: 5Ws and H; SOLAADS and NIBSS. The 5Ws and H model is most commonly used by journalists, while the SOLAADS model is common amongst public relations practitioners. The NIBBS model was developed by a public relations theorist Cohen who identified the relevant components of the model (Botha et al 2007:137–139). You need to know the different models and what it stands for and how it is applied to writing news releases. 159 | P a g e MNM1520/1 (a) The 5Ws and H model This is a writing format that is commonly used by journalists. This model is structured alongside the Who, Where, When, Why, What and How questions. It is, however, important to list the questions in a specific order that will expedite the writing of the lead sentence. The questions can be structured as follows: • • • • • • (b) Who is the story about? What happened? Why did it happen? Where did it happen? When did it happen? How did it come about? The SOLAADS model This provides the public relations practitioner with a checklist: • • • • • • • (c) Subject – What is the story about? Organisation – What is the name of the organisation? Location – What is the location of the organisation? Advantages – What is new or special about this product or service? Application – Who can enjoy the product or service? Details – What are the specifications or details? Source – Is this different from the location? The NIBS model This model provides another set of guidelines for writing a news release. By following it, ensure that you supply the following: • • • • • (d) new information interesting facts background selling points superfluities Other models for writing The inverted pyramid method of writing is the most effective and efficient way of organising the information in order to write a news release. This method helps you, as the writer, to analyse information, establish what is most important to the reader, and arrange the information in descending order of importance. 6.4.2.2 Guidelines for the format When writing news releases, it is important to conform to a certain standard in order to make the news release not only presentable to the relevant readers, but also 160 | P a g e MNM1520/1 appealing for the journalist to use as the news release would be in the format that the journalist would have used, making it easier for him/her to publish. Here are some guidelines for writing news releases (please note that these are just guidelines, not a template): • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • The lead should be a single sentence comprising 30 to 35 words. Use white A4 paper, double spacing and set wide margins of at least 40 mm (1 inch) in which the subeditor can write instructions. State clearly at the top of the page that this is a press release. Then give the date and the date on which the news release should be released. Leave a space of 40 mm (1 inch) open between the heading and the title. Explain the where, when, to whom and how in the second sentence. Paragraphs should not exceed 50 words. Use a common font and font size. It should be two pages or less. Any contact information should be on the first page. The date should be on the first page. The title must be in capital letters. Your press release must be typed in double spacing, with a blank line between paragraphs. In a long news release, use subheadings. If your release runs over one page, write the word “more” at the bottom of each page. Each page must be numbered and the title must be repeated in the top left-hand corner of each page. Indent your paragraphs. At the end of your news release, write the word “ends”. (Botha et al 2007:140; James & Wosh 2011:86–88; Starr & Dunsford 2014:45; Tyson 2010:46–47) 6.4.2.3 Guidelines for the content There are particular guidelines for writing the content of the news releases, which you intend for a journalist to eventual publish in the newspaper. The content guidelines are as follows: • • • • • Avoid qualifier words like could, would or should. Do not use contractions or abbreviations. Write in the third person. When quoting someone use the word “said”. When changing between speakers indicate this so there is no confusion (James & Wosh 2011:87; Starr & Dunsford 2014:45; Tyson 2010:46–47) Always let your news release be read by a good editor before distributing it anywhere. E-mail your news release, or deliver it personally to the relevant journalist. Once the news release has been sent to the journalist, it is a good idea to 161 | P a g e MNM1520/1 phone to confirm that he or she has received it (Botha et al 2007:140; James & Wosh 2011:87). Activity 6.1 Read the news release provided by Unisa committing to the hosting of the institute for youth work. 1. Try and identify the model that was used to write this new release. 2. Try and see how many of the guidelines were followed when writing this news release. 3. What would you have added or left out of this news release? Below is an example of a media release, which was provided by the University of South Africa relating to Unisa’s hosting of the institution for youth work. Source: http://www.unisa.ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewNewsItem&NewsID= 2306&Cmd=GetNav&NavID=6 162 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Writing a feature story As the name suggests, feature stories can very often be written like stories and is all about human interest; the narrative is about the human element of life (Newsom & Hayes 2011:163). Feature stories can take on various forms depending on the approach you choose to take. Different types of feature stories include: feature stories, roundup or depth stories and profiles. Feature stories are generally happy, about people or animals and tend to be more emotional in nature. Roundup or depth stories are not necessarily happy in nature; they include the good and the evil of the world. Finally, profiles are stories focused on specific individuals and their lives (Starr & Dunsford 2014:163–164). So, feature stories could be something written about anything going on within the organisation, new products, some research information regarding special events, but it can also be about individuals or celebrities that have achieved something within or is affiliated with the organisation (Reeves & Keeble 2015:168–170). When you are writing a feature story, one the most important elements will be the gathering of information; the integrity of your information will determine the integrity of your feature. Information is generally collected from three sources, the person the story is about, the people who are acquainted with that person, and already published articles (Starr & Dunsford 2014:164). Types of feature stories Let's have a look at the different types of feature stories that one can get. The type of feature story depends on the audience and the type of news being written about. A story that is derived from a current news story is known as a spot feature. A personality profile refers to a feature story that focuses on a person being placed in the spot light to bring him or her closer to the public. A human interest story emphasises something specific; it can be practical, emotional, or entertaining. A story that focuses on the latest fads in the market is known as a trends story, while an in-depth story is a more detailed story based on the extensive research conducted by the interviewer and the interviews itself. A backgrounder is a story that adds to the background information of a current news story (Starr & Dunsford 2014:172). 6.4.4.1 Guidelines for writing a feature story As we have seen in the previous section, a feature story does not have the same structure as a news release. The structure will depend on the type of feature chosen. Generally, the writing of a feature will consist of gathering the facts, interviewing people, taking notes, arranging the story order and, finally, writing the story. When writing, organise the information is a logical order, omitting anything that is not applicable. Lead with interesting information that will attract the reader. Quickly describe what the story will be about, explain why it is important and, finally, write clear and simple. Using a conversational narrative is preferred. Stay away from too many verbs and always use the familiar or popular word for something rather than the technical or farfetched version. Re-write continuously to improve your writing style (Starr & Dunsford 2014:166, 172). 163 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Here are some more guidelines for writing a feature story: Choose the theme. • This is similar to a thesis or a scholarly paper. • It provides unity and coherence. • It should not be too broad or too narrow. Write a lead that invites an audience into the story. • • • • Write the body. • • • • Provide vital background information. If necessary, some background information should be placed early on in the story to bring the audience up to date. Write clear, concise sentences. • Use direct quotations, observations and additional background throughout the story. • Paragraphs should be written chronologically or in order of importance. Use a thread. Connect the beginning, body and conclusion of the story. Use transition. Use transitioning language in long features to avoid readers losing interest. Use dialogue when possible. Writers should listen very well during the reporting process in order for them to form a dialogue when writing. Establish a voice. Have a “signature” or personal style of writing. Conclude with a quotation or another part of the thread. End your feature on a high note; it can end where the lead started, with a single person or event. One or two paragraphs begin the feature. News elements should be in the lead. The first two or three paragraphs set the mood and invite readers. The significance of the story is found in the third or fourth paragraph. • Do not make readers wait until the 10th or 11th paragraph before telling them what the story is about. This provides vital information. It educates, entertains and emotionally engages the audience. The ending will wrap up the story. Important components of the body of a feature story: background information, the thread of the story, transition, dialogue and voice. Source: Adapted from Rogers (2015) 6.4.4.2 Tips for writing the best feature story Rogers (2015) provides the following five tips for making sure your feature story is the best: 1. A great lead can grab the reader's attention and pull them into the story. 2. The description sets the scene for the story to unfold. This can inspire the readers to use their imaginations. 3. Quotes from the person(s) involved should always be included; it adds to the credibility of your story. 4. Anecdotes can be very effective in features and help bring peoples' recollections to life. 5. Background information is very important because if you don't have solid information to back up the point your feature is trying to make, you lose credibility. 164 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Below is an example of a feature story. Do you understand why the feature story is newsworthy? Activity 6.2 Read the feature story on Julius Malema provided by Unisa. Use what we have learnt so far and answer the following questions: 1. What type of feature is this? 2. Isolate and identify the different sections of the feature. 3. Did the author use the guidelines for writing a feature? 165 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Writing for a magazine The content of magazines are mostly controlled, as the magazine has a say in terms of what is included in the text. Different types of magazines are available in the market, including consumer magazines, professional or business magazines and education or academic magazines. Consumer magazines These are the magazines that people generally think of if they hear the word “magazine”. A very broad definition for consumer magazines will be a source of information, advice and entertainment to readers, which normally relate to the time they are not at work. Consumer magazines tend to be highly targeted, for example women's magazines, health magazines, sport magazines, and so on. Professional/business magazines This refers to managerial publications, which are aimed at the business market, providing professionals with advice and news on the current market position. Examples of professional or business magazines are industry-specific magazines such as The African Professional TM (link: http://www.africanpro.co.za/). Education/academic magazines Academic magazines or journals are also highly targeted and has a specific area of focus in academia. Various disciplines have different journals. These are normally written by researchers and academics with new findings and contributions to the current body of knowledge in a specific field of study. E-zines These are the newest addition to the magazine world. This basically refers to a magazine that is available online. The added advantage to this is the possible inclusion of multimedia sources, which could lead to significant competition for traditional print magazines (Whittaker 2008:171). Check out e-zines at the following directory: http://www.ezine-dir.com/ 6.4.5.1 Guidelines for writing for a magazine Some tips you can use when writing for a magazine: • • • Most importantly, get to the point as soon as possible. Readers can lose interest very quickly and needs to be engaged early on. Write in an active voice, that is, write conversationally as the subject does the action. It is always advisable to have a copy editor. Copy-edit your writing as it represents the readers, who will not have your intimate knowledge on the subject when reading the story. 166 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • Copy-editors will look for errors in style, spelling, punctuation and grammar, as well as the misuse of words and lack of correct information. Proofreading will take place once the printer's proofs have arrived. This will represent the final draft before going to print for distribution. Finally, make sure you stay out of the story. Never use first-person pronouns like I, me and we; these are only permitted in direct quotes (Starr & Dunsford 2014:196–199). Writing a brochure A brochure, also sometimes referred to as a leaflet, is designed either as something to create awareness or provide solutions and information. Brochures are normally only one document, which can be folded, depending on its purpose. The most commonly used type of brochure is folded in such a way that it has six separate parts where information can be included. This is often referred to as a Z-card, due to its shape (see http://gotprint.net/gotprint/uploadBrochure.do) (Gordon 2011:261). When writing a brochure, follow the steps below (Botha et al 2007:147–148): • • • • • • Clearly define the purpose of the brochure. Develop and organise a concept for it. Write the content. Design the format and visuals, and decide on the type of paper, the space needed and the colour. Produce the brochure. Distribute it. Activity 6.3 Unisa will launch a new course on social media advertising in 2017. Design a brochure for this course, which can be handed out to leaners in Grade 12. Use all the info on brochure you have read. 6.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the feedback given in the prescribed book. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Define and discuss print media. How would you go about writing a feature? Explain in detail how you would go about writing a news release. Discuss the process of writing a brochure. List the various print media types. 167 | P a g e MNM1520/1 6.6 REFLECTION Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions: 1. Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit in your professional life? 2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? 3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? 4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme? 6.7 SUMMARY We began this learning unit by exploring the nature of print media and noted that the print media are among the media most frequently used to inform people. We then discussed the difference between internal and external communication print media and looked at some examples. You must be able to write a news release, a feature story and a brochure. You learnt about the objectives of each of these types of print media, and we suggested a number of writing models and guidelines to help you in your writing. We will now move onto the broadcast media, which differ from the print media. Writing for the broadcast media is therefore quite different from writing for the print media, as you will see in learning unit 7. 168 | P a g e MNM1520/1 6.8 REFERENCES Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D & Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson Prentice Hall. Fourie, L. 2014. Public relations: theory & practice. Cape Town: Juta. Guth, DW & March, C. 2012. Public relations: a value-driven approach. 5th edition. Boston: Pearson. Gordon, AE. 2011. Public relations. New York: Oxford. James, RD & Wosh, PJ. 2011. Public relations and marketing for archives: a how-todo-it manual. Chicago: Society of American Archivists and Neal-Schuman. Reeves, I & Keeble, RL. 2015. The newspapers handbook. 5th edition. New York: Routledge. Kurylo, A. 2013. Inter/cultural communication. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Lattimore, D, Baskin, O, Heiman, ST & Toth, EL. 2012. Public relations: the profession & the practice. 4th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Mochiko, T. 2015. SA printing industry still looks good on paper. [Online] Available at: http://www.bdlive.co.za/business/media/2015/08/03/sa-printing-industrystill-looks-good-on-paper (accessed on 9 May 2016). Newsom, D & Haynes, J. 2011. Public relations writing: form & style. 9th edition. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. O'Rourke, JS. 2013. Management communication: a case-analysis approach. 5th edition. New Jersey: Pearson. Rogers, T. 2015. What's the difference between broadcast and tabloid newspapers? [Online] Available at: http://journalism.about.com/od/trends/fl/ Whats-the-Difference-Between-Broadsheet-and-Tabloid-Newspapers.htm (accessed on 11 May 2016). Starr, DP & Dunsford, DW. 2014. Writing the story. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield. Theaker, A. 2012. The public relations handbook. 4th edition. New York: Routledge. Whittaker, J. 2008. Magazine production. New York: Routledge. 169 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 7 Writing text intended for broadcast media Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 7.1 Broadcast media 7. 7.1.1 Rules for both television and radio writing (writing for the ear) 7.1.2 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.2.1 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.1.1 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 Importance of broadcast media for public relations Radio as a broadcast medium Importance of radio broadcasting for public relations Writing a news bulletin for radio Writing a fact sheet for radio Digital radio Radio in South African context Television as a broadcast medium Writing a news bulletin for television Writing guidelines for television Self-assessment questions Reflection Summary References Introduction Writing text for the broadcast media requires different skills from those required for writing for print. Public relations practitioners who write text for the broadcast media contribute valuable information, which is used in speeches, advertisements, daily news, interviews and documentaries. When you write for the broadcast media, your role is to capture the attention and interest of the viewers and the listeners. You need to use all of the techniques that you have learnt for writing for print, but you need to adapt them for writing broadcast copy. The most important of these techniques is condensation, as you must learn to select and condense information. Brevity or conciseness is more important in writing broadcasting copy than in writing for print. In this learning unit, you will acquire the guidelines and tools that you will need to write text intended for the broadcast media. Overview of this learning unit After you have studied this learning unit, you should be able to write content for radio and television. In this learning unit, we explore the nature of the broadcast media. You will learn more about radio as a broadcast medium, and how to write a 170 | P a g e MNM1520/1 news bulletin and a fact sheet for radio. You also need to understand television as a broadcast medium, and how to write a news bulletin for television. There are two forms of broadcast media, namely radio and television. This learning unit unfolds as follows: Learning outcomes After completing this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • define broadcast media explain guidelines for writing for radio discuss the process of writing a news bulletin for radio explain writing a fact sheet for radio discuss guidelines for writing for television explain the process of writing a news bulletin for television evaluate text for television and radio broadcasting Key concepts Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • define broadcast media define radio define television explain news bulletin explain a fact sheet 171 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Very important! Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please follow the following URL and download the material: http://bookboon.com/en/practical-pr-ebook 7.1 BROADCAST MEDIA Study the section that follows: Broadcast media make use of airwaves to transmit the audio for radio and the visual and audio for television. Broadcast signals can be carried out over wavebands, which include short-wave, medium-wave and high frequency or ultra-high frequency. Each of the band waves carries their limited signals. Broadcast signals are transmitted technically through the atmosphere at the speed of light and can allow for large amount of information to be transferred. Television's bandwidth (channel space) is much heavier as these are more information rich than radio or audio signals. Television bandwidth is also not able to travel as far as radio signals, and uses more bandwidth than radio or audio signals (Kellison 2009:19). Band waves are not owned, but it is regulated and controlled by government agencies. Broadcasting licenses are awarded to those who pay for a particular band wave (Botha et al 2007:152–153). In South Africa, the agency that awards broadcasting license is the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA). Commercial radio and television stations accept and broadcast paid advertising, while community radio stations have community radio licences to broadcast in a particular area or community. Broadcast media are very different from print media and provide organisations with various functions not available when using print media. Writing for broadcast media is different from writing for print media. Broadcast media can make allowances in language use and sentence structure, as it is written for the intention of someone talking to the audience, whether it may be as a news broadcaster or radio presenter. There is also the allowance of using more informal language, as the focus is now on the audience hearing the message (Tuggle, Carr & Huffman 2011:3). Broadcast writing can make use of the repetition of words and redundant words, as broadcasting needs to use particular methods to grab viewers or listeners attention and keep it. Furthermore, as radio and television does not always allow for the repetition of an entire story, broadcast writing should cover the important information without losing the audience’s interest by providing too much information (Starr & Dunsford 2014:54–55). 172 | P a g e MNM1520/1 All types of media – print, online and broadcast – have a specific set of advantages and disadvantages, which makes it critical that organisations make informed decisions on what is to be communicated, what is needed to meet the objectives of the communique and, finally, which type of media would suit this the best. A specific challenge present in the use of broadcast media is the difficulty to retain a broadcast message and give it a “shelf-life” as is the case with print media. If a broadcast message is not taken in at the point of communication, and no recording is made, the message is lost. With print media, however, the message can still be seen years later; think about going to the doctor or the dentists' office where old magazines can be found and the “shelf-life” concept becomes abundantly clear. In contrast to this discussion, it can be said that the market being exposed to the broadcast media is much larger than the readership numbers of newspapers and magazines (Rensburg & Cant 2009; James & Wosh 2011). SAARF is the name by which the South African Audience Research Foundation is most commonly known. SAARF measures the audiences of all traditional media, such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema and out-of-home media. SAARF aims to conduct and publish media audience product or brand information for the benefit of its stakeholders. The data provided assists organisations with target marketing and provides a deeper insight into “who” their target audience is. Amongst the reports SAARF provides to the public are the radio audience measurement survey (RAMS) and the television audience measurement survey (TAMS). For more information on SAARF, RAMS and TAMS follow the URL: http://www.saarf.co.za/saarf/allabout.asp Rules for both television and radio writing (writing for the ear) There are particular rules of broadcast writing that differ from that of print media. The rules for broadcasting media differ vastly because of the visual and audio nature of television and the audio nature of radio, which makes it different. These rules are (Tuggle et al 2011:3): One chance to make ourselves understood: This means that you need to write so that every sentence is clear when the presenter reads your work. Once you have completed the writing, read it out loud – it might look good on paper but does it sound good when heard? Different story structure: An inverted pyramid style is typically used in print media, where the important facts are indicated, first followed by less important details. This style of writing can cause a problem when limited word space means that the lesser important facts are often cut and the article ends abruptly. In broadcasting, the listeners or viewers will immediately know that something is missing, thus cutting out facts is not always an option. It is better to conclude a story with a summary or a statement to make the viewers or listeners think so that they are not “lost” in the middle of the report. 173 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Conversational tone: This is less formal language (although not totally colloquial either), which ensures that the listener or viewer is on the same level of understanding as the presenter. Using words incorrectly to impress people is highly likely and therefore it is just better to use simpler wording. Using contractions: Making use of contractions or shortening or words, for example, “that'll" instead of “that will” or “shouldn't” instead of “should not”, allows the presenter to sound less stiff and formal. However, there is a limit to this, as overusing contractions and using contractions that are confusing can hinder understanding. There are rules that apply to both television and radio, which are indicated below (Starr & Dunsford 2014:45): • • • • • • • • • • Every paragraph should be indented and each paragraph should be one sentence only. Writing should be similar to telling the story to a friend. The opening sentence should have 10 to 15 words that capture the essence of the story. Further details should be included in the second sentence. Avoid using different words that have the same meaning – rather repeat words to make the story consistent. Place titles of individuals before the names. Place the acknowledgement before statements. Indicate that a direct quote will be made by starting with “in these words”. Instead of giving exact numbers with many decimal places, rather round numbers off (without indicating that the number has been rounded off). You are allowed to fragment sentences in order to get a point across. Importance of broadcast media for public relations You may want to know why public relations practitioners must make so much effort to write for broadcast media when there are journalists or media houses that could take care of that. Well, the answer is simple, if public relations practitioners make it easier for the journalists to broadcast your story by writing the news release or fact sheet when a major story breaks, it is easier to create a short version of the public relations practitioner's print news release, making it easier to get your story on air without much copy revision. The more effort a public relations practitioner puts into writing for broadcast media, the less effort the journalist has to make, which is therefore also a factor that contributes to the likelihood of your story being broadcasted (Zappala & Carden 2004:213). Public relations practitioners need to know the media industry, because with that knowledge, public relations practitioners succeed at having their stories placed in print or broadcast media. When public relations practitioners’ writing for the media is newsworthy, uses creative headlines and leads that capture the media's attention, while also meeting journalistic standards, with consideration for timing issues with local focus, and is suitable for 174 | P a g e MNM1520/1 the best media channel for distribution, media placement is more likely (Zappala & Carden 2010:91). A sample of a media alert by the National Down Syndrome http://www.ndss.org/About-NDSS/Media-Kit/Sample-Media-Alert/ Society: Public relations practitioners write news releases and other forms of communication, which can be broadcasted on either radio or television, making it easier for anchors or broadcasters to broadcast your story as most of the work has been done. In a radio scenario, the listeners must find your story newsworthy, either in terms of how it can benefit them or how it is of value to them. When writing a story for radio, think of the listener listening to your story and thinking: “What is in it for me?”. Your story must be able to answer that immediately, otherwise you will lose that listener. In a television scenario when the CEO of the organisation is being interviewed about a recent crisis situation in the organisation, there are particular tasks to perform: • • • • 7.2 Think ahead of how the interview can be handled in terms of the approach from the CEO. Be prepared regarding the types of questions that could be asked and prepare well-research answers that are fair and accurate. Interview mechanics involve looking the person in the eyes during the interview, not fidgeting during the interview, and being sure to pronounce words correctly when speaking up or using a microphone. Listening is a useful tool when phrases can be misunderstood or questions can be misheard, because the interviewee did not pay attention to what is being said, but instead just answered according to the planned answers. RADIO AS A BROADCAST MEDIUM Study the section that follows: Radio is very much part of our everyday lives. Whether we listen to the radio to actually listen or have it on in the background to break the silence, whether it being in the car when driving or listening to it in the bank while waiting in the queue, chances are each one of us is exposed to radio at some point during the day. In South Africa, we mainly have different types of radio stations such as talk radio, music radio and campus radio. No matter what type of radio station it is, broadcasters are always on the lookout for interesting content (James & Wosh 2011). The immediacy of radio trumps newspapers and television, as it is easier to interrupt the current programme to provide breaking news. There are different news 175 | P a g e MNM1520/1 channels, which cater for different needs. There are the serious talk shows where interviews and discussions on the latest happenings are the focus. There are radio stations that are mostly music based – these too can vary from a radio station that plays mostly Maskandi music (type of Zulu folk music) to those that play mostly Afrikaans music, to those that play mostly kwaito music (house music featuring African sounds and samples). There are faith-based radio stations and business-focused radio stations, all catering for particular audiences. However, all these radio stations have in common is the news, as each station needs to keep abreast of the happenings in the world in order to remain relevant and current (Fleming 2010:105–106). On the other hand, the news bulletin provided on radio is limited to a particular time frame or airtime, which is the time available to accommodate broadcasting material, whether it may be a 60-second news report or a 5-minute news report. Those 60 seconds of news delivery could be equivalent to a column and a half in a newspaper, which is considerably less news and detail. There are various advantages of using radio as a broadcast medium, including the following (Rensburg & Cant 2009) • • • • • • • • • can deliver immediate announcements has the intimacy of the human voice is portable can be used while doing other things has a variety of listeners reaches different ethnic groups includes people who cannot read good saturation low cost Importance of radio broadcasting for public relations There are particular audiences that are more accessible with radio than other forms of media. When taking a taxi to work in the morning, how often is the taxi driver listening to his favourite radio station, which plays his taste of music and in his particular language of choice? How often are particular radio advertisements played that you may not hear on other radio stations? How often have you been in a waiting room and the receptionist has her radio playing in the background, playing those golden oldies she prefers? (See the http://www.saarf.co.za/ramspresentations/2016/March%202016%20RAMS%20Release%20Highlights.docx on the next page relating to where people listened to radios the most.) Imagine the impact it could have if you know that a large number of women in a particular age group listens to a particular radio station, if they are your organisation's target audience in terms of beauty products? How do you build a relationship with such a group? You could maybe invite them to come to a beauty workshop that will allow them to view your product in your organisation, so that you can get to know your customers and so that they can get to know your organisation. 176 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Once you have done your research on your customers, you are able to use a medium through which to communicate with them. In this case, it is through the use of radio. The role of the public relations practitioner comes in when he or she needs to be a source of information for a radio journalist. News comes from numerous sources and journalists build up their contacts in their particular focus of news reporting or beat. Therefore, it is important for a public relations practitioner to build relations with journalists who are in a particular beat. For instance, a financial organisation should know journalists who cover financial and economic matters, making it easier for both of them to do their jobs having a named contact rather than having to struggle to get information from an unknown individual. Newsrooms are fed information through news releases, which public relations practitioners write and often send through e-mail (Fleming 2010:110). Guidelines PR practitioners can follow to maintain good relationships with radio stations include (James & Wosh 2011): submitting public service announcements not going on air live Being aware that taped interviews might be edited • • • In addition, it is good to know what the dynamics of radio stations are, for example, who the target audience is, what focus the radio station has, what type of listener there is in terms of demographics (study of population based on age, race, gender, employment, economic status, education level and income level), to know who is listening to the radio station. The locations where individuals listen to the radio, which can give insight into the listeners’ lifestyles, is illustrated at http://www.saarf.co.za/rams-presentations/2016/March%202016%20RAMS%20 Release%20Highlights.docx The radio station with the highest listening ratings, which can provide a public relations practitioner with the best overview of which radio stations are the most popular can be seen at http://www.saarf.co.za/rams-presentations/2016/March %202016%20RAMS%20Release%20Highlights.docx. Once the public relations practitioner has an idea of the radio listening ratings, the public relations practitioner can then target those radio stations with the listener base that is most relevant to the messages that the organisation wishes to disseminate. Activity 7.1 Study the figure relating to the incidence of radio listening. Do research on Ukhozi FM regarding: • • where the radio station is broadcasted who the main audience is and what their characteristics are 177 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Once you have completed your research, indicate which organisation can make use of this radio station to advertise a workshop they are hosting and what that particular workshop can achieve. Feedback Ukhozi FM’s core audience falls in the age category of 16 to 24 and the LSM grouping is 5 to 8. The typical listener for this radio station is aspirational Zulu speakers who want to acquire things to show success. The listeners are culturally and spiritually conscious but are modern with a sense of community and strong cultural affinity. Based on the radio station's audience, decide which organisation this radio station will be best suited for to broadcast their story. Writing a news bulletin for radio Radio has two basic kinds of news stories, which are reader/actualities and wraps (Tuggle et al 2011:85). • • A reader/actuality (RA) will be reader by the anchor, who will read the opening copy followed by the audio recording of the actuality or sound bite and then the anchor will close with a closing copy. A wrap includes the anchor lead and a voiced report from the report with the sound bite. An anchor introduces the topic and invites listeners to voice their opinions (Botha et al 2007:154). An anchor is the radio personality who presents a radio slot, such as the drive time slot in the morning or the evening slot – when most listeners are in their vehicles travelling to and from work. Who is your favourite radio personality (for example, Reddy Tlhabi, DJ Fresh and so on)? 7.2.2.1 Writing a fact sheet for radio A factsheet is a list of details relating to a story that you want broadcasted. A factsheet is written in short sentences, which allows the presenter to add in their own words and deliver the story in their own manner without changing the essence of your story (Botha et al 2007:154). It is suggested that when writing copy for radio, one should use a factsheet format. A factsheet is basically dividing your paper and labelling the columns. The right side of the page will be limited to the verbal part of your message, while the left side of the page outlines the production information. Have a look at an example of a factsheet http://www.liyuantv. com/beajeus/123021-300793.html. 178 | P a g e MNM1520/1 The first and most important step is to write the message first. Spend some time on this and decide carefully what exactly it is you want to say. Once this has been finalised, you will enter it on the factsheet and complete production message or cues on the left. It is important to ensure that the production cues correspond with the message at any given point in time. The message can then be recorded in a studio, digitally produced and distributed for broadcast (Newsom & Haynes 2011). When writing copy for radio, the choice of words is extremely important, because we do not have the luxury of graphics. We want listeners to use their imagination; we need to thus elicit those responses by them through the words we choose to use. Be careful of using regional or local language or specific dialects (Newsom & Haynes 2011). Guidelines for the writing of the copy include the following: • • • • • • One page is best. Set the margins for a 60-space line, which allows for 3 to 4 seconds per line. Use 12 pt Times New Roman or any serif-type font. Use about 10 words per line. Use about 15 lines per minute. If printed use triple spacing. Activity 7.2 Think about what we have learnt so far. If you were the PR practitioner for a company that has been part of a major oil spill in our oceans, write a factsheet to the public regarding this incident. Try and incorporate as many guidelines as possible. Feedback Each student's response will be different depending on the message you wish to disseminate. Arrive Alive is well known for their radio campaigns to create awareness for safe driving tips. Visit the following link to listen to their latest radio advert: https://www.arrivealive.co.za/advert.aspx?p=14 Digital radio Digital radio is digital audio broadcasting that can be transmitted over any digital platform such as over digital television, stream over the internet and even over 179 | P a g e MNM1520/1 mobile phones (Fleming 2010:24–32). Radio broadcasted over frequency waves are analogue. Digital radio has made it possible for listeners to tune into their favourite radio station even though they are no longer in the broadcasting area. Think of South Africans living in Canada who can listen to Heart FM (a Cape Town based radio station) over the internet. Radio in the South African context “SAARF's main objective is to direct and publish media audience and product/brand research for the benefit of its stake-holders, thereby providing data for target marketing and a common currency for the buying and selling of media space and time. SAARF has thus the responsibility to measure the audiences of all traditional media such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema and out of home media. This is done by ensuring that the necessary joint industry research surveys are conducted every year to provide updated audience information for all traditional media (All Media and Products Survey (AMPS), RAMS, TAMS and Out of Home Media Survey (OHMS)).” (SAARF 2016) Statistics and descriptions of media industry can be found in Entertainment and media outlook: 2015- 2019 – South Africa – Nigeria – Kenya. Click on the link and read what the media industry landscape looks like: https://www.pwc.co.za/ en/assets/pdf/entertainment-and-media-outlook-2015-2019.pdf SABC to play 90% local music on its radio stations BY BEKEZELA PHAKATHI, 11 MAY 2016, 17:15 IN AN effort to ensure that local content reflecting the diversity of South African cultures is prioritised, the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) says it will play 90% local music across its 18 radio stations from Thursday. Local artists have long called for the percentage of South African music on community or public radio stations' playlists to be increased. They argue that without radio airplay they are unable to grow an audience and thus cannot sell records. "The SABC will engage its audiences to evaluate whether the audiences are satisfied with these changes. This process will pave the way for the corporation to make an informed decision going forward," the broadcaster said in a statement on Wednesday. The music to be played would be across all genres, with a special focus on genres such as kwaito, jazz, reggae and gospel. In addition, the SABC will play more music from legends in the industry and up-and-coming artists. SABC chief operations officer Hlaudi Motsoeneng said: "The SABC has taken a radical decision about its local content offering across all its radio, television and digital platforms. It is in this context that the decision on local music will ensure that the SABC fully reflects the various styles of local music on offer". "Our respective radio stations will not be confined to playing local music which is language specific, we want to come to a point where any of our 18 radio stations can become a home for all South Africans. "This cross-pollination of music is very important for the public service broadcaster, because part of our mandate is to reflect the South African story and music is an important part in ensuring that the SABC fulfills this mandate," said Mr Motsoeneng. To promote local content on television, the broadcaster will use local music fillers between programmes. 180 | P a g e MNM1520/1 From July, the SABC will increase its local content offering on television. Recently the broadcaster called on independent and emerging producers to come up with fresh proposals and content. "The SABC looks forward to receiving contributions from all over the country. To support this initiative, commissioning editors will be appointed in all the provinces at the various SABC offices," the broadcaster said. Source: http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/media/2016/05/11/SABC-to-play-90-local-music-on-itsradio-stations 7.3 TELEVISION AS A BROADCAST MEDIUM Study the section that follows: Television too is a big part of our daily lives, as people can discuss a soccer match that was broadcasted or announcement from Parliament. Television has had a big impact on the culture of societies as it is able to show a particular perception of the society and thus shape culture. Television has combined all the best of other types of media in that it is accessible, affordable, interactive, aesthetically appealing such as in film in terms of look and sound, and it affords the imagination of radio and the reach of the telegraph (Kellison 2009:17). Television allows for the dialogue relating to social and political matters to be more widespread. Think of the conversations you have with colleagues, friends and family when another incident has occurred in Parliament, which was broadcasted, or when conversations in the workplace corridor spark up relating to the latest episode of the most popular series at the time. Television has a great impact on the conversations that people are having. In the past, television as a medium used to be seen as very elitist. As you can see from the viewer number from TAMS below, this is no longer the case. TV provides a great broadcast medium for various reasons. One of the most beneficial elements is that people watch it at home, so they are in a calmer state and peaceful. Even though your audience is not as “captured” as in a cinema, you still have a fairly captive audience; as TV is not as portable as radio, people need to sit and watch, and so it is semi-captive. TV provides a good mix of sight and sound, movement and radio. When people watch rather than listen, is possible that they are paying more attention. Today, there is also the functionality of being able to record TV and playback, so messages can be viewed over and over. Lastly, it is important to keep in mind that TV is very expensive; there are costs for producing the TV segment as well as flighting costs (Rensburg & Cant). 181 | P a g e MNM1520/1 A public relations campaign relating to health issues might be most suitable during high peak viewer ratings (although a matter of cost is also important to consider). A campaign on water saving tips aimed at children may be most suited during times when children watch TV, such as in the afternoon, after school hours. The trends in television may have an impact on when messages are most suited. These trends include the following (Bivens 2014:19; Kellison 2009:42): Digital TV (DTV) is television signals transmitted via an aerial town, phone lines, or a cable into either the TV or through a decoder linked to the TV. This is, for example, television signals through means of a DSTV dish and decoder. Interactive TV (ITV) is digital signals that are transmitting a combination of images, sound, graphics, games and information. This is, for example, when you link to the internet to download series and movies, or even to upload user-generated content, which you have created, to YouTube. User-generated content is especially important as citizens also create news through their comments on blogs, and loading pictures and videos of occurrences to social media, which become crucial in reporting as it is an eye witness's testimony. Think of the images and videos uploaded by students regarding the #FeesMustFall social movement to News24 or other online newspaper social media pages, which became centre pieces in news stories. Multicasting is when broadcasters transmit programming via digital signals through one high-quality, high-definition picture or by using the same amount of signalling to send four regular, standard-definition pictures. For example, during the day, a broadcaster has a channel on for kids’ programmes, cooking show, news shows and documentaries. Later the evening, the broadcaster may have a high production value series with well-known actors and expensive sets. Video on demand (VOD) is a system which allows users the opportunity to watch video, film and user-generated content to either watch immediately (thus stream the content) or to download to watch later. Digital video recorders (DVR) or personal video recorders (PVR) allow users to record programmes to watch later, also allowing a programme to be played, rewound and paused at the watchers’ will. Why are these aspects important for a public relations practitioner? Will you allow a pre-recorded interview to be downloaded? Will you allow an interview between a journalist and the CEO regarding a recent crisis to be placed on a website so that it can be live streamed? Knowing the implications, advantages and disadvantages of the trends in the industry will enable the public relations practitioner to make more sound decisions relating to the content. 182 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Particularly when it comes to news or interviews regarding the organisation, a PR practitioner has a piece of information and needs to decide whether it is new he or she can answer the following questions to decide (James & Wosh 2011): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Why is it news? Who will it affect? Why should our audience care? Is there a link between your story and a larger news story? Do we have images to available that will enhance our story? In addition, the public relations practitioner can have a look at the ratings of television during a particular time period to determine when the best time to report on their story is. For example, a constant viewing rate is experienced during the week of December 14, during the week of June 15, and during the week of December 15 (a six-month interval, as seen in http://www.saarf.co.za/ramspresentations/2016/March%202016%20RAMS%20Release%20Highlights.docx). Writing a news bulletin for television News and current affairs are factual programmes, which are often considered as one concept; however, there are differences. News is a straightforward report on an issue, which may include sound bites or a reporter’s report, whereas current affairs involves more discussion about a current event albeit with some debate, opinion sharing and different views of the event being discussed. Important aspects when reporting news is accuracy, fairness and impartiality. Accuracy is ensuring that the facts are correct; therefore, the news reporter should be able to answer the following: What: what are the facts of the story? Who: who is involved in the story and what role do they play in the story? Where: where did the incident occur? When: when did the incident occur? Fairness is a subjective concept, which relates to the questions of why, how and the consequences of the incident. Impartiality relates to being balanced and using appropriate language. This means balanced in the reporting and not siding with a particular party involved and using appropriate language that does not give a negative slant to the story or that exaggerates the story. Television has three basic kinds of news stories, which are readers, voice-overs, voice-overs/sound on tape (Tuggle et al, 2011:103–104). 183 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • Readers involve no video or visual that is inserted over the anchors face, although a visual to the side of an anchor is also considered a reader. Voice-over involves video or visuals that are inserted over the anchors face, although the anchors voice can be heard in the background. Voice-overs/sound on tape involves a brief snippet of an on-camera interview followed by a voice-over video. When writing for any type of news bulletin, there are certain aspects that remain the same such as the structure of the news report. A news report is about telling the audience who, what, where, when, why and how regarding a story, but also provides a structure for the story. A news report structure includes a headline, cues, the facts, interviews and balancing arguments as well as concluding remarks. These structural elements are discussed below (Willet 2013:219): Headlines come from the presenter, which serves to grab the listeners' attention. It provides details on why the rest of the report should be listened to and serves as a heading of sorts, which appears on the news bulletin. Cues are the introduction aspects to a field reporter's report. The cue sets up the basic facts to give the listener reasons why they should continue listening to the report. The facts relate to the what, what, when and where of the story. Facts are the details that the audiences should know, providing background before any discussion commences. Report from a correspondent/journalist is either the relay of facts or in other cases, the interpretation of the facts. Interviews/arguments/discussions relate to the why and how of the story, which looks at the outcomes and consequences of the story. At this stage, primary players in the story or experts in the field (relevant individuals) will provide their opinion of the story. Concluding remarks refer to when the argument or discussion is brought to an end with a summary. 7.3.1.1 Writing guidelines for television When developing a message for television, there are two specific areas that need our attention, the copy and the complete production. For the development of the production, we will begin with a storyboard. A storyboard is a rough sketch of the major parts or scenes of the message drawn in sequence. The script of each scene will appear below it on the story board. Production costs for television is very high and along with that, the airing of these messages can be even more expensive. Have a look at an example of a storyboard http://profcraigarmstrong. wikispaces.com/Storyboarding. 184 | P a g e MNM1520/1 For the copy section of our message, we need to think both visually and verbally. It is suggested that you take your piece of paper and draw a line down the middle; the one side will represent the script and the other the description. This process is followed to ensure we do not get caught up in the glamour of TV and lose the message in the process. On the "script" side of the page, you will write down the words you want the public to hear. You will go over this many times and ensure that it says exactly what we want it to and does not leave room for misunderstanding. The second part of this process will now be to write down a visual description for each of the statements or words you have written already. Finally, you will take both the verbal and visual messages and put them in a storyboard. Guidelines for the writing of the copy include: • • • • • Set margins for a 30-space line. Use 12 pt Times New Roman or any serif-type font. Use about 6 words per line. Use about 21 lines per minute. If printed use triple spacing. As we have discussed previously, Arrive Alive is an excellent example of a company using broadcast media to get their message across. Visit the following link to view to their latest TV advert: https://www.arrivealive.co.za/advert.aspx?p=2 Activity 7.3 Based on the Arrive Alive awareness campaign advert you have just watched, see if you can draw or create a storyboard for this advert. 7.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the feedback given in the prescribed book. 1. List and define the two types of broadcast media. 2. Explain how you would go about writing a fact sheet about obesity in South Africa for a programme on Talk Radio 702. 3. Discuss the guidelines for writing for television. 4. What are the main differences between broadcast media and print media? 5. Discuss the guidelines for writing for radio. 185 | P a g e MNM1520/1 7.5 REFLECTION Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions: 1 2 3 4 7.6 Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit in your professional life? What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme? SUMMARY You now know more about broadcast media, which differ from print media, and for which you therefore have to write differently. We began the learning unit by examining the nature of broadcast media. The key topics in this learning unit were the definition and role of radio and television as broadcast media. As a prospective public relations practitioner, you must understand the guidelines for writing for radio and or television and be able to apply them by writing a news bulletin for both radio and television. In learning unit 8, you will learn about writing text intended for the electronic media. 186 | P a g e MNM1520/1 7.7 REFERENCES Bivens, R. 2014. Digital currents, how technology and the public are shaping TV news. Toronto: University of Toronto. Dovey, J. 2014. South Africa & Southern African Development Community Media Facts 2015. [Online] Available at: http://www.omd.co.za/media_facts/FM%20AdFocus%20Media%20Facts%2028%20November%202014.pdf (accessed on 16 May 2016). Fleming, C. 2010. The radio handbook. 3rd edition. Abingdon: Routledge. James, RD & Wosh, PJ. 2011. Public relations and marketing for archives: a how-todo-it manual. Chicago: Society of American Archivists and Neal-Schuman. Kellison, C. 2009. Producing for TV and new media: a real-world approach for producers. Oxford: Focal Press. Newsom, D & Haynes, J. 2011. Public relations writing: form & style. 9th edition. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Rensburg, R & Cant, M. 2009. Public relations: African perspectives. 2nd edition. Sandton: Heinemann. SAARF. 2016. South African audience research foundation. [Online] Available at: http://www.saarf.co.za/ (accessed on 16 May 2016). Starr, DP & Dunsford, DW. 2014. Writing the story. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield. Willet, A. 2013. Media production: a practical guide to radio and TV. Abingdom: Routledge. Zappala, JM & Carden, AR. 2004. Public relations worktext: a writing and planning resource. 2nd edition. New Jersey: Taylor & Francis. 187 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 8 Writing text intended for online communication Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 8.1 Online communication 8.2 The internet 8.3 Writing for various online communication 8.4 Self-assessment questions 8.5 Reflection 8.6 Summary 8.7 References 8. Introduction Online communication is part of our life and it is one of the key ingredients to survive in today's fast paced life. The use of online communication is increasing day by day and is being implemented in almost every segment of our lives. It does not matter which industry you are working in, online communication will be used in a certain manner. In your personal life you will use SMS, e-mail and Facebook to communicate with friends and family. You will also use the internet to keep up to date with what is going on in the world. If you are a public relations practitioner of a big corporate organisation, some of your daily tasks would be to share information through the organisation's website and social media accounts like Facebook and Twitter. Thanks to the new smartphones, we are able to use online communication wherever we are, whatever the time. According to Apple, iPhone and iOS are enabling every industry, every line of business and every employee to work in astounding new ways (Apple 2016). Overview of this learning unit In this learning unit, we define media and briefly discuss different types of media. (We have already dealt with two types of media, namely radio broadcasting and television broadcasting in the previous learning units 6 and 7.) You will also learn more about writing for online communication and the internet. It is important that you know and understand the various electronic-based and internet-based media types. 188 | P a g e MNM1520/1 This learning unit unfolds as follows: Writing for various online communication Learning outcomes After completing this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • explain online communication and the internet explain writing for various electronic-based media types explain the differences between the various types of internet-based media evaluate online text explain the internet and its benefits discuss writing for the internet explain writing e-mails explain writing for SMSs explain writing for webpages explain writing for intranet explain writing for e-newsletters explain writing for discussion forums explain writing for social media explain writing for cloud-based computing Key concepts Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • define online communication define e-mail define SMS 189 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • • • • define world-wide web define e-newsletters discuss discussion forums discuss blogging explain social media discuss cloud-based computing VERY IMPORTANT! Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please follow the URL below and download the material: http://bookboon.com/en/communicating-with-technology-ebook (pages 283–302) 8.1 ONLINE COMMUNICATION Study the section that follows: Online communication is access to information through computer-based means. This includes online newspapers, websites, social media, intranet and internet. As a public relations practitioner, you would use the following online communication to communicate to external stakeholders: online newspapers, websites and social media. When a person communicates on behalf of an organisation, one must always remember to uphold the image of the organisation. To communicate with internal stakeholders, a person will use intranet, e-mails and e-newsletters. Unisa, for example, has an intranet that sends mails to all employees. 190 | P a g e MNM1520/1 They also send out e-newsletters that give information on what is happening at the various Unisa campuses. The online communication revolution has renewed the ongoing debate whether print media is still relevant. Both communication forms have its advantages. Please see below the advantages as well as the disadvantages of online communication: Advantages: • • • • • Speedy transmission – It requires only a few seconds to communicate online because it supports quick transmission. Wide coverage – It only takes seconds to communicate around the world. Low cost – Online communication saves time and an SMS, for example, is a lot cheaper than sending a letter. Exchange of feedback – A person can send an e-mail and get a response within minutes. Managing global operation – It makes international business very easy, as one can communicate with your overseas offices in real time without any delay. Disadvantages: • • • 8.2 Volume of data – You need to store the data to make it accessible in the future. Cost of development – Online communication requires huge investment in infrastructure. If the technology changes or becomes outdated, a company needs to invest in new technology to keep up to date. Dependency – The discrepancy between poor and rich countries increases as the poor countries cannot afford to buy the newest and greatest technology. THE INTERNET Study the section that follows: After studying this section, you should be able to explain what the internet is. You should also be able to discuss how it can be used and what benefits it offers in today's global business environment. Previously, a company normally placed ads in the local newspapers and joined a local networking organisation. Then they hoped that the customers needed what they had to offer. All that changed with the beginning of the internet. A business is no longer dependent on its local customer base for its survival; it now has a worldwide audience for its goods and services. The internet has not only changed a business's customer base but also the way it communicates with its employees and 191 | P a g e MNM1520/1 customers. Digital advertising, videos, banner advertisements and social media advertising have become a norm. The internet is a global communication network that allows almost all computers worldwide to connect and exchange information. It also allows data to be transferred between computers. In today's time, internet is not just used on computers but a person can access the internet on a phone and tablet devices as well. An organisation will use the internet to advertise an organisation's products and services, they will use it to communicate with various stakeholders, and they will promote the organisation and build relationships with key stakeholders. There are lots of ways to connect devices like mobile phones and computers to the internet. The options will depend on where you live, what device you have, and if you want to use the internet when you are away from home. The different connection types are highlighted below: • • • • • • Dial up – The computer will dial a phone number using a telephone line. Broadband – This is a high speed internet connection. You can watch news and sport live. You can also download large files on broadband. Fixed broadband – This is a permanent connection to the internet. You can use the phone and internet at the same time. Mobile broadband – You plug a USB modem into your device and use the mobile as a tower to gain access to the internet. Internet on mobile phones – Many phones let you access the internet. Smart phones are mobile phones that are like small computers. They have software on them to make it easy to surf the internet, check e-mail and use social networking sites. Wireless – Wireless hotspots are places like libraries and cafés that offer free access to their broadband connection. You need to be a member of the library or a customer at a café to get the password for the wireless. In South Africa, the government and institutions have realised the need for people to get connected to the internet, and they are thus implementing projects to give people easier access to the internet. In Cape Town, there is currently a project to create a fibre network to City-owned buildings to save them communication costs. They have also linked their digital inclusion project that have created 61 access points outside the buildings to broadcast Wi-Fi to the surrounding areas (Cameron 2015). Project Isizwe along with the City of Tshwane have set up hundreds of Wi-Fi hotspots to bring free internet to the residents in the city. This is achieved by bringing fibre to a central point in the community. Broadband that are sponsored by the municipality is broadcast from the central point, connecting 5 000 devices to 500 MB per day (Cameron 2015). In the sections that follow, you will learn more about writing for various online – communication media types. 192 | P a g e MNM1520/1 8.3 WRITING FOR VARIOUS ONLINE COMMUNICATION MEDIA TYPES Study the section that follows: As a public relations practitioner, you must be aware that there are different ways of writing for different online communication-based media types. The main online communication types are the internet, intranet, e-mail, blogs, Facebook and SMS. In the next section, we discuss how to write for the various online-communication media types. Writing for the internet Writing content for the internet is not the same as writing for print media. After studying this section, you should know how to write for the internet and what aspects you need to keep in mind. While writing for the internet, you should also know what netiquette is and how to apply it while writing for the internet. Netiquette is the network etiquette that is the guidelines for online communication (Dictionary.com 2016). Netiquette is network etiquette – the do's and don'ts of online communication. The word netiquette is a combination of “net” (internet) and etiquette. It means respecting the other users views and displaying common courtesy when posting on the internet. Below are a few useful guidelines for writing online communication: • • • • • • • Write simple and effective content. The content should be easy for everyone to read and understand. Understand that people read webpages differently than other media. People scan the page for something that will keep their interest. Headings, bullet items, text formatting and clear navigation will keep a reader interested in the article. Write clean links. Specific links are navigation that will keep a reader interested in the article. Use visuals to grab and keep a reader's attention. Be wary about sending attachments. The recipients may not have the necessary or newest software to open the attachments. Use an appropriate font and point size. Write in a positive tone and avoid using negative words. 193 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Below is an example of a written public relations article written for the internet: Health running shoes benefit athletes all over America California: March 23, 2016. Four years ago our organisation Health introduced a new kind of running shoe that supports a runner's feet while running. The shoe was tested on numerous athletes from all ages. The feedback on the shoe was amazing! A runner normally experience three types of problems, with their feet and legs while running, which include blisters, runner's knee and black nails from the pressure. A runner's feet undergo a lot of duress over the course of a training cycle and blisters are a common occurrence after long runs or races. The new Health running shoe is patented with similar special material use by astronauts in space. The material is extra soft and bouncy, so from the very first run with these shows it will protect the feet from blisters and black nails. The second problem a runner can encounter is runner's knee. If a runner’s foot is too unstable to land in a controlled manner, a runner could develop runner's knee. The Health running shoe is extra soft and bouncy and thus decreases the changes of a runner developing runner's knee. The third problem runners experience with their feet are bruising or slight bleeding under the nail from repetitive trauma of the top of the shoe, striking the nail with each step or the shoe slides forward into the end of the shoe. Health shoes are developed with extra padding on the top of the foot and the shoes are made especially for the athletes and thus the shoes fits perfectly and minimises the changes of the foot moving towards the front of the shoes. Health running shoes were giving to a 1 000 athletes across America. After a period of six months, interviews were scheduled with the athletes to get their input and feedback regarding the shoes. A total of 60% of the athletes said that they experienced less blisters while running with the Health shoes, 50% said they had less problems with their knees since using the shoes and 70% said that they had less bruising and bleeding under their toenails. Health is very proud of what it has achieved in the running industry and strives to improve the health of every athlete in America. Press Contacts: Anne Drinkwater Health drinkwater@health.com (042) 556 2856 Matthew Jones Health jones@health.com (042) 556 8896 194 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Note to editors: (www.health.com). For additional information visit Health's website Study the netiquette guidelines provided in this section and make sure you apply it when you write for the internet. Writing e-mails E-mail, short for electronic mail, is defined as the transmission of a message by telecommunication. After studying this section, you should be able to discuss the rules for writing an e-mail. You will also come to understand that e-mail is an effective method to communicate to various parties. Please see below the following guidelines that you need to consider when writing an e-mail: • • • • • Do not use all capital or small cases unless when you are referring to an acronym or term that is familiar with the reader. Capital letters may be perceived as angry or aggressive. Always address the reader in a professional manner. If you are not sure who the reader is you should start with “Whom it may concern”. Check your grammar before sending it and refrain from using slang. Be polite and use words like “please” and “thank you”. Use paragraphs to make it easier for the reader to read. 195 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Please see below examples of professional e-mails: An example of poor communication: An example of good communication: 196 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Activity 8.1 Read the “poor communication” e-mail in section 8.3.2. Study the guidelines for writing an e-mail. Write down all the rules that Emma Smith broke when she wrote the first e-mail. Feedback What e-mail rules did Emma Smith broke when she wrote the first mail? • • • • • • Emma should have greeted the person to whom she was sending the mail and not just say “Hi”. Emma used capital letters for words like DEGREE. Emma should have checked the spelling of the e-mail before she sent it. Emma used slang language like “hav” and “pls”. Emma should have ended the e-mail more professionally with “Yours sincerely” or “Kind regards”. Emma should have put a relevant subject in the subject line. Writing SMSs After studying this section, you should know what the definition of an SMS is. You should also be able to explain the benefits of writing a high-quality SMS. SMS stands for “short message service” and is called texting or text messaging. It is a quick and convenient way of sending a short message to someone. The SMS is a tool that the public relations practitioner can use to reach more people simultaneously and instantly with an important message. SMS is included as online communication as there are websites and online services that allow bulk SMSs to be sent to a large number of people or specific individuals. Below you will find an example of an SMS that a public relations practitioner might send. In the case of this example, there were significant rainfall in Johannesburg and the public relations practitioner of Quick Food wanted to warn the customers to be careful: JHB has experienced significant rain. Please be careful when visiting our branches in North cliff and Fourways. Quick Food SMSs can be used by a public relations practitioner to reach a large audience. SMSs provide the urgency and flexibility to give customers valuable content at the most precise time. Netspeak is the special language, abbreviations and expressions used by people when communicating using the internet. This is also used in SMS language and is 197 | P a g e MNM1520/1 usually informal and quick, and does not follow the usual formal rules of written language. An SMS should be short, to the point and relevant to the reader. Public relations practitioners should not use SMS language while communicating with the public as it can be seen as unprofessional and the reader may not understand the message that the public relations practitioner wants to deliver. Activity 8.2 You are the public relations practitioner of SA Air. One of your planes has been grounded because of engine trouble and flight 182 to Cape Town has therefore been delayed. Write an SMS to inform the passengers of the situation. Feedback The SMS will look something like this: “Dear flight 182 passengers, due to unforeseen circumstances the flight will be delayed until further notice. We apologise for any inconvenience caused by SA Air.” As a prospective public relations practitioner, you need to understand the internet-based media types that we will discuss below. You will need to know how they differ from one another, and you must be able to discuss and identify them, and apply this knowledge practically. Webpages Many people think that the internet and the world-wide web are the same thing. While they are closely linked, they are very different systems. The internet is a huge network of computers that are connected together. The world-wide web (web or WWW for short) is a collection of webpages found on this network of computers. Your web browser uses the internet to access the web. The world-wide web is important because it makes it easier for people to get information, share information and communicate to the outside world. It allows for people to share their work through social networking sites, blogs and video sharing. Please see below a few guidelines to write for webpages: 1. Put your important information first – Writing for webpages is totally different than writing for print media. Example: You are looking for a brown couch. When you arrive at a website, you would like to see that they sell couches and, secondly, you want a search box so you know you can quickly find out if they have brown couches. 2. Don't use jargon or complicated word use – Simple statements work the best for webpages. 198 | P a g e MNM1520/1 3. Write for a person that only scans – Only 16% of people read webpages word for word. Visitors normally only hunt for information or products. Make sure they can understand the important information. 4. Use familiar words – Imagine you want to fly to London and you are looking for cheap flights. Most people will not search for cost-effective airlines, but rather the words “cheap flights”. 5. Write for a lazy person – Make sure your copy is easy to understand by using short paragraphs, short sentences and short text. 6. Expect people to arrive anywhere on the website – When people read a book, they normally start from the first page at the first chapter. Imagine they open the book and start in the middle or end of the book. This is how people read things on a webpage; they will not start with the homepage, they may arrive anywhere on the website. 7. Make a visual impression – The web designer and web copy editor must work together. The visual appeal of your website will impact the readability of your text and influence whether the visitor will quickly get what the company is about. A good example of a good website is www.whitehouse.gov. The www.whitehouse.gov website is always changing. It has a clean design and it is fairly easy to find what you are looking for on the webpages. There is even a “What are you looking for?” search box. After studying this section, you should be able to explain what the world-wide web is and discuss its importance to you as a public relations practitioner. Intranet An intranet connects people within a network. It is simply a website within a company's network. The main difference between an intranet and the internet is that the internet is an open and a public space, while an intranet is designed to be a private space. An intranet may be accessible from the internet, but as a rule it is protected by a password and will only be accessible by employees or other authorities. E-newsletters An e-mail newsletter is a message sent out to subscribers typically on a regular interval. E-mail newsletters may be sent out daily, weekly, monthly or annually. The content of the newsletter may vary with each edition. Some newsletters are so popular they even sell advertising space. But the main aim of an e-mail newsletter is to share information with the various stakeholders. You normally get two types of enewsletters – one that is aimed at internal stakeholders and one aimed at external stakeholders. 199 | P a g e MNM1520/1 E-mail newsletters for internal stakeholders will be sent to individuals who reside inside the company as board members, executives, managers and employees. E-mail newsletter for external stakeholders will be sent to customers, suppliers or lenders that influence the organisation. After studying this section, you should be able to explain what an e-newsletter is. You should also be able to discuss the guidelines for writing an e-newsletter, and to apply your knowledge practically. Discussion forums A discussion forum is a web application for holding discussions and posting user-generated content. It involves a group of people who use the internet to discuss things of common interest such as cooking or the latest technology. As a public relations practitioner, never ask questions that can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no”. You need to know the needs of the participants in the discussion forum, and to bring the conversation back to the original topic. Please see below an example of a discussion post: Barn Owl Forum Topic: Barn Owl box Posted by: Matthew Long Date/Time:10/29/2015 5:32 Message: I have recently built a new barn and I have noticed evidence of barn owls. I would like to build a box to encourage them to nest? Any ideas on building a box? Post a reply to this message: Blogs A blog can be defined as an online diary. Blog posts are assigned keywords to make it easier to search for specific topics. The readers are also allowed to leave comments to start a conversation with the writer and fellow readers. There are three types of blogs: personal blogs, corporate blogs and news blogs. A personal blog is where someone shares an experience, for example a mother that started a blog because her son has leukemia. A corporate blog is a blog where the company uses the blog to communicate with internal or external stakeholders on matters relating to the company. The last type of blog is a news blog, which refers to online news where readers can share their opinion regarding the article. Social media Social media is becoming one of the most exciting online tools available and it is slowly moving into all areas of the web. It can sometimes be difficult to explain to someone new to the internet the dynamic of social media. Douglas Wray wrote a breakdown of all the major media services and explained how they differ from each other by using the donut example found at https://smallbusiness.yahoo.com/ advisor/15-social-media-statistics-every-business-needs-know-001509118.html. 200 | P a g e MNM1520/1 The donut example is a simple example to explain the different social media sites. Twitter is for telling people what you are doing at any given moment (eating a donut), Facebook is more for sharing what you like in general (I like donuts), and LinkedIn is for sharing what you are good at (skills with donuts). There are lots of different social media platforms that a public relations practitioner can use. Companies need to have an online presence; they cannot just wait for a crisis to happen before commenting or responding on social media platforms. Social media are very informal, but it is still important to be professional and create a good image. Cloud-based communication systems Cloud-based computing is making use of the internet to store and access data. “Cloud” is just another term used for the internet, which makes use of systems such as Google Drive from Google or OneDrive from Microsoft, to allow individuals to remotely access files, pictures, videos or any format for that matter from a cloud. You can share folders with friends if you want them to see the pictures from last night's function, or in the corporate environment, you can share documents with colleagues on a project you are collaborating on. Documents saved to a cloud are then immediate, accessible 24/7 and reduce printing costs. Cloud computing is especially useful when sharing documents with other people in another city or country as the documents are too large for e-mails. For more information on cloud computing, see the article on the benefits, risks and recommendations for information security relating to cloud computing. See the following link: http://www.oerafrica.org/system/files/8356/cloud-computing-security-riskassessment1_0.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=8356 Did you notice? There is no in text referencing in this learning unit? What difference does it make to your perception of the sources of information? How do you think it affects consumers' opinion of an organisation when they don't seem to have fully detailed facts? 8.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the feedback given. 1. Your cosmetic company, Forever Young, has a promotional special on this month. If you purchase two Forever Young products, you will receive a 201 | P a g e MNM1520/1 2. 3. 4. 5. 8.5 cosmetic bag with small samples in. Draft a promotional SMS that you will send to Forever Young clients. Discuss five essential guidelines you need to apply when writing for the internet. What guidelines should you keep in mind when writing an e-mail? You are the public relations practitioner for SA Air. The company has purchased an airplane that is more environmentally friendly than normal airplanes. Write an e-mail newsletter to your external stakeholders to introduce the new addition to your fleet. Explain the difference between the terms “intranet” and “internet”. REFLECTION Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions: Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit in your professional life? 2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? 3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? 4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme? 1. 8.6 SUMMARY In this learning unit, you learnt the most important aspects of writing text intended for online communication. You learnt about the factors to consider when writing for the internet, and when it is appropriate for you as a public relations practitioner to write and send an e-mail or SMS. You are now also able to identify the various online-communication media types. In learning unit 9, we will focus on writing text for business documents. 202 | P a g e MNM1520/1 8.7 REFERENCES Apple. 2016. iOS and the new IT. [Online] Available at: http://www.apple.com/za/ipad/business/it/ (accessed on 1 March 2016). Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D & Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson Prentice Hall. Cameron, A. 2015. How partnerships are bringing the internet to Africa. [Online] Available at: http://www.capetownpartnership.co.za/2015/12/partnerships-arebringing-the-internet-to-africa/ (accessed on 20 May 2016). Davis, S. 2015. Types of online communication tools for business organization. [Online] Available at: https://despreneur.com/types-of-online-communicationtools-for-business-organization/ (accessed on 6 May 2016). Dictionary.com. 2016. Definition: Netiquette. [Online] Available at: http://www.dictionary.com/browse/netiquette (accessed on 31 May 2016). Griffith, E. 2016. What is cloud computing? [Online] Available at: http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2372163,00.asp (accessed on 6 May 2016). Internet society. 2016. How it works. [Online] Available at: http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/how-it-works/ (accessed on 15 March 2016). City University London. N.d. 10 rules for writing professional emails. [Online] Available at: https://www.city.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/234354/Writing-Professional-Emails.pdf (accessed on 19 March 2016). Henneke. 2013. 9 simple tips for writing persuasive web content. [Online] Available at: http://www.enchantingmarketing.com/writing-for-the-web-vs-print/ (accessed on 7 March 2016). Humphries, M. 2012. Social media explained with donuts. [Online] Available at: http://www.geek.com/geek-cetera/social-media-explained-with-donuts1466613/ (accessed on 20 March 2016). New York University. 2016. Writing for the web. [Online] Available at: https://www.nyu.edu/employees/resources-and-services/media-andcommunications/styleguide/website/writing-for-the-web.html (accessed on 19 March 2016). Fourie, L. 2014. Public relations: theory & practice. 1st edition. Cape Town: Juta. Rensburg, R & Cant, M. 2009. Public relations: African perspectives. 2nd edition. Sandton: Heinemann. 203 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 9 Writing text intended for business Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 9.1 Business letters 9.2 Business reports 9.3 Business proposals 9.4 Self-assessment questions 9.5 Reflection 9.6 Summary 9.7 References 9. Introduction Today's business world is almost entirely information-driven. Whether you run a small business or form part of a big corporation, chances are the bulk of your job will consist of communicating with others, most often in writing. Good writing skills allow you to communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-to-face or telephone conversations. As a public relations practitioner, you may be called to write a report or a grand application or press release. You may also need to communicate daily through official channels, for example by means of letters, e-mails, reports and proposals. 204 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Overview of this learning unit In this learning unit, we deal with business documents. We start by discussing the different types of business letters that you as a public relations practitioner may have to write, and we investigate the formal process and format to be followed when writing a business letter. Next, you will learn about the different types of business reports, and we discuss annual reports and the important points to remember when writing an annual report. Business proposals will be defined, and you will learn the most important differences between proposals, letters and reports. We also briefly discuss the development of a campaign proposal. This learning unit unfolds as follows: Learning outcomes After completing this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • • • • • explain the structure for writing business communication explain the guidelines to consider when writing business communication explain the different types of business letters explain the formal process for writing business letters discuss the format of business letters explain the different types of reports explain business report writing explain writing annual reports explain writing business proposals explain the main difference between business proposals, business letters and reports explain the format and writing of a campaign proposal 205 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Key concepts Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • explain explain explain explain explain explain explain business letters business reports business proposals solicitation letters transmittal letters annual reports campaign proposals Very important! Additional online material is for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please follow the URL below and download the material: http://bookboon.com/en/the-smart-guide-to-business-writing-ebook 9.1 BUSINESS LETTERS Study the section that follows: The term “business letters” refers to any written communication that begins with a greeting, ends with a signature and where the contents are professional in nature. Business letters are used to communicate formal matters in business or jurisprudence (Quintanilla et al 2011:164). In the past, business letters were sent via the post or courier, but because of the rapid change in business communication, most of the letters are sent via the internet. There are many standard types of business letters and each of them has a specific focus. The following are functions of a business letter (Ramya 2012): (a) Promotional function – The company can promote their company and products using a business letter. The company can also try to expand their market by sending out business letters. (b) Information function – Business letters provide valuable data and information to stakeholders of a company. Letters are used as reference. It is not only essential to maintain good correspondence but also important to make them available in the companies files. (c) Legal function – Business letters can provide evidence in a legal dispute. (d) Goodwill function – Business letters provide goodwill amongst parties. They provide a good rapport between parties in a business transaction. 206 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Before starting to write the letter, you need to keep in mind particular format details, which will ensure that your business letter remains professional. Types of business letters We will discuss the six types of business letters only briefly here. Pay close attention to the examples provided, because these will help you understand the differences between the types of business letters. All the types of business letters follow the same format, but the context differs. Here is a list of, and brief details about, the different types of business letters (Quintanilla et al 2011:169): • • • • • • • • Informative letters are business letters where the letter informs and educate the reader. After reading the letter, the person needs to gain knowledge and information about something. A good example would be when an airline announces that it will be flying to a new destination from now on. Solicitation letters are letters where the writer asks for funds and charity collection. A solicitation letter is always concise, clear, decent and to the point, and to let the reader know the need for the money. An example would be a letter from the charity organisation “Help Street Kids” asking companies to book a table to the next charity ball organised by the “Help Street Kids” organisation. Promotion letters are written to promote something, usually an organisation or event. The promotion should be clear and to the point. For example, the public relations practitioner of Big Air airlines will send out a promotional letter to promote the new flight special where kids under six fly for free. Transmittal letters accompany a larger item, usually a document. The transmittal letter provides the recipient with a specific context in which to place the larger document and at the same time gives the sender a permanent record of having sent the material. A transmittal letter is usually brief. The first paragraph describes what is being sent and the purpose. An example would be the public relations practitioner sending a transmittal letter with the year reports of the company Big Pirates Software to the relevant stakeholders before the yearly AGM. Cover letters are usually also sent with a larger item like a document. But the cover letter is much shorter than the transmittal letter. For example, when you send a CV to someone, you would send a cover letter with the CV as an introduction. Response letters are written in order to give response to any particular situation. An example would be a response letter to a complaint received by a customer due to fault in the service. Through a response letter the acceptance to the complaint is shown and the customer is provided with a proper priority. Thank you letters are used to express appreciation to co-workers and clients. Letters of complaint are sent when the individual or organisation received poor service or a faulty product. An example of a letter of complaint would be to an airline where you received bad service from the airline and wish to bring it to their attention. This does not necessarily need to be concise as it is important that you detail your arguments and points as much as possible, as you would like to provide the reader with enough detail to investigate the incident or product. 207 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Activity 9.1 Read the below letter and determine what type of business letter it is and the reasons for your answer. Dr Viljoen and Partners 5 Hill Street Maddison Bloemfontein 53700 March 15, 2017 Ms Helen Jones 123 Church street Bloemfontein 53701 Ms Helen Jones Firstly, we would like to thank you for your support at Dr Viljoen and partners through the years. It is with great pleasure that we at Dr Viljoen and partners announce that we are opening a pharmacy at the practice that will be open 24 hours a day. From now on, you will be able to get your prescription medicine at the practice. The pharmacy will be run by the Pharmacist Bettie Sithole. Yours Sincerely, Dr Viljoen and Partners Feedback The letter above is an informative letter because Dr Viljoen and Partners are informing their patients that they are opening a pharmacy at the practice. The letter informed and educated the reader. Knowing what type of letter you need to write is the first step; now you need to be sure that you use the correct layout. Format of a business letter Writing formal letters is very challenging when there are so many aspects that need to be included. Who to address the letter to, language use, grammar, content quality are all important when writing a letter. An illustration of a letter’s structure can be found at http://www.goodletterwriting.com/formal-letters.html. 208 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Structuring of a business letter It is important for the overall structure to be as clear and concise as possible and that you avoid the use of colloquialisms (informal language). Colloquialisms are so common, you might not even be aware you are using them. It is like saying “I wasn't born yesterday” when you mean “you can't be fooled”. Aspects of the layout include: • • • Addresses: Your preferred address should be included at the top right-hand corner to inform the reader where they can send their response to when replying. The letter recipient's address should be included in the left-hand side corner along with the recipient's name. Date: This should be displayed on the right-hand side of the page on the line beneath your address and should be written in full format, for example 21st of April 2016. Salutation & greeting: o o Use “Dear Sir” if you do not know the person's name that you are addressing your letter to. It is, however, essential that you do research and find the relevant person's name as it will show that you are serious about the purpose of the letter and you are more likely to receive a response. Most people will pay more attention to a letter addressed to them. If you know the name, for example Jones, use one of the following titles: Mr – for a male Mrs – for a married female Miss – for an unmarried female Ms – for a female whose status is unknown or would prefer to remain anonymous o Dr – for a person with the status of a doctor o Prof – for a person with the status of professor o This title, whichever one it is, should be followed by the surname only, for example, Mr Jones. o o o o • Content: Depending on the type of letter being written, there is still a general structure to a letter with an introductory paragraph, main body and concluding paragraph. o o o The introductory paragraph introduces the letter recipient to the purpose of the letter. In this section, you need to make it clear why you are writing the particular letter. The main body provides the motivation for the letter, which should be to the point, although it should also provide sufficient background information where necessary. The concluding paragraph should outline the action you would like the letter recipient to take. 209 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Concluding words: There are different types of “signing off” wording that you can use just above your signature, followed by your name in print underneath the signature. • o “Yours faithfully” is recommended if you do not know the name of the person. o “Yours sincerely” is recommended if you name the letter recipient's name. To understand the difference between formal and informal, see the video: “Writing letters: formal vs informal” at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgwmAUJx248 Effective writing is like an iceberg – 80% of your time should be spend on: – – – – – – analysing structuring planning reviewing proofing editing Technical guides on writing business communication Know the purpose of your letter. To know your letter structure is not enough, because you also need to ensure that your letter has quality content. See below the aspects you need to take into consideration in terms of technicalities (Eichbaum n.d.): Message clarity To maximise message clarity, you must evaluate your audience and avoid generalities (Thill et al 2011:163). Ask yourself: “Who will read the communication?” You will have both a primary and secondary audience. The primary audience is the person or persons the communication is addressed to. The secondary audience is other readers who will use the information in the communication. You need to keep all the readers in mind when you are writing the communication. Message clarity is achieved by using specific language instead of general language. Message presentation Message presentation is the lasting visual element to your written communication. Use spelling and grammar checks and proof read your communication before it is sent out. You will lose credibility if you send out communication in your name with typo's and spelling mistakes. To also achieve professional excellence, your documents and e-mail should be printed in black ink and should be legible (Thill et al 2011:164). 210 | P a g e MNM1520/1 “Keys” concept of writing (Thill et al): K E Y S Know yourself. Make sure you know your strengths and weaknesses – you may not be a good editor of your own work. Evaluate the professional context. Make use of black ink and write legible. Your communication interaction with the reader is vital. Step back and reflect. Take in the whole communication; make sure it flows and is easy for the reader to understand and read. Message structure Writing communication needs to have a general and clear purpose. Ask yourself: What is the purpose of the communication? What is the key message you want to get across? What do you want the audience to take away from this message? Develop an outline before you start writing. The outline will help you define the structure of the message. Optimising your writing time Start by figuring out the amount of time you need to spend on the project. The general rule is 50% for planning, 25% for writing and 25% for completing (Thill et al 2013:136). The ideal split time will vary from letter to letter. Planning effectively An unexperienced writer may be tempted to start by writing the communication immediately. However, if you do not start off with your planning first, you may end up creating extra work for yourself. Firstly, planning is necessary to create the right information in the right format to the right people. Secondly, with careful planning, your writing may be faster and easier. And, lastly, planning can save you from making unnecessary mistakes (Thill et al 2013:136). Technology Depending on the types of messages you are creating, you'll benefit from being proficient in the following features (Thill et al 2016:209): • • • • Templates, themes and stylesheets – These will save time. Page set-up – use this to control margins, orientation and the location of headings. Column formatting – This will enhance the look of the document. Tables – These are great for displaying information. 211 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Thill et al (2013:134) describe three steps in the writing process: 1) Plan • • • • Analyse the situation. Define the purpose and audience. Gather information from primary and secondary sources. Select the right medium to communicate in. 2) Write 3) Complete • Adapt to your audience. • Compose the message. • • • • Revise the message. Produce the message. Proofread the message. Distribute the message to the desired audience. Activity 9.2 Read the newspaper article below and then complete the activity. You are the public relations officer for Amigo airline. As a result of the incident below, write a business letter to the passengers on board flight AG1250. Johannesburg – Passengers flying on board the 9:30 am Amigo airline flight AG1250 from Johannesburg en route to George had an unfortunate experience. During the flight there was an incident where the cabin pressure dropped, which resulted in oxygen masks deploying from the overhead panels. Amigo airlines confirmed in a statement that the incident did take place. The airline decided to make an emergency landing at Bloemfontein's airport. “Medical assistance was on standby to help any distressed passengers, but we are glad to report that there were no serious injuries,” said Amigo airlines public relations practitioner Gary Smith. The airline said that it was in constant communication with all passengers affected by today's incident, and a back-up aircraft was scheduled to leave Bloemfontein at 13:00 to embark to George. The incident has, however, caused unexpected delays for passengers that have caused them to be very upset. The affected flights were AG1800 – from CPT – PLZ (cancelled), AG1351 – PLZ – CPT (delayed) and AG18200 – CPT – JNB (delayed). Affected passengers could also phone 011 859 6425. Feedback Your letter could have looked something like this: 212 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Amigo Airlines 8 March 2017 Ms L Mthembu 321 Church street Johannesburg 0001 INCIDENT ON FLIGHT AG1250 Dear Ms Mthembu Firstly, we would like to take this opportunity to apologise on behalf of Amigo flights for the experienced you had on one of our planes last week. The cabin pressure incident that occurred last week was due to a technical difficulty that the flight experienced. We are happy to announce that it was only a pre-warning and nothing was wrong with the engines as speculated. However, the captain decided to make an emergency landing to double check the engines. As Amigo airlines didn't want to take any risks, we decided to rather get a new plane in from OR Tambo. To make up for any inconvenienced caused, Amigo airline would like to provide you with a free flight ticket to a destination in South Africa of your choice. Please contact our customer relations department at 011 589 1528 to make the necessary arrangements. Yours sincerely, Gary Smith Public relations practitioner, Amigo airlines 9.2 BUSINESS REPORTS Study the section that follows: Writing an effective business report is a necessary skill to communicate ideas in the business environment. Reports usually address a specific issue or problem and are often commissioned when a decision needs to be made. As in all writing, planning is very important. The key questions to ask yourself when you are planning to write a business report are: • • • • What are the report's main messages? What is the purpose of this report? How will the report be structured? Who are the readers of the report? 213 | P a g e MNM1520/1 A business report is a summary of information, usually linked to research or to something that has already happened. A report can explain the reasons for a specific occurrence, but does not propose any kind of action. There are three types of reports, namely: • research reports • evaluation reports • annual reports Activity 9.3 Choose a report from http://www.brandsouthafrica.com/research-analysis/researchand-reports and discuss what the purpose of the report is and who the audience is. Research reports You should be able discuss the different sections in a research report in detail and apply your knowledge practically by writing a research report. Research reports sum up the information derived from a research study. It is important to plan your report so that it focuses on a single important finding or group of findings. Make sure that you are able to explain each section in detail, and also that you would be able to write a research report if necessary. To understand the business research report see the video at: https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/slc/MBA/index.html Evaluation reports Evaluation reports evaluate the performance of a specific activity (Better evaluation 2013). Evaluation reports can be read by different audiences. Regardless of who the target audience is make sure the report is readable and straight to the point. The report could discuss the success or failure of the activity. For example, if you had a public relations campaign to create awareness of your company's new improved products, you may afterwards want to write a report in which you evaluate the success of the campaign. See the table 9.1 that the public relations practitioner can use as guideline to write an evaluation report for the campaign. 214 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Annual reports An annual report is created once a year and it provides an analysis and assessment of the trends of the past year. An annual report can help a company understand the strengths and weaknesses of a certain company's business economy, since it paints a picture of the corporate earnings (Stewart n.d). Annual reports can also be used to show the company's financial situation to important users. It is very important to have an accurate and a credible annual report as the annual reports are used to access credit and borrow money should your company require funding. Steps on how to write an annual report (Stewart n.d): Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4: Step 5: Determine the audience for the report and prepare the content accordingly. Prepare the report by reviewing each month of the preceding year. Begin with a letter from the organisation's CEO. Prepare charts and grafts that illustrate the organisation's financial performance. Conclude with content that recaps the report, outlines future initiatives and sets performance goals. The table below summarises the general headings often used in the different types of business reports: Table 9.1: Aspects relating to different types of reports Section Title Page Table of content Executive Summary Introduction Report type Research & evaluation Research & evaluation Research Purpose Title of report. Author. Date Shows sections of the report Evaluation Summary of the whole report. Outlines purpose, research method, findings, main conclusion and recommendations Summary of what was evaluated Research Outlines background and purpose 215 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Evaluation Program description Evaluation purpose Key questions of evaluation scope Methodology Results/findings Evaluation Why the report was made and what did the public relations practitioner intend to achieve by the evaluation Describe what was evaluated Explained why it was evaluated What did the practitioner wanted to achieve. What questions needed to be answered. Explain how research was done and outline how the data was collected What methodology was used Research Presents findings of the research. Facts only Evaluation What did the Public relations practitioner find after the evaluation was done Presents an interpretation and evaluation of the results. Analyse results A summary wrapping up the report Brief statement of what was found Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Research Discussion Research Summary Conclusion Evaluation Research Evaluation Recommendations Research Evaluation Lessons Appendix References 9.3 What conclusion did the practitioner find and what is the way forward Suggest suitable changes and solutions Evaluation What does the practitioner recommend after doing the evaluation What lessons can be learned Attachments of additional information eg. Surveys and questionnaires. Annexures with supporting documents Research All references used Evaluation Research BUSINESS PROPOSALS Study the section that follows: In today's business world, your ability to write a powerful proposal is extremely important. The main difference between a business report and a business proposal is the call to or request for action. The writer proposes that the reader undertakes some kind of action. In this section, we will focus on just one type of business proposal, namely the campaign proposal. A campaign proposal is designed to market a themed set of public relations activities, and after studying this section, you should be able to discuss the role of a campaign proposal in the public relations setting. 216 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Look at the following steps to write a winning proposal: 1. Study the requirements – To write a winning proposal, you need to understand what the client's requirements are. While you are writing the proposal ask yourself: “What are the company's goals? Is the time frame, budget, scope of work reasonable?” You need to decide whether you want to proceed with the proposal. You may decide to wait for a better opportunity. 2. Understand the client – If you don't understand the client's need, you won't be able to write a proposal. The best way to understand what the clients really needs is to talk to them. Ask people in the organisation about their concerns, their policies and vision. You'll want to get some general information about the company and the industry they are in. Ask questions like: “How long has the company been in business?”; “Who are their major decision makers?”; “Who is the competition?”; and “What are their main products or services?” 3. Develop the methodology – Once your client's goals are clearly identified, you need to develop the steps or methodology to reach them. 4. Evaluate the solution – Will your solution satisfy your client? You should describe your solution in a way that will receive the most favorable evaluation from the decision maker. 5. Outshine your competition – Don't forget that a proposal is a sales document, designed to persuade the client to hire your company instead of a competitor. So make sure your proposal reinforces your company's strengths. 6. Write the proposal – Now that you've completed the first five steps, most of the work is done. All that's left is assembling the information into a proposal format. The proposal will include: • • • • • • • • A situation analysis – Explain the background or problem that motivates the organisation to write the proposal. Objectives – Clearly explain the goals of your proposal. Target audience or publics – Make sure you know who will read the proposal and who the decision makers will be. Key messages – What is the key message you want the audience to take in? A strategy – Work out Your strategy that you are going to take; make sure the strategy fits in with the organisation. A conclusion – What will the benefits be in choosing your company? End with stating projects your company has done for other companies. A schedule – Provide the schedule that your company will follow. A budget – Thoroughly explain the time and cost requirements for each step. This section should also specify how you will be billing the client and when payment will be expected. 7. Apply the finishing touches – Review the proposal carefully to ensure it fulfills the requirement. Have someone proofread the proposal to catch any spelling and grammatical mistakes. 217 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Outcomes: You should be able to discuss the role of a business proposal in the public relations setting and discuss the format of the business proposal. Activity 9.4 A public school, Green Acres Primary School, wants to build a new school. They have published a call for bids to local construction workers. Your company, AAA Building, wants to put in a proposal. What will your steps be before you start writing the proposal? Feedback Your steps will be: 1. 2. 3. 9.4 Research – Find out all you can about the school. Go to their website. Find out when they started and how many kids they currently have and plan to have in the future. Find out what sports and culture activities the school partakes in so you can make sure they building will be able to accompany it. Arrange a meeting – Set up a meeting with the school principal and school board. Ask them all the questions you have. Make sure to find out the goals and plans of the school, and what they hope to achieve with the new building. Develop your solution – Make sure you know exactly what your company wants to achieve with the proposal and what solutions they want to offer Green Acres Primary School. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the examination. Work through them carefully. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 9.5 Explain the promotional function of a business letter. What are the different types of business letters? What are the main components of a business letter? Explain what a research report is. What are the steps to write an annual report? Apply them. REFLECTION Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions: 1. Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit in your professional life? 2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? 218 | P a g e MNM1520/1 3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? 4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study program? 9.6 SUMMARY Today's business world is almost entirely information-driven. Whether you work for a multinational company or a small corner shop business, chances are the bulk of your job as a public relations practitioner will consist of communicating with others, most often in writing. There is e-mail, traditional business letters, presentations and proposals. In this learning unit, we take a detailed look at the various business documents public relations practitioners' deal with and the different formats of these documents. You need to be able to identify the appropriate (correct) type of business letter to write to the appropriate (correct) person at the appropriate (correct) time. You will also often encounter business proposals and reports, and the ability to write these types of documents will be of great value to you. Learning unit 10 deals with all the planning that goes into a communication campaign, as well as how a public relations practitioner manages a campaign of this kind. 219 | P a g e MNM1520/1 9.7 REFERENCES Better evaluation. 2013. Report and support use. [Online] Available at: http://betterevaluation.org/evaluation-options/finalreports (accessed on 18 April 2016). Boot, C. 2015. How to write a winning proposal. [Online] Available at: http://www.plana.co.nz/how-write-winning-proposal (accessed on 18 April 2016). Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D & Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson Prentice Hall. Eichbaum, C. n.d. Writing skills workbook: Victoria Business School – Student learning support service. [Online] Available at: http://www.victoria.ac.nz/vbs/teaching/resources/VBSWritingBooklet.pdf (accessed on 18 April 2016). Quintanilla, KM & Wahl, ST. 2011. Business and professional communication. London: Sage. Ramya, N. 2012. Functions of a business letter. [Online] Available at: http://communicationtheory.org/functions-of-a-business-letter (accessed on 18 April 2016). Stewart, A. n.d. How to write a CEO's annual report. [Online] Available at: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/write-ceos-annual-report-64771.html (accessed on 18 April 2016). Taylor, S. 2015. Good writing should be everyone's business. [Online] Available at: http://executivesecretary.com/why-good-writing-skills-are-important-in-todaysworkplace (accessed on 18 April 2016). Thill, JV & Bovee, CI. 2013. Excellence in business communication. England: Pearson Education limited. 220 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Learning unit 10 Planning and managing public relations communication campaigns Introduction Overview of this learning unit Learning outcomes Key concepts 10.1 Communication planning and management 10.2 What are public relations campaigns 10.3 The public relations campaign process 10.4 Public relations models 10.5 Self-assessment questions 10.6 Reflection 10.7 Summary 10.8 References 10. Introduction Planning and managing a public relations communication campaign can be a very rewarding activity. Before you start this section, take a look at the communication campaign websites below. If you reside in South Africa, you may recognise them immediately, having heard about these campaigns on the radio, having seen them on television, or having read about them in the newspaper. Campaigns like these are, however, not developed overnight. Well-known public relations communication campaigns of this kind require a great deal of planning and monitoring to ensure that their specific objectives are met. Well known campaigns in South Africa: • • • Arrive Alive: http://www.dispatchlive.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Arrive-alive.jpg World Aids Day: http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/styles/article_image/public/ article_pics/world-aids-day-2010.gif?itok=CFAotUsp 16 Days of Activism Against Woman and Child Abuse: http://www.affinityrescue.co.za/wp-content/uploads/ 2014/11/16-days-of-activism.jpg 221 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Overview of this learning unit This learning unit deals with planning and managing public relations communication campaigns. We will take a look at communication planning and the various theories on which it is based. We will start by discussing the main functions of communication planning, after which we explore the most important elements of public relations planning and management. We will end the learning unit by investigating the elements and objectives of communication campaigns and various campaign models. This learning unit brings together all the concepts learnt thus far in the study guide. In order to plan a campaign, you need to understand how communication works and what public relations is (learning unit 1), then you need to know what skills as a public relations practitioner you should have in order to perform the tasks necessary (learning unit 2). The skills required for a public relations practitioner is to know how to communicate effectively in terms of listening (learning unit 3), speaking (learning unit 4) and reading (learning unit 5). Once you have acquired the necessary skills, you should then be able to apply your skills by writing for print media (learning unit 6), broadcast media (learning unit 7), electronic media (learning unit 8) and writing business documents (learning unit 9). This learning unit unfolds as follows: Learning outcomes In this learning unit, we will be covering the following aspects: • • • explain the main functions of communication planning explain the key elements of public relations communication planning and management define communication campaigns 222 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • explain elements of a campaign define the types of campaigns explain communication models Key concepts Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • • define communication planning define advocacy define effectiveness explain communication campaigns explain Cutlip, Center and Broom's public relations process explain the CBO model explain the PRISA model Very important! Additional online material is for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please follow the URL below and download the material: http://bookboon.com/en/business-communication-ebook 10.1 COMMUNICATION PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT Study the section that follows: In this section, you are introduced to the various approaches that a campaign planner can use when planning and managing a communication campaign. You will notice that a communication planner needs to evaluate the effectiveness of communication campaigns. Familiarise yourself with exactly how a campaign planner will accomplish this. Note that the main functions of communication planning are to: • • • • find new solutions to communication problems formulate new messages find and combine new communication channels define the target audience in an interesting way Note that communication planning should be done in such a way that: • • • • a detailed analysis of objectives is done right at the beginning the target audience is reached the message is distributed effectively research and evaluation are done after the plan has been put in place 223 | P a g e MNM1520/1 10.2 WHAT ARE PUBLIC RELATIONS CAMPAIGNS (ROLES) Study the section that follows: Public relations campaigns are numerous stipulated activities that are designed to cause change within the target audience or to prevent certain behaviour within a target audience (Riggelsford 2013:87). A public relations campaign uses all the guidelines and skills discussed from learning units 1 to 9. Remember that different campaigns have different objectives. The most common objectives of communication campaigns are to: • • • • • inform the target stakeholders about a certain issue or event. For example, radio stations may broadcast messages relating to an event like a 5 km race that raises funds for cancer, or the date and locations for the CANSA Shavathon. create awareness. For example, the Breast Cancer day, strives to make men and women aware of breast cancer and the necessity to go for mammograms every second year. persuade the target stakeholders to change their attitudes about certain issues. An example would be striving to change people's attitude towards dog fights to see them as wrong. urge target stakeholders to act or behave in a certain way. The Drive Dry campaign urges people to not drink and drive, as by doing so they are a danger to others. educate the target audience regarding a specific issue or event. The Journey of Hope campaign involves survivors of breast cancer riding around the country on motorbikes to educate people about breast cancer and spread a message of hope. Different types of persuasive campaigns Persuasive campaigns are efforts to gain public support for an organisation's course of action or opinion. There are different types of persuasive campaigns, which can either resolves problems or which use opportunities that exist in the marketplace. There are five categories of campaigns, namely political, commercial, reputation, educational and social action (Bobbitt & Sullivan 2014:3–4): 224 | P a g e MNM1520/1 A political campaigns are subdivided into candidate-oriented campaigns and issue-oriented campaigns. In candidate-orientated campaigns, candidates are arranged by political campaign officers who use unethical means to convince target audiences, such as scare tactics including deception, exaggeration and other forms of spin. Considering that spin is frowned upon, this type of campaign will not be discussed. Issue-oriented campaigns are not free of spin, although these campaigns are often aimed at attempting to have a bill, law or regulation either passed or defeated. Think of the Consumer Protection Act, which many consumers were happy about, as it meant less insurance and cellphone sales calls. A commercial campaign is used to promote an organisation's new offerings, whether it may be products or services. Marketing and advertising are mostly utilised to promote the organisation's product and services, although some techniques of public relations are also utilised. An example would be an organisation selling beauty products using advertising, but also a news release if the products are environmentally friendly that coincidences with Earth Week, showing a consideration for the planet. A reputation campaign also known as an image campaign, which is aimed at improving the perception the target audience has of the organisation or non-profit organisation. The difference between reputation and commercial campaigns is that commercial campaigns deal with the organisation's services and product offerings, whereas reputation campaigns deal with the organisation as a whole. Reputation campaigns usually follow a crisis or occurrences that tarnished the organisation's image or even when too many small negative events have occurred over a period of time that have also tarnished the organisation's image. Often, oil companies have reputation campaigns when a major oil spill has occurred. Even companies that have had to recall their products due to health risks, often perform reputation campaigns soon after in order to improve their image. Can you think of a South Africa organisation that has performed a reputation campaign? An educational campaign, which is also known as a public awareness campaign, is conducted by a non-profit organisation or advocacy groups in an attempt to educate audiences of social concerns. There are two main aims of these campaigns in terms of advocating for a behavioural change, namely (1) to begin doing something that the audience has never done before (such as examining oneself for signs of cancer) and (2) to stop doing something that the audience has done for a long time (such as to stop smoking). These campaigns are usually related to health issues, such as information about medical conditions (stop eating too much salt as it leads to high blood pressure, or stop eating fatty foods as it leads to a high cholesterol), or it is to encourage a behavioural change in terms of social concerns such as to stop smoking, to not drink and drive, or to protect yourself from contracting HIV/AIDS during sexual intercourse. 225 | P a g e MNM1520/1 A social action campaign relates to the advocacy of a social issue or cause. The techniques used for this campaign are very similar to issue-oriented political campaigns; however, social action campaigns are long term. For example, an issueoriented political campaigning has a short-term focus, as it may pass a specific law regarding gun control, whereas social action campaigns aim for a broader, openended campaign that continues the effort to pass laws relating to gun control measures over a long period of time. A short-term goal could be to supply sanitary wear to girls at poor schools, while the long-term goal is to encourage girls to attend schools and excel in their academics. 10.3 THE PUBLIC RELATIONS CAMPAIGN PROCESS Study the section that follows: There are two processes that need to take place in order for the public relations campaign to take place. Firstly, a public relations strategy needs to take place. A public relations strategy is a management process whereby management formulates a framework against which the public relations campaign takes place (Hansen-Horn & Horn 2014:95). Secondly, a public relations plan needs to take place. This is the actionable plan relating to what activities must take place in order for the campaign to exist and be “live” (Steyn & Puth 2000:73). For additional information on a public relations campaign, look through the slides found at: http://www.slideshare.net/mokshjuneja/public-relations-management-session-3developing-pr-plan-and-strategy Communication strategy The public relations strategy provides the framework from which all public relations communication should follow (Hansen-Horn & Horn 2014:95). It is the management blue print relating to guidelines on what type of communication with stakeholders can and cannot be performed. The public relations strategy provides the context and guiding principles that all public relations campaigns should follow. It is the link between the “why” and “how” that links the objectives and tactics together (Steyn & Puth 2000:52). The public relations strategy is indicated below: 226 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Environmental analysis Stakeholder identification Strategic issues identification Communication strategy development Communication policy development Media analysis Management agreement Develop communication plan Source: Adapted from Steyn & Puth (2000:63) FIGURE 10.1: A model for developing a public relations strategy 10.3.1.1 Environmental analysis In order to make any organisatioinal decision, the organisation needs to be familiar with themselves and with the external environment. Internal environment The organisation needs to be clear on (Cant 2013:24–29): • • • • • • the mission statement – the course or pathway the organisation wants to move towards in terms of actions and activities the objectives – the specific targets that the organisation wishes to achieve the scope – entailing the future direction the public relations campaigns should take the organisational culture – the culture within the organisation the values – the principles that the organisation follows in its operations the policies – the guidelines that indicate to each department or function within the organisation what they are allowed to do and what is not allowed. 227 | P a g e MNM1520/1 External environment The organisation needs to be clear on aspects that could affect its operations and the decisions for the public relations plan. The external environmental aspects are (Cant 2013:32–37): • • • • • The macro environment – This refers to the sectors within the market that can affect an organisation, such as competition. The sociocultural environment – This refers to the beliefs, attitudes, values, lifestyle choices and opinions of individuals. The economic environment – This refers to the economic changes at national and international levels, which could have an effect on an organisation, such as a recession or interest rate hikes. The legal and political environment – Legislation passes rules and regulations, which could affect the operations of an organisation relating to what the organisation may and may not do in terms of operations. For example, the tobacco industry has been affected in terms of the advertising of tobacco products, as it is no longer possible to advertise on big bill boards and in magazines. The technological environment – Rapid changes in technology have changed the way that organisations operate. For example, certain operations can be completed by means of robots, such as the assembly of vehicles; greater interaction is possible with people across the world due to communication channels such as Skype and Dropbox. 10.3.1.2 Stakeholder identification There are a number of important stakeholders that an organisation needs to take into consideration when communicating through a public relations campaign. By mapping stakeholder groups (creating a diagram that indicates which stakeholder groups the organisation interacts with), an organisation can refer to the map when making decisions on what communication will be suitable for the different stakeholder groups. The stakeholders that an organisation will have to take into account are (Gordon 2011:136) (remember that this was referred to as linkages): • • • Enabling stakeholders: These are stakeholders who have authority within the organisation and control its resources. For example, government regulates operations, while management indicates how an organisation is to be controlled along with shareholders and directors. Functional stakeholders: These are stakeholders who provide inputs and those that make use of the outputs of an organisation. For example, employees and unions are stakeholder groups who perform the activities in order to render a service to the customers, while the customers are the stakeholders who make use of the service, and thus make use of the outputs of the organisation. Normative stakeholders: These are the stakeholders who provide connections to the organisation and are similar to the organisation. Connections to the organisation include offering outsourcing services to an organisation or 228 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • professional services to the organisation such as consultation or professional associations. Diffused stakeholders: These are the stakeholders who are not part of the organisation, although they play some sort of role to manage the organisation's management of the other stakeholder groups. These stakeholders include media relations, environmental relations and community relations. 10.3.1.3 Strategic issues identification There are strategic issues that an organisation needs to consider before being able to create a public relations plan: • • • Issues tracking: This is the process of scanning the environment for any mention of negative comments that any stakeholder group may communicate using any form of media channel. For example, an organisation is able to track any mentions and any negative comments (although positive too). SWOT analysis: This is the identification of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that an organisation may experience in the environment. Differentiating between the different strategic issues: Organisational issue Management communication issue (1) Communication can provide a solution to the existing problem, for example, misunderstandings of roles of employees linked to tasks. (2) Communication cannot solve the problem, but can clarify the issue, for example, clarifying that there is a problem with the IT system and that it will be resolved shortly. Lack of communication or insufficient information with internal stakeholders is the cause of the problem. For example, when a merger takes place between two organisations, the employees can be left confused and frustrated by the lack of communication regarding retrenchment and new organisational policies. Corporate communication issue Tactical communication issue Lack of communication or insufficient information with external stakeholders is the cause of the problem, for example, an organisation not indicating that their products have been withdrawn due to health risks. Messages are disseminated but do not reach the intended target audience, for example, using the incorrect communication channel to communicate with stakeholders such as using blogs to reach rural farm workers. It is essential to identify the strategic issues from the internal environment as it could affect the organisation's performance (such as productivity and employee morale), while issues from the external environment could also affect an organisation's operations (such as non-compliance of regulations that may cause the organisation's operational pause). Therefore, based on the identification of strategic issues, the organisation is able to determine what the implications of these strategic issues will be on the relevant stakeholders. 229 | P a g e MNM1520/1 10.3.1.4 Communication strategy development At this stage, the organisation can make a decision on what must be communicated to each stakeholder group to solve the problem or in pursuing an opportunity as a result of the strategic issue. The communication policy will give direction in terms of the broad terms of communication messages and channels used in addressing the particular issue. For example, if a new regulation provides health guidelines for an organisation’s beauty products, the organisation may decide to communicate the new regulations to the employees through meetings where employees can ask questions. This can be followed by an internal newsletter to remind employees of the issues and expand on them, and then cemented with the use of policy documents that are distributed to each and every employee. To communicate the regulation changes to suppliers, the organisation could send out memos relating to new standards implemented to ensure the regulation is upheld by the suppliers. The organisation can communicate the change in health regulations through beauty campaigns advocating for more environmentally friendly testing, ingredients and manufacturing process. Communication goals should be set in order to have a set direction, which the public relations plan can follow. This will ensure that no deviation from the strategy can occur due to poorly set goals or non-communication thereof. 10.3.1.5 Communication policy development The communication policy informs the relevant employees involved in the public relations strategy who is allowed to communicate particular messages to particular stakeholder groups. The communication policy is influenced by organisational culture, values and norms. The policy should address matters such as: • • • • Functional communication areas: This refers to internal or external communication guidelines relating to which technique of public relations will be utilised to communicate the message (media relations, lobbying etc). Functional relationships: This refers to the relationship the public relations division has with the other functional or departmental divisions within the organisation (such as the public relations function with marketing and the public relations function with human resources). Public relations functional structure: This refers to the employee structure in terms of chain of command within the function (public relations director, public relations manager, public relations practitioner). Public relations goals and objectives: This refers to the goals of the public relations function. 10.3.1.6 Media analysis Media analysis is the processes of assessing which media channels will be suitable for the organisation's public relations campaign. Particular communication media could be suitable for the organisation and its stakeholder, which may differ for its competitor. The media analysis does not choose particular communication media but 230 | P a g e MNM1520/1 identifies those communication media that could be most suitable. The different types of communication media include interpersonal media (face-to-face discussions), group media (meetings), and mass media (radio). 10.3.1.7 Management agreement In order to get the buy-in or support from the management of the organisation, management needs to see what has been drafted for the public relations campaign, in order to also provide input into how the campaign can be handled and other insights which may be management specific. It is management that approves budgets for organisational operations and it would be wasted time and effort if management rejects budgets when the start of the implementation of the campaign has already commenced. Imagine you were the public relations practitioner to experience budget rejects by management at a late stage of campaign implementation. Imagine you chose television as the communication media of choice (which is very expensive) and you plan the entire campaign around television, but when it comes to paying for the advertising, management rejects your budget, and now you have to change the public relations strategy and the public relations plan. Public relations plan development At this stage, the public relations practitioner can start the public relations plan, which represents the blue print for how to go about implementing the campaign, who is involved, what tasks need to be completed and what will be done to ensure the campaign is matched to the public relations strategy. The public relations plan is the master plan and logic for all the public relations functions for all programmes, campaigns and plans. The public relations campaign is the link between the public relations plans and the realisation of the public relations goals. • • Public relations programme: a collection of continuous public relations plans Public relations campaign: a collection of plans although it is limited to a particular period of time 231 | P a g e MNM1520/1 The communication plan is illustrated in the following figure. Research Planning Adaptation stage Message Implementation Scheduling Budget Evaluation Management briefing Source: Adapted from Steyn & Puth (2000:82); Tripathy (2011:79) FIGURE 10.2: Communication plan Step 1: Research Step 1 involves knowing what is occurring in the environment and being able to sum the current circumstances that the organisation is experiencing up into a problem or opportunity statement (Steyn & Puth 2000:83; Broom & Sha 2013:244–245; Bobbitt & Sullivan 2014:25–28). • Research is necessary in order to gather information on what the target audience might perceive is most effective for them, in terms of remembering campaigns best when a celebrity was used as the face of the campaign, or when a particular song was used for the radio and television campaigns, which made the campaign memorable. There is quantitative research that is used when precise results are necessary, such as how many people remember a particular campaign or what percentage of the population are smokers. Research methods include surveys, which provide exact answers for questions. Qualitative research is used when general information is required, which is described during interviews, focus groups, field observation or direct observation. You should 232 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • • • learn more about these methods as it will be helpful when deciding which research methods to use. Problem or opportunity statement is the statement that indicates why it is necessary for an organisation to take action in terms of a public relations campaign or programme. The problem or opportunity can arise from positive influences on stakeholders' attitude, opinions and behaviour towards the organisation. The source of the influence can either be derived from the organisation, management or communication issues or even through tactical public relations communication that needs correction. Situational analysis is the examination of the environment in which the organisation operates, to identify the motivation for the need for a public relations campaign or programme. The situational analysis will also reveal what type of public relations will best suit the organisation's purpose. Client interview is applicable in situations where the public relations practitioner works for an agency and is outsourced to perform public relations activities for clients. Step 2: Planning Step 2 involves setting the long-term goals and the short-term objectives that provide the organisation with a direction in which to focus on when running a public relations campaign (Steyn & Puth 2000:83; Tripathy 2011:81; Broom & Sha 2013:270–271; Bobbitt & Sullivan 2014:25–28). • • Public relations goals: Each activity that should take place in the process should be goal oriented, in order to ensure that there is a direction set for each activity. Goals which were set during the public relations strategy (depending on the research stage results and if the goals are still relevant) can simply be transferred to the public relations plan. Objectives: These are the short-term goals that an organisation strives to achieve. Objectives must meet certain characteristics, namely: Objectives must be realistic – it should be achievable as it doesn't help setting goals which are unrealistic in achieving. Objectives must be clearly defined – confusion can arise when objectives are not clear, for example an objective such as “improve your image” is too vague. Objectives should be measurable – if an objective cannot be measured, there is no way of assessing the success of the objective. Objectives can be divided into two types, namely impact objectives and output objectives. • • Output objectives relate to work that is to be produced, such as contacting all media houses to attend a campaign launch or sending media kits to all shareholders first. Impact objectives relate to the desired communication outcomes of the campaign, such as what you want the stakeholders to change or how you want 233 | P a g e MNM1520/1 them to act after having heard or seen the public relations campaign. There are numerous types of impact objectives which include: • Informational objectives: This includes the message that the stakeholders are exposed to and the understanding of the message, for example, for young adults to be aware of the HIV/AIDS campaign. Attitudinal objectives: The aim is to change the way the stakeholders feel or think about the organisation. Forming new attitudes strives to create a perception that was not there before. Reinforcing existing attitudes is to reinforce an idea that already exists, such as the blood bank being an essential association citizen should strive to support. Changing existing attitudes: This is to change stakeholders' perception from a negative perception to a positive perception, such as individuals' perception of a car manufacturer that recalled vehicles in the past year to be more favourable once again. Statutory objectives: This is to influence policy decisions of governmental associations and to persuade the citizens of a country to support or oppose certain proposed laws and regulations. For example, there were public meetings where citizens could discuss with governmental officials and the media the implementation of the South African Protection of State Information Bill and how it will affect how news, especially news relating to governmental news, is covered. To read more on the bill, follow the URL: http://www.sanef.org.za/images/uploads/b_6b_-_2010_protection_ of_state_information_1.pdf Financial objectives: This relates to the increase of sales for an organisation, thus increased profts, or it could relate to an increase in donations for a nonprofit organisation. Think of the non-profit organisations trying to raise funds to save the rhino from extinction as a result of rhino poaching. Process objectives: This relates to the number of activities performed in the public relations campaign, such as broadcasting a radio advertisement two times daily over a period of two weeks. Management cooperation: This is essential as public relations campaign decisions should always be in line with the organisational policies. Campaigns should be approved at every level in order to ensure that no misunderstandings crop up at the end of the campaign planning process. Transparency and a direct access to campaign planning makes for successful campaign planning. Step 3: Adaptation stage The resources, problem statement and relevant stakeholders are matched. • Stakeholders' identification should have already been completed based on the stakeholder group the audience fall into as well as according to the psychographics (grouping individuals according to lifestyle choices). The most common targeted stakeholders are the community, potential employees, media, government, employees, consumers, shareholders, third parties, investors and the financial community (Gordon 2011:137–138). 234 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • Limitations statement should indicate which resources were identified as limited during the situational analysis and research. Limitations could include money, time, human resources, office space to complete a task, skills, equipment and so on. Based on the limitations, the necessary arrangements can be made to make up for the shortfall, such as having a time frame for when tasks must be completed, assigning particular employees to tasks based on their skill sets, the possibility of outsourcing equipment or even individuals to perform particular tasks, and renting additional office space for additional individuals or material (Steyn & Puth 2000:83). Step 4: Message The message is the basic idea that the organisation wants the target audience to remember as a result of being exposed to the communication. One central message should be derived from the goals and objectives (Bobbitt & Sullivan 2014:69). Consistency in your communication with all stakeholders is important, despite having a slight difference for each stakeholder group. Not only is the message construction essential, but also the channel that the message will be transmitted through, such as the media channels discussed in learning units 6, 7 and 8. There are also themes that are the overarching ideas that apply to all the target audience groups, which for an Arrive Alive campaign could be "safe driving", "do not drink and drive", "wear seatbelts", "stop when tired" or "keep to the speed limits". This step entails crafting the message for the intended target audiences. When crafting the message, the guidelines discussed in learning units 3 to 9 should be applied for the relevant media channels. Step 5: Implementation The core of the public relations plan is the implementation strategy, where the most favourable approach is selected to achieving the public relations goals and objectives. The implementation strategy involves selecting a series of activities, special events and relevant communication media that is most promising in achieving the goals to reach the most noteworthy stakeholders. The strategy is the overall approach to achieve the public relations goals in a particular time frame, whereas the activities or action plans are the specific, detailed tasks to complete in order to achieve the goals (Steyn & Puth 2000:88–89; Broom & Sha 2013:277). • The tentative implementation strategy is where the activities are performed to complete the public relations plan. The first place to start is to base the implementation strategy on previous successful implementation strategies for each stakeholder group. The planning should be in the interest of all the participants. Therefore, if electronic newsletters receive the most response from employees and it is the most effective, look into using electronic newsletters again. Where social media worked best with younger generation customers, keep using social media (although look for the most popular and successful social media site). For information relating to which media channel is best for which stakeholder group, have a look at case studies, reports by similar organisations and so forth. 235 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • Choosing an implementation strategy involves selecting the particular number of activities that will either lead to the accumulation of many events or lead to one big event. The effects on all stakeholders should be considered, which should be based on the information gathered from the research and situational analysis. Criteria for building strategic actions or events are: o A relationship is required between the activity and the sponsoring organisations. o Inherent news values increase the impact of the activity, where hard news occurs when a crises situations or emergency arises, while soft news relates to competitions and achievements which are most commonly used in programmes and campaigns. o Each activity should be labelled appropriately, while being short and novel, significant and memorable. This leads to a bandwagon effect where people start talking about an event. o Tie-ins of events to special dates or particular facts make it more effective. o Joining an organisation to host an event, where both organisation benefits from the event, is known as trade-outs. o Reinforcing publicity with a series of related events makes for a greater effect. • • • Testing the implementation strategy involves where the strategy is tested on a small sample of stakeholders in order to see if the strategy will produce desired results. This allows the public relations practitioner to make changes to the plan where necessary to ensure that the strategy is successful and does yield the desired results (Broom & Sha 2013:277). Designing public relations actions refers to the action that could change the organisation's policies, procedures, products, services and behaviour to better serve the mutual interest of the organisation and its stakeholders. The actions are designed to achieve the indicated goals and objectives. The public relations actions include providing instructions to the relevant individuals involved in the campaign to do certain tasks acceding to certain standards, for example, designing invitations according to organisational design standards and after approval sending the invitations to the identified stakeholders, or writing feature stories on the upcoming event and sending it out to the relevant media publications. Planning the public relations media is based on the media analysis completed previously, which identified the types of media that will be best suited to the campaign and that are best suited to the different stakeholder groups. A media mix is decided on to communicate with the different stakeholder groups. The division of media are: o Internal organisational media include house journals, bulletins, newsletters, magazines, brochures, flipcharts, slide shows, organisational website, electronic mail, group meetings, videotapes and conferences. o External organisation media include electronic publications, webpages, chat rooms, electronic mail, newspapers, feature stories, magazines, captioned photographs, social media websites, films, talk shows, interviews, 236 | P a g e MNM1520/1 radio programmes, exhibitions and billboards. A major external communication media that organisations should distribute are media kits, which is a collection of the public relations material in a pocket folder that has a cover letter summarising the content of the folder and the contents, which could include news releases, fact sheets, background information, biographies, event schedules, photographs, brochures, annual reports, and CDs with visual and audio material. Recently, media kits can be simply emailed, shared through cloud computing (like Google Drive, which is the easiest option), or saved to a memory stick, which is distributed to the relevant individuals. Step 6: Scheduling To ensure that the strategy and planning goes according to the timeframe that was indicated, a schedule needs to be set up to indicate what needs to be done when. The entire campaign activities should be outlined in a Gantt chart or schedule where each activity deadline is indicated. This is an example of a Gantt chart. Do some research on what a Gantt chart looks like. It might come in handy in future when planning big projects or when planning a public relations campaign. Step 7: Budgeting The cost involved in performing each activity to complete the campaign should be listed in order to keep track of the funds necessary to perform the public relations campaign. 237 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Step 8: Evaluation Evaluation is important to ensure that the campaign is on track and going according to plan. This is actually an ongoing process, which should take place at every step to avoid a mistake taking place without immediate corrective measures. Once the campaign has been completed, evaluation is handy when it measures the awareness, knowledge, opinions and behaviours of stakeholders before and after the communication plan has been completed (Butterick 2011:136–137). The initial evaluation provides the benchmark from which to compare the summative evaluation. This measures whether the public relations campaign accomplished the goals and objectives that it set out in the strategy. Below is an example of the types of evaluation criteria a public relations practitioner could evaluate a public relations campaign on, depending on what the goals and objectives of the public relations campaign was. See the types of evaluation criteria that match to the relevant step of the public relations plan. Preparation Implementation Impact •Information base: adequacy of content used to plan campaign •Campaign content: arrangement and appropriateness of the message and events produced •Presentation quality: technical and production values of the message and events produced •Distribution: number of messages distributed and events designed •Placement: number of messages placed in the media and events produced •Potential audience: number of individuals potentially exposed to the message and event content •Attentive audience: number of individuals who actually attend to the messages and attend events •Knowledge gain: number of individuals who learn the message and content •Opinion change: number of individuals who form or change opinions •Attitude change: number of individuals who form or change attitudes •Behaviour change: number of individuals who act in the designer manner •Repeated behaviour: number of individuals who continue or sustain behaviour •Social and cultural change: long-term changes in society and culture FIGURE 10.3: Evaluation criteria during public relations campaign Step 9: Management briefing Management needs to be briefed on the public relations plan, as it is important to have their buy-in or support when it comes to public relations plans. Management's 238 | P a g e MNM1520/1 concern is not only the achievement of the public relations goals and objectives, but also the performance specific objectives that will affect the organisation as a whole, such as return on equity, return on investment, delivery date of products and services, and profit sharing. Although management's stamp of approval has been provided during the strategy phase, they still need to be informed of the finer details of the implementation plan. The public relations practitioner can inform those involved in the implementation of the public relations plan (Broom & Sha 2013:279). 10.1.1.1 Important communication plan considerations There are some important points to consider when ensuring the success of a communication campaign. They include the following (please study them): • • • • • • Mass media create awareness and knowledge and lead to participation. Interpersonal communication, for example among peer groups, changes attitudes and behaviour. Credibility of the communicator and media is very important in encouraging the target audience to believe the message. Campaigns must be evaluated to measure their effectiveness. Campaign appeals refer to the way the campaign communicates to the audience about the product/service/issue. Messages must be acceptable, and must come at the right time through an accessible channel that reaches the audience. 10.4 PUBLIC RELATIONS MODELS Study the section that follows: There are a number of models that provide a step-by-step process to plan a campaign, although there may be additional or fewer steps included. The most commonly used models are: • • The communication by objectives (CBO) model, which involves planned, purposeful communication actions. This model was developed to plan and manage a communication or public relations campaign through communication actions, which are planned and purposive. The four stages are planning (step 1–15), encoding (step 16–17), delivery (step 18) and feedback (step 19– 21) (Rensburg & Cant 2009:208). The PRISA model identifies seven key stages in planning a public relations campaign. PRISA is an association for public relations professionals and communication management throughout the Southern African region, who has created the PRISA model (Rensburg & Cant 2009:208). You have to search for the PRISA model on their website. 239 | P a g e MNM1520/1 • The Cutlip, Center and Broom's four-step public relations process emphasises the broad phases in the public relations process. A breakdown of the process can be seen below in table 10.1. Table 10.1: Cutlip, Center and Broom's four-step public relations process DEFINE PUBLIC RELATIONS PROBLEMS PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING • • • • Identify the problem. Gather information regarding the problem. Identify internal influencers on problem. Identify external influencers on the problem. Identify stakeholders. Identify overall objectives and stakeholder objectives. Identify programmes for each stakeholder group. Identify overall communication programme and stakeholder specific programme to be utilised. • Identify media and message channels that will be utilised. • Indicate how the programme will be implemented. • Indicate budget and schedule for the overall programme as well as the stakeholder programmes. • • • • TAKING ACTION • Indicate to relevant individuals the operational plan AND (day-to-day tasks and activities). COMMUNICATING • Indicate how feedback regarding the operational plan will be provided. • Indicate the regulator measures of the operational plan. EVALUATING THE PROGRAMME Source: • Indicate the evaluation measures in place in order to measure the success of the overall programme and stakeholder-specific programmes. Adapted from Lattimore et al (2013); Rensburg & Cant (2009) Activity 10.1 Look for the PRISA model online in order to complete activity 10.1. Discuss how a major airline in South Africa (AirlineSA) could use the PRISA model to draw up a public relations campaign. 240 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Feedback Step 1: Situation analysis A situation analysis is important for any strategy because it provides the answer to the fundamental question: “Where do we find ourselves right now?” Unless AirlineSA determines its current position within a strategic framework, it will not be able to plan the way forward by means of a detailed strategy. From a problem statement, the company can do a SWOT analysis to determine what its internal strengths and weaknesses and external opportunities and threats are. It is important to do a SWOT analysis to determine whether the company is making progress in solving the problem as set out in the rest of the campaign plan. You should have provided some practical examples of AirlineSA's possible SWOT analysis. Possible reasons for a public relations campaign can now be derived from the SWOT analysis and the problem statement. A public relations campaign could be planned to: create a positive perception of AirlineSA The next step is to formulate objectives for the promotional campaign. Step 2: Formulating objectives Objectives should be specific, measurable, realistic and compatible with the company. Long-term and short-term objectives are important when planning a public relations campaign. Objectives could include informing, motivating, or educating the target publics of the company. Informational objectives concentrate on the spreading of information. AirlineSA could: provide information to all stakeholders about the airline, about how they can benefit from it, and about how it may affect them inform target publics Attitudinal objectives aim at changing the way the target public feels about the organisation. AirlineSA could: change the target public's negative attitude about the airline Behavioural objectives aim at changing the action of target publics. AirlineSA could: inform customers who have defected owing to the glitches experienced in the initial business stages that changes have occurred and that problems have been solved 241 | P a g e MNM1520/1 Step 3: Identifying the target publics Target publics can be internal or external to the company, as well as primary and secondary in importance to the campaign. Internal publics would be employees, shareholders and suppliers of services. External publics would be the community, spectators and the media. It is important to identify the target publics, as knowing who they are will influence the type of message created and sent. A further important aspect is to determine how people are involved and affected by AirlineSA. Step 4: Message formulation The message must relate to the interest and concerns of target publics. The shareholders, customers and the suppliers of AirlineSA will not all find the same information important, and so each message must be formulated to fit each target public. Things to remember when formulating the message would be: The mass media affect different individuals differently. A message could have both intended and unintended effects on the target public. A message should be explicit (directly formulated) and implicit (indirectly formulated). AirlineSA must reach as many interested parties as possible in a short period of time. Step 5: Implementing actions Strategies and techniques require research, an evaluation of costs and prioritised activities. Activities should relate to the objectives of the campaign, the target publics and the message the company wants to convey. An action programme, which contains a detailed breakdown of the tasks to be performed, as well as a time sequence for each task, will ensure that all activities are performed. Activities and tasks bear a cost for which the company is accountable. It is therefore important to prepare a budget. Step 6: Drawing up a budget It is important to know how much each activity and task will cost the company. The budget of the public relations department of AirlineSA can be divided into an administration budget and a campaign budget. The administration budget comprises costs that form part of the everyday running costs of the public relations department. These costs could be salaries, stationery and so on. Step 7: Evaluation To determine whether the objectives of the campaign have been met, the public relations campaign has to be evaluated. Informal and formal research techniques could be used for this purpose. 242 | P a g e MNM1520/1 10.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the feedback provided throughout the learning unit. There are several roles in the communication process. Explain these roles in detail and provide examples where appropriate. 2. List and discuss the key elements of the communication planning and management process. 3. List the different types of campaigns. 4. Discuss the PRISA seven-step model in detail. 1. 10.6 REFLECTION Before you start with exam preparation, reflect on the following questions: 1. Do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning unit in your professional life? 2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it? 3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why? 4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme? 10.7 SUMMARY Public relations practitioners are there to communicate with the public. Campaigns are an excellent tool for this purpose. However, these campaigns must be planned and managed properly. You need to know what the various types of campaigns are and also what the objective of your campaign is before you start. We began this learning unit by considering communication planning and management and the elements associated with it. We then discussed communication theories and communication campaigns, and the objectives of these campaigns. We ended by investigating campaign types and models. The job of a public relations practitioner is not an easy one. He or she has to be able to position a brand, company or person in the market and use various communication tools to communication with the public. To be successful, the public relations practitioner needs to master a variety of tasks. Now that you have completed this module, we hope that you have acquired many of the skills that, together with hard work and motivation, will help you make it to the top in this field. The public relations campaign is achieved by sending out messages that were written for print media (learning unit 6), broadcast media (learning unit 7), electronic media (learning unit 8) and business documents (learning unit 9), by 243 | P a g e MNM1520/1 applying the skills learnt to communicate effectively in terms of listening (learning unit 3), speaking (learning unit 4) and reading (learning unit 5). The ability to perform the relevant activities of the public relations campaign are also linked to the public relations practitioners characteristics (learning unit 2) and their understanding of what communication and public relations entails (learning unit 1). 244 | P a g e MNM1520/1 10.8 REFERENCES Bobbitt, R & Sullivan, R. 2014. Developing the public relations campaign: a team-based approach. 3rd edition. Boston: Pearson. Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D & Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson Prentice Hall. Broom, GM & Sha, B. 2013. Cutlip & Center's effective public relations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Butterick, K. Introducing public relations: theory and practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Cant, M. 2013. Marketing: an introduction. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Juta. Gordon, AE. 2011. Public relations. New York: Oxford. Hansen-Horn, T & Horn, AE. 2014. Strategic planning for public relations: beginning the journey. New York: Peter Lang. Rensburg, R & Cant, M. 2009. Public relations: African perspectives. 2nd edition. Sandton: Heinemann. Riggelsford, M. 2013. Health and medical public relations. New York: Routledge. Steyn, B & Puth, G. 200. Corporate communication strategy. Sandown: Heineman. Tripathy, M. 2011. Public relations: bridging technologies and monitoring public and the media. Delhi: Authorspress. 245 | P a g e