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University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
MNM1520/1/2018-2020
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IMPORTANT INFORMATION:
Please register on myUnisa, activate your myLife e-mail address and ensure that
you have regular access to the myUnisa module site MNM1520 as well as your
group site.
MNM1520/1
Dear Student
You are receiving this document to provide you with insight as to what information is being
presented on myUnisa, the official learning management system of the University. If at all
possible, we would like to encourage you to set up your myLife account at
https://my.unisa.ac.za/portal and join the online learning environment.
myLife
FIGURE 1: myUnisa portal
Other information in this document includes:
1
2
3
4
5
6
Getting Started Letter
Welcome message on the home page
Outcomes and assessment criteria
Frequently asked questions (FAQs)
Discussion forums and discussions
Learning units
p2
p9
p 11
p 13
p 21
p 23
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1
GETTING STARTED LETTER
Welcome to the module on Fundamentals of Public Relations (MNM1520).
We hope that your experience of this module will be enjoyable and enriching.
This letter contains important information to get you started.
1.1 Going online
As a registered Unisa student, you will have access to the myUnisa electronic portal.
EXAMPLE 1: myUnisa electronic portal home page
From here you can access various online resources to assist you in your studies. Please
ensure that you have activated your myLife e-mail account and familiarise yourself with the
Study @ Unisa brochure and other guidelines.
You might also find it helpful to access the following links relating to studying online:



Study @ Unisa (1)
Study @ Unisa (2): What does it mean to be an ODL student at Unisa?
Get connected before you start to register on myUnisa
Once you have registered and have your myUnisa login details, you will have access to
the module sites of all the modules you have registered for.
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1.2 Using the navigation bar and myUnisa tools
You can use various navigation options to navigate the sites of the modules you have
enrolled for. These options are displayed on the left-hand side of the screen of all the sites.
Click on the specific navigation option and it will open the page containing the information
you are looking for. The first page you will see when opening any site is the home page.
EXAMPLE 2: Home page of module site
Remember, from the MNM1520 home page, your lecturers are just a click away! We will
follow a weekly schedule indicating what needs to be done for a specific week and thus
the home page will be updated regularly.
The following is an alphabetical list and accompanying explanation of other myUnisa tools
that we will use for this module:
myUnisa tools
Additional Resources
Explanation
This tool allows you to access different types of resources
relevant to your studies such as links to articles on
Fundamentals of Public Relations, assessments and
assessment rubrics and OERs. The Additional Resources
tool contains a number of folders with files, links, graphs and
other information. These additional resources will support
your learning, and new resources might be uploaded during
the semester.
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myUnisa tools
Announcements
Assignments
Discussions/Discussion
Forums
Explanation
From time to time an announcement will alert you to
important information. You will sometimes also receive an
e-mail notification in this regard. In addition, the most recent
announcements will be displayed on the home page.
This tool allows you to submit assignments and monitor
your assessment results. We will provide clear guidelines
on the submission of assignments.
This tool is used mainly for interactive discussions and
activities relating to the various topics and themes
associated with the field of Marketing Management. The
forums and learning activities are created to assist and
support you in mastering the learning outcomes.
Participating in the discussions will also help you to be
better prepared for the assignments.
The module site contains a variety of discussion forums.
There are forums where you can meet and chat with your
fellow students (Forum 1: Student Lounge) and ask
questions to your lecturers (Forum 2: Queries to my
lecturer). In some instances, your participation in the
discussion forums will be assessed and the mark awarded
will form part of your year mark. However, this will be clearly
indicated to you.
In Forum 1: Student Lounge, you will be able to create your
own discussions should you wish to do so. To find out more
about how to create your own discussions, consult the
category “Technical issues” under the tool FAQs (frequently
asked questions).
FAQs (frequently asked
questions)
The FAQs tool provides questions and answers relating to
the module. These are grouped in various categories
ranging from assessment matters to technical issues. If you
have any queries about the module, start by consulting the
FAQs. Should you not find an answer to your question, you
are most welcome to contact us.
Glossary
The Glossary tool allows you to access an alphabetical list
of terms or terminology, usually specialised terms and their
definitions, and which are related to the field of Marketing
Management. In printed format, glossaries usually appear
at the end of a book or sometimes at the end of chapters.
By selecting the Glossary tool, you can easily access such
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myUnisa tools
Explanation
a list of specialised terms and the accompanying
explanations if you do not understand the meaning of the
word or concept used in this discipline.
Learning Units
Official Study Material
Prescribed Books
Schedule
Self-assessment
This tool is the one that you will use most often. Here you
will find content supporting the learning outcomes. The
Learning Units tool also provides information on learning
activities, assessments and links to other valuable
resources. Please note that the Learning Units tool will be
used in conjunction with your learning guide.
This tool allows you to access and download the official
study material such as the tutorial letters.
This tool is used in all the modules to display the prescribed
books for the module.
This tool displays the dates of the compulsory assignments
and examinations. The calendar on the home page will also
display all the dates of the various learning activities
captured in the schedule. To access the information on
scheduled events, click on the date in the calendar (which
will be highlighted and underlined if activities are scheduled
for that day), or click on the Schedule tool in the navigation
bar, which gives you the option to view the calendar by
week, month or year. You can also use the Schedule tool
to help you plan and manage your time so that you can
keep up with the various learning activities for this module.
Unfortunately you will not be able to add or change
schedule entries.
This tool allows you to access a variety of self-assessment
activities related to the outcomes and various parts of the
module. Some of the self-assessments will allow you to test
your knowledge about a specific theme or topic presented
in the Learning Units tool. On such self-assessments you
will receive immediate feedback. The assessments that will
be graded and that count towards your year mark will be
clearly indicated.
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1.3 Planning and managing your time
There are 24 hours,
1 440 minutes, and
86 400 seconds in each day.
Yet there never seems to be enough time to get everything done!
Does this sound familiar? Attempting to balance study, work, family life and extracurricular
activities is a challenge requiring you to manage ever-increasing and competing
demands. You therefore need to plan an appropriate schedule that will suit your individual
needs and circumstances. Apart from the suggested study timetable (which you can
access by selecting the Learning Units tool – Overview), and the due dates for
assignments (which you can access by clicking on the Schedule tool), we do not prescribe
a study timetable. However, here are some recommendations. Given the time constraints,
you may want to follow some of these recommendations.
Browse
through the
module site
Take time to browse through the module site and familiarise
yourself with the requirements and demands of the module. This will
enable you to see the “big picture” of the whole module. The FAQs
tool (on the navigation bar of the module site) is a valuable resource
and could be a useful starting point. Evaluate the demands,
opportunities and challenges of your personal circumstances and
determine how they relate to the assignment due dates and the
other relevant learning activities you need to attend to. It may be a
good idea to enter these dates in your personal diary immediately.
Compile a
personal study
timetable
Decide on strategies for planning ahead and compile your personal
study timetable. We recommend being disciplined in keeping to your
schedule. Perhaps you could start with some preliminary reading
and exploring the recommended material. The amount of
information presented on the module site and the number of
assignments to be completed may seem overwhelming at first, but
don't be disheartened!
Approach your
studies
systematically
Work your way systematically through the various learning activities,
reflective questions and assignments based on them. Make sure
that you meet all the requirements for the learning activities. Use the
learning outcomes and assessment criteria, the supporting material
and learning activities (stipulated in the Learning Units tool) to give
you a foundation for the knowledge and skills you need to
develop. To help you approach your studies with confidence, you
may find it helpful to start by browsing through the module site and
to acquaint yourself with the learning outcomes and assessment
criteria, the additional resources and the learning units. The learning
units are designed and developed in the form of manageable
“chunks” to help you achieve the learning outcomes logically and
systematically.
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Contact your
lecturers
Do not hesitate to contact us, your lecturers, if you experience any
difficulties with any aspects of the module. You can contact us
either via e-mail, telephone or the Discussions tool. Our contact
details are available on the home page of the module site.
Remember, help is just a click away.
Contact your
peers
Please make regular contact with your peers (via the Student
Lounge and other forums accessible by means of the Discussions
tool). Engage with your fellow students to clarify and broaden your
understanding of challenging concepts and themes. You will find
that by participating in discussions and continuously reflecting on
your learning you will expand your knowledge base and develop
new skills that you can apply in the workplace. Most students find
these discussions with their lecturers or fellow students extremely
useful when preparing their assignments.
1.4 Participating in the online learning community
If you have taken online courses before, you may well be familiar with how to participate in
online environments. However, if this is the first time you are taking an online course, you
may be interested in how to go about communicating in cyberspace. An important issue of
online communities is how people relate to each other. As you may know, the internet –
cyberspace – has its own culture and accompanying conventions for e-mails, social
networks and more formal online environments such as myUnisa, our educational learning
management system.
When communicating electronically, people often forget that the person on the receiving
end is someone with feelings, facial expressions, gestures and a unique tone of
voice. Without being able to observe these communication cues, it is quite possible to
misinterpret participants' meaning – in the case of online communication, meaning is
usually conveyed by written words only. Because online communication tends to be less
personal, it would be a good idea to familiarise yourself with The core rules of netiquette
(social codes or etiquette for the internet – available at http://www.albion.com/netiquette/
corerules.html). These guidelines will give you useful information about participating in
online discussions, such as how to address one another and making sure that you “know
what you're talking about and make sense” (see rule 5).
Please note that when participating in the online discussions, we strongly recommend that
you direct your responses to your lecturers and fellow students by addressing them at the
opening of your response. Also, when you end your contribution, sign off by using your
name (or title and surname). This will serve as an indication of how you would like your
lecturers and fellow students to address you.
We urge you to make an effort and commit to following these guidelines to ensure that
your communication and actions online are respectful.
Now, to get started, please access Forum 1: Student Lounge and introduce yourselves
to each other (Discussion 1).
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1.5 Closing remarks
Familiarise yourself with the online environment before the module commences in January
2017. We look forward to witnessing your progress at a personal and professional level
during the year.
It is truly a pleasure having you as a student, and we would like to take this opportunity to
wish you every success with your studies.
Your lecturer
Ms C Prinsloo
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2
WELCOME MESSAGE ON THE HOME PAGE
Welcome to the MyUnisa Learning Management System for Fundamentals of Public
Relations (MNM1520)
The purpose of this module is for students to acquire knowledge of fundamental concepts
in public relations and develop their understanding of public relations principles. The field
of public relations is extremely dynamic and challenging. Nowadays the business
environment is much more dynamic than in the past and in this dynamic environment, the
interaction between an organisation and its publics is of critical importance.
The module will cover the following topics:
•
•
•
•
Public relations: an introduction
Public relations practitioner skills
Public relations and the media
Planning and managing public relations communication and campaigns
Fundamentals of Public Relations (MNM1520) provides a basis of understanding of the
basis of public relations being communication, to what public relations entails. Students
are introduced to the skills necessary for a public relations practitioner to perform his or
her tasks, as well as the communication media public relations practitioners can use to
communicate with stakeholders.
This webpage is dedicated to supporting your learning for this module. If you make a
regular habit of checking your module webpages, you can take full advantage of these
features:
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Go to Official Study Material and you should find PDF files for your tutorial letters and
your study guide, if available. Any other documents provided by your lecturer will be
available in the Additional Resources tool.
Go to Prescribed Textbooks and look to see if there are any prescribed texts for this
module.
Go to Discussion Forums and you will find a topic called “General subject-related
discussions”.
This is a space for you to talk with your fellow students about this course. The lecturers
may include other topics and forums for you.
Go to the Schedule tool and you can check your official assignment and examination
dates.
Other things you might find in your module webpage include the following:
Your lecturer may use the Announcements tool to inform you about special meetings,
local conferences, or important course-related issues. When they add an announcement,
you may also receive an e-mail reminding you to check the website.
The myUnisa team and us, your lecturers, hope that you will take full advantage of these
additional features to make your studies more exciting and successful.
Please do not hesitate to contact us by means of myUnisa, via e-mail or by visiting at our
offices at the Muckleneuk Campus in Pretoria. Should you wish to visit us on campus,
please remember to arrange an appointment beforehand (office hours: 08:00–16:00).
Good luck!!
Ms C Prinsloo
Department of Marketing and Retail
Lecturer's contact details:
Ms C Prinsloo
Office number: AJH Van der Walt Building, 5-58
Telephone number: :+27(0)12 429 8303
E-mail address: marketing@unisa.ac.za
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3
OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
Outcomes
Identify and discuss a
public relations
practitioner's role in
business
communication.
Assessment criteria
•
•
•
•
•
•
Demonstrate a
fundamental knowledge
of the essential
practical skills that a
public relations
practitioner should
possess relating to
listening, speaking and
reading.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Discuss a fundamental
knowledge of writing
skills required for the
different types of media
used by public relations
practitioners.
Illustrate an understanding of communication in
different communication contexts relating to verbal and
non-verbal messages.
Evaluate the antecedents and components of
integrated communication.
Discuss public relations planning related to
components that are targeted at relevant stakeholders.
Identify and explain public practitioner's characteristics,
skills and tasks.
Identify and discuss public relations' role in the
business world.
Critically evaluate the different tools and techniques
utilised by public relations practitioners.
Discuss listening and its levels.
Discuss and apply the steps in the listening process.
Identify and discuss barriers to listening.
Identify a good listener and discuss the relevant skills
to improve listening.
Identify and discuss the different speech styles or
types.
Discuss the factors that can cause a public speaker to
be nervous.
Explain the different speaking environments.
Discuss the preparation, delivery and aftermath of
public speaking.
Discuss the importance of reading and its different
strategies or techniques.
Identify application of reading in different forms of
written communication.
Explain how to improve reading skills.
• Identify and discuss print media in public relations.
• Discuss newsworthiness in print media.
• Explain how to identify and write an effective news
release.
• Identify the structure of a feature story and utilise
structure to a feature story.
• Identify the structure of a brochure and utilise the
structure to write an effective brochure.
• Identify and discuss broadcast media in public
relations.
• Discuss the utilisation of guidelines on how to write for
radio.
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• Discuss the utilisation of guidelines on how to write for
television.
• Discuss what makes electronic media different from
other media.
• Explain and understand how to write an e-mail in
accordance with the relevant literature.
• Explain and understand how to write an SMS in
accordance with the relevant literature.
• Discuss guidelines on how to write for online media.
• Discuss and understand how to write formal business
letters in accordance with the relevant literature.
• Explain and understand how to write business reports
in accordance with the relevant literature.
• Explain and understand how to write business
proposals in accordance with the relevant literature.
Demonstrate a
fundamental knowledge
on planning and
managing public
relations
communication and
campaigns.
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•
•
•
Identify and discuss the elements of public relations
planning and management.
Explain communication campaigns and its elements.
Identify and discuss the different campaign models.
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4
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQs)
Category
Tutorial letters
Questions and answers
Question 1: What information do the tutorial letters contain?
Answer:
The tutorial letters contain important information about the scheme
of work, resources and assignments for this module. We urge you
to read them carefully and to keep them at hand when working
through the study material, preparing the assignments, preparing
for the examination and addressing questions to your lecturers.
More specifically, in Tutorial Letter MNM1520/101, you will find the
assignments and assessment criteria as well as instructions on
the preparation and submission of the assignments. This tutorial
letter also provides all the information you need with regard to the
study material, other resources and how to obtain it.
Tutorial Letter MNM1520/201 contains feedback on Assignment
01; Tutorial Letter MNM1520/202 contains feedback on
Assignment 02 and the self-assessment assignment, while
Tutorial Letter MRMALL8 contains important information, which
applies to all students registered in the Department of Marketing
and Retail Management.
Right from the start, we would like to point out that you must read
all the tutorial letters you receive during the semester, as they
always contain important and, sometimes, urgent information.
Please make sure that you work through the tutorial letters before
you embark on any work in the study units or assessment tasks.
Question 2: Will I receive all my tutorial matter when I
register?
Answer:
Please note that not all of your tutorial matter may be available
when you register. Such tutorial matter will be posted to you as
soon as possible.
Please note: It is not possible to fax outstanding tutorial letters to
students. It is, however, possible to download them from the
module site under the tools Official Study Material and
Additional Resources. It is therefore to your benefit to register as
an online student so that you can access and obtain your study
material immediately.
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Student
support
services
Question 1: Whom should I contact regarding administrative
queries?
Answer:
All administrative enquiries in the Department of Marketing and
Retail Management should be directed to the departmental
helpdesk:
E-mail address: marketing@unisa.ac.za
Tel: +27 (0)12 429 8303
Question 2: Whom should I contact regarding academic
queries?
Answer:
All queries about the content of this module (MNM1520) should
be directed to your lecturer. Telephone calls should be made
during office hours (08:30–16:00). Lengthy problems should rather
be dealt with by e-mail.
You are welcome to visit your lecturer at her office on the
Muckleneuk Campus, but please make sure that you have made
an appointment beforehand. Appointments should be made at
least a week in advance. The lecturer cannot guarantee that she
will be able to attend to you if you arrive at the Department of
Marketing and Retail Management without an appointment.
Question 3: What support can I expect from my lecturers?
Answer:
Your lecturer will use the home page to post regular messages to
guide you through the semester. Furthermore, you will receive
regular announcements to draw your attention to important
learning events and assessment tasks. Your lecturer has also
prepared supporting learning resources and various discussion
forums and topics, which you will be able to access through
myUnisa. You can thus expect regular communication from your
lecturer. Remember, help is just a click away.
Question 4: What resources will I be able to access via
myUnisa?
Answer:
We realise that, as a distance education student, you cannot
always visit the library when you are searching for information.
Therefore, we have included online resources on our module site
which you can access at any time.
On this site, you will find the following material:

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electronic copies of the study guide and tutorial letters (under
Official Study Material)
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Please note: There are no prescribed books or books reserved
via the electronic e-reserves system.
Question 5: What other support services are available
regarding general student matters?
Answer:
If you need to contact the University about matters not related to
the content of this module, please consult the publication Study @
Unisa that you received with your study material. This booklet
contains information on how to contact the University (e.g. to
whom you can write for different queries, important telephone and
fax numbers, addresses and details of the times certain facilities
are open).
Always provide your name, student number and module code
when you contact the University.
Question 6: Are there any study groups for this module?
Answer:
There are no official study groups for this module. However, we
strongly recommend that you form your own study groups with
fellow students living in your area.
To form study groups, you can share your contact details with your
fellow students in the Student Lounge forum. Contact students
who live near to you and invite them to form a study group.
Learning
material
Question 1: Do I need to study all the material in both the
learning units and textbook?
Answer:
Yes. In some cases where the learning units and the textbook do
not correspond with one another, the lecturer will provide you with
a page reference guide that indicates what to study in your
textbook.
Assignments
Question 1: How do I submit my assignments?
Answer:
Refer to Tutorial Letter 101. You can submit assignments
electronically via myUnisa, at your regional office or by registered
mail.
You cannot e-mail your assignment to your lecturer.
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Question 2: What are the assignments' due dates?
Answer:
Semester 1:
Refer to Tutorial letter 101
Semester 2:
Refer to Tutorial letter 101
Question 3: Will I be penalised if I submit my assignment
late?
Answer:
Yes, no late submissions are accepted.
Examinations
Question 1: Any tips for the examination?
Answer:
No. You have to study all the prescribed material – the questions
asked in the examination will come from either the prescribed
book or the learning units.
Question 2: Are there any past examination papers?
Answer:
The lecturer will not provide you with past examination papers. If
there are any past papers available, the examination department
uploads them under the Official Study Material tool. The lecturer
will not give you the memorandums of past papers.
Please take note: You will not pass if you only study past
examination papers! Working out a past examination paper will
only provide you with the skill to answer an examination paper.
Question 3: What is the format of the examination?
Answer:
The examination counts for a total of 70 marks. The paper
consists of one section, namely section A, which has multiplechoice questions.
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Online
learning
Question 1: Is it easier to learn online than through printbased material?
Answer:
No. The course content of an online class is usually identical to
that of a print-based distance learning course on the same
topic. Compared to regular face-to-face classes, the workload is
even more demanding because you have to be a selfdirected learner and stay motivated to keep on top of your work.
The most successful online students tend to share the following
characteristics. They:




are self-motivated and self-starters
have good organisational and time-management skills
are fairly familiar with computers and the internet
are resourceful and actively seek answers and solutions to
questions and problems
Question 2: What are the benefits of learning online?
Answer:
In the online world you can study anytime, anywhere and at a
pace that suits your individual learning style. Remember, though,
that you will still have to meet the required deadlines for
assignment submissions.
Question 3: What internet skills would be useful for online
learning?
Answer:
The most successful students tend to have the following
skills:





familiarity with their web browser
familiarity with an e-mail program (including attaching
documents and reading attachments)
some familiarity with web-based interactions – e-mail, social
networks, learning management systems
familiarity with word processing (MS Word)
experience in successful internet searches, using a variety of
browsers and search engines
Question 4: How important is attitude in achieving success in
Study and in an online learning environment?
Answer:
Your attitude is very important to ensure success. We know that
you are interested in the fundamentals of public relations;
otherwise you would not have enrolled for this module. We want to
encourage you to develop a positive attitude towards your
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studies and online learning environment. To achieve this, there
are a number of things to bear in mind.
TIME is important for a distance learning student. You must be in
control of your time and manage it effectively. Draw up a study
programme at the beginning of the semester. This requires
discipline, but will ensure that you:



have sufficient time to work through all the relevant study
material
are able to submit the relevant tasks and assignments on the
due dates
have sufficient time for revision and preparing for the
assignments and examination
We would like to encourage you to follow the guidelines below:




Do NOT fall behind in your planning.
Work regularly and consistently.
Make sure that you understand the work as you go along.
Do NOT give up on difficult work; rather seek help as soon as
possible.
We hope that this information will make your studies easier, and
that you will do well.
Question 5: How should I approach my online learning?
Answer:
We all have different learning styles and preferences. However,
consider the following pointers or guidelines:






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Allocate time to work through each learning unit and do the
activities.
Allow extra time for work that seems difficult or with which you
know you have a problem.
When you compile a study plan, allow time for personal
responsibilities (e.g. family responsibilities, work obligations,
social obligations, leave).
Make use of your most productive time for study (e.g. late in
the evening after the children have gone to bed or early in the
morning before the rest of the family wake up).
Remember that it is more effective to study for one hour on a
regular basis (e.g. every day) than for ten consecutive hours
every two weeks. Decide now how many hours you are going
to spend on your studies per week. We recommend that you
put one to two hours aside each day.
Keep a record of your progress. It will be gratifying to see what
you have accomplished, and it will inspire you if you fall
behind. Be prepared for disruptions to your study programme
due to unforeseen circumstances. You should therefore
monitor your progress so that you can catch up immediately if
MNM1520/1
you fall behind. Remember that it is easier to catch up one
week's lost hours than an entire month's.
Technical
issues related
to myUnisa
Question 1: How do I create a new topic using the Discussion
Forums tool?
Answer:
To create a new topic in a forum, you need to do the following:
1. Select and access the Student Lounge forum from the list of
forums in the Discussion Forums tool.
2. Now, at the top of the page select the option Add a New
Topic.
3. Give your topic a descriptive name in the Topic Title box.
4. In the Message box, write down the instructions for the
discussion.
5. Click on the Submit button to create your topic for discussion.
Question 2: What is expected of me when I participate in
discussion forums?
Answer:
Remember, online discussion forums are not the same as e-mail
messages, or a letter to the lecturer, or a chat room. Therefore,
the myUnisa discussion forums must not be used for personal
messages to your lecturers or to one another. You are, however,
welcome to use the forum marked Student Lounge to introduce
yourself to your fellow students, form study groups and create
your own topics.
In this module, we will be using the online discussion forum for
academic purposes. For this reason, the discussions will be
based on topics related to module outcomes, the assessments
and the supporting content.
Online discussion forums are more like class discussions in a
face-to-face classroom, where the lecturers raise discussion
points and ask questions. All the students can then respond to the
lecturer's questions as well as to one another's responses. The
lecturer can then clarify uncertainties and perhaps provide a
summary at the end of a discussion.
Participating in discussion forums provides you with opportunities
to:






discuss and clarify issues in the subject area
share experiences and ideas with peers and lecturers
solve problems collaboratively
debate topical issues
raise questions about the topic under discussion
introduce the most recent developments in the subject area
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

receive immediate feedback on assignments
access additional resources related to relevant topics in this
subject or discipline
Question 3: How do I set up my own blog? Is this needed?
Answer:
The Blogs tool is a useful way of sharing your views and thoughts
on this module with your fellow students. What I would like you to
do is to create your own blog in this site and to use it as a place
where you reflect on your progress in this module. You can also
read and write comments on your fellow students' blogs, as long
as they are positive and uplifting!
To get your own blog started, follow these instructions:
1. Go to the Blogs tool.
2. Click on Add blog entry link at the top to start your blog.
3. Give your blog entry a title.


You could use something like Reflections on my learning
experience in this module. This is just an example for a
title.
Your name will automatically show next to this blog entry.
4. Then type your message inside the text box provided.
5. After the text box, you are asked to "Choose who can see this
entry".
6. The default setting of the blog is ticked: This entry is publicly
viewable.


You should NOT change this, because this is the only way
that anyone can read your reflections and leave comments.
If you have not quite finished, you can click on the Save
Draft button. No one else will be able to read your blog
until you click on Publish entry. (Note: If you save a draft,
you need to click on This entry is publicly viewable when
you have finished and want to publish.)
7. If you want to add a comment to someone's blog, just click on
the link Leave a comment at the bottom of the blog you are
reading.
You can add links, bullets, lists, colour, and so forth, by using the
editing buttons. You can also go back, delete and edit your blogs.
You can create new blogs on different topics under your name by
just clicking on Add blog entry again.
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5
DISCUSSION FORUMS AND DISCUSSIONS
Forums
Forum 1: Student
Lounge
Use this forum to
discuss general
matters amongst
yourselves.
Topics
Discussion 1: Introduce yourself
Use this space to get to know your fellow students.
Tell one another about your current work situation,
professional background and anything else you would like to
share (± 250 words).
Discussion 2: Fellow student contact details
Use this space to share your contact details with your fellow
students and to form study groups.
Forum 2: General
subject-related
discussions
Discussion 1: General discussion
Use this space for general discussions about the subject.
Use this forum to
raise general queries
regarding the content
of the module.
Forum 3: Learning
unit discussion
Use this forum to
raise general queries
regarding each
learning unit.
Discussion 1: Learning unit 1
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 1: An overview of
communication and public relations.
Discussion 2: Learning unit 2
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 2: The public relations
practitioner.
Discussion 3: Learning unit 3
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 3: Practitioner skills in
listening.
Discussion 4: Learning unit 4
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 4: Public speaking in the
public relations function.
Discussion 5: Learning unit 5
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 5: Reading in the public
relations function.
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Discussion 6: Learning unit 6
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 6: Writing text intended for
print media.
Discussion 7: Learning unit 7
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 7: Writing text intended for
broadcast media.
Discussion 8: Learning unit 8
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 8: Writing text intended for
online communication.
Discussion 9: Learning unit 9
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 9: Writing text intended for
business.
Discussion 10: Learning unit 10
Use this space to raise queries and have general
discussions around Learning unit 10: Planning and managing
public relations communication campaigns.
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6
LEARNING UNITS
Learning unit 1: An overview of communication and public relations
Learning unit 2: The public relations practitioner
Learning unit 3: Practitioner skills in listening
Learning unit 4: Public speaking in the public relations function
Learning unit 5: Reading in the public relations function
Learning unit 6: Writing text intended for print media
Learning unit 7: Writing text intended for broadcast media
Learning unit 8: Writing text intended for online communication
Learning unit 9: Writing text intended for business
Learning unit 10: Planning and managing public relations communication campaigns
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Learning unit 1
An overview of communication and public relations
Contents
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
1.1
Defining communication
1.1.1 Verbal communication
1.1.2 Non-verbal communication
1.1.3 Principles of communication
1.1.4 Levels of communication
1.1.5 Media channels
1.2
Integrated communication
1.2.1 Evolution of integrated communication
1.3
Difference between integrated communication and integrated marketing
communication
1.4
Defining public relations
1.4.1 Public relations roles
1.4.2 Public relations key tasks
1.5
Difference between public relations and marketing
1.6
The role of the Public Relations Institute of South Africa
1.7
Self-assessment questions
1.8
Reflection
1.9
Summary
1.10
References
1.
Introduction
Communication is a vital element of our daily lives. It is important not only in a personal
sense, but also in a business sense. However, we need to do more than just
communicate: We need to be able to communicate effectively. All business enterprises
regard effective communication as essential for their survival. Effective communication is
the most important aspect in public relations, as it can make or break a company. The
public relations department relies on both written and verbal communication in interacting
with various stakeholders, both internal and external, every day.
In order to understand public relations and its place in the business world, one must first
understand communication, which is a means for public relations practitioners to
accomplish the public relations tasks.
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Overview of this document
The Fundamentals of Public Relations (MNM1520) document is structured to provide an
understanding of the basis of public relations being communication, to what public
relations entails. Students are then introduced to the skills necessary for a public relations
practitioner to perform his or her tasks, as well as the communication media public
relations practitioners can use to communicate with stakeholders. The document is
completed with a learning unit on public relations campaigns, which brings together all the
skills and communication media to perform a public relations campaign.
To enrich the document, open education resources (OER) have been included at the
beginning of each learning unit (except for learning unit 5), which serves as enrichment.
For more information on OERs, you can visit the Unisa website at:
http://www.unisa.ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&Content-ID=27755.
Overview of this learning unit
This learning unit deals with communication in public relations. It covers two main topics,
namely communication and public relations. Communication is discussed first, and we
begin the learning unit by defining communication and examining the communication
process. We then devote some time to the difference between integrated marketing
communication and integrated communication, after which we explore the evolution of
integrated communication. The next topic is public relations, and here we begin with a
definition of public relations. We also take a look at the various internal and external
stakeholders. Next, we discuss the role of public relations in marketing and the
organisation, and we end with a discussion of the role of PRISA in public relations.
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This learning unit unfolds as follows:
Learning outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
define communication (including principles and level of communication)
explain the difference between integrated marketing communication and integrated
communication
explain the evolution of integrated communication
define public relations
explain the public relations roles, tasks and theories
explain the internal and external stakeholders in public relations
explain where public relations fits in the organisation
explain the role of PRISA in public relations
Key concepts
Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
define communication
explain verbal and non-verbal communication
explain principles of communication
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
define integrated marketing communication
explain integrated communication
define and explain public relations
explain public relations roles
define internal stakeholders
define external stakeholders
explain PRISA
VERY IMPORTANT!
Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please
follow the URL below and download the material:
http://bookboon.com/en/marketing-communications-ebook [pages 283–302]
1.1
DEFINING COMMUNICATION
Study the section that follows:
Communication is sharing information, ideas and feelings through a communication
medium with one or more individuals (Daniels, Hunter, McGhie, Middleton Horn, Van
Jaarsveldt & Van Vuuren 2014:32). Communication involves a sender, who sends the
message or initiates the dialogue, and a receiver of the message. The receiver of the
message becomes the sender when she or he responds to the message. The dialogue is a
cyclic process because it is a dialogue or back and forth, communication, which allows for
communication between the sender of the message and the receiver of the message,
therefore communication, becomes a cyclic process. Figure 1 illustrates the
communication model below.
FIGURE 1.1: Basic communication model
Source:
Adapted from Baker (2014:401); Daniels, Hunter, McGhie, Middleton Horn, Van Jaarsveldt & Van
Vuuren (2014:38)
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The communication process occurs as follows (O'Rourke 2013:27):
•
•
•
•
•
•
The sender creates a message with the intended message.
The sender transmits the message by means of a communication medium.
The receiver receives the message and decodes the message.
The receiver creates a message in response.
The sender determines whether the message was interpreted accordingly, hence the
cyclical nature of communication.
In the event that communication was misunderstood due to a barrier or noise in the
communication process, the sender of the communication can then recreate or
rephrase a message.
There are basic reasons for why people or individuals would want to communicate a
message (Smith 2013:173), which are:
•
To convey a certain message, which will assist the receiver in some manner:
o For example: informing employees of a new information technology in place
that will assist with their jobs.
•
To persuade the receiver(s) to agree and support a certain cause:
o For example: persuade employees to support the Walk the Talk campaign,
which is in support of a number of causes.
•
To clarify messages that was not understood:
o For example: to clarify a statement made by management regarding Walmart
acquiring a majority stake in Mass Holdings Limited.
There are two types of communication through which messages can be conveyed, namely
verbal and non-verbal communication. Both are discussed below.
Activity 1.1
Tandie's Beauty Warehouse has implemented a new information technology system that
processes orders from hair salons faster and allows employees to keep better record of
the orders. Tandie's clients are also able to track their orders on the system. For which
reason will Tandie's Beauty Warehouse communicate the implementation of the new IT
system? Provide the reason and discuss why it is relevant to the scenario.
Feedback
In relation to the scenario, the IT system will make the operational tasks easier for the
employees in terms of processing speed and record keeping of orders. Tandie's Beauty
Warehouse will be communicating the message as it will assist the receiver in some
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manner. In addition, it allows clients to track their orders themselves, therefore preventing
the need to contact Tandie's Beauty Warehouse for a progress report, which in turn allows
for more time for the employees to process orders.
Verbal communication
Two types of verbal communication exist: oral and written communication.
Oral communication is the transferal of a message by means of the spoken word or vocal
communication. Oral communication is direct and personal and allows dialogue to occur.
Examples of verbal communication are one-on-one conversations, telephonic calls,
meetings and interviews (Daniels et al 2014:43).
Oral communication is useful when comprehensive descriptions are required, which allows
for high information richness (meaning conveying) also non-verbal communication, such
as social convention cues like tone, urgency of a matter, professionalism or formalities
(Miller 2011:53). In certain instances, oral communication is best suited, especially when
emotion needs to be conveyed such as a meeting to inform employees of a manager
stepping down or resigning. Oral communication is created through language; therefore, it
is essential that individuals improve their language in order to clarify the meaning of their
message being communicated. To enrich oral communication in the case of meetings and
interviews, audio and visuals can accompany the oral message.
Written communication is a message which appears on paper or in a computer
programme – thus a message that can be read. Written communication is also
communicated through language, although in the written form. Written communication is
best suited when facts are conveyed or legal matters which for legal purposes need to be
in writing. It allows for a single or a number of individuals to contribute to the message.
Similarly, a large amount of information can be shared, where many individuals can access
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the message many times after it has been sent. Memos, proposals, news releases,
business letters, electronic newsletters and websites are examples of written
communication (Bauer & Erdogan 2013).
Public relations practitioners require communication skills, which allow him or her (1) to
convey messages in such a way that they clearly structured; while (2) clearly explaining
what the message is; (3) through using powerful words that have an impact on the
audience and; (4) a masterful language use that can be used to comprehensively convey
the intended message (Fourie 2014:230).
Non-verbal communication
A large part of communication is non-verbal, which is demonstrated through body
language, hand gestures, body movement, tone and facial expressions (Hurn 2014:188).
Non-verbal communication emphasises, contradicts or enriches verbal communication
(Machado 2014:25). It also contributes to high information richness as the visible cues
enrich the communication, although the sender and receiver need to be in the same
location to notice the visual cues (Hume 2010:12).
Non-verbal communication also plays a number of functions (Machado 2014:27–28;
Hamilton 2011:122; Duck & McMahan 2010:62–66; Martin & Nakayama 2007:256):
•
Emblems are gestures that have a specific agreed-on meaning that can be generally
translated directly into words, which:
o reinforces verbal communication such as waving when saying goodbye
o replaces verbal communication, where a non-verbal gesture is provided instead
of verbally communicating, such as shaking your head instead of saying no
o emphasises verbal communication by indicating a non-verbal gesture which
means the same as the verbal communication, such as pointing the way when
giving directions to the service desk
o contradicts verbal communication, for example, when an individual is lying about
something, she or he rubs his or her nose, which is an indication of lying
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Regulators accompany speech to control or regulate what the speaker is saying,
which:
•
o regulates others behaviour such when the boss stands up to show the end of the
meeting
Identifiers are physical attributes of individuals, such as:
•
o the physical ques individuals display like their gender, skin colour, having a
beard, their hair type, and so forth
•
Adaptors serve as unintentional clues of how a person is feeling, such as:
o conveying attitudes about another person, for example a woman sitting closer to
a man and playing with her hair while smiling and looking at the man suggests
she finds him attractive
o conveying an attitude towards a situation, for example standing up and leaving
during a theatre production showing disapproval of the theatre production
o conveying attitude towards yourself, such as keeping to one side, not talking to
people in the room, while wringing hands could show nervousness and
uncertainty
• Relational meaning and understanding refers to how your relationships with others
are regulated through societal interaction that stands for different relational
connections. It:
o controls social interaction and acts as relational controller in the sense that it
informs others of your relationship with them in terms of politeness towards a
stranger, coordination of actions with someone that you know well, and a sense
of pleasure of interaction when you laugh with someone or smile at someone
Activity 1.2
Study the image in section 1.1.2 and indicate what each image says about the
individual's emotional state. How will learning to read an individual's non-verbal
communication help you as a public relations practitioner?
Feedback
Top left image: shows the individual is relaxed
Top right image: shows the individual is anxious
Left bottom image: shows the individual is stressed
Right bottom image: shows the individual is defensive
It will assist you in showing what the other person is feeling, which will be a point
of reference for your communication approach towards that person.
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Principles of communication
Numerous characteristics of communication are relevant across many varying external
factors of time, culture and economies. These principles are the things we know to be true
about human communication. The communication principles are (O'Rourke 2013:27–28):
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dynamic: Constant change is present in communication, as one message builds on
another, and as one experience builds on another. Imagine an organisation
communicating the following: (1) We do not like our customers – this will make you
think the organisation hates the customers. However, it changes when the next
message the organisation communicates is: (2) We do not like our customers, we
love our customers – this changes your perception of the organisation and its
perception of its customers.
Continuous: Communication continues to take place, even when it is to continue a
conversation after many weeks, reread an e-mail the next day for better
understanding in order to respond, or not having a reply to a difficult answer, which
shows an inability to communicate at the time.
Cyclic: Communication is a dialogue, which relies on feedback even in some cases
where it is not direct, for example a complaint to the human resource manager about
a colleague, which is then discussed between the human resource manager and that
particular colleague.
Unrepeatable: As the listeners' perceptions are also involved in the communication
process, it is not possible to repeat a message to an audience and expect the same
understanding of the message. For example, if a company informs stakeholders that
they are financially stable during a recession and that same company repeats the
statement although clear evidence of the contrary is evident, the same message will
be perceived differently by the stakeholders, perhaps as deception or as desperation.
Irreversible: Communication cannot be reversed or taken back. The individual(s) can
only apologise for, correct or explain what the communication conveyed. In a
misunderstanding, a company that "scolds" it customers for being unethical can
never reverse that scolding message when it is discovered to be unfounded.
Complex: Communication is more than the message being conveyed with words. A
message being communicated has many layers, such as the verbal message (which
includes language nuances, cultural meanings and perceptions) along with the nonverbal messages (tone, body language and voice quality).
Activity 1.3
During a press conference to inform external stakeholders about the unexpected crisis that
a major fishing company from Saldanha is experiencing, the manager accidentally makes a
comment to his colleague, which is overheard as the microphone was not switched off. He
stated that “these people will not believe us anyway on what happened to cause the
crisis”. He did not intend for the audience attending the press conference to hear his
comment, as he was just making an observation that the cause of the crisis seemed to be
bizarre and unbelievable. His mistaken comment was broadcasted on television and
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appeared in the newspaper, painting the manager as dishonest and irresponsible. What
principle of communication does the manager's mistake represent and what are the
implications thereof?
Feedback
The mistaken comment represents the irreversible principle of communication. The
manager of Saldanha fishing company made the mistake of communicating a message
that was not intended for that particular audience, being those that attended the press
conference. Implications of the mistaken comment are a deepening of the crisis perhaps
(loss of clients/loss of reputation). The manager cannot take back the communication, but
only apologise for it and explain the purpose of the communication and why it was
conveyed.
Levels of communication
Communication by individuals takes place at different levels, which are directed at
different audiences (O'Rourke 2013:28), including the following:
•
•
•
•
Intrapersonal: Individuals communicate within themselves, such as thinking over
complex problems and sending different messages to parts of our body, such as
facial expressions.
Interpersonal: Communicating with an individual, verbally and non-verbally, where
messages are communicated between two or more individuals.
Organisational: Communicating within an organisational setting with the purpose of
performing organisational tasks such as receiving instructions from a manager, and
informing colleagues of a crisis situation or having cross-functional operations
(function being a department).
Mass/publicly: Messages communicated to reach a broad external stakeholder such
as customers to inform them of the positive health campaigns an organisation is
involved with or informing customers of a sports personality who is endorsing the
organisation's brand.
Media channels
There are many communication media to choose from to communicate with the different
organisational stakeholders. The public relations practitioner needs to consider the
suitability of the communication medium to the message and goal of achieving effective
public relations communication. Communication media include interpersonal (person-toperson) communication, printed media, IT-based media or broadcast media (Argenti
2006:358; Hume 2010:12–15). The appropriateness and effectiveness of the
communication medium need to be considered. As the communication medium affects
message receipt accuracy, the public relations practitioner needs to consider the
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communication medium information richness – information-rich media convey more nonverbal communication, such as social convention cues like tone, urgency of a matter,
professionalism or formalities (Bauer & Erdogan 2013).
The different possible internal communication media that the organisation can use are
illustrated in the following table.
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Table 1.1: Media channels
Communication
media
Media
Information
richness
In-person
communication
All-staff meetings, individual meetings and recognition
meetings,
formal
speeches,
panel
discussions,
question-and-answer sessions, oral testimonials, employee
counselling, committee meetings, demonstration and training
programmes, interviews, personal instructions and office
grapevine
High
Printed
communication
Internal newsletters, staff handbooks, resource library and
notice boards, house journals, information brochures,
handbooks and manuals, bulletins, bulletin boards, annual
reports, commemorative stamps, exhibits and displays, mobile
displays, suggestion boxes, instructions, orders, pay inserts,
flyers, written reports, financial statements and training kits
IT-based
communication
Broadcast media
Source:
Advantages
Disadvantages
Personal, direct and conducive
to two-way communication
Audience must be in one
location, communication is
time-consuming and not
anonymous
Medium/low
Easy to communicate a large
amount of information, audience
can access it in their own time,
meets requirements in legal
matters
Can be costly, can be avoided,
conducive to one-way
communication and can have
legal implications
E-mail, listservs, telephone or video conferencing, discussion
forums, blogging, social networking sites and intranets or
websites, video blogs, forums, wikis, mobile platforms, digital
signage, internet protocol, television and RSS
Medium
Easily disseminated, cheaper,
not location specific, reach a
large audience and can
overcome large distances easily
Information overload and not
everybody has access to
technology-based
communication, can be
uncontrolled media
Radio and television
Medium
Easily disseminated, cheaper,
easy to communicate a large
amount of information, reach a
large audience and can
overcome large distances easily,
in some instances interactions
are possible
Can be costly conducive to
one-way communication (in
certain instances)
Adapted from Ahmed and Rafiq (2002:31); Van Riel and Fombrun (2007:190); Welch and Jackson (2007:188); Pergamon Flexible Learning
(2009:60); Rensburg and Cant (2009:145–146); Hume (2010:12–15); Mazzei (2010:229); Bovée and Thill (2012:212–240)
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1.2
INTEGRATED COMMUNICATION
Study the section that follows:
Integrated communication is a constant, comprehensive and integrated
communication programme (Rensburg & Cant 2009:116), which aligns internal and
external communication across all communication channels to build a consistent
message. Ultimately, integrated communication creates a favourable reputation with
the organisation's stakeholders while achieving the organisation's goals and
objectives (Mutinta 2015:56; Thulkanam 2014:75). Internal stakeholders are those
who have a direct influence on the organisation, such as employees, while external
stakeholders are those outside of the organisation, such as customers.
Thus, integrated communication can be defined as “a cross-functional process of
creating and nourishing strategically determined relationships with stakeholders by
ensuring that messages to these groups are as appropriate and beneficial to the
business relationship as possible, and engaging in purposeful dialogue with them”
(Angelopula & Barker 2013:41).
When referring to a cross-functional process, it means that integrated
communication attempts to get all departments who are involved in any form of
communication with stakeholders to communicate with one voice, one message and
one tone. Integrated communication can be applied to many disciplines (fields of
study) such as integrated marketing communication, corporate marketing, corporate
branding and corporate communication.
In order for integrated communication to succeed, all internal stakeholders or
employees need to communicate with the same message or message around the
same organisational values. In other words, all employees must speak with the same
voice, same tone and same value systems in place (Smith 2012:14). It requires the
assistance of all employees to work together in endeavouring to be consistent and
collaborate to achieve aligned communication.
Thus, all communication (including logos, symbols, messages, procedures and
behaviours) from employees is aligned and consistent to create an impact that
echoes throughout internal and external communications channels. Using the most
effective and relevant communication channels for the relevant stakeholders is
essential as the stakeholder groups have a preference, which also delivers a greater
impact on the specific stakeholder group. The communication created is directed at
employees, external stakeholders or both stakeholder groups; however, the constant
being that the message directed at all stakeholders is consistent with the values of
the organisation (Smith 2012:5–6).
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For more information on integrated communication, you can check out the following
website: http://www.slideshare.net/tombarat/integrated-communication.
Evolution of integrated communication
Due to changes in society such as technology, consumerism, human rights,
environmental impacts, communication revolution, and development in the public
relations field, it affected the evolution of integrated communication. Based on the
changes over the eras, organisations have realised over time the importance of
building a relationship with customers and stakeholders in general as it will positively
affect the organisations sales and operations (Berndt & Tait 2014:156). It has
become more important to ensure that the organisation communicates with the
employees effectively as well considering that the employees deliver the service to
the customers, thus are the front line when interacting with customers. Therefore, if
the employees understand the values of the organisation and communicate that with
the external stakeholders, it is then aligned and consistent communication. In
addition, there has been an increased interest in consumer consciousness, which
means that external stakeholders are demanding more and more and that
organisations must show integrity, environmental consciousness, social responsibility
and transparency. This has led to stricter regulations, policies and rules being put in
place to govern these responsibilities.
During the pre-industrial age, interactions took place between the manufacturer and
the customers through direct contact, and therefore personal relationships were
formed. However, with the rise of the industrial age, mass production became more
important and fewer interactions took place. This meant that there was less
emphasis on forming personal relationships. Throughout the ages, as advertising
became more popular and integrated communication became more important,
personal relationships with stakeholders became less important. After the 2000s and
more recently, organisations realised the importance of having a relationship with
stakeholders as technology has increased communication opportunities between the
organisation and the stakeholders. The evolution of integrated communication can
be seen in the bulleted list and figure 1.2 below (Angelopulo & Barker 2013:41–42).
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• Manufacturer and customers had direct contact
• Relationships were formed (personal)
• Communication was interpersonal and hardly mediated
• Mass production thus less involvement between manufacturer and
customer
• Less interactions meant no relationships formed
• Mediated and mass produced communication
• Advertising and personal selling became important, however rise to
other marketing communication arose
• More emphasis on marketing (thus no relationships)
• Manuals and co-ordinated communication control communication
• Less advertising and more emphasis on other marketing communication; united and integrated communication is necessary
• Realisation of importance of relationship with customers is starting to
take root
• Messages about product but also organisation should be integrated.
• Operational communication integrating for linkages to all functions in
organisation becomes important
• Communication about the organisation or corporate brand become
important
• Information technology advances make relationships with all
stakeholders possible
• Communication about the organisation can come from the organisation or external stakeholders (i.e. social media comments)
• Increasing communication channel options (social media, online
media)
• Stakeholders are increasingly demanding transparency and ethical
behaviours
• Two way communication has become the norm
• Integrating functional support, communication, behaviours etc. is a
necessity
FIGURE 1.2: Evolution of integrated communication
Source: Adapted from Angelopulo & Barker 2013:41–42
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1.3
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTEGRATED COMMUNICATION
INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION
AND
Study the section that follows:
Integrated communication can be defined as “a cross-functional process of creating
and nourishing strategically determined relationships with stakeholders by ensuring
that messages to these groups are as appropriate and beneficial to the business
relationship as possible, and engaging in purposeful dialogue with them”
(Angelopula & Barker 2013:41).
Integrated marketing communication is a marketer-initiated process, which
combines techniques directed to target audiences in order to influence their attitudes
and behaviours (Koekemoer 2011:2).
In literature, it is suggested that integrated communication and integrated marketing
communication is one in the same; however, there are differences to take note of
(Smith 2012:6):
Table 1.2: Differences between integrated communication and integrated
marketing communication
Integrated communication
Integrated marketing communication
Stakeholders
Customers only
Two-way communication
One-way communication as messages are
sent to customers
Internal and external
External
Strategic intent of the organisation as a whole Marketing or communication functional
drives all the communications of the
strategy drives the messages of the
organisation
organisation
Strategic in nature
Contributes to technical aspects
Integrated communication is consistent communication from all functions
(departments) in an organisation to foster relationships with both internal and
external stakeholders, which will be beneficial to the organisation (Angelopula &
Barker 2013:41).
Integrated marketing communication is consumer centric (focused on the customer)
communication, which is clear and consistent and delivered through numerous
communication channels, to foster a profitable relationship with customers and other
stakeholders to create and maintain brand equity (Šeríć, Gil-Saura & Ozretíć-Došen
2015:960).
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1.4
DEFINING PUBLIC RELATIONS
Study the section that follows:
Public relations is a strategic function (at management level) in the organisation to
communicate with all relevant stakeholders; to develop positive relationships; and to
create a consistency between organisational goals and societal expectations. In
addition, public relations should lead and manage the adoption of organisational
objectives and values; and facilitate organisational change (Lattimore, Baskin,
Heiman & Toth 2012:4). Furthermore, public relations assess stakeholders' attitudes
towards the organisation; it identifies organisational policies and procedures of
public interest and executes an action plan regarding communication to earn public
understanding and acceptance (Rensburg & Cant 2009:35).
The Public Relations Institute of South Africa defines public relations as follows:
Public relations is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and
maintain mutual understanding between the organisation and its various publics –
both internal and external.
The fundamentals of public relations include the following (Guth & Marsh 2012:6–7):
•
•
•
•
•
•
It is a management function as public relations should be at management level
in terms of leading where public relations issues are concerned.
It is not only about sending messages but about also listening to the messages
from stakeholders about the organisation, thus two-way communication is
essential.
Public relations plans and aligns communication and relating actions to the
organisation's values and goals.
Public relations include researching the occurrences in the business
environment, as communication cannot be made without information relating
to the environment in which the organisation operates.
Public relations practitioners must perform relationship-building activities in
order to foster beneficial relationships with stakeholders.
Finally, a public relations practitioner needs to act in a socially responsible
manner and ensure that the organisation itself is acting socially responsible
too.
Watch this video on public relations on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCiK5-R2c0I
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In order to understand the situations where the use of public relations is necessary,
we will discuss the various roles of public relations in the next section.
Public relations roles
The implementation and completion of public relations strategies require particular
techniques in order to communicate with target audiences. The different roles of
public relations practitioners are performed with particular goals in sight, which
requires particular resources. To achieve the goals of public relations and build
relations with different stakeholders, the following roles are discussed in table 1.3
below:
Table 1.3: Roles of public relations in the organisation
Media relations
1
A public relations practitioner builds connections with media entities in order to have
a connection with the public through media channels. Tasks include: exploring
available media channels; securing media contracts; providing briefings to obtain
media contracts; arranging meetings and interviews; drafting feature articles and
press releases; drafting broadcast interviews, background material, film and
photography for broadcast media and encouraging discourse (discussions) on
important issues.
Publications
2
The public relations practitioner is involved with the preparation, production and
creation of both internal and external publications for communication campaigns in
terms of written and spoken communication. External publications include
newsletters, social media postings and annual reports; while internal publications
include intranet postings, internal newsletters, memos and notice boards.
Corporate image
3
As corporate image is the culmination of experiences, impressions, beliefs, feelings
and knowledge that stakeholders hold of the organisation, the public relations
practitioner should ensure that the corporate branding relating to image of the
product, services, branding, any communication and touch point (any point that
customer comes into contact with organisation or its communication) should be
upheld.
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Corporate advertising
4
This entails strengthening the organisation's image and corporate brand through paid
advertising.
Sponsorship and events
5
Sponsoring events, which are associated with an organisation and its brand, can be a
beneficial tool for integrated marketing communication.
Promotional activities
6
Conferences, teleconferences, exhibitions, direct mail and other special events
associated with high profiles, and which are media sensitive, are beneficial in
promoting the organisation's image. Public relations practitioners should be equipped
with the appropriate skills to plan and arrange these promotional activities.
Internal communication
7
This is communicating with employees the process of the organisation, such as
context, news, plans and performance.
Crisis management
8
Despite the unpredictable and sudden nature of crises, public relations practitioners
need to have contingency plans in place to handle such situations. In addition, public
relations practitioners should perform issues management, which is expecting,
detecting and evaluating issues in order to respond to the issues.
Reputation management
9
This is maintaining and, in some cases, enhancing the organisational reputation by
incorporating economic and social considerations into operational processes. Policies
are implemented where the organisation’s core values, based on the welfare of
stakeholders, concern for local communities and quality products with environmental
and technological aspects, are being taken into consideration.
Lobbying
10
Public relations practitioners build and maintain relations with the government in
order to understand legislative processes and, when necessary, petition against
legislative processes, which are not beneficial for the organisation and its
environments in which it operates.
Networking
11
Public relations practitioners build relations with individuals within the industry or
who are influential in their own industries in order to build contacts with whom to
exchange experiences, expertise and contacts for professional social purposes.
Source:
Adapted from Theaker (2012)
To achieve the roles of public relations as discussed in the above table, a public
relations practitioner has specific tasks to perform. These key tasks are discussed in
the subsequent section.
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Activity 1.4
Cheryl works as a public relations practitioner for a major pharmaceutical
organisation in the Johannesburg area. She is a member of the Public Relation
Institute of South Africa and attends as many public relations conferences as she
can. Cheryl believes in having discussions with fellow public relations practitioners
from different organisations, in different industries and different countries in order to
keep updated with the latest trends in the public relations industry and to build
connections who can assist her in the future if any crises should occur. What role of
public relations is Cheryl performing in relation to public relations in the organisation
and why is it so essential that she continues to do so?
Feedback
Cheryl is performing the networking role of public relations in an organisation. It is
essential that Cheryl continues to network as she is building relationships with
individuals who are influential in the industry and she is able to exchange
experiences, expertise and contacts that could improve her skills as a public relations
practitioner.
Public relations key tasks
The fundamentals of public relations are the strategic (managerial) roles public
relations perform. To break it down to operational level, public relations practitioners
are expected to perform the following key tasks:
Table 1.4: Key tasks of public relations practitioners
Key tasks
Strategic communication
Boundary spanning/
situation analysis
Counselling
Planning and organising
Research, monitoring
and evaluation
Copywriting
Editing
Description
Identify problems and analyse situations to provide solutions to reach
organisational goals through communication
Involves analysing the occurrences in the environment and keeping up to
date with the latest news
Discussion on situations and providing solutions to problems surrounding
stakeholder relations
Planning around a set of goals, objectives and organisational values
Arranging public relations related events such as media conferences,
publicity events, sponsorship and so forth
Researching business and social related issues that could affect the
organisation
Monitor and evaluate current public relations campaigns in order to make
corrections where necessary and report on its success rate
Writing internal and external communications, such as electronic
newsletters, memos, brochures and news releases; writing for broadcast
media; writing for print media, trade papers, corporate advertising, and so
forth
Edit all the material that was written
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Key tasks
Production
Speaking
Training
Management
Media relations
Source:
Description
Incorporating multimedia in communication such as design, photography
and audio-visual presentations
Ability to speak in public (such as at a press conference)
Prepare a speech, in some cases for another individual
Prepare specific speeches and corresponding communication relating to a
specific situations
Instruct management on public speaking in certain situations (impromptu
interview, crisis communication etc.)
Manage activities relating to the public relations process (budgeting,
personnel etc)
Build relationships with media houses
Placement of publishing organisational communication in print or
broadcast media
Koekemoer (2014:330–332); Lattimore et al (2013:8–9)
Activity 1.5
Due to public uproar about the use of genetically modified chemicals that are used in
maize (mielie) plants, which have shown to cause cancer cells in adults, the maize
association of the region decided to communicate with the public their safety
measurements in place.
The communication is intended to be similar to international organisations that also
communicate with the public in their regions to calm the public and assure them their
health safety. Name and discuss six public relations key tasks that will be necessary to
produce material and send to broadcast and print media, to communicate with the public
the intended message.
Feedback
The following key tasks have been identified as necessary to produce the material for
communication:
•
Researching, monitoring and evaluation: Firstly, the organisation needs to research
what the international organisations have done to communicate with their publics, in
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•
•
•
•
•
addition to the business- and social-related issues that the organisation will
experience.
Copywriting: The public relations practitioner will have to write the communication for
the print media.
Editing: The public relations practitioner will have to edit that which has been written.
Production: The public relations practitioner will produce the multimedia material that
should be incorporated into the broadcast media message.
Speaking: In the case of press conferences, the public relations practitioner will have
to prepare the speech for the individual speaking – usually a spokesperson or senior
manager.
Media relations: The public relations practitioner will have to rely on the relationships
he or she has built in order to place the print and broadcast material.
The key tasks mentioned above are further discussed in learning units further on.
Often, individuals misunderstand what the role of public relations is and what it is
not. What public relations is not (Koekemoer 2014:332) is:
•
•
•
•
•
•
a barricade between the truth and the external stakeholders
propaganda that forces a point of view which disregards ethics, truth and the
good of society
publicity with the aim of achieving direct sales (publicity has an indirect effect
on sales)
a smokescreen using ploys to hide the truth or to constantly sell ideas
free advertising – a lot of resources and work goes into public relations tasks
political agendas – to advance a single party's policy
See the learning material on public relations:
https://www.boundless.com/marketing/textbooks/boundless-marketingtextbook/integrated-marketing-communications-12/the-promotion-mix-83/publicrelations-416-10590/
1.5
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PUBLIC RELATIONS AND MARKETING
Study the section that follows:
Public relations is often confused with marketing; however, there are differences
between the two despite the many similarities. Public relations focuses on building
relationships with all stakeholders by building goodwill and fostering a positive
corporate image. Marketing focuses solely on the customer by offering a product or
service to satisfy the wants and needs of the customer (external stakeholder) in
exchange for something of value to the organisation in most cases, monetary
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transaction (Tripathy 2011:130). The difference between public relations and
marketing is illustrated in the table below:
Table 1.5: Difference between public relations and marketing
Public relations
Marketing
Focus
Assists organisations and publics to
reach mutual goals
Promotion of goods and services for
transfer between producer and
provider for the consumer
Immediate
goal
Shared understanding and
positioning of the organisation with
the publics
Sales numbers
Implicit
goal
Creating positive perceptions and
predispositions of audience towards
the organisation
To make a profit
Measure of Evident in public opinion or support
success
Source:
Evident in the number of sales and
the revenue generated
Adapted from Tripathy (2011:130)
While public relations focus on building relationships with all stakeholders, marketing
is focused on building relationships with customers only. The confusion comes in
when public relations uses marketing techniques such as advertising to “market” the
organisation, while public relations techniques are used in marketing such as product
publicity to assisting in promoting a product (Rensburg & Cant 2009:47).
1.6
THE ROLE OF THE PUBLIC RELATION INSTITUTE OF SOUTH AFRICA
(PRISA)
Study the section that follows:
PRISA is an association for public relations professionals and communication
management throughout the Southern African region. All registered members of
PRISA commit themselves to adhering to the institute's code of ethics and
professional standards. PRISA's registration system can be used to identify excellent
communicators who will add value to a company. The registration system is based
on both academic qualifications and experience, and practitioners are registered at
the level of APR (accredited public relations practitioner), CPRP (chartered public
relations practitioner) or PRP (public relations practitioner).
“PRISA has developed a set of standards for the consulting industry – with different
measurements for small, medium and large businesses. Accreditation ratings will be
based on criteria including transformation, business plans, new business, resources,
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client campaigns, human resources and training. The benefits of being an accredited
consultancy are for both the companies and their clients. Consultancies can use their
achievement as a marketing tool and clients will have recourse if something does go
wrong” (Public Relation Institute of South Africa 2015).
For more information on PRISA, visit their website at http://www.prisa.co.za/.
1.7
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The following exercises are very good revision questions. Work through them
carefully and compare your answers with the feedback given in the learning unit.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.8
What level of communication will be used when communicating with
employees?
Discuss the important of integrated communication.
What is the purpose of non-verbal communication in relation to verbal
communication?
What are the functions of public relations that will be used when interacting
with the media houses?
Define public relations and discuss the role it plays in the organisation.
What are the misconceptions of public relations?
REFLECTION
Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.9
In what areas of your professional life do you think you will be able to use the
skills you have learnt in this learning unit?
What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more
help? What are you going to do about it?
What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
SUMMARY
This learning unit progressed from the communication model and the related verbal
and non-verbal communication that takes place. Communication principles and levels
are discussed to provide a broader view of communication in context of the
organisation. Integrated communication and the need for communication to be
consistent are discussed, followed by a public relations discussion. Public relations
key tasks and roles are discussed to provide students with an understanding of the
scope of public relations. To understand where public relations fit in, in relations to
marketing, the difference is discussed and emphasised with the role of PRISA. The
next learning unit deals with the characteristics, skills and tasks, and personal and
professional behaviour of a public relations practitioner.
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1.10 REFERENCES
Angelopula, G & Barker, R. 2013. Integrated organisational communication. 2nd
edition. Cape Town: Juta.
Baker, MJ. 2014. Marketing strategy & management. 5th edition. London: Palgrave.
Bauer, T & Erdogan, B. 2013. Organizational behavior v. 1.0. Flat World Education.
[Online] Available at: http://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/bookhub/reader/3?e=bauer-ch08_s03 (accessed on 18 September 2013).
Berndt, A & Tait, M. 2014. Relationship marketing and customer relationship
management. 3rd edition. Cape Town: Juta.
Cepero, Á, Clapés, A & Escalera, S. 2015. Automatic non-verbal communication skills
analysis: a quantitative evaluation. AI Communications, 28:87–101. [Online]
Available at: DOI 10.3233/AIC-140617.
Daniels, D, Hunter, A, McGhie, V, Middleton Horn, J, Van Jaarsveldt, M & Van
Vuuren, T. 2014. Business communication. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Duck, S & McMahan, DT. 2010. Communication in everyday life. Thousand Oaks:
Sage Publications.
Fourie, L. 2014. Public relations: theory & practice. Cape Town: Juta.
Guth, DW & March, C. 2012. Public relations: a value-driven approach. 5th edition.
Boston: Pearson.
Hamilton, C. 2011. Communicating for results: a guide for business and the
professions (international edition). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.
Hume, J. 2010. Civicus internal communication toolkit. [Online] Available at:
http://jessicahume.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/internal_communication_toolki
t.pdf (downloaded on 20 December 2012).
Hurn, BJ. 2014. Body language – a minefield for international business people.
Industrial and Commerial Training. 46(4):188–193. [Online] Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ICT-01-2014-0004 (downloaded on 4 February
2016).
Koekemoer, L. 2011. Introduction to integrated marketing communication.
Claremont: Juta.
Koekemoer, L. 2014. Marketing communication: an integrated approach. Cape
Town: Juta.
Lattimore, D, Baskin, O, Heiman, ST & Toth, EL. 2012. Public relations: the
profession & the practice. 4th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Machado, R. 2014. Customer service. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Juta.
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Martin, JN & Nakayama, TK. 2007. Interculteral communication in contexts. 4th
edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Miller, K. 2011. Organizational communication: approaches and processes. Mason:
Cengage Learning. [Online] Available at:
https://books.google.co.za/books?id=HOPKAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=Organizational+communication:+approaches+and+processes&hl=en&sa=X&
ved=0ahUKEwijncOc2vzNAhXkD8AKHVloB6MQ6AEIIzAA#v=onepage&q=Organ
izational%20communication%3A%20approaches%20and%20processes&f=fals
e (accessed on 18 September 2013).
Mutinta, GC. 2015. Analysing integrated communication applied in the University of
KwaZulu-Natal aids programme, Westville Campus. Unpublished masters
dissertation. University of South Africa.
O’'Rourke, JS. 2013. Management communication: a case-analysis approach. 5th
edition. New Jersey: Pearson.
Public Relation Institute of South Africa. 2015. [Online] Available at:
http://www.prisa.co.za/index.php/about-us/what-is-prisa (accessed on 1 April
2016).
Rensburg, R & Cant, M. 2009. Public relations: African perspective. Sandown:
Heinemann.
Šeríć, M, Gil-Saura, I & Ozretíć-Došen, Ɖ. 2015. Insights on integrated marketing
communications: implementation and impact in hotel companies. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(5):958–979. [Online]
Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-12-2013-0568 (downloaded on
14 March 2016).
Smith, BG. 2012. Organic integration: the natural process underlying communication
integration. Journal of Communication Management, Vol 16:4–19. [Online]
Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13632541211198012 (downloaded on
14 March 2016).
Smith, R. 2013. Public relations: the basics. New York: Routledge.
Thulkanam, M. 2014. The role of integrated communication (IC) in stakeholder
engagement: a strategic corporate social responsibility (CSR) perspective.
Unpublished masters dissertation. University of South Africa.
Tripathy, M. 2011. Public relations: bridging technologies and monitoring public and
the media. Dehli: Authorspress.
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Learning unit 2
The public relations practitioner
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
2.1
Definition of a public relations practitioner
2.2
Characteristics of the public relations practitioner
2.3
The role of the public relations practitioner
2.4
Essential skills for a public relations practitioner
2.4.1 Listening as a public relations practitioner
2.4.2 Listening process
2.4.2.1 Obstacles in listening
2.4.2.2 Skills to improve listening
2.4.2.3 How to be a better listener
2.4.3 Importance of reading in public relations
2.4.4 Reading strategies or techniques
2.4.4.1 Reading print publications, electronic media and e-mail
2.4.4.2 How to be a better reader
2.5
Key tasks of a public relations practitioner
2.6
Personal and professional behaviour
2.7
Verbal and written communication as a public relations practitioner
2.8
Speech styles
2.9
Self-assessment questions
2.10
Reflection
2.11
Summary
2.12
References
2.
Introduction
Public relations practitioners are valuable assets to any organisation, particularly in
an era where internal and external stakeholders are informed and kept abreast of
the developments in the industries. A public relations practitioner is key in
establishing efficient two-way interaction between the organisation and its
stakeholders. Think about it; basically public relations practitioners are
communication strategists in an organisation. Do you agree with the statement or
not? The discussions that will follow in this learning unit will help you get clarity on
this issue.
The public relation practitioners' primary task or responsibility is to manage
communication about the organisation’s reputation and image to both internal and
external stakeholders. Internal stakeholders are the employees and management.
External stakeholders, on the other hand, are communities, you, and I as consumers
of the products and services that the practitioners' companies offer. Think about the
recent price fixing cartels that have made the news. Who does the media briefings
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to address such reputation and image damaging association strategies? What makes
the public relations practitioners work more intriguing in this day and age is the fact
that technology has made it easy for the public to be vocal about issues on social
media using various platforms. It is therefore important to understand the public
relations practitioner.
Overview of this learning unit
The previous learning unit concentrated on the communication model with the focus
on verbal and non-verbal communication. The unit further touched on integrated
communication and an overview of public relations, its key tasks and fit. Now that
we have read about communication and public relations, and understand it, it is
important to discuss public relations practitioners. The key and common theme in
the previous learning unit was communication and communication with stakeholders.
Does that mean it is what public relations entails and what public relations
practitioners are employed for primarily?
This learning unit deals with the public relations practitioner, as well as the
characteristics of the public relations practitioner, so that we have an understanding
of who these people are. Then we look at the roles they play in an organisation. We
then outline and discuss the essential skills that the public relations practitioner must
possess as every job position has specific skills requirements. I am certain that you
will agree that a director and a supervisor have specific skills that distinguish them.
Since public relations is characterised by communication, it is important to talk about
listening as a necessary skill for public relations practitioners. Then the importance
of reading in public relations is discussed, followed by reading strategies or
techniques. Next, the key tasks of the public relations practitioner is, discussed
followed by a discussion on personal and professional behaviour. Verbal and written
communication is also discussed in this unit, expanding on what was discussed in
learning unit 1. We then conclude with a discussion on speech styles. Consider the
quote below when reading this learning unit and its relevance or irrelevance to the
unit, then sum up the public relations practitioner.
“I have been asked to talk about what I consider the most important challenge
facing mankind, and I have a fundamental answer. The greatest challenge facing
mankind is the challenge of distinguishing reality from fantasy, truth from
propaganda. Perceiving the truth has always been a challenge to mankind, but in
the information age (or as I think of it, the disinformation age) it takes on a
special urgency and importance.”
Crichton, M
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This learning unit unfolds as follows:
Learning outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
give a definition of a public relations practitioner
provide the difference between a public relations officer and practitioner
identify and discuss the characteristics of a public relations practitioner
discuss the role of a public relations practitioner
identify and discuss the essential skills of a public relations practitioner
discuss listening as a public relations practitioner
discuss the listening process
discuss the importance of reading in public relations
list and discuss the reading strategies
identify and discuss the key tasks of a public relations practitioner
discuss personal and professional behaviour
list and discuss speech styles
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Key concepts
Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
define proactive characteristic
define lifelong learning
define objectivity
define problem-solving skills
explain research skills
explain communication skills
define counselling
explain media relations
explain ethics
Very important!
Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please
follow the URL below and download the material:
http://www.oercommons.org/courses/choral-department-public-relations/view
2.1
DEFINITION OF A PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER
Study the section that follows:
The one thing that is certain is change; it is inevitable and therefore we see changes
in titles and designation. Before we define a public relations practitioner, let us
reflect on the evolution in this area of specialisation and qualification. What is a
public relations practitioner? Is it a public relations officer? Is it a public speaker?
Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial
relationships between organisations and their publics. Public relations can also be
defined as the practice of managing communication between an organisation and its
publics. Galloway (2004) theorises that public relations practitioners (PRP) see
themselves and are seen by others as professional communication, reputation and
issue problem-solvers.
Now let us look at what a public relations practitioner is and does. The public
relations practitioner (PRP) practises different forms of communication to establish
an efficient two-way interaction between the organisation and other groups of
people (Fourie 2014). These other groups are external stakeholders. The PRP is
more of a mediator as he or she helps people and organisations to gain public
acceptance by explaining the aims, objectives and methods of their organisation.
This they do by building and maintaining a favourable image. The PRP gives out
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information for newspaper release, magazine articles and news spots so that the
public are made aware of the employer's projects and accomplishments, in this case
the organisation they work for. The PRP's work also entails arranging and conducting
public contact campaigns, which may include setting up speaking engagements,
writing speeches, speaking for employers at community functions, planning
organisation conferences and managing fundraising initiatives. The public relations
practitioner may prepare stakeholders' reports or work to improve employer –
employee relations.
For information on a public relations practitioner, listen to video reviews that look at
the definition of PR, and explores the different types and functions of PR, such as:
employee relations (internal PR), campaigns and politics, government relations and
media relations. You can check out the links at:
•
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WdLReWbda78
In the next section, we look at the characteristics of the public relations practitioner.
2.2
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER
Study the section that follows:
It is important that you are able to identify and discuss the characteristics of the
public relations practitioner. As you work through this section, you will notice that
being a public relations practitioner is very demanding, and that you will be working
in a high-pressure environment most of the time. Most careers require certain
characteristics and the public relations industry is not any different. These
characteristics are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Proactiveness: You will need to have a hands-on approach and the ability to
anticipate problems before they happen and to solve problems before they get
worse.
Ability to work well under pressure: You should be able to cope with stress and
long hours, and be able to meet deadlines.
Enthusiasm and determination: You must enjoy solving problems and always be
on the lookout for new ways of doing things.
Lifelong learning: You must constantly update yourself on the trends and new
technologies in the industry, as well as with regard to the client, service and
products that you will represent.
Objectivity: You should be able to motivate and provide factual information, not
your personal opinion.
Flexibility and the ability to understand other people's point of view: You must
be able to work with different types of people, actively listen and take an
interest in others.
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•
•
•
Interest in helping others: You should focus on building relationships and
showing an interest in helping others, as this is vital for building relationships.
Attention to detail: You should be able to focus on detail and double check
everything, especially in administration and in proofreading and editing all
documentation to check for spelling and grammar mistakes.
Creativity and the ability to generate new ideas: You should always be on the
lookout for creative and new ideas or ways in which you can better serve your
client or organisation.
In the next section, we look at the role of the public relations practitioner.
2.3
THE ROLE OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER
Study the section that follows:
It is important for organisations to include public relations practitioners as part of top
management decision makers, especially where they can facilitate two-way
communication between an organisation and its stakeholders. Because of the
strategic role of public relations practitioners, it is important to maintain close
contact with the upper level of management.
In South Africa, a young democratic country, there is a trend of outsourcing services
although some of the industries have taken the organisations and the government to
task challenging the outsourcing. The debates have centred on outsourcing and
insourcing. The trend to outsource has also affected the public relations fraternity
where companies outsource the public relations role, although many organisations
do employ their own specialists. Public relations must not only keep the firm's
"public" informed of new products, policy changes and staff changes, but it must
keep top management informed of the public's reaction to the organisation and its
products. Now the following questions can be asked: What do public relations
practitioners do? What is their role in an organisation?
Broom (1982) studied what public relations practitioners did and suggested four
dominant roles (see table 2.1). Further Broom classified these roles as one technical
and three managerial functions in nature. However, in 1995, Broom reduced the
roles to two more general categories of technician and manager. The technician
focused on technical, tactical tasks such as writing, editing, production of materials,
maintaining contacts and issuing press releases. The communication manager, on
the other hand, is more likely to participate in management decisions, advise on the
implications of policy decisions with regard to public reaction, social responsibility,
and evaluate the results of communication programmes. Study table in order to gain
a greater understanding of the positions of public relations practitioners.
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Table 2.1: Broom's four practitioner positions
ROLES
CHARACTERISTICS
Communication
technician
Carries out communication programmes, prepares and produces
communication materials; and not part of the management team.
Expert prescriber
The authority on communication problems and their solutions. While
this person can be part of the management team, he or she is often
regarded as the "expert" so that the other members are generally
passive.
Communication
facilitator
A go-between, liaising between the organisation and its stakeholders.
A boundary-spanner, conveying organisational views externally and
publics' views internally.
Problem-solving
facilitator
Collaborates with other managers to define and solve communication
problems. More likely to play an active part in strategic decision
making for the organisation.
Source:
Cornelissen (2008)
The roles outlined in table 2.1 are described in accordance to the roles that public
relations practitioners do. So, let us look at the main roles as stated by Fawkes
(2012). Table 2.2 below depicts the main roles in public relations that practitioners
perform. These are the roles they spend their time on both internally and externally.
Study table 2.2 in order to gain a greater understanding of the roles of public
relations practitioners.
Table 2.2: Guide to the main roles of public relations practitioners
Public relations
activity
Explanation
Examples
Internal
communications
Communicating with employees
In-house newsletter,
suggestion boxes
Corporate PR
Communicating on behalf of the organisation
Annual reports,
conferences, ethical
statements, visual
identity, images
Media relations
Communicating with journalists, specialists,
and editors from local, national, international
and trade media, including newspapers,
magazines, radio, TV and web-based
communication
Press releases,
photocalls, video news
release,
off-the-record
briefings, press events
Business to
business
Communicating with other organisations, e.g.
suppliers, retailers
Exhibitions, trade
events, newsletters
Public affairs
Communicating with opinion formers (example, Presentations,
local and national politicians), monitoring
briefings, private
political environment
meetings, public
speeches
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Community
relations/corporate
social responsibility
Communicating with local community,
elected representatives, head teachers
etc
Exhibitions,
presentations, letters,
meetings, sports
activities and other
sponsorship
Investor relations
Communicating with financial
organisations/individuals
Newsletters, briefings,
events
Strategic
communication
Performs identification and analysis of
situations, problem and solutions to
further organisational goals
Researching, planning
and executing a
campaign to improve
ethical reputation of
organisation
Issues management
Monitoring political, social, economic
and technological environment
Considering effects of
South African economy
on businesses
Crisis management
Communicating clear messages in fastchanging situation or emergency like
political instabilities in South Africa
Dealing with media after
major crisis depending
on the nature of the
industry
Copywriting
Writing for different audiences to high
standards of literacy (Statistics shows
that the number of illiterate South
Africans is high)
Press releases,
newsletters,
webpages,
annual reports
Publications
management
Overseeing print/media processes,
often using new technology
Leaflets, internal
magazines, websites and
social media
Events management,
exhibitions
Organisation of complex events,
exhibitions
Annual conference, press
launch, trade shows
Source:
Fawkes (2012)
In the next section, we look at the essential skills for a public relations practitioner.
2.4
ESSENTIAL SKILLS FOR A PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER
Study the section that follows:
As a public relations practitioner who performs tasks for the public relations function
(department), there are particular skills that a public relations practitioner must
obtain. These skills include problem-solving, research skills, excellent
communication, and the ability to organise and plan. After studying this section, you
need to be able to discuss these skills in detail. The essential skills for a public
relations practitioner are:
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•
Problem-solving skills:
Johnston and Zawawi (2003) identify “problem-solver and/or manager” as one
of the primary roles public relations practitioners hold. However, Hendrix (2004)
argues that the public relations process is a method for solving problems.
Moreover, practitioners also view their work in a problem-related framework.
This essential skill speaks to and confirms one of the key characteristics of a
public relations practitioner mentioned earlier in section 2.2, that is, being
proactive. The challenge with being reactive is that by the time the practitioners
address the problem, the damage might have already been done to the
reputation, and thus image, of the organisation. Think about the technology era
we are living in. How much of information goes out to social media society in a
second? Yes, bad publicity goes viral to the global world instantly.
Problem-solving skills and research skills go hand in hand, as a public relations
practitioner will always need to conduct proper research in order to solve
problems successfully.
•
Research skills:
Public relations practitioners seek to solve problems through research. This can
be on an informal basis and often in the early stages of a project and through
use of their own insights gained through previous work. A public relations
practitioner cannot put any of his or her skills to good use without a foundation of
research and information gathering. Since their roles are to manage the
communication, reputation and image of an organisation, it is important to know
their organisational needs, target market (stakeholders), and available resources
in order to draw up a good public relations plan. There are various types of
research involved in public relations, for example market research, industry
research and news tracking. The benefits of research are that the practitioner
can make objective decisions and present factual information.
•
Excellent communication skills:
As public speakers, effective communication skills are critical for practitioners.
Even though there is an increase in new technologies, solid writing skills remain
critical for public relations practitioners. It is therefore important that for
effective public relations practices, writing is clear, concise, compelling and
error-free.
•
The ability to organise and plan:
It goes without saying that organising and planning are key skills in public
relations and public relations practitioners must master the skills. The fact that
practitioners deal with the public means that they will have meetings, media
briefs and even coordinate some events for the organisation, which in most
cases has to do with charity initiatives.
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Activity 2.1
Do you think you have the communication skills required for a public relations
practitioner?
Feedback
Public relations practitioners must be confident as they talk to a wide range of
people. For example, your role may involve presenting to clients, dealing with
journalists and meeting with groups of people important to your organisation. You
also need to have excellent writing skills as you could be producing press releases,
annual reports, articles and newsletters. It is also important to remember that
public relations practitioners are judged on their ability to express themselves,
either in writing or orally.
Listening as a public relations practitioner
Since public relations is characterised by communication, it is important for public
relations practitioners to be able to listen. Social media has emerged as an essential
tool for public relations professionals. However, over the years particularly in South
Africa, the internet in general was a low priority for practitioners (Hill & White 2000).
The Report on the Transformation of Print and Digital Media (PDMTTT) forecasts
that the number of internet users will reach 29,8 million by 2016 (Neville 2013:22).
In actual fact, “digital's share of consumer spending (excluding internet access) in
South Africa is set to grow from 1% in 2008 to 4% by 2017” (PWC 2013:22). The
mobile device has been described as Africa's computer. This is true considering the
reliance on smartphones. How often do you rely on your smartphone? It can be
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reliance on the calendar feature, data storage, navigation through the country or
access to the internet and downloading of information. The AMPS 2008 to 2012
trend data revealed that there is mass mediums dominance on the South African
media landscape. Although internet consumption was not as high as the values
recorded for television, it has shown remarkable growth and is set to continue its
upward path. Hence, the social media landscape has undergone a huge
transformation in the last couple of years. Brands have gradually increased
awareness regarding the importance of monitoring what their target audience says
about them in the online environment.
The concept of listening to stakeholders has been part of the public relations
industry for decades. Conversations, engaging and developing relationships with
publics online – particularly social media through an organisation’s social site – are
some of the roles that public relations practitioners assume in this day and age. Most
organisations have a Twitter account, Facebook page or Instagram and Flickr
accounts, which are all social media platforms. You hear companies say “follow us
on Twitter” or “visit our Facebook page”. These platforms afford practitioners the
opportunity to build and maintain a good and positive relationship with the public. It
is through listening and keeping abreast with what the public says about a
practitioner's organisation that a formidable relationship with stakeholders can be
built.
The incapacity of controlling what is being said on social media platforms about their
products, services, and so on leads to a single outcome: keeping an eye on these
channels and making sure that all mentions are appropriately dealt with. From a
public relations practitioner's perspective, social media has always been perceived as
an amazing tool of free publicity that allows direct communication with the target
audiences without any external filters such as media, for example.
As public relations practitioners often face the challenge of dealing with positive as
well as negative publicity, monitoring social media is essential. There are benefits of
tracking your organisation's online activity:
•
•
•
Public relations practice is about anticipation and interpretation of public opinion
and attitudes that might affect the future of an organisation. Social media
monitoring can be used to avoid issues management that might eventually turn
into a crisis. There are numerous examples of when companies neglected the
negative feedback they were receiving from customers via social media sites
and, consequently, individual posts got astounding numbers of likes, shares and
comments, and thus creating a negative buzz and harming the organisation's
reputation.
When planning public relations campaigns, social media monitoring is crucial at
several stages, including market research and investigating the overall sentiment
that the public has in reverence to the organisation and its services; competitor
analysis; and getting a honed insight into the public categories by finding out
more about their location, preferences and online habits.
Traditional public relations used to rely on media scanning. Basically, one of the
everyday activities of a public relations practitioner used to be flipping through
newspapers, aiming to find mentions of their clients. In using a monitoring tool,
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•
•
this can be done now just with a simple click. This facilitates evaluation in terms
of determining the success of journalistic engagement and mentions in the
media.
Social media monitoring tools can support the evaluation of public relations
campaigns by analysing key aspects and by facilitating the planning of strategy
and tactics for future campaigns. For example, a monitoring tool can provide
information revealing on which social media platforms there was the most and
the least interaction, which topics drove conversations and which were the third
parties that supported the campaign.
Social media monitoring is a great way of turning complaints and negative
feedback into positive publicity. It is widely known that no one can control what
is being said about a brand in the online environment and it is simply impossible
to please everybody.
Listening process
It is important for listening to be an outside-inside approach as the public's opinion
about an organisation matters the most. Think about those cases and situations
where consumers boycotted organisations in various industries. Some of the
reputational risks could have been avoided had the organisation and public relations
practitioners listened to the public.
feedback
input
comments
reviews
success
FIGURE 2.1: Active listening, outside-inside approach
2.4.2.1
Obstacles in listening
Public relations and communication management are commonly acknowledged the
custodians of an organisation's image and reputation. Practitioners have the
mandate to manage all messages directed at their organisations and the
responsibility for most relationships with external stakeholders. Therefore, public
relations practitioners are expected not just to communicate, but also to listen to
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stakeholders and to be their voice within organisations. Listening is a skill that not all
of us will master; it seems to be the weakness of some public relations practitioners.
Steve Covey said: “[M]ost people do not listen with the intent to understand, they
listen with the intent to reply.” It is therefore important for public relations
practitioners to have the ability to listen effectively, as that would help overcome
obstacles in listening.
There are obstacles that hinder public relations practitioners from listening, including
the lack of awareness of their stakeholders' dynamic expectations, and lack of
capacity to integrate those expectations into the organisation's decision-making
processes.
Hargie (2011) lists some of the obstacles to listening:
Environmental and physical barriers to listening: Lighting, temperature and furniture
affect our ability to listen and are environmental barriers to listening. Think about a
time you were attending a function, workshop, training or class and the room
temperature was cold. Were you able to listen in class? Those who are sensitive to
cold could not listen most probably, as they would be too focused on feeling the
cold. Seating arrangements could be a barrier to listening as individuals might be
placed with their backs towards the speaker, which can be prevented if individuals
can make eye contact, which increases their confidence in their abilities to receive
and process information. Physical proximity is also a factor, considering that being
placed out of hearing range from the speaker could affect the listener's ability to
listen to the speech.
Physiological noise: Is also a factor that can interfere with our ability to process
information. It arises from our physical body in the form of a physical illness, injury,
or bodily stress. An individual's mood or state of emotions can prevent message
reception and processing. Fatigue, for example, is usually a combination of
psychological and physiological stresses that exhibits stress (psychological noise)
and weakness, sleepiness and tiredness (physiological noise). Additionally, mental
anxiety (psychological noise) can also manifest itself in our bodies through
trembling, sweating, blushing, or even breaking out in rashes (physiological noise).
Cognitive and personal barriers to listening: Whether you call it multitasking,
daydreaming, glazing over, or drifting off, we all cognitively process other things
while receiving messages. Cognitive limits, a lack of listening preparation, difficult or
disorganised messages, and prejudices can interfere with listening. The fact that we
have the capability to process more than one simultaneously has its advantages and
disadvantages. Our ability to process more information than what comes from one
speaker or source creates a barrier to effective listening. More often than not, we
are challenged when presented with messages that we do not find personally
relevant.
Lack of listening preparation: This is another barrier to effective listening. It is a
general lack of listening preparation. Most people have never received any formal
training or instructions related to listening. Although some people think listening
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skills just develop over time, competent listening is difficult, and enhancing listening
skills takes determination. Listening is often viewed as an annoyance or a chore, or
just ignored or minimised as part of the communication process. Our society values
speaking more than listening. Listening competence is a crucial part of social
interaction and although many of us value others we perceive to be “good listeners”,
listening just does not get the same kind of praise, attention, instruction, or
credibility as speaking.
Bad messages and/or speakers: An ill-prepared speaker as well as an irrelevant
message could present a barrier to effective listening. A speaker who “uhms” and
“ahs” could cause listeners to lose focus as they realise that the speaker is not
prepared. A speaker who is also providing too much information can lose listeners
attention. Irrelevant messages, poorly structured messages, topics being discussed
that are too vague, or information that is too simple can cause listeners to lose
focus.
Prejudice: This is formed through misinformation, fear and rigid thinking, which
could cause some of the default ways of processing information by the listener and
perceiving others that lead to rigid ways of thinking. When engaging in prejudiced
listening, avoid being convinced of something different. This type of prejudice is a
barrier to effective listening, because when individuals prejudge a person based on
his or her identity or ideas, they usually stop listening in an active and/or ethical
way.
Bad listening practices: Physical barriers, cognitive limitations and perceptual biases
exist within all of us. Bad listening practices may be habitual, but they are easier to
address with some determination. These bad listening practices include interrupting,
distorted listening, eavesdropping, aggressive listening, narcissistic listening and
pseudo-listening.
Interrupting: One of the most frequent glitches in the turn-taking process is
interruption, but not all interruptions are considered bad listening. An interruption
could be unintentional if cues are misread and think a person is done speaking only
to have him or her start up again at the same time as listeners do. Sometimes
interruptions are more like overlapping statements that show support or excitement
about the conversation. Unintentional interruptions can still be considered bad
listening if they result from mindless communication.
Distorted listening: This occurs in many ways. Sometimes it is because the order of
information was incorrect. Rationalisation is another form of distorted listening
through which people or stakeholders adapt, edit, or skew incoming information to
fit their existing ideas. It can easily happen if stakeholders join a conversation late,
overhear part of a conversation, or are being a lazy listener and miss important
setup and context.
Eavesdropping: This is a bad listening practice that involves a calculated and
planned attempt to listen secretly to a conversation. There is a difference between
eavesdropping on and overhearing a conversation. Eavesdropping entails
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intentionally listening in on a conversation that one is not a part of, which is
considered as unethical as it is a violation of people's privacy. Overhearing is
unintentional listening to a conversation.
The links below contain slides that show and teach about the obstacles in listening
and the type thereof:
•
•
http://www.slideshare.net/phamqduy/obstacles-to-ineffective-listeningw3
http://www.slideshare.net/amirsmile16/barriers-to-communication-2075597
Activity 2.2
Think about any organisation or search for an organisation that has public relations
practitioners managing their stakeholder communication and relations. What are
examples of exceptionally engaging and listening activities that they practise?
Feedback
The reality is every organisation has its way of engaging and listening to its
stakeholders. However, there are those that do exceptionally well in this area.
Perhaps consider structural and cultural conditions that are in place in organisations
as they may influence how thing are done.
2.4.2.2
Skills to improve listening
Flynn, Valikoski and Grau (2008:144) state that “listening is considered by some to
be the single most important element in the communication process, even more
highly valued than speaking as a communication skill necessary in the business
world”. Communication is vital to society as a whole as such listening is an integral
part of communication. It is important to improve listening skills where there is a
need, especially in the public relations sphere. What does it take to be a great
communicator? You might have stated skills such as the skill to explain things clearly
(articulation), the ability to inspire others (being a motivator), or a strong delivery to
hold listeners' attention. Few of you might have mentioned listening skills. It is
therefore important to develop good listening skills, as that allows the listener to
gather more information more easily and to communicate more effectively. It takes
practise and discipline to be a good listener. How many of us have chanted a mantra
that goes something like “do less talking and listen more”? Quite a lot of us in fact
and that is in a way our strategy to enhancing our listening skills. Let us then look at
the skills to improve listening. A good question is: What makes a good listener?
There are several techniques for effective listening and they are discussed below:
Attending behaviour: A vital first step in effective listening is making the decision to
listen and preparing yourself physically and mentally. Good body language and eye
contact are essential.
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Mental preparation: Put aside what you are working on and concentrate on the
speaker. If you are in the middle of a project, ask that the person to come back
when you can give your full attention.
Appropriate silences and supporting statements: It is essential not to interrupt a
speaker; rather wait to be sure that the speaker is finished. However, it is
appropriate to make encouraging and positive sounds or gestures. Head nodding, for
example, makes a speaker more comfortable.
Questions: Be prepared to respond to a speaker with a question that is relevant, but
do not shift your concentration away from what is being said to think of a question.
Also, be careful not to begin judging the statement halfway through. Most of us fall
into this trap; this will hinder a person to hear the entire presentation.
2.4.2.3
How to be a better listener
Public relations practitioners these days are faced with a challenge of being able to
listen and master listening from various stakeholders, social media platforms and
traditional media. In as much as technology is advancing, there is no way that
traditional media cannot be ignored.
The following links provide valuable information on how to be a better listener:
•
•
•
http://study.com/academy/lesson/becoming-a-better-listener-tips-strategies.html
http://quickbooks.intuit.com/r/management-and-training/5-tips-for-becoming-abetter-listener/
https://hbr.org/2015/02/everything-you-need-to-know-about-becoming-a-betterlistener
Importance of reading in public relations
Generally, it is important to read. Now considering that public relations practitioners
are responsible for two-way communication and stakeholder relations, it is important
that they read to keep abreast with developments inside and outside their
organisations. Reading is fundamental to function in public relations.
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Reading strategies or techniques
2.4.4.1
Reading print publications, electronic media and e-mail
There is still significant public relations value in reading print editions of newspapers
as well as consumer magazines and trade journals. Public relations practitioners
have a chance to get stories and refer back to them with easy as papers can be
stored. There is a saying that no news is old news. Public relations practitioners can
reach an audience that may not bother looking for the digital information. Most print
publications now publish stories first in digital media to be timelier. Therefore, public
relations practitioners must rely on social media to monitor breaking news and
search for stories and newsworthy trends that might influence their organisational
operations. Media is becoming more integrated with digital and social tools.
Moreover, the growing trend of social journalism positions public relations
practitioners as more credible sources in the eyes of the media.
2.4.4.2
How to be a better reader
There are certain guidelines that a public relations practitioner can use in order to
improve reading skills. The guidelines to improving reading are discussed below.
Think it through: Look at the book or article you will be reading and think seriously
about it. What is the topic? What do you already know about that topic, and what
would you like to learn? This helps you get in the right frame of mind to read and
tells your brain to start focusing on the right topic and subject.
Scan the headings: Look at the title of what you will be reading. Get a feel for how
the work is organised and what it covers so there will not be any surprises.
Predict: Before you read, try predicting the kind of information you will find in the
book, journal or e-mail. Then while you are reading, pay attention to see if what you
find agrees with your expectations.
Ask questions: This must be done constantly while reading.
Take notes: Many people think better with a pencil in their hand. It is a way to keep
the mind engaged and active. Highlighting, underlining and writing down information
force the mind to think about what it is reading.
Pay attention to organisation: Every sentence and paragraph is connected to every
other sentence and paragraph.
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2.5
KEY TASKS OF A PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER
Study the section that follows:
You should be able to discuss the eight most important functions of the public
relations practitioner in detail and give practical examples.
Public relations practitioners fulfil a range of functions in an organisation, including
the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Counselling: Public relations practitioners, as stakeholder relations managers,
find themselves as counsellors at times as they have to nurture relationships.
Research, monitoring and evaluation: For public relations practitioners to write
credible pieces, they must have read, done research, monitored developments
and evaluated the environment where their organisations operate.
Media relations: The activities of media relations include pitching content to
reporters. Public relations practitioners' goals are creating a story or developing
a narrative that keeps readers, listeners and viewers informed.
Programming: Public relations practitioners describe the various methods a
company uses to disseminate messages about its products, services, or overall
image to its customers, employees, stockholders, suppliers, or other interested
members of the community.
Writing and editing: Public relations practitioners spend most of their time
writing and editing speeches or articles concerning the image of their
organisations.
Production: Public relations practitioners are producers of communications send
to stakeholders that have to do with the reputation and image of organisations.
They give out information for newspaper items, magazine articles and news
spots so that the public are made aware of that employer's projects and
accomplishments.
Event coordination: Practitioners are responsible for events coordination; these
events are generally organised to generate publicity and are effective for public
relations practitioners.
Speaking: Public relations practitioners are often involved in crisis
communications whenever there is a major accident or natural disaster affecting
an organisation and its community, that is, stakeholders. Practitioners engage in
debates, media briefs and community events concerning their organisations.
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2.6
PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Study the section that follows:
After reading this section, you should understand why ethics is important in public
relations. You should also understand the five pillars of public relations ethics. While
reading this section, bear in mind that public relations generally suffers from a bad
reputation. The public usually perceives public relations practitioners as
misrepresenting the facts or not telling the truth. A public relations practitioner has a
responsibility towards the greater good, and should always operate with that in
mind.
It is in the nature of the public relations profession to persuade publics to change
their behaviour or perception, but a public relations practitioner should be very
careful not to use unethical means to achieve this outcome. It is worth noting that
you cannot talk about public relations practitioners without touching on ethics and
morals. Ethics are fundamental to public relations and define how practitioners
should act or behave. Morally, public relations practitioners should distinguish
between what is good and bad, right or wrong. The moral behaviour will determine
whether the public regards the practitioner as being credible and trustworthy.
Activity 2.3
Ethics and morals can be practised at a personal and professional level when you
are a public relations officer. Now having said that, reflect on your own ethics and
what you feel is right or wrong. and then list companies that you would proudly
work for and those that you would not. In addition to that, motivate your choices.
Feedback
The reality is that what one person considers being ethical and morally grounded
might not be what the next person think. Therefore, the choices will pretty much
depend on your values and beliefs. So, the answer provided can be very different.
The discussions that follow below are on ethical dilemmas and code of ethics. Code
of ethics governs the conducts of public relations practitioners.
Familiarise yourself with the five pillars of public relations ethics, illustrated in the
diagram below. These five pillars will provide you with guidance when you are faced
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with ethical dilemmas in the public relations context, which are veracity,
beneficence, confidentiality, fairness and non-maleficence.
FIGURE 2.2: Five pillars of ethics
Ethics in public relations relates to how public relations practitioners behave.
Personal integrity is extremely important. Public relations practitioners must both
respect the public interest and deal fairly and honestly with clients, employers,
colleagues, publics and media communication. They must preserve the confidences
of their past and present clients and employers, and not use or reveal information
obtained in confidence from them. In public relations arena, practitioners would
need to use their moral instincts and sound judgement to assess and address the
issues they face.
The pillars of ethics are discussed below (Parsons 2008:20–21):
Veracity: This refers to telling the truth about a matter, which stakeholders have a
right to know about. This pillar of ethics is in contrast to the pillar of confidentiality.
Confidentiality: This relates to respecting the privacy of others, which is often
contradicted by journalists who feel that the public has a right to know all
information. There is always a conflict between the ethical pillars of respecting a
person's privacy versus the need to tell the truth.
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Non-maleficence: This refers to doing no harm, therefore avoiding doing harm to
stakeholders. Public relations practitioners have to ask themselves if their actions will
cause any harm to the stakeholders.
Fairness: This relates to trying to respect all stakeholders and society as a whole, in
the decisions that are made within an organisation that not only affects internal
stakeholders, but that also affects external stakeholders.
Beneficence: This is the proactive pillar of ethics, as it relates to the effort of a public
relations practitioner looking for opportunities to do good for stakeholders. This
ethical pillar is helpful in making decisions regarding the relative morality of public
relations activities.
Activity 2.4
Companies are operating in industries where “tenderpreneurship” is the norm. Let
us assume that you, as a public relations practitioner at Organisation A, have a
personal relationship with one of your employer's suppliers. Would you consider it
ethical to employ their services for a project you are working on? Could you prove
that supplier's work was the best available and that you were not acting out of
personal favour?
Feedback
Professional or industry codes of conduct provide basic standards for PR
professionals and every PR organisation has a code of ethics by which its members
are expected to abide. The main objective of these codes is to form guidelines for
professional behaviour.
In Southern Africa, public relations practitioners have a professional representation
by the Public Relations Institute of Southern Africa (PRISA). The institute represents
professionals in public relations and communication management throughout the
Southern African region and has registered practitioners in Botswana, Namibia,
Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa. Colleagues in America are represented by the
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA). Both the South African institute and
American society provide professional development, set standards of excellence and
uphold principles of ethics for their members.
Kang and Berger (2010:368) posit that gaining a seat at a decision-making table is
of the utmost importance to public relations as organisations benefit from public
relations practitioners' expertise when they are included. Thus, they can facilitate
two-way communication between the organisation and its publics and external
stakeholders. Public relations practitioners are pivotal in advising on ethics-related
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matters in an organisation. Kang and Berger (2010:369) state that public relations
practitioners are skilful and knowledgeable to perform as ethics advisors. However,
when communication is poor within an organisation, the power relations in the
organisation make it difficult for them to perform their tasks. In most cases, it leaves
the practitioner with the challenge to decide whether to internally take up or resist
unethical decisions.
2.7
VERBAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION AS A PUBLIC RELATIONS
PRACTITIONER
Study the section that follows:
Since speech will be covered in a subsequent unit, in this section we will briefly
discuss verbal and written communication as a public relations practitioner. In
addition to that, verbal and written communication as a public relations practitioner
will be discussed in depth in learning unit 4.
Communication is key in a public relations practitioner's career. Moreover, public
relations practitioners must have good if not excellent interpersonal qualities and
professional communication skills.
Non-verbal communication and it signals are often natural in human behaviour,
which are usually subtly communicated (Cepero, Clapés & Escalera 2015:88). There
are different elements that influence non-verbal communication, including culture,
personal communication and ambiguousness.
Culture: In African culture, it is disrespectful to look an older person in the eyes
when talking to them and men enter a room first, as it is derived from when it was
considered safer for the man to enter first in case an enemy is standing inside the
hut. In Western culture, it is seen as a sign of confidence when looking an individual
in the eyes when talking to them, while it is considered as polite to allow a woman
to enter the room first.
Personal communication: Some individuals see no fault grasping another's hand for
a lengthy period when giving a handshake, while other individuals prefer brief
handshakes. Some individuals prefer to stand close to another person when in
conversation, while others may feel they need their personal space and prefer to
stand a meter away from those they are in conversation with.
Ambiguousness: When a person puts his or her hands in their pockets, it could mean
the person is withdrawn, or that they are getting cold and warming their hands in
their pockets. When a person has his or her arms folded, it could be a sign of being
shy or it could mean the person is being defensive while talking.
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2.8
SPEECH STYLES
Study the section that follows:
Speeches are tangible pieces of writing, constructed with attention to detail. They
are often a key component in a public relations practitioner's tasks.
For information on a public relations practitioner listen to video reviews that look at
the public relations speech, and creating and executing a powerful speech. You can
check out the links at:
•
•
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KG6dWPZoVS4
http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/tag/speech-examples/
This section is discussed in detail in learning unit 4.
2.9
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the
examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers to the theory
provided in the learning unit.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define public relations practitioners.
List and discuss the roles that public relations practitioners play in their
respective organisations.
Identify and briefly discuss essential skills of public relations practitioners.
What is the importance of reading in public relations and why?
It is important for public relations practitioners to personally and
professionally behave in ethical manner that espouse their practise. Discuss
personal and professional behaviour in public relations.
2.10 REFLECTION
Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
In what areas of your professional life do you think you will be able to use the
skills you have learnt in this learning unit?
What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more
help? What are you going to do about it?
What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
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2.11 SUMMARY
We have considered discussions on public relations practitioner importance in an
organisation and its management team. We then discussed the characteristics that
epitomise their work values. This made it mandatory to look at the roles that public
relations practitioners play in organisations considering the fact that they facilitate
two-way communication between organisations and stakeholders in a technological
era. Moreover, the essential skills with the focus on listening were discussed.
Reading is important in public relations; as such, practitioners must keep abreast
with developments internally and externally to their organisations to remain relevant
and credible to stakeholders. The key tasks of public relations practitioners were
discussed followed by their personal and professional behaviour, which tapped on
issues of ethics. The unit concluded with discussions on verbal and written
communication and speech styles that public relations practitioners use. In the next
learning unit, we discuss public relations practitioner skills in listening, as it is pivotal
in the South Africa we live in.
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2.12 REFERENCES
Broom, G. 1982. A comparison of sex roles in public relations. Public Relations
Review, 8(3):17–22.
Broom, GM & Dozier, DM. 1986. Advancement for public relations role models.
Public Relations Review, 12(1):37–56.
Flynn, J, Valikoski, TR & Grau, J. 2008. Listening in the business context: reviewing
the state of research. The International Journal of Listening, 22:141–151.
Galloway, C. 2004. Appreciative public relations: an alternative to the problemsolution loop PRism 2. Available at: http://www.prismjournal.org/fileadmin/Praxis/Files/Journal_Files/Issue2/Commentary/Galloway.pdf
Hargie, O. 2011. Skilled interpersonal communication: research, theory and practice.
London: Routledge.
Hendrix, JA. 2004. Public relations cases. 6th edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Hill, LN & White, C. 2000. Public relations practitioners' perception of the world-wide
web as a communications tools. Public Relations Review, 26(1):31.
Johnston, J & Zawawi, C. 2003. Public relations: theory and practice.
St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin.
Luttrell, R. 2015. Social media: how to engage, share and connect. New York,
London: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Parsons, P. 2008. Ethics in public relations: a guide to best practice. London: Kogan
Page.
Stephen, M. 1998. Listening methods. Journal of Property Management, 63:4.
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Learning unit 3
Practitioner skills in listening
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
3.1
What is listening?
3.1.1 Benefits of listening
3.1.2 Bad listening habits
3.1.3 Differences between hearing and listening
3.1.4 Different levels of listening
3.1.5 Types of listeners
3.2
The listening process
3.3
How to improve listening
3.4
Why listening is important in the organisation
3.5
Possible obstacles to listening
3.6
Self-assessment questions
3.7
Reflection
3.8
Summary
3.9
References
3.
Introduction
Many people think that the most important skills to learn from an early age are
reading, writing, maths and science. As listening is seldom taught, most people
assume that it is something that we all do automatically. However, effective listening
is a skill that can be acquired through study and practice. Listening is as important
to learn as all the other skills. How many times do parents say to their children, “I
need you to listen now”, or “Are you listening to me”? Think about how good your
listening skills are, and remember that when you really listen to someone, they tend
to like talking to you more. If you were a public relations practitioner at a leading
automotive manufacturer, and the company was launching a new car, you would
have to listen to the technical department, the marketing department and the
financial department to get all the necessary information before you made a
statement to the public.
Overview of this learning unit
Now that you have read how important listening skills are, you need to understand
what listening entails and also what the difference is between simply hearing and
actual listening, since they are two different actions. There are also various factors
that can influence one's listening skills and, to become a better listener, you need to
know what these are. In this learning unit, you will learn about the different types of
listeners and the levels of listening. We then discuss how to become a better
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listener, and what may prevent you from listening effectively. Once you have a
better idea of the listening process, you will find it easier to communicate effectively
with others. Excellent listening skills are crucial, since as a practitioner you are
required to communicate effectively as part of your job.
This learning unit unfolds as follows:
Why listening is
important in the
organisation
Learning outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain
explain
explain
explain
explain
explain
what listening entails and how it is different from hearing
factors that affect listening, levels of listening and types of listeners
the listening process
the obstacles that can be encountered in listening
skills that can help you improve your listening
tips on how to become a better listener
Key concepts
Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
define listening
explain the benefits of listening
explain bad listening habits
explain the levels of listening
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain the listening process
define speech registers
define faker
define dependent listener
define interrupter
define self-conscious listener
define intellectual listener
define listening obstacles
Very important!
Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please
follow the URL below and download the material:
http://bookboon.com/en/what-is-active-listening-ebook
3.1
WHAT IS LISTENING?
Study the section that follows:
Listening is a complex process that involves more than just hearing the words.
Listening is a large part of the communication process as it is during listening that
decoding occurs. Many people think that listening is an action that everyone
performs naturally, but it is in fact a neglected skill and we all need to strive
continuously to improve our listening skills. People listen much faster than they
speak; therefore, listeners' minds tend to wonder because of the different pace
between listening and speaking (Bauer & Erdogan 2013). If this gap in pace of
speaking and listening can be understood in the business world, then we can make
more intelligent communication choices based on the kind of information we
intended to convey.
Listening is the “process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to
spoken and/or non-verbal messages; an art and an intellectual and emotional
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process in which the receiver searches for meaning” (Daniels, Hunter, McGhie,
Middleton Horn, Van Jaarsveldt & Van Vuuren 2014:263). Listening occurs for
specific reasons, which are: (1) to interact socially, (2) to receive information, (3) to
solve problems, and (4) to share emotion with others. Each communication purpose
requires a different listening style.
There are three styles of listening, namely informational listening, critical listening
and empathetic listening (Thill & Bovee 2013:87–88; Waldeck, Kearney & Plax
2013:50–51; Lehman & Dufrene 2011:52; Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:85). Casual
listening is listening for recreation purposes or relaxation such as listening to music
or a novel reading recorded on CD. Informational listening is when the focus is
on the content of the message in order to gather information. Critical listening
involves critically evaluating the message, which is especially relevant when an
individual has an important decision to make based on the information provided.
Empathetic listening is listening without judgement to understand the speaker's
point of view. Empathetic listening is relevant when a customer speaks to the
employee about his or her problem and the employee listens without countering the
customer, criticising or judging the customer in order to understand the customer's
perspective.
Active listening involves decoding the message and verifying that the message was
decoded correctly, according to what the speaker wanted you to understand
(Drollinger & Comer 2013:51). Active listening fosters interpersonal relationships
with colleagues, employers and customers. For a public relations practitioner to excel
in the business environment and build interpersonal relationships with individuals
within the business environment, he or she needs to be an active listener. Otherwise
the opposite occurs, where passive listening simply receives the message without an
attempt to understand the message in terms of verification and feedback (Waldeck,
Kearney & Plax 2013:52).
Activity 3.1
Ask a fellow student, colleague, family member or friend about a situation where he
or she was discussing a matter with another person and felt as if that person was
really listening to what he or she was saying (empathetic listening)? What made the
speaker feel that the listener was really listening, referring to body language,
responses and facial expressions?
Feedback
Considering that every situation is different, with every context being different, the
answer provided can be very different. However, compare what you have heard to
the rest of the theory provided in this unit.
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Benefits of listening
Study the section that follows:
There are benefits of listening, which especially public relations practitioners should
keep in mind. The benefits of listening include (Lehman & Dufrene 2011:51):
•
•
•
•
•
Good listeners make people happy because they satisfy people's basic human
need to be heard.
Good listeners are more capable of differentiating between fact and fiction, are
better equipped to withstand false persuasion, and avoid being used by others.
Sensitivity and tolerance towards others is an advantage of listening, especially
towards stakeholders such as employees, customers and suppliers.
Good listeners are more willing to engage and constantly learn from others and
thus gain knowledge and skills that contribute towards increased creativity, job
performance, job satisfaction and advancement.
Good listeners partake in good communication, which increases job satisfaction
as a result of understanding what is occurring within the organisation and
being able to respond based on what they know.
Activity 3.2
What would the benefit be of a public relations practitioner listening to a client’s
brief in terms of a public relations campaign?
Feedback
There are a number of points that can be provided:
•
•
•
•
•
The client would feel satisfied that the public relations practitioner is listening to
the client’s brief so attentively, making the client happy.
The public relations practitioner is able to better discern between fact and fiction
and will be able to immediately indicate to the client what is possible and what is
outside the scope of the company's services.
The public relations practitioner is able to be more tolerant and sensitive
towards the client, especially if the client is rather difficult and demanding.
The public relations practitioner will be able to gather information about the
client's brief and become more knowledgeable about the client's needs.
For the public relations practitioner, greater job satisfaction is involved when
knowing that a job is being well done from the start of the process.
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Bad listening habits
Study the section that follows:
Bad listening habits are often non-physical and are developed over time. Most
people have practised one of the following bad habits a few times (Lehman &
Dufrene 2011:54):
•
•
•
•
•
•
Faking attention: This is when you are pretending to listen to the speaker, but
you are actually not listening and perhaps day dreaming about summer holidays.
Allowing disruptions: This refers to allowing interruptions in the communication
process and thus interrupting the physical and emotional effort in listening.
Over-listening: This refers to when a listener tries too hard to record the
message details, either in writing or in memory. He or she therefore misses the
message as a whole.
Stereotyping: This is making judgements on the speaker based on the listener's
prejudice and perceptions regarding the speaker's appearance, mannerisms,
dress, speech delivery or accent.
Dismissing subjects as uninteresting: A listener who perceives the subject matter
to be uninteresting is more likely to ignore the speech.
Failing to observe non-verbal aids: A speech by the speaker is accompanied by
non-verbal communication. If the listener misses this communication, the entire
message is not received by the listener.
Difference between hearing and listening
Study the section that follows:
People use the words “hearing” and “listening” as if it is the same thing. This is not
the case, as there are differences between the definitions of hearing and listening.
Hearing is the physical ability to detect sounds. Hearing is what is tested at the
doctor's office, where the physical ability to hear at the average decimal levels for
your particular age group (Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:81). Listening, on the other
hand, requires the listener to concentrate on the verbal and non-verbal message
sent and to decode the meaning of the message.
You can hear the words that are coming out of the mouth of your student,
colleague, family member or friend, but you need to listen to the words in order to
make sense of it. Essentially, being good at hearing does not mean you will be good
at listening (Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:81). For example, Tina is deaf and thus unable
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to physically hear when others communicate with her. However, she is able to listen
as she can use an interpreter, lip-reading or her ability to read non-verbal cues. Tina
was even able to outperform her colleagues in listening despite their perfect hearing
ability, as they failed to overcome obstacles to listening.
Obstacles to hearing prevent people from performing effective listening, which can
lead to misunderstandings and uncomfortable situations. Therefore, it is essential
that you constantly strive to improve your listening skills in order to avoid
uncomfortable situations (Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:81).
Obstacles to hearing include failing to limit distractions, failing to focus on the
message, and failing to be an active listener.
To measure you listening skills, you can ask yourself the following self-monitoring
questions:
Self-monitoring questions related to listening
•
•
•
•
•
•
How would you rate yourself in terms of listening skill?
What strengths as a listener do you possess?
What obstacles often make it difficult for you to listen to messages?
What distracts you the most, thus preventing you from listening effectively?
Do you make an effort to practise active listening?
Which steps can be taken to improve your listening?
Different levels of listening
Study the section that follows:
There are essentially three levels of listening namely, internal listening, focused
listening and global listening. The listening levels are discussed in the table below.
Table 3.1: Description of listening levels
Listening
level
Alternative
term
Listening
level 1
Internal
listening
Description
At this level, you will be more interested in the content of the discussion
and the personal meaning that you will derive from the discussion.
Internal listening pertains to you being concerned with the information for
your own purposes, whether it may be instructions on what you need to
do next in terms of your daily tasks or the new operational processes you
need to follow. The level represents everyday dialogue, which is mutually
interpreted.
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Listening
level 2
Focused
listening
You will listen with intent to the speaker and the focus will be on what is
being said, in order to serve as a reflection of what the client is saying,
thus so that you are able to paraphrase what the speaker has said for
clarification. At this level, you are must also maintain an awareness of the
impact that your listening has on the client in terms of making them feel
satisfied that you are paying attention and making them feel like the
focus of your attention, especially as personal thoughts cease to compete
with the listening process. "Empathy, creativity, clarification, collaboration
and innovation" occur at this level.
Listening
level 3
Global
listening
This is also known as environmental listening as the listener notices
aspects of his or her surroundings, such as the temperature, difference in
light, "tension in the air" and so forth. Intuition now comes into play
where you will also listen to your gut. This is where you will look out for
emotions and energy of the situation. Think of how awkward it feels in a
setting where someone talks about something controversial in a group
setting, and how emotionally charged it can also feel. This is where
intuition comes into play.
Source:
Adapted from Cox (2013:3)
For information on the levels of listening where the levels are discussed in a different
manner, although it covers the same theory as above, you can check out the links
at:
•
•
http://www.barryovereem.com/the-three-levels-of-listening/
http://www.thecoaches.com/learning-hub/fundamentals/res/FUN-Topics/FUNCo-Active-Coaching-Skills-Listening.pdf
Types of listeners
Study the section that follows:
There are different types of listeners, ranging from those who can be very good
at listening, to those listeners who are very bad at listening, to those who are in
between. The different types of listeners are summarised in the diagram below.
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FIGURE 3.1: Types of listeners
There are different types of listeners who listen differently to the message being
communicated. We have all probably been one of these types of listeners at one
point in life, as the type of listener you are can depend on the nature of the
communication and the context in which the communication occurs. The
different types of listeners are (Finley 2010; Palazzolo 2012):
•
The pre-occupied listener: This refers to those people who are rushed and
constantly looking to doing something else, such as be on their phone or
working on something in meetings. This type of listener has to make added
efforts to pay attention and constantly ask themselves if the message being
communicated requires their full attention. When speaking to a "preoccupied" listener, the speaker can ask “Is this a good time”, which usually
gets their attention, but then the speaker needs to be brief and get to the
point as this type of listener has a short attention span.
•
The faker listener: This refers to people who are physically present, but who
are simply mentally absent. Often a blank look gives this type of listener
away as they are usually thinking of something else or simply daydreaming.
This type of listener has to attempt to be alert, maintain eye contact and
show interest in the topic by asking questions. When speaking to a "faker"
listener check that they are listening by asking questions and ensuring that
they understand the discussion.
•
The interrupter listener: This refers to people who constantly interrupt the
conversation to make added comments or to ask questions (when it could
have been asked at the end of the conversation). "Interrupters" will not be
listening to the message but would be concentrating on guessing what the
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speaker will say next. This type of listener should try to apologise every time
they interrupt someone, thus making them more aware of their habit. When
speaking to an "interrupter" listener let them talk as they will not listen to
your otherwise, alternatively make them aware of their habit by asking them
if you can finish your communication before they communicate further.
•
The “whatever” listener: This refers to people who remain aloof and show
very little emotion when listening to the speaker. This type of listener needs
to concentrate on the full message (including verbal and non-verbal
communication) in order to understand why the speaker is directing the
message towards him or her. When speaking to the "whatever" listener
involve your listener in the conversation by asking questions.
•
The combative listener: This refers to people who find fault with everything
that the speaker says and continues to disagree and blame others. This type
of listener needs to attempt to be an empathetic listener by understanding,
accepting and finding merit in the speaker's view point. When speaking to a
“combative” listener, rather continue the discussion as intended and
afterwards discuss the matter and request for an alternative suggestion.
•
The analyst listener: This refers to people who are constantly take on the
role of therapist, prepared with many unsolicited answer and perceiving
themselves as great listeners and love to help. Analysts constantly attempt
to analyse what is being said and provide numerous suggestions to "fix" the
situation. This type of listener needs to understand that there is not always a
need for an answer or advice, but in certain situations they just need
someone to listen to the speaker verbally communicate a matter to clarify it
for himself or herself. When speaking to an "analyst" listener, you need to
clarify the purpose of your communication.
•
The dependent listener: This refers to people who pay so much attention to
how they are listening and reacting to the speaker that they miss what is
actually being said. Often dependent listeners focus so much on making all
the right moves in terms of what makes a good listener, that they miss the
actual communication. This type of listener needs to focus less on making on
all the right moves and actually concentrate on the message. When speaking
to a dependent listener, you need to engage with the listener in order to
confirm that they are receiving the intended message.
•
The self-conscious listener: This refers to people who focus too much
attention on themselves instead of involving themselves in the content and
the meaning of the conversation. Often these listeners are self-conscious
about their attire, sitting position, or how they are perceived by others in the
meeting or conversation. This type of listener needs to focus less on
themselves and focus rather on the message and attempt to engage with
the speaker to fully understand the message. When speaking to a selfconscious listener, you need to engage with the listener in order to confirm
that they are receiving the intended message.
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•
The intellectual or logical listener: These listeners listen only with their
heads, hearing only what they want to hear. Often these listeners perform
selective hearing, where they only hear those aspects that serve their
purpose rather than the information they perceive as unimportant. These
type of listeners needs to focus on actively listening. When speaking to an
intellectual listener, you need to engage with the listener to clarify the
message and the importance of each aspect of the conversation.
•
The engager listeners: This refers to people who are the consciously aware
of the message. Engagers focus on all aspects of the communication by
listening with their eyes, ears, and are empathetic in their listening.
Engagers are at the highest level of listen, which encourage the speaker to
continue talking and give them an opportunity to discuss the matter at hand
to find solutions and to come up with ideas. These types of listeners need to
continue truly engaging with the speaker on different levels. When speaking
to an engager listener acknowledge their attention on the message and
thank them for their interest in the topic.
Activity 3.3
Below are four boxes describing different listening scenarios. Choose which match the type
of listener. Discuss why you have chosen these answers.
A) Jerry listens to his female colleague's discussion on
why a particular public relations campaign will not
be suitable for a nationwide roll-out. Jerry wishes
to impress his boss and thus only focuses on the
aspects that will strengthen his response, rather
than listening to his colleagues entire discussion.
Dependent listener
B) Being the only female in the meeting, Dineo does
not want to attract unwanted attention and
therefore is aware that she needs to sit in a
particular manner and ensure that she is dressed
suitably to avoid drawing too much attention to
herself. She hears parts of the speeches but
focuses more on her mannerisms.
Self-conscious listener
C) Devon is the junior public relations practitioner
who just joined the agency. He wants to make a
good impression and stand out, so he vigorously
nods his head in agreement to the speech the boss
makes on ethical behaviour in the workplace.
Pre-occupied listener
D) Halima is very bad at time management and is
thus always busy with many tasks at once. Her
colleagues know that if you want her to listen to
you, you need to clarify if the discussion is taking
place at an appropriate time for Halima to give her
attention to the topic at hand.
Intellectual listener
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Feedback
This matches the intellectual listener, as Jerry only focuses on those
aspects that will strengthen his argument. He is thus selective about what he will
listen to.
A) This matches the self-conscious listener, as Dineo is self-conscious about the
clothes she wears and how she presents herself in a male-dominated scenario.
B) This matches the dependent listener, as Devon is focussing on impressing his
boss as he attempts to show his support through vigorous nodding.
C) This matches the pre-occupied listener, as Halima is constantly working on many
tasks at once. She is frustrated and worked up and therefore does not focus on
the message.
Can you provide additional motivation for the above matchings?
3.2
THE LISTENING PROCESS
Study the section that follows:
After studying this section, you should know that the process of listening involves
receiving messages, attending to and giving meaning to what you hear. The
listening process involves a number of interrelated steps that may in fact take place
simultaneously. You should be able to discuss the eight steps of listening and
describe how each can add value and quality to conversations in social and
business situations.
The purpose of this section is to familiarise you with the listening process. A
process consists of the steps that one goes through in order to successfully
complete something. To be an effective listener, you need to go through the
listening process, which consists of six steps. The listening process is an important
topic in this learning unit, but do not view it in isolation as the other topics dealt
with in the learning unit can also contribute to effective listening in various ways.
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FIGURE 3.2: The listening process
The listening process steps are discussed below (Hamilton 2011:112–114; Waldeck,
Kearney & Plax 2013:60–61):
Step 1: Mental preparation
A receiver has to mentally prepare herself or himself to listen to the message the
sender wants to communicate. Mentally preparing yourself is made easier when you
know you need to remind yourself why it is important to listen to the sender, and
why you concentrate on the message being communicated. Mentally preparing
oneself to listen to the sender includes anticipating the need to expend effort,
assessing the speaker's intent, be ready to provide feedback if necessary,
understanding the implications of the context, and recognising the repercussions
when overreacting to the message. For instance, you know that you will be
attending a meeting where the changes in policy and its implications will be
discussed. Therefore, you are more motivated to listen to what is being said as it
could affect your daily business tasks.
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Step 2: Stimulus reception
When listening to the message being communicated, the receiver must be aware of
the different distractions or barriers to the listening process. The receiver will be in a
situation where different sounds are heard; however, the receiver needs to
concentrate on the message being communicated rather than on the distracting
sound. You need to be selective and pay attention to only that which is important or
that which interests you. For instance, while the meeting is taking place, there are
gardeners mowing the lawn someplace close to the meeting venue, and therefore
there is background noise. You, as the receiver, need to make an effort to listen only
to that which is important, which in this case is the meeting discussion.
Step 3: Active listening
Active listening requires the receiver (listener) to concentrate on what the sender is
saying and commit to actively listen to the message. Especially when the
conversation or meeting occurs for a lengthy period of time, the listener could lose
focus due to fatigue, hunger or other factors. How often have you been in a meeting
or discussion where the individual talked slowly and in a monotone that you seemed
to be falling asleep? For instance, when listening to the supervisor in a meeting, you
are more likely to pay less attention when he starts discussing his move to a bigger
office in the building and lose focus, but when he starts talking about a change in
policy that will affect you, you are more likely to pay more attention to the
supervisor as the topic has now become more relevant for you.
Step 4: Decoding
At this step, the receiver is decoding the message sent by the sender. In other
words, the receiver is trying to make sense of what the sender communicated.
Decoding involves deciphering the verbal communication, but not only with the
assistance of the sound stimulus, but also the knowledge of the person's
background, personal characteristics, psychological characteristics and particular
mannerisms, possible connotative meanings and contextual implications. The
receiver also considers previous knowledge of the topic, additional information about
the sender that could give meaning to the topic. Therefore, to understand the
message correctly, the listener needs to “think about the message and make more
extensive inferences, evaluate and judge the speaker and the message”. Thus,
during this stage the listener brings together the verbal communication, non-verbal
communication and any additional information when decoding the message.
Problems in decoding the message arise when the receiver assumes understanding
of the message and does not bother to ask the sender to clarify the meaning.
For instance, consider the supervisor has been in the company for longer than you
know and therefore knows the office politics better than you do, then his phrasing
and mannerisms may be affected, especially if the senior management is also in the
meeting. The supervisor may be speaking in a language that is not his mother
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tongue; therefore he may get certain words mixed up in meaning causing a
semantic barrier.
Step 5: Message storage
The memory stage involves either writing down what is understood and making
notes for future reference or simply remembering the discussion intending to provide
feedback. Attempting to remember is rather tricky considering that we do not store
as much information as we hoped into our short-term memory. For instance, at the
beginning of the meeting, a colleague indicates an additional item to the meeting
agenda to be discussed at the end of the meeting. The supervisor agrees to the
additional item and continues with the meeting; however, at the end of the meeting,
the supervisor forgets what the additional agenda item is as he did not write it
down. Therefore, it is essential that especially public relations practitioners, who
sometimes perform verbal briefing sessions with clients, need to have a recoding
mechanism at hand, whether it may be writing on paper, typing it up on a computer
or recording the meeting, in order to prevent missing pertinent details to a
campaign.
Step 6: Responding
If the listener has effectively gone through the listening process, the responding
process can now take place. This step is the confirmation stage, where the listener
confirms that he or she understood the intended message. Confirmation of
understanding the message can come through the form of oral communication,
written communication or non-verbal communication. For instance, the supervisor
may want the opinion of the meeting attendees, which the listeners can then provide
based ideally on the notes they have made.
Consider how a public relations practitioner could use the steps in the listening
process practically. Here are some examples to help you:
•
•
•
•
•
Motivation to listen: Right from the start, even if you do not feel like listening
to a difficult client or customer, as a public relations practitioner you need to
create the motivation within yourself to listen.
Receiving actual stimulus: As a public relations practitioner, you must be
sensitive to and aware of non-verbal cues that can help you to understand
and interpret meaning. For example, if someone starts to shout or bang the
desk with their fist, you will know that they are angry or irritated.
Paying attention: Even if a customer or client is sometimes wrong, it is
important to be a dedicated listener and to avoid interrupting them. Rather
listen to everything they have to say before reacting.
Understanding: As a public relations practitioner, you need to get all the facts
right. Intelligent questioning is necessary to ensure that you have understood
the message correctly. If the client did not mention certain facts, be sure to
ask. For example, ask: "Where did the incident happen?'' or "Is this the first
time that this has happened to you?''
Interpreting: It is important to use careful judgement when interpreting
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•
•
•
3.3
someone's message. Try not to hear only what you want to hear; make sure
that you understand the message in the way it was intended to be
understood.
Evaluating: As a public relations practitioner, you must separate facts from
your own assumptions. If a client received bad service and complains, do not
just assume that the client had has a bad day and is overreacting; there may,
in fact, really be a problem with the service.
Remembering: Too often in business, practitioners almost immediately forget
what they have heard. Make notes to help you remember.
Reacting: Giving the speaker feedback is one way of reacting. As a public
relations practitioner, you can do this by requesting more information or by
giving an explanation. Always try to indicate positive support for the speaker's
message.
HOW TO IMPROVE LISTENING
Study the section that follows:
There are several ways to improve listening in general, which include (Lehman &
Dufrene 2011:55–56; Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:86) the following:
Minimising environmental and mental distractions: Avoid being distracted by
unnecessary noises, thus rather ensure that the room where a meeting is taking
place has a door to close to block off most noise. Make the time and effort to listen,
especially when in important situations such as listening to instructions from the
boss.
Connect with the speaker: Keep an open mind when listening to the speaker and
avoid falling back on prejudices about the speaker. Be aware of non-verbal
communication such as tone, body language, gestures, facial expressions and eye
movements.
Rely on your knowledge of speakers to your advantage: By relying on your
knowledge of public speaking and through experience, you will recognise unique
speaking and speech structure traits of individuals. For instance, some speakers
prefer to give a fully detailed speech and provide background on the topic, while
other speakers prefer to give the main points and only some background detail.
Make the speaker know you are actively involved: By showing interest, whether with
body language such as sitting forward, or gestures such as nodding your head or
even the absence of certain actions such as avoiding checking your smart phone, or
avoiding whispering comments to your colleague, you are indicating that you are
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listening. The most active a listener can be is when he or she asks questions or
provides feedback.
Do not interrupt the speaker: Avoid interrupting the speaker as it might distract him
or her from the speech, thus losing the full meaning of the speech.
Clarify by asking questions: Clarify what the speaker discussed by asking relevant
and meaningful questions. Paraphrasing is a useful tool when wanting to correct
misunderstandings.
Probing questions: These questions can direct the speaker in order to assist in the
speaker defining the issue more clearly, concretely and specifically.
Encourage a speaker: Inspire the speaker to talk more about the topic at hand. For
example, ask questions such as: “Can you elaborate on the topic that you are
discussing?”
Restate what the speaker has said: Repeat what was said, although in a different
manner. For example, rephrase by starting with the words: “Are you saying that …
?”.
Reflect on what was said: Contemplate out loud about what the speaker said. For
example, you could indicate: “You are saying that you …”.
Summarise what was said: Briefly conclude what the speaker said. An example
would be stating the following: “You are unhappy with the workload and would like
for me to reassign the duties.”
Validate what was said: Reiterate key points of the message, for example by stating,
“I appreciate your efforts in completing the project on time, despite the short
notice”.
Use non-words and non-verbal action: Demonstrate that the listener is listening
through body language or non-words, for example by nodding while listening or
murmuring in agreement with a "hmmmmm".
For additional information on improving listening, check out the following link:
https://www.boundless.com/communications/textbooks/boundless-communicationstextbook/learning-to-listen-and-helping-others-do-the-same-5/understandinglistening-29/listening-and-critical-thinking-133-4210/
Activity 3.4
Copy the following link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gl9EPBYNZIo and paste
it into your URL bar. The video is a young man delivering a speech about his
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tendency to deliver monotone speeches. Once you have watched the video, answer
the following questions:
1 Did you find yourself losing focus?
2 What could you have done if you did lose focus of the speech because of the
man's monotone speech?
3 What obstacles interfered with your ability to fully focus on the speech?
Feedback
This is an entirely personal experience and the answers can be found in this
learning unit.
1 The answer is dependent on your experience.
2 The answer can be found in section titled “How to improve listening”.
3 The answer is dependent on the specific circumstances in your experience,
although the relevant obstacles to listening can be found in the section titled
“Possible obstacles to listening”.
3.4
WHY LISTENING IS IMPORTANT IN THE ORGANISATION
Study the section that follows:
As public relations is about building relationships with stakeholders (Guth & Marsh
2012:6–7), listening supports public relations aims as listening also fosters
relationships with stakeholders (Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:85), and it is thus so
important when dealing with all stakeholders, both internal and external of the
organisation. It is important to listen to the customers, employees and supervisors
for many different reasons, which are discussed below (Hamilton 2011:102):
Listening to customers enables an organisation to gather information about what
customers think about their products and services, or of the competition. A
successful way to obtain customers opinions is by using social networking sites. By
listening to customers and considering their opinions, the organisation can make
changes to the products and services offered, which could lead to an increase in
customer satisfaction and sales. When customers perceive the organisation is
listening to them, they feel they can trust the organisation, are more satisfied with
the organisation and more likely to do business with the organisation (Drollinger &
Comer 2013:51). Listening to the customers from a public relations perspective
could also increase the perception that the customers' opinions matter, which could
create a reputation for the organisation as being considerate of the customer. Media
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tracking of the organisation's name can allow the public relations practitioner an
opportunity to respond to false statements made or to act on negative statements,
which if it escalates could damage the organisation's reputation.
Listen to employees is essential considering that the operations of an organisation
depend on the employees. Employees, who perceive that the organisation is
listening to them, feel supported, more comfortable in an open climate, which
increases employee satisfaction and productivity. Especially in crises, employees are
a source of good suggestions that could improve the organisations productivity.
Listening to supervisors may be considered as an obvious statement but it is
often not performed correctly. Often employees do listen but without actively
listening in terms of confirmation of listening and asking questions, which leads to a
supervisor repeating themselves or getting frustrated with the lack of confirmation of
understanding the message by the employees. Listening to the supervisor can be
beneficial in that it assists with building a relationship with a supervisor for optimum
teamwork and productivity.
Listening to colleagues is essential for positive interpersonal relationships among
colleagues. Considering that colleagues often need to work on projects, obstacles in
communication is made more difficult with lack of communication richness through
technology, cultural differences between colleagues, or lack of personal knowledge
about fellow colleagues.
3.5
POSSIBLE OBSTACLES TO LISTENING
Study the section that follows:
Obstacles to listening are the barriers preventing you from actively listening to the
message being communicated by the sender. Obstacles to listening include:
Failing to limit distractions refers to a number of distractions, which can prevent
listeners from performing effective listening. Noise, an element in the communication
model, is a major distraction for listeners. There are however two types of noise:
external noise and internal noise (Hamilton 2011:106–107; Quintanilla & Wahl
2011:83). The following are examples of barriers to listening:
•
Physical barriers relate to distinct sounds such as conversations in the office, a
ringing cellphone, a loud radio or construction noises from outside the building.
Failing to limit the distractions of external noises is failing to minimise chattering
in a meeting, or failing to communicate that cellphones should be on silent when
in a meeting. Overcoming the external noises is accomplished by communicating
certain rules, which will minimise external noises. For example, the public
relations practitioner will communicate to the journalists who are attending the
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•
•
•
press conference to switch off their cellphones in order to avoid a ringing phone
during the recoding of the press conference.
Personal barriers are those distractions that encompass the internal condition
that hinders the speaker's ability to focus on the message. Internal condition
includes emotional distress, hunger, physical pain or physical discomfort.
Overcoming internal responses is more difficult in some instances as it is harder
to predict than external noise. Physical well-being distractions relate to physical
discomfort such as pain or being cold. Psychological distractions relate to being
worried about an issue or frustrated about a work situation. Attitudinal
distractions relate to judgements, stereotypes or prejudice we have of other
people. For example, needing the bathroom during an important meeting is
physical discomfort, which can be overcome by allowing bathroom breaks.
Telling customers bad news could lead to emotional distress, which is more
difficult to lessen. Thus, with internal noise, especially causing great discomfort,
the speaker must allow the listener time to deal with the news before giving
additional information, which enhances the chances of the listener listening or
remembering the message. When the listener is you, then you must attempt to
lessen the internal noise, whether it is asking for a bathroom break during a
meeting or asking to take a moment to digest bad news.
Gender barriers are distractions created based on society's perception of male
and female characteristics and behaviours. For example, society often assumes a
female supervisor will be more lenient on employees, whereas a male supervisor
will be stricter in terms of rules and deadlines.
Semantic barriers are distractions created as a result of misinterpreting a
message due to semantics. Semantics are the meanings of words, where words
sound the same but have different meanings such as red and read. Semantics
barriers are worsened by cultural differences and language differences, as
people have different frames of reference and therefore interpret words
differently.
Failing to focus on the message is purposefully done by the listener because of
jargon or message overload. In other words, the listener does not understand the
message because the language is too technical or because too much detail is being
communicated (Hamilton 2011:106–107; Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:84).
•
•
Jargon refers to technical words usually used by a specialised group, making it
difficult for the listener to comprehend if he or she is not a part of that group.
The listener does not comprehend what the technical words mean and therefore
will lose focus of the primary message being communicated.
Message overload occurs when the speaker provides too many details in the
message, which is difficult to keep track of and understand. As the listener
attempts to understand the many details, he or she loses focus of the primary
message. Message overload particularly occurs during presentations when the
speaker provides too many points, graphs and figures on slides in discussing a
particular topic. As a public relations practitioner, you will be expected to make
notes of the main points and request the slides when the specific detail is
required.
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Failing to be an active listener occurs when the listener decides not to listen to
the information provided by the speaker. An active listener actively attempts to
make sense of the communication and to verify the communication. An active
listener will often paraphrase what the speaker is saying in order to confirm that the
listener understood the message as the speaker intended (Thill & Bovee 2013:88;
Hamilton 2011:106–107; Quintanilla & Wahl 2011:81). For example, a meeting may
take place where the boss provides information to the employees (listeners) about
progress on current projects, but because it is only feedback there is no need for the
employees to actively listen, especially if they know more or less what the progress
is based on their involvement in the projects. After the meeting, the boss will
complain to one of the employees that nobody actually listens and understands the
importance of being up to date with regard to the progress of current projects. The
employee will then ask: “You feel frustrated because you feel the progress meetings
are a waste of time as none of the employees seem to make an effort to properly
listen to the progress report.” The employee thus summarises the boss' comments.
3.6
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the
examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the
feedback given in the prescribed book.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.7
Briefly discuss the differences between listening and hearing.
Discuss the different types of skills a practitioner can make use of to improve
his or her listening skills.
Describe the various types of listeners and how each of them listens
differently to a speaker's message.
Distinguish between the different levels of listening, stating each level, and
describe the typical characteristics of a listener operating at that level.
Discuss the categories of obstacles to listening. Give a practical example of
how you would overcome each of these obstacles.
Assume that you are a manager in a business organisation. You have recently
received numerous customer complaints arising from the fact that your
employees are not listening to customer requests and instructions. Discuss
five tips that you could give your employees to help them become more
effective listeners.
REFLECTION
Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions:
1.
2.
In what areas of your professional life do you think you will be able to use the
skills you have learnt in this learning unit?
What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more
help? What are you going to do about it?
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3.
4.
3.8
What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
SUMMARY
Listening is a complex process that involves more than just our ears. Listening is
not a skill that people are automatically equipped with, but it can be acquired
through effective study and practice. Although we often use the words “listening”
and “hearing” as if they were synonyms, they actually refer to different actions. As
a public relations practitioner, you need to listen to people, not just hear them, as
you will then be able to interpret and assign meaning to a conversation.
There are three levels of listening that represent how in-depth a listener is
listening. There are a number of different types of listeners, there are ways to
improve yourself to most effective listener and there are ways in which you can
handle every type of listener.
The listening process is a step-by-step process that can assist in improving your
listening skills. During the listening process, you will experience obstacles to
listening that can be overcome with particular methods to improve listening.
Tips for improving your listening include listening to the content of a message,
controlling all interferences and not speaking until it is your turn to do so. It is
important for any public relations practitioner to become a better listener, because
being a better listener enables you to become a better communicator, and effective
communication is essential in the public relations industry. In the next learning unit,
we will consider how you can improve your speaking skills. This information will be
helpful to you because public relations practitioners often need to do presentations
or speak in public.
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3.9
REFERENCES
Bauer, T & Erdogan, B. 2013. Organizational behavior v. 1.0. Flat World Education.
[Online]
Available
at:
http://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/book
hub/reader/3?e=bauer-ch08_s03 (accessed on 18 September 2013).
Co-active. Co-active coaching skills: listening. 2012. [Online] Available at:
http://www.thecoaches.com/learning-hub/fundamentals/res/FUN-Topics/FUNCo-Active-Coaching-Skills-Listening.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2016).
Cox, E. 2013. Listening. Chapter in: Coaching understood: a pragmatic inquiry into
the coaching process. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446270134.n4 (downloaded on 3 May 2016).
Daniels, D, Hunter, A, McGhie, V, Middleton Horn, J, Van Jaarsveldt, M & Van
Vuuren, T. 2014. Business communication. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Drollinger, T & Comer, LB. 2013. Salesperson's listening ability as an antecedent to
relationship selling. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 28(1):50–59.
[Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/08858621311285714 (accessed
on 8 March 2016).
Finley, E. 2010. Seven types of listeners and tips for better listening skills. [Online]
Available at: http://www.dalecarnegiewaysf.com/2010/08/24/seven-types-oflisteners-and-tips-for-better-listening-skills/ (accessed on 8 March 2016).
Guth, DW & March, C. 2012. Public relations: a value-driven approach. 5th edition.
Boston: Pearson.
Hamilton, C. 2011. Communicating for results: a guide for business and the
professions (international edition). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.
Lehman, CM & Dufrene, DD. 2011. Business communication. 16th edition. Mason:
South Western Cengage.
Overeem, B. 2015. The
three
levels
of
listening.
http://www.barryovereem.com/the-three-levels-of-listening/
29 April 2016).
Available
(accessed
at:
on
Palazzolo, P. 2012. 7 Types of listeners – part 2. [Online] Available at:
http://leadchangegroup.com/7-types-listeners-part-2/ (accessed on 21 April
2016).
Quinttanilla, KM & Wahl, ST. 2011. Business and professional communication: keys
for workplace excellence. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Thill, CL & Bovee, JV. 2013. Excellence in business communication. 10th edition.
London: Pearson.
Waldeck, JH, Kearney, P & Plax, TG. 2013. Business and professional communication
in a digital age. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage.
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Learning unit 4
Public speaking in the public relations function
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
4.1 The difference between oral and written communication
4.2 What is public speaking?
4.3 Methods of speech delivery
4.4 The process of preparing a speech
4.5 Microphone techniques
4.6 Tips for better public speaking
4.7 Things that make public speakers nervous
4.8 Self-assessment questions
4.9 Reflection
4.10 Summary
4.11 References
4.
Introduction
When last did you hear a very good speech made by a confident and well-prepared
presenter? When you have the opportunity (if you have not yet watched it), watch
Barack
Obama's
speech
delivered
at
Nelson
Mandela's
memorial:
https://youtu.be/4vUB363cRqE
When last did you hear a speech that was unprepared and delivered by a speaker
that was not a good public speaker? When you have the opportunity, watch the
following clip of a very nervous speaker: https://youtu.be/IPIvwu-573Y
Unfortunately, we hear a lot more “bad” speeches than “good” speeches! Many
people find speaking in public extremely stressful. However, if you are planning to
follow a career in public relations, you can expect to make oral presentations
frequently. Public speaking requires real skill. No one is born with the ability to speak
well in front of an audience; it takes confidence and practice. As an aspiring public
relations practitioner you need to master this skill, because your ability to speak well
in public could mean the difference between failing and succeeding at your job.
Overview of this learning unit
This learning unit will help you obtain the skills you need to become a better public
speaker. To start off with, you need to be able to differentiate between oral and
written communication, as both are important. The focus of this learning unit,
however, is oral communication. Any public relations practitioner wanting to learn a
new skill must identify and try to eliminate the factors that could stand in the way of
success, and so we discuss the factors that make public speakers nervous. You will
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also learn the steps to follow when preparing a speech. We explore the various
methods of delivering a speech and we will also look at microphone techniques. We
end the learning unit with a discussion of skills for improving public speaking.
This learning unit unfolds as follows:
Learning outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
explain the difference between oral and written communication
explain the concept of preparing a speech
explain why public speakers feel nervous
discuss skills for improving your performance as a public speaker
Key concepts
Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
define public speaking
explain speech delivery methods
explain impromptu speaking
discuss microphone techniques
define visual aids
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Very important!
Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please
follow the URL below and download the material:
http://bookboon.com/en/successful-public-speaking-ebook#download
OR
file:///C:/Users/prinsck/Downloads/successful-public-speaking.pdf
4.1
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Study the section that follows:
Oral presentations are a normal part of activities in most workplaces – at one time or
another you might be asked to speak to at least a small group of people if not more
(Luchuk 2013:299). You may at first think that there is not much of a difference
between oral and written communication, since the purpose of both is to convey a
message. Although they are different, they both play an important role in helping
the public relations practitioner achieve certain objectives.
You should also know how speech differs from writing. The differences involve the
fact that the written word, in the form of news releases, brochures and publications
is quite impersonal while oral communication is much more personal and presents
an opportunity for discussion between parties (Botha, Chaka, Du Plessis, Krause,
Rawjee, Porthen, Veerasamy & Wright 2007:101). Oral communication is also much
more flexible than the written word, as speakers are free to alter the presentation to
fit the response of the audience as they go along (Botha et al 2007:101). Often
speakers can tell from the audience's reaction if a speech and its contents is being
understood and enjoyed by an audience or not – a good public speaker is one that
can adapt their speech to suit the audience's needs. Written words remain as a
permanent document and spoken words, unless recorded, last only a fraction of a
second. You should be able to explain how these differences affect both parties
involved.
For example, the advantage of a presentation compared to using written words is
that you have more flexibility, and you are free to adapt or change the presentation
as you go along. Because writing and speaking differ so much from each other,
becoming a good speaker means mastering new skills that are different from writing
skills. For example, to be a good speaker you have to understand the dynamics of
speaking and listening and you need to master the process of preparing a speech,
which will be examined later in this unit.
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In the next section, we will be looking at what public speaking is and why it is
important.
4.2
WHAT IS PUBLIC SPEAKING?
Study the section that follows:
The Merriam-Webster (2016) dictionary defines public speaking as “the act or skill of
speaking to a usually large group of people”. Other definitions provided are “the act
or process of making speeches in public” or the “art of effective oral communication
with an audience”. These definitions have remained the same since the origin of
public speaking, which originated more than 2 500 years ago, even before any
civilization wrote about it. Public speaking took place without slides, television, radio,
internet and movies, but it was the time when public speaking was first systemised
in a set manner or structure (DeCaro 2016). Today, public speaking is very different
with various approaches that can be used such as a story telling method or formal
beginning, middle and end. Additional material can also be used to enrich speeches,
such as audio, images, graphs and diagrams and even videos.
Public speaking is not only relevant in business settings, but also in personal settings
(Schrieber & Hant nd:1). Think of a time you attended a wedding, public event,
church sermon, or conference where someone gave a short speech. Personal setting
speeches are usually shorter than speeches delivered in professional settings, but it
is still important that they are delivered well.
Many speeches, such as those focused on in this learning unit, are delivered in a
professional setting (Schrieber & Hantranft nd:1). Most professions, such as
television announcers, teachers, lawyers and entertainers must be able to speak
well. Other professions also require speaking to some extent, although statistics
show that up to 70% of jobs today require some form of public speaking.
Speaking in a public setting is an essential skill, even if you do not wish to be a
politician one day! According to Schrieber & Hantranft (nd:1–2), public speaking is
important in creating and sustaining a society, and helps young to listen more
carefully and to even critically evaluate other's speeches.
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There are different types of presentations used in the business context (Daniels,
Hunter, McGhie, Middleton Horn, Van Jaarsveldt & Van Vuuren 2014:291), which
include:
Informative presentations: These types of presentations mainly inform or teach the
audience by delivering material and data with interpretations.
Persuasive presentations: These types of presentations aim to bring about action
and change the attitudes, beliefs and opinions of the target audience. They can also
motivate the audience to act on or to believe in something.
Goodwill presentations: These types of presentations entertain and validate the
audience.
Energising presentations: These type of presentations aim to mobilise the target
audience and inspire them to do something.
As a public relations practitioner, in the corporate setting, you will be faced with
situations where you will need to deliver speeches, whether it may be in one-on-one
meetings, small group setting or large group setting the principles remain the same.
The various methods of speech delivery will be discussed next.
4.3
METHODS OF SPEECH DELIVERY
Study the section that follows:
Which speech delivery method to use is an important decision for any speaker. The
following questions will help you to decide on the best method of delivering a
speech:
How long is the speech?
How formal is the speech?
How complex is the speech?
What method (or combination of methods)
are you most comfortable with?
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The four methods of speech delivery are summarised in the figure below.
Source:
Reading
from a
manuscript
Memorising
Impromptu
delivery
Speaking
from notes
Adapted from MNM1520 study guide
FIGURE 4.1: Methods of speech delivery
Reading from a manuscript is best whenever the potential for misunderstanding
•
is great and misunderstanding could have serious consequences. Typical
occasions where reading would be the best option include the president's State
of the Nation address.
Memorising should be used only for extremely short speeches, such as
introductions, speeches of acceptance and toasts.
Impromptu delivery is usually used in everyday circumstances. For example, if
the company CEO suddenly calls you and expects feedback on a campaign you
are working on, or a journalist phones at the last minute for comment on your
company's dealings, you haven't got the time to deliver a fully prepared
presentation. By keeping the presentation simple and brief, you can ensure that
you will be effective in impromptu speaking.
Speaking from notes is the most popular method for most speakers. If you are
informing the media about a new product launch, you will have notes with you
containing the most important information. This method allows you to combine
preparedness with spontaneity and liveliness.
•
•
•
In the section that follows, the process of preparing a speech will be looked at in
more detail.
4.4
THE PROCESS OF PREPARING A SPEECH
Study the section that follows:
“Just keep in mind," Liaro said, "they're not going to remember the words. They'll
remember how you made them feel. Make them feel something.” (Hurley nd)
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In order to deliver the best speech possible, one where you make your audience feel
and understand the message you want to convey, you must follow certain steps in
the preparation of your speech. Make sure that you understand the process as a
whole and that you also know what the individual steps involve. The following figure
summarises the steps in the process of preparing a speech:
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Source:
• Planning the speech
• Researching the topic
• Organising the speech
• Develop visual aids
• Rehearse the speech
• Deliver the speech
Adapted from the MNM1520 study guide
FIGURE 4.2: Steps in preparing a speech
In the sections that follow, we will explore these steps in more detail.
Planning the speech
If you were given the task of preparing a speech, what is the first thing you would
do? Most people would probably just sit down at their desk and start writing or
typing. However, after studying this section, we hope that you will realise that there
are several important steps that must come before the actual writing begins. Before
you start writing, you need to:
•
•
•
determine the purpose of the speech (find out why the speech is to be
delivered)
determine the occasion where the speech will be presented (find out when and
where the speech is to be delivered)
analyse the audience that the speech will be presented to (find out who will be
listening to the speech)
As a public relations practitioner, how would you go about planning what you were
going to say if you were given the task of presenting the company's latest social
responsibility initiative of sponsoring a previously disadvantaged soccer team to
clients at the end of the year? As part of your planning, you would carry out the
three steps listed above: The purpose of your presentation is to presenting the
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company's latest social responsibility initiative of sponsoring a previously
disadvantaged soccer team; the occasion will be a year-end function held for clients
at a function venue; and the audience will consist of current and potential clients. Be
sure to know the following:
•
The possible purposes of the speech. If you are presenting a proposal to
clients, the purpose of the speech is to persuade them to accept the idea that
you are presenting For example, if you are addressing management to give
feedback on a project, the purpose of the speech is to be informative. There
are four possible purposes of a speech in public relations that you should know
(McKensie 2012:1):
o Informative: In this type of speech, information is provided to the audience
which is interesting and useful, for example, a teacher telling her class
about important historical South African events.
o Demonstrative: This type of speech is similar to informative, but also
includes a demonstration of how to do the things that are being taught, for
example, how to bake bread.
o Persuasive: This type of speech tries to convince people to change in some
way, such as the way they think or act, for example, a speech encouraging
teenagers to be more active and start playing soccer.
o Entertainment: In this type of speech, the speaker aims to provide pleasure
and enjoyment through his speech, for example, a humorous section where
the talker explains to American tourists what the South African term
“runaways”, used to describe a chicken delicacy, means.
•
•
What you choose to talk about and the way you approach the subject will be
partly determined by what is best suited for the occasion. For example, in a
business presentation, humour may not be appropriate, but at a fundraiser or
sponsorship event, it could work really effectively.
In addition to identifying demographic factors such as the race, size, age and
organisational status of your audience, you will also need to determine their
level of knowledge about your topic. For example, if the audience is large, you
may want to keep the presentation more formal, but if the group is smaller,
you could allow for more questions and encourage an interactive session. It is
also very important not to offend anyone in your audience on the grounds of
racial or religious orientations. This is why it is essential to do your “homework”
on your audience before you begin planning your speech.
Researching the topic
Public relations practitioners have been using research from the 1950s and today,
with the advent of technology, public relations research has also changed as more
information becomes available at the touch of a button (Fourie 2014:64). Public
relations research can be defined as the effort aimed at discovering the facts or
opinions pertaining to an identified issue, need or question. According to Fourie
(2014:65), the importance of public relations research is highlighted as the cost of
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campaigns and demand for accountability and transparency in organisations
increase. Usually, when preparing for a speech, the speaker would conduct
secondary research, which occurs when the researcher consults published works of
other authors on relevant topics, such as those found in journals or even in online
newspapers. Very rarely would a speech writer conduct primary research, which
occurs when the data has to be collected for the first time, usually in the form of
surveys or even observation (Fourie 2014:71).
Organising the speech
Organisation is even more important in speaking than in writing, because the spoken
word passes the ear quickly and, once it has gone, you cannot get it back. If you
have ever listened to good speeches, you will have noticed that they all have an
introduction, a body and a conclusion. It is important to organise your speech in this
way as, if you don't, your audience may easily become confused.
By making sure that your speech has an introduction, a body and a conclusion, you
make it clear and easy to follow and you will have a better chance of achieving the
purpose you intend.
Here is some good advice:
•
•
•
Plan the introduction. This section should be short. To get your audience's
immediate attention, you could open with an unusual question, or even a short
funny story to introduce the concept to be discussed.
Plan the body. Include three to five main points, as this is easier for the
audience to grasp and helps them hang onto your message.
Plan the end. The ending of your speech is your last opportunity to achieve
your objective, and your closing should summarise the main points that you
covered in the body of your speech.
An important concept to keep in mind when planning your speech is that your
speech should meet the needs of all the people in your audience, not just those with
the same listening and learning style as yourself (Bowden 2013:40). In order to
achieve this, Bowden suggests that speakers incorporate the 4MAT model, originally
developed by Dr Bernice McCarthy. According to this model, four key questions must
be addressed and these are summarised next in figure 4.3 (Bowden 2013:41–42).
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Source:
What if?
and What
else?
Why?
How?
What?
Adapted from Bowden (2013:41)
FIGURE 4.3: The 4MAT model for structuring a presentation
•
•
•
•
Why? Here the speaker must clarify the context and rationale of the speech.
What? Here the speaker must clarify what detail is to be learnt during the
speech.
How? Here the audience member has a need to explore how to use and apply
what has been learnt.
What if? and What else? Here the speaker should add any relevant extra
information and remind the audience about the key message that he or she is
trying to convey.
According to Bowden (2013:45), there are many benefits to using the 4MAT model
when preparing speeches, which include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
It makes the speaker think about the needs of the audience.
It is much more thorough than only covering the parts the speaker thinks are
interesting.
It does not assume that the audience wants to be there.
It is simple and is logical to use.
The model can be used for a whole range of presentations, such as formal
speeches, to set up meetings and even in interviews.
Activity 4.1
Assume that as the public relations manager of the National Stokvel Association of
South Africa, an organisation specialising in providing support to Stokvel groups'
terms of information, services, opportunities and products, you have been tasked
with delivering a speech on the importance of social responsibility to all Stokvel
groups that are present at your Stokvel conference. Apply the 4MAT model in
helping you prepare your presentation.
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Feedback
Remember that when you attempt this activity, one of the main reasons to apply the
4MAT model is to ensure that all members of the audience (in this case, Stokvel
groups) feel included in the speech and that all members of the audience
understand and can associate with the contents of the speech.
•
Why? Here the speaker must clarify the context and rationale of the speech.
Here you would have explained why corporate social responsibility is so
important for an organisation today. Make your speech interesting, as many
audience members would have heard the topic and felt forced to attend – but
not feel that the content applies to them at all. Establish the usefulness of the
information in their lives and remember to include video clips and even
humorous cartoons (if applicable) to grab the audience's attention.
•
What? Here the speaker must clarify what detail is to be learnt during the
speech.
Here you should include the facts on corporate social responsibility, as well as
to include important data and statistics in your presentation. Be sure to
remember your audience throughout – so not try to “dazzle” them with fancy
figures that no one in the audience understands, but rather engage them and
make it interesting. Remember that this audience comes from all walks of life,
from the Gogo (grandmother) in the rural area to the modern young woman in
the city.
•
How? Here the audience member has a need to explore how to use and apply
what has been learnt.
In the how part of your presentation, you need to show how the principles
being introduced will be implemented in the association, or how certain
concepts work. In the case of the importance of social responsibility, you might
introduce the new organisational policy and discuss how it will affect them in
their Stokvel groups, as well as what they will have to do in the future.
•
What if? and What else? Here the speaker should add any relevant extra
information and remind the audience about the key message that he or she is
trying to convey.
Here all the “loose” ends should be tied up and any questions should be
addressed. Audience members might ask “What would happen if …” and you
should be prepared to answer these kinds of questions. Remember to make
this as practical as possible to illustrate the importance of your topic, as well as
the relevance to the audience, as the audience needs to understand what you
are trying to communicate.
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Once you have planned your speech, decide whether you need visual aids and, if so,
which ones. PowerPoint presentations, whiteboards, flipcharts or handouts are all
examples of visual aids that you could use in a presentation.
Developing visual aids
“Well-designed visuals do more than provide information; they bring order to the
conversation.” (Ludwig & Owen-Boger nd)
You should be aware of the different types of visual aids that are available to
presenters to use, depending on their needs and the purpose and occasion of the
speech. Visual aids add interest and help an audience understand and remember
your speech. Types of visual aids include Powerpoint presentations, the use of a
blackboard or whiteboard, handouts that the audience can take home with them or
even flipcharts. Be sure to know what the advantages and disadvantages of the
different visual aids are. In this regard, you may find the table below helpful:
Table 4.1: Advantages and disadvantages of various visual aids in
presentations
Visual aid
Advantages
Disadvantages
PowerPoint presentation
• You can use colour.
• It is easy to transport.
• You are able to produce
photocopies.
Blackboard or white board
• It is good for a small to
• You are not able to prepare
medium- sized group.
it beforehand.
• You can use pens of different • You can make only limited
colours for emphasis.
use of pictures or diagrams.
• You have to limit
• You can write important
information, otherwise it
phrases instead of full text.
becomes cluttered.
Handouts
• They are easy to transport.
• You can prepare them
beforehand.
• They are easy to photocopy
or duplicate.
• You can summarise and
highlight important
information by using bold or
italics.
Flip chart
• Is easy to transport.
• You can give only limited
• It is effective in a small
information, otherwise the
group context.
page becomes cluttered.
• You are not able to produce
• You can prepare it
photocopies of the
beforehand.
information.
• You can use coloured pens
to highlight important points.
• You can paste on pictures or
diagrams.
Source:
• You need a data projector
and computer for display.
• It takes time to compile.
• Handouts can be costly.
Adapted from Botha et al (2013:107)
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An important rule when using Powerpoint is to remember the “six” rule (adapted
from Daniels et al 2014:302–303):
•
•
Maximum of six lines per slide
Maximum of six words per slide
Remember the following when preparing visual aids: Information subtracted is value
added – in other words, your visual aids will be more effective if you don't include
too much information.
Activity 4.2
Look at the two power point slides below. Decide which of the two you think is the
most effective for use during a presentation and provide reasons for your answer.
Now, improve each slide based on what you have learnt above.
Slide 1
Source:
Author's own
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Slide 2
Source: Author's own
Feedback
After studying the two slides, which one did you select? Slide 1 is has a lot of
information and the font used is quite small, which could distract the audience. Slide
2, on the other hand, has only two bullet points of information and an illustration to
show the audience exactly what is meant by the term “servicescape”. How would
you improve both slides? Did you remember the “six” rule of only six lines per slide,
and six words per line?
Rehearsing the speech
Just as you schedule time for revising a written document, be sure to schedule time
for rehearsing a speech. Rehearsing a speech involves more than just rereading your
notes a couple of times to improve your delivery. Rehearsing means critically
examining and polishing the speech. The steps for rehearsing the speech are
summarised in the figure below.
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Step 1:
Critically
examine your
speech
Step 5: Make
the necessary
arrangements
Step 4:
Anticipate
questions
Source:
Step 2:
Evaluate your
voice
Step 3:
Evaluate nonverbal
communication
Adapted from MNM1520 study guide
FIGURE 4.4: Steps for rehearsing a speech
In step 1, evaluate where you could shorten phrases or words. In step 2, see
whether the volume and pitch of your voice are appropriate, and whether the pace
is suitable (are you speaking too fast, or too slowly?). In step 3, you need to
evaluate things such as your personal appearance, posture and body movement
(remember the clip you watched right at the beginning of the learning unit?). In
step 4, make sure that you are prepared for any questions that the audience may
ask. And last of all, in step 5, make sure that you have made all the necessary
arrangements, such as making sure that the venue is available, contains enough
chairs, and whether there is suitable equipment for the visual aids you will be using.
Another good idea is to test the microphone before the time if you can (Bowden
2013:274).
Delivering the speech
This is the last step in the process of preparing a speech: the actual delivery. Deliver
your speech clearly, confidently and efficiently. Working through all the steps we
have already discussed should equip you to deliver a speech effectively in front of
your desired audience. Being a good speaker will make you a better public relations
practitioner, as you will be able to get your ideas across. When delivering a speech,
keep the following guidelines in mind:
•
Your clothing is part of what you communicate to your audience. Dress in
comfortable-but-business-like clothing that is appropriate for the occasion as
the audience should be focused on what you are saying and not what you are
wearing (Botha et al 2007:105).
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•
•
•
Try to make eye contact with members of the audience.
If your mind goes blank, try to keep talking, even if you repeat what you have
just said.
Always keep some notes of key points with you in case you forget your speech
– these can be on paper or even on a tablet. Remember to only include key
words to prevent you from reading and not interacting with your audience.
In addition, keep in mind the characteristics of a successful speaker (Daniels et al
2014:294):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Poise: The speaker should show the audience that they are in control of the
situation.
Competence: The audience must be convinced that the speaker is an expert in
the discussed topic.
Trustworthiness: The audience must believe that the speaker is fair, objective,
reliable and honest.
Commitment: The speaker must demonstrate a willingness to go the extra mile
for the audience, such as staying afterwards to answer any questions that the
audience might have.
Dynamism: The speaker must be enthusiastic and engage in a positive and
exciting manner with the audience.
Sincerity: The speaker must come across as sincere and believable in both
verbal and non-verbal communication.
Respect: The speaker must be respectful of the audience and the topic being
presented.
Activity 4.3
Imagine you are the public relations practitioner for STAR BANK and you have to
deliver a speech at the opening of the Soweto Derby at STAR BANK Stadium to
welcome all the players, sponsors and spectators. Apply the steps of rehearsing a
speech to the speech you would deliver on this occasion.
Feedback
Step 1: Critically examine the speech
Go back to your written speech and review its content and structure. For example,
make sure that you have included the names of the players and sponsors, and that
these names are all correct. If you included any dates and times or previous
winners, be sure that this information is correct. Make sure that the structure and
flow of your speech is logical and clear.
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Step 2: Evaluate your voice
Not everybody has a pleasing voice. However, if a speaker is enthusiastic about the
message they are conveying, and does so with warmth and sensitivity to the
audience, the audience may not even notice if the speaker's voice is thin, squeaky or
harsh. It is possible to practise and improve many aspects of vocal delivery. Volume
is particularly important. There will be a microphone, but speak loudly, since the
event will be outside and the audience will be large. Practise any words that may be
difficult to pronounce beforehand so that you feel confident and to prevent mistakes.
Step 3: Evaluate non-verbal communication
Rehearse in front of a mirror to see your own non-verbal communication. Focus on
the way that you stand, your facial expressions, and your gestures (the movements
of your hands). Think about what you will wear. Smart casual or traditional clothing
would be suitable for this type of function.
Step 4: Anticipate questions
This step is not really applicable for this type of presentation, as it is only a
welcoming speech. However, it would be a good idea to know something about the
history of the tournament, previous winners, STAR BANK's involvement as a sponsor
and so on, so that you will be able to answer any questions directed at you.
Step 5: Make the necessary arrangements
Any time you plan to speak in front of a group, you must take responsibility for the
necessary arrangements. Make sure that the microphone is in working order and
that a podium will be available if needed on the day of your presentation.
In the section that follows, microphone techniques will be discussed.
4.5
MICROPHONE TECHNIQUES
Study the section that follows:
Microphones are tools we use to make our
voices louder, and speakers often use them
when delivering a speech to a large
audience. You have probably attended a
function at which speakers made use of
microphones, and perhaps you have even
used one yourself. However, a microphone
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does not have the ability to change the pitch or tone of your voice, nor does it have
any magical powers to make your voice more interesting. If you have to give a
speech, practise beforehand, because if you get nervous this could change the
sound of your voice. Try to keep your voice sounding as natural as possible.
According to Bowden (2013:274) and Botha et al (2007:111–112), some tips for
better microphone use include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Conduct a sound-check before you begin the presentation to ensure that all
equipment is working properly.
Hold the microphone away from the speakers, because when they are held too
close, it makes a very irritating noise called feedback, which will distract people
from your speech.
Always check where the microphone switch is before you begin – it looks
unprofessional to the audience if you are still finding the switch just before you
begin speaking.
Remember to wear a belt if you are using a clip-on microphone.
The best sound system is the one the audience does not notice.
Do not place your mouth directly onto the microphone, as this could distort your
voice.
Hold the microphone a few centimetres from your mouth.
Keep a good posture when speaking and breathe slowly – this will allow your
voice to carry well over the microphone.
In the last section in this learning unit, we will be looking at some tips for better
public speaking.
4.6
TIPS FOR BETTER PUBLIC SPEAKING
Study the section that follows:
Because the ability to deliver a speech is so important to the public relations
practitioner in both business and everyday communication, this last section offers
some important suggestions on how to become a better speaker. You may find that
some of these tips have already been mentioned in a previous section, but because
this is such good advice, we will look at them again. According to Luchuk
(2014:308), Bowden (2013:272–274) and Botha et al (2007:105–106), some tips for
becoming a better public speaker include the following:
•
•
Eliminate the factors that make you feel nervous by rehearsing. It is a good way
to warm up your mind and the more you rehearse, the more unscripted and
natural you will sound.
Know what you want to achieve – what is the deep inner question that is driving
your presentation?
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Make eye contact by looking at everyone in the audience – even if they are not
looking at you.
When our voice sounds confident, our audience is much more likely to relax and
listen.
A pause is a powerful and necessary tool for any audience – watch the Obama
speech again to see how well Barack Obama used pauses during his Nelson
Mandela memorial speech.
Pausing also allows you to breathe deeply, which helps you to relax and
maintain control of yourself when you present a speech.
Make sure you smile (where appropriate) to convey the correct emotional
objectives relevant to your speech.
Use a variety of methods to stimulate the audience's interest – such as visual
and auditory aids.
Be careful not to use too many slides or slides with too much information on
them!
Music can also be effective in creating the perfect mood for a presentation.
Pay attention to disruptive behaviour from the audience and “nip it in the bud”
so as not to disrupt the rest of your presentation.
Ask for feedback after the presentation as this will help you to become a better
presenter in the future.
Do not be sensitive to the feedback received, but rather view it as positive and
constructive.
Can you add any others to the list from your own experiences?
4.7
THINGS THAT MAKE PUBLIC SPEAKERS NERVOUS
Study the section that follows:
Think about the last time you had to give a speech. How did you feel
Sweaty hands, dry mouth, increased heart rate, shortness of breath
nervous feeling we refer to as “butterflies in your stomach” before
speech are all symptoms of anxiety. Does this illustration summarise
felt?
about it?
and that
giving a
how you
As we said at the beginning of this learning unit, there are some important
factors that can cause fear when you have to speak in public. However,
identifying these fears is the first step in overcoming them.
A public speaker may feel nervous because he or she:
•
•
has not prepared well enough
has not researched the topic fully
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•
•
•
is unsure about what the audience or client expects
lacks confidence
does not feel confident about speaking the audience's language
According to Ledden (2014:60–61), behaviours that happen when a speaker
feels nervous include:
•
•
•
•
avoiding eye contact with listeners
moving from one foot to another
talking too quickly
general fidgeting such as touching one's hair and adjusting one’s reading glasses
These behaviours, according to Ledden (2014:60-61), help speakers cope with
anxiety during a speech but will unfortunately take away from the message the
speaker is trying to portray and perhaps even the overall communication goal.
There is no sure method of preventing nerves, but the best is to accept and
manage nerves so that they do not overwhelm you when you are speaking.
Can you think of situations where you were nervous before giving a speech
because of any of these factors? If you were the public relations practitioner for
a tinned foods manufacturer and you had to inform the media and customers
that the company's entire chakalaka relish range had to be recalled, how would
you feel if you had to make this announcement, but you hadn't done proper
research and you weren't completely prepared? Compare this with how you
would feel if you had done the necessary research, and prepared properly before
speaking to the media and customers.
If you prepare a speech properly, you will capture and keep your audience's
attention, and they will perceive you as knowledgeable and informed. If you have
not prepared properly, this may reflect badly on your organisation, and your
organisation could even lose a client or potential business.
4.8
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the feedback given
on myUnisa:
1. Briefly discuss the difference between oral and written communication.
2. Discuss the various factors that can cause a public speaker to feel nervous.
3. Discuss the three steps that are important when planning a speech (the first
step in the process of preparing a speech) and provide a practical example to
illustrate each.
4. Discuss the five steps that a speaker must follow when rehearsing his or her
speech.
5. List four types of visual aids that a speaker can make use of and state the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
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6. Assume that you are the public relations practitioner at a national crafts
company, and that you were recently assigned the task of delivering a
speech about your company and its business practices. You will be delivering
the speech at an industry indaba. Briefly discuss all the steps you will follow
to prepare your speech.
4.9
REFLECTION
Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions:
1. Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this
learning unit in your professional life?
2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need
more help? What are you going to do about it?
3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
4.10 SUMMARY
At first glance, oral and written communication may seem to be essentially the
same, but they are very different! Every public relations practitioner needs to be
a good public speaker. You need to be aware of the factors that can contribute
to nervousness, namely: not being prepared, not having researched the topic
fully, being unsure about the audience or client's expectations, lack of
confidence, and not feeling confident about speaking your audience's language.
Following the steps in the process of preparing a speech will definitely help you
become a better speaker. You need to start by planning the speech. You then
research the topic, organise the speech, develop appropriate visual aids, practise
the speech, and finally deliver the speech. In the planning phase, you need to
determine the purpose, determine the occasion and analyse the audience. To
research the topic, you could make use of primary or secondary sources. You
need to organise the speech so that it consists of an introduction, a body and a
conclusion or ending. At this stage, you need to decide whether visual aids will
be necessary. The speech then needs to be rehearsed and finally presented. This
learning unit also contained a section on the use of microphones in speeches and
concluded with some tips for becoming a better public speaker.
In the unit that follows, written communication in public relations will be
examined.
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4.11 REFERENCES
Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veerasamy, D
& Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson
Education South Africa.
Bowden, M. 2013. How to present: the ultimate guide to presenting your ideas and
influencing people using techniques that actually work. Australia: John Wiley &
Sons.
Daniels, D, Hunter, A, McGhie, J, Middleton Horn, V, Van Jaarsveldt, M & Van
Vuuren, T. 2014. Business communication. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Fourie, L (editor). 2014. Public relations: theory and practice. Cape Town: Juta.
Hurley, K. No date. [Online] Available at: www.goodreads.com/quotes/tag/publicspeaking (accessed on 1 May 2016).
Ledden, E. 2014. The communication book: how to say it, mean it and make it
better. Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited.
Luchuk, D. 2013. Successful business communication: bridging the gap. Ontario:
Oxford University Press.
Ludwig, D & Owen-Boger, G. No date. Quotes about public speaking. [Online]
Available at: www.goodreads.com/quotes/tag/public-speaking (accessed on
1 May 2016).
Merriam-Webster. 2016. Public speaking. [Online] Available at: http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/public%20speaking (accessed on 4 May 2016).
Mckenzie, I. 2012. 4 basic types of speeches. [Online] Available at:
www.ismckenzie.com/4-basic-types-of-speeches (accessed on 1 May 2016).
Schreiber, L & Hartranft. No date. Introduction to public speaking – chapter 1.
[Online] Available at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/PDF%20Files/Introduction%20web%201.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2016).
Unisa. Only study guide for MNM1520. Department of Marketing and Retail
Management. 2013.
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Learning unit 5
Reading in the public relations function
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
5.1 What is reading?
5.2 Reading as a cyclical process
5.3 Reading techniques
5.4 Reading different types of materials and different devices
5.5 Strategies to improve your reading
5.6 The relationship between reading and writing
5.7 Self-assessment questions
5.8 Reflection
5.9 Summary
5.10 References
5.
Introduction
Reading is an important, achievable and meaningful skill (Zimmerman, Rasinski &
Melewski 2015; Khreisat & Kaur 2014), which is necessary in many areas of life such
as reading road directions to a holiday destination, cooking instructions, warning
signs for trespassers on private property, criteria to apply for a job, or even reading
how to assemble a cupboard. Reading is the centre of formal learning, whether in
print, digital, or multimedia environments. Reading is a never-ending learning
process and not mastered in primary or secondary school, because as adults we
should continue to improve our reading skills. Masterful reading helps us to learn
information about the world around us and of ourselves. Reading is not only a tool
for learning but it is also about the interaction of what we have already learned with
that which we can still learn (Ortlieb, Verlaan & Cheek 2015; Botha, Chaka, Du
Plessis, Krause, Rawjee, Porthen, Veerasamy & Wright 2007).
Readers develop their reading skills through the practice of reading. People who
struggle to read often read much less than successful readers, and the texts they
read are often less challenging. Limited reading hinders the development of reading
fluency and comprehension and has a negative impact on one's general achievement
(Dalton & Jocius 2015). A study by Zimmerman et al (2015) has shown that lowerachieving students are reading far less than their high-achieving peers. Reading
contributes significantly to job success, career development and the ability to
respond to change (Comcowich 2011), because as an individual reads more, more
knowledge about a given topic is accumulated.
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Overview of this learning unit
Reading is an essential skill for a public relations practitioner, and this learning unit
will help you obtain the skills you need to become a better reader and to actively
and accurately comprehend (understand) written text, which is the purpose of
reading in the first place. This learning unit aims to give you a better idea of what
reading is all about and why it is so important. We will introduce you to the cyclical
reading process and you will also learn about the various materials that are available
for reading, and how to go about reading each of these. We end the learning unit
with strategies and techniques for improving reading skills.
This learning unit unfolds as follows:
Reading different
types of materials and
different devices
Strategies to improve
your reading
Learning outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
define reading
explain why reading is important
explain the cyclical process of reading
explain reading different materials
explain the reading techniques and strategies for improving reading
explain the relationship between reading and writing
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Key concepts
Having worked through this study unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
5.1
define reading
explain the cyclical reading process
define phonemic awareness
define automaticity
define fluency
define intonation
define comprehension
explain different reading materials
define scanning
explain critical reading
WHAT IS READING?
Study the section that follows:
Reading is often referred to as “making meaning from text” (Ortlieb et al 2015).
Reading literacy is the skill to understand and use written language or text. We must
be able to make meaning from text (Ortlieb et al 2015; Mullis, Martin & Sainsbury
2016). We read to learn new information, to take part in everyday life and for
enjoyment (Mullis et al 2016). When you read, you will learn new conceptual or
theoretical information, new insights and new perspectives (Davis, McElhone &
Tenore 2015; Botha et al 2007). Meaning is an internal mental construction by which
we make sense the world around us. Our human minds are capable of making
meaning using a variety of language systems, including reading. The concern is that
unless we change our reading priorities and practices, the modern generation will
not have the critical reasoning and high-level skills, which we need to fully
participate in the world around us (Laster 2015).
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Reading involves both your awareness and thoughts. For reading to occur, it
requires two linked building blocks namely word recognition and comprehension.
When you recognise words, it is your knowledge of the word that enables you to you
know how these written symbols are linked to the spoken language. Comprehension
is the process by which you make sense of or understand words and sentences
(Comcowich 2011). Lately, the focus of the importance of reading is shifting from
being able to read fluently and to understand what one is reading to having the skill
to use what you have read and to apply it to new situations or tasks (Mullis et al
2016).
5.2
READING AS A CYCLICAL PROCESS
Study the section that follows:
Before, during and after reading, we use a variety of language skills. As reading is a
cyclic process, meaning it does not have a beginning and an end. Reading involves
fundamental elements known as: phonemic awareness, automaticity, fluency,
vocabulary knowledge, decoding and comprehension (McCulley, Katz & Vaughn
2015; Zimmerman et al 2015). Reading is also a constructive and interactive
process. While you are reading, you are making sense of what you are reading
through your interaction with the text, by making use of the different elements in
the reading cycle and by using different reading strategies (Mullis et al 2016).
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Comprehension
Phonemic
awareness
Decoding
Vocabulary
Fluency
Source:
Automaticity
Adapted from McCulley, Katz & Vaughn (2015); Zimmerman et al (2015)
FIGURE 5.1: The elements of the cyclical reading process
The elements in the cyclic process are:
Phonemic awareness is the understanding of the ways that sounds or phonemes
function in words. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that holds
meaning. Almost all words are made up of a number of sounds or phonemes
blended together. Think of the word “ball”. It is made up of three phonemes: /b/
/aw/ /l/. Each of its sounds affects the meaning. Take away the /b/ sound and
replace it with /w/ and you have an entirely different word (K12 reader 2016).
Phonemic awareness impacts fluency and fluency, in turn, impacts both phonemic
awareness and comprehension. Although these separate components of reading are
important individually, when put together they create a powerful and cyclical formula
to increase your reading ability (McCulley et al 2015).
Reading vocabulary is a skill especially lacking in people who struggle with their
vocabulary. Vocabulary is the words in a language or a special set of words you are
trying to learn. Underdeveloped vocabulary minimises your ability to read
automatically and reduces your reading speed. The end result is that you spend
excessive time thinking about the words you are reading rather than understanding
the text (McCulley et al 2015).
Automaticity is when you can recognise words fast and without effort.
Automaticity comes with a great deal of reading practice. Continued reading practice
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helps word recognition become more automatic, rapid and effortless. Automatic
word recognition is necessary, but not sufficient for fluency (Reading Rockets 2016).
Fluency means that you are be able to read connected words automatically and it is
one of the most crucial components of successful reading. When you read fluently,
your mind is freed up to think about what you are reading and it improves your
understanding of the text. Before you can read fluently, you need to be proficient
with phonemic awareness and automaticity. Fluency is commonly measured using a
formula calculating the number of words a student can read accurately in a set
amount of time – typically one minute (McCulley et al 2015).
However, fluency changes depending on what you are reading, your familiarity with
the words, and how often you read. Even skilled readers may read slowly when they
read texts with many unfamiliar words or topics (Reading Rockets 2016). For
example, as a public relations practitioner working in the financial services industry,
you may not be able to read technical material fluently, such as a textbook about
nuclear physics or an article in a medical journal.
Decoding is a process whereby you make meaning of the text being read. If text is
decoded incorrectly and therefore not understood, it could lead to slow and
inaccurate reading, as dysfluent readers normally decode at the word level which
makes it difficult for them to understand. Incorrect decoding leads to the reader
seeing the words as chunks of short phrases put together rather than logical and
whole sentences and paragraphs to form connected text (McCulley et al 2015). In
addition, decoding includes a frame of reference or knowledge background, which is
the understanding of the context of the text. For example, a Physical Science
student will have the frame of reference when reading Physical Science material,
while a Public Relations student will have a frame of reference when studying a
Public Relations textbook.
During this cycle, sentence patterns must be assigned, and through them meaning.
You need to understand that, at this level, unless the reader can deal with text as
structured language, comprehension is impossible. For example, if the reader simply
reads words independently, and not in the context of structured sentences, he or
she will not understand the meaning of the text. Reading cannot be described as
simply the recognition of letters or even words; the meaning of a text is far more
than the sum of the meaning of the words. It is important to take note of the whole
syntactic cycle, where words are part of sentences and sentences form part of the
general context.
To derive the meaning of texts, you should do the following to make sense of the
grammar and sentence structure:
•
•
Construct grammar while constructing meaning (readers use their knowledge of
grammar and language to make texts more understandable).
Assign structure (texts are organised into sentences and paragraphs to create
structure and make it more understandable and easier to read).
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•
•
•
Assign intonation (full stops, commas, exclamation marks and question marks
are used to make texts easier to understand).
Assign wording (the mind gives words meaning within sentences, even if the
words are not that familiar to you).
Consider if the words are relevant to the context (for example, law jargon might
be understood differently to a public relations practitioner as certain words are
used differently in certain situations).
Comprehension is the attempt to bring together all the fundamental reading skills
to create understanding. Comprehension is to understand what you are reading.
Therefore, your mind goes through a series of complex thought processes such as
knowing how to read the word, its meaning, and bringing your own suitable
background knowledge to the text that you are reading (McCulley et al 2015).
In other words, to fully understand a text being read, the following is necessary:
•
•
•
•
Previous knowledge of the topic: The ability to make sense of what you read is
always limited by how much you already know about what you are reading. For
example, in a company crisis, a public relations practitioner will be better
equipped to know how to read criticism from other companies in order to
provide a professional news release.
Integration and accommodation: If we understand a piece of text more easily
because it fits well with what we already know and are aware of, we integrate it
better in our minds and therefore remember it better.
Influence of context and situation: The efficiency of reading will depend on the
reader's purpose. For example, if you are reading for relaxation, you will be less
likely to read with full attention than if you were reading for the purpose of
doing a project for work.
Comprehension: If you know that you understand what you are reading, you will
continue to read. But as soon as you can't make sense of something, your brain
will automatically want to rethink and get meaning from what is being read.
Comprehension is considered as a combination of reading skills and cognitive
processes such as vocabulary, word reading (decoding, encoding), background
knowledge, fluency and automaticity. Therefore, readers who have the ability to
read and find the meaning of words automatically have a huge advantage in
reaching comprehension over those whose word reading and understanding are
weak. A shortfall in the combination of these skills will leave you with difficulties with
comprehension (McCulley et al 2015).
The reason why you read will motivate you to make meaning of the text that you
are reading (Mullis et al 2016). For example, if you as a public relations practitioner
have to write an article on a specific topic that you enjoy, you will be motivated to
read up on that topic and you will be motivated to understand what you are reading.
The opposite is also true. For example, if you are under pressure to write an article
on a topic that you don't have any knowledge on, you may feel stressed and
demotivated to read up on this topic.
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5.3
READING TECHNIQUES
Study the section that follows:
There are various reading techniques for various reading purposes. We all use a
range of reading techniques in everyday situations. The normal reading style for
reading a novel is to read in detail, focusing on every word from start to finish. If
you are reading a magazine, you might browse through the pages to find articles
you may like to read at a later stage. When you use a dictionary for a particular
word, you purposefully ignore all other entries and focuses on spotting the word you
are looking for (University of Leicester 2016). Therefore, the purpose of reading a
particular text affects how you read the text in terms of time spent on reading and
level of comprehension necessary, as the reason why you read the text is important
and contributes greatly to your reading processes (Solak 2014).
How can there be a difference in time spent and level of comprehension when
reading a text? It could be for the following reasons:
•
•
•
When looking for the due date for a news release to be submitted (or sent) to
the newspaper, the public relations practitioner will quickly scan over all the
information in the client brief to find the date.
To fully understand the conditions in the environment, the public relations
practitioner will read a research report on the analysis of the business
environment in detail. In-depth reading regarding all business factors is done
to make a decision on what to do for the client experiencing problems as a
result of environmental conditions.
The public relations practitioner briefly looks over the main points of the
meeting agenda in order to get an idea of what the CEO at general meeting
will discuss.
Reading consists of different sequential steps namely, previewing the text, reading
the structure, reading for understanding and finally critical reading, which are
displayed in figure 5.2.
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• Skimming
• Scanning
Step 1
Previewing the
text
Step 2
Reading for
structure
•
•
•
•
Identifying different parts of the text
The introduction
The body
The conclusion
• Detailed reading and re-reading
• Fully understand the text and its meaning
Step 3
Reading for
understanding
• Questions the actions of the author and the information presented in the text
• Questions the deeper meaning of the text
Step 4
Critical reading
Source:
Comcowich 2011; Solak 2014; Daniels, Hunter, McGhie, Middleton Horn, Van
Jaarsveldt & Van Vuuren 2014; University of Leicester 2016
FIGURE 5.2: The different sequential steps in reading text
The reading steps are discussed below.
Step 1: The preview phase
The first step in reading comprehensively is the preview phase. Pre-reading activities
allow you to get a sense of the structure and content and to make predictions about
text you are about to read (Comcowich 2011) and involve two pre-reading
techniques:
•
•
Skimming
Scanning
1 Skimming is the most basic type of reading. We use skimming to get a quick
overview or a general sense of what we are reading and to identify the main
ideas, as quickly as possible (Comcowich 2011; Solak 2014; Daniels, Hunter et al
2014; University of Leicester 2016). When you skim read, you pick out what is
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important and cover all the text without reading it from the beginning to end.
Skimming can be used if you want to find out if a particular text contains the
kind of information you need. Skimming is an effective and quick way of finding
relevant sources and information when you have to write for example, an
academic essay, a brochure or a public relations piece on new a product. It also
saves time because you don't have to read each source in detail to determine
whether it is useful or not. If it doesn't contain the information you need, then
you do not have to read the text in detail from start to finish (Daniels et al 2014).
When you skim read, your existing knowledge about an issue will help you to
quickly make sense of what the text is about. When skimming, you look at the
surface features of the text such as the author's name and surname, the title,
the length of the text, visuals such as pictures or drawings, or words in bold or in
italics. You can also preview the preface or abstract, then the content page, the
glossary and index. If you still need more information about the text, you can
read the introductory section because it usually introduces the central theme.
Another method to get a general sense of what you are about to read is to read
the first sentence of each paragraph because these sentences normally include
the topic of what the paragraph will discuss (Daniels et al 2014).
Daniels et al (2014) offers examples of how to skim a textbook, a chapter and a
long article, a one-page article, a short written text, or a newspaper article.
How to skim a textbook
Look at:
Ask yourself:
The title page
What is the title of the book?
How might the book cover this subject?
Who is the author?
Is the author an expert in this field?
Have I read any other books by the author?
Abstract/summary
What is this book about?
When was this book written?
Will the information be current or outdated?
Who is the audience?
Glossary and index
Are the main concepts and terminology used in the book explained in
the glossary?
How are they explained?
Are they explained in clear and simple language?
Do they give an overview of what will be discussed in this book?
Content page
How is the content structured in terms of headings and subheadings?
How many chapters are in the book?
What are the chapters about?
How long is each chapter?
References
How much have the author(s) read about this subject?
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Do I know any of the author's references used?
Are these references credible and reliable and current?
Addendums
Does the book have addendums?
What kind of information is contained in the addendums?
Source: Daniels et al (2014)
How to skim a chapter or a long article
Look at:
Ask yourself:
The title
What do I really know about this topic?
Is the title giving me a sense of what the chapter or article is about?
The introduction
Are there chapter objectives or goals?
What is the purpose of this chapter?
What am I supposed to learn?
How is the content organised?
Conclusion /
summary and
review questions
What are the key ideas in this chapter or article?
What do I need to learn and know?
Headings
What are the main headings and sub-headings?
What do I really know about them?
What might I expect to learn from them?
Words in bold and
italics
Do I know these words?
If yes, what do I already know about these words?
If no, what do I need to know about these words?
Visuals
What can I learn from the tables, graphs, diagrams or pictures?
Do they give me an indication of what will be discussed?
Source:
Daniels et al (2014)
How to skim a one-page article / short written text / newspaper article
Look at:
Ask yourself:
The title
Does the title give me an idea of what will be discussed?
What do I already know about the title?
The structure
Are
Are
Are
Are
Are
Introduction
Is there an attention grabber or background information?
Is there a central thesis statement that states what the text is about?
What are the issues that will be discussed, and what is the plan or
outline?
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there main and sub-headings?
the main and sub-headings numbered?
there only paragraphs in the text?
some words in bold or italics?
there visuals included in the text?
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Conclusion
Source:
Is there a summary of what was discussed?
How did the author conclude the discussion?
Did the author leave the reader with positive thoughts?
Daniels et al (2014)
2 Scanning is to read quickly while you are looking for a fact or specific
information, for example when you are looking for the answer to a known
question, key words and definitions. When you are scanning text, you should
start at the top of the page and then move your eyes quickly toward the bottom
(Comcowich 2011; Solak 2014). Scanning is best understood when you think of
what you do when you are looking for the meaning of a word in dictionary, or
when you are looking for a person's telephone number in a telephone directory.
You move your eyes down or across the page until you find the word or concept
that you are looking for. When you scan text, you are not necessarily concerned
with the rest of the information, only with what you are trying to find. By
scanning the text, you will find out if you can use that specific text as one of
your sources because it contains the key words of the topic (Botha et al 2007).
Activity 5.1: Pre-reading exercise
Read the article below, using scanning and skimming, and then answer the
questions.
1.
2.
3.
Can you guess what the text is about based on reading the title only?
What do you think the following figures have to do with the story?
What do you know or what have you heard about the subject you are going
to read about?
SA's population hits 52.98 million
(Source: http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/SAs-population-hits-5298m-20130514)
Johannesburg – South Africa's population has increased by more than a million
people since the 2011 census, Statistic SA (Stats SA) said on Tuesday. According to
its mid-year estimate, the country now had a population of 52.98 million people.
According to the estimates, the HIV prevalence rate was approximately 10%. "The
total number of people living with HIV is estimated at approximately 5.26m in 2013.
For adults aged 15 to 49 years, an estimated 15.9% of the population is HIV
positive," Lehohla said.
The infant mortality rate for 2013 was estimated at 41.7 per 1 000 live births. The
life expectancy of South Africans had increased by almost a year from the previous
reporting period to 59.6 years. Life expectancy at birth for 2013 was estimated at
57.7 years for males and at 61.4 years for females.
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For the period 2006 to 2011, it was estimated that about 264 449 people would
migrate from the Eastern Cape. Limpopo was estimated to experience a net
out-migration of 227 919 people. During the same period, it was estimated Gauteng
would have a net inflow of 1 046 641 migrants, and the Western Cape of 307 411.
Feedback
The purpose of this feedback is to provide an opportunity for you to test your prereading skills.
1.
2.
3.
An increase in South Africa's population.
The figures show by how much the population has increased to.
This answer is dependent on the student's experience.
Step 2: Reading for structure phase
The second step in the comprehensive reading process is reading for structure.
When you read for structure, you use your existing knowledge of how written text is
structured. You analyse the text by identifying different parts of the text and reading
for clues, signals, asking questions and trying to find the answers, and making notes
in the margins (Daniels et al 2014).
Reading for structure in terms of rational build-up of thinking is a logical and
systematic way in which you work through the structure of the text to understand its
contents. Reading for structure allows you to analyse the text and break it into
smaller parts namely: introduction, body and conclusion. When you read for
structure, you are busy with text analysis. The introduction is the first part of the
text, which introduces the reader to the text and its topics, the body follows, which
discusses the relevant topics, and the conclusion ends off the text by forming a
summary of the text (Daniels et al 2014).
To identify the three different parts of text is fairly easy in textbooks and articles
that have numbered main and sub-headings. The introduction is always the main
heading numbered 1, while the conclusion will always be the last numbered heading.
Everything between the introduction and the conclusion will be part of the body
(Daniels et al 2014). If the text does not have numbered headings that you can use
to identify the different parts, you can use other clues to help you to identify the
three parts. The author could have divided and structured the paragraphs by using
an active verb or adjective, bullet points, numbering or words written in bold or
italics, cohesive devices, sign posts, signals, or transition words or phrases (Daniels
et al 2014). The discussion on the three parts namely, introduction, the body and
the conclusion is found below.
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5.3.2.1
The introduction
The introduction is always the first part of the text and informs the reader of what
the text is about. The writer will firstly give some background, followed by the
central theme, and finishing by naming the issues that will be discussed in the text
(Daniels et al 2014).
5.3.2.2
The body
The body of the text starts immediately after the introduction. It is the most
important part of a written text, because it is the part where the writer discusses the
issues in detail. The body is normally divided into main headings and sub-headings,
and well-developed paragraphs. Main headings and sub-headings identify the logical
order in which the issues in the text will be discussed. Topic sentences are used to
introduce the main ideas at the beginning of the paragraphs. Supporting sentences
will follow after the topic sentences to explain the main ideas and to offer support
for the central theme (Daniels et al 2014).
5.3.2.3
The conclusion
The last part of the written text, the conclusion, follows immediately after the body
to conclude the issues discussed in the text. The conclusion consists of a summary
of what was discussed and a positive thought to leave the reader with something
positive about the issues discussed (Daniels et al 2014).
Activity 5.2: Reading for structure
Read the article below and ask yourself the following questions:
Did the author:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Start with an attention grabber?
Provide some background information about the issues that will be discussed?
State the central theme of what the text is about?
Provide an outline or plan for the text?
Festive season road deaths: SA figures “deeply worrying”
(Source: http://www.wheels24.co.za/News/holiday-road-deaths-sa-figures-deeplyworrying-20160112)
Johannesburg – The release of the 2015/16 festive season road deaths shows a
14% increase in road deaths over the 2014/15 festive season, reports the
Department of Transport. The Department reports that 1 755 road users lost their
lives in 2015 compared to 1 535 in 2014.
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AA responds
The Automobile Association (AA) said the department's figures are alarming and
concerning and they point to a need for concerted intervention to address the
problem of road safety in our country. The AA noted: “Many causes such as drunk
driving, speeding, driving without seatbelts and risky overtaking, have been
forwarded as reasons for the fatalities, but all of these, essentially, point to poor
driver attitudes. If drivers don't take responsibility for their actions, and carry on
making decisions that they know to be wrong for their own sake, these figures will
simply not improve.” In addition to improved driver behaviour, the AA believes that
better, and stricter, law enforcement is needed.
Reliable stats needed
The AA also said it is important that government makes the latest in-depth statistics
for annual road deaths in South Africa available to enable road safety campaigners
to assess which initiatives and interventions are working, and which are not.
The AA said: “Unfortunately, the data currently available is from 2011 and does not
provide a clear indication of the trends of road deaths. Road crash statistics need to
be widely available and accurate to ensure that everyone is working towards
reducing crashes and fatalities through an understanding of the true nature of the
current problem.”
Feedback
1 Yes, the article does start with an attention grabber, as shocking statistics will
always grab the readers' attention.
2 Festive season accident statistics, irresponsible driving, annual road deaths and
outdated data. Can you find any more?
3 The need for more updated road death statistics for improved road safety
campaigns.
4 (1) Current road statistics, (2) Automobile Association’s perception of
irresponsible driving and law enforcement, and (3), only available data is
outdated.
Step 3: Reading for understanding phase
Reading for understanding or active reading is the most important step in our
reading process and you must know what your purpose is for reading the text. It is a
slow and thorough process to make sure that you understand the text and gain
knowledge from what you are reading. When you read for understanding, you must
read the text in detail and you need to re-read the text a few times for full
understanding (Daniels et al 2014; Botha et al 2007).
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While you read each part again, ask yourself some questions and try to find the
answers in the text while you read. You can mark or note the answers as your work
through the text. You can only read for understanding once you have skimmed and
scanned the text. When you read for understanding, you want to fully understand
what a text is about and what the author's intended meaning is and how the
information links to other texts we have read before (Daniels et al 2014; Botha et al
2007).
When you read for understanding, you empower yourself by learning new
knowledge. When you understand what the text is about, you will be able to discuss
the issues and give your own informed opinion on the topic. Public relations
practitioners should be knowledgeable about the topics that they cover in their daily
tasks. You can only write with confidence if you have sufficient knowledge of the
subject. When you read for understanding, you are storing information in your
short-term and eventually long-term memory and it will help you remember the
information (Daniels et al 2014).
Step 4: Critical reading phase
Critical reading is the last step in the reading process. You first need to read a text
comprehensively to understand its content and meaning and then you are ready to
read the text critically. When you read text critically, you “challenge” the author by
asking questions about the information given in the text, for example which issues
are addressed in the text and what are the author's reasons for his or her
statements or beliefs. You should ask questions about the deeper meaning of the
text so that you can critically discuss and evaluate the content. You must be able to
make conclusions about the information given by the text, although it is not explicitly
written in the text (Daniels et al 2014; Botha et al 2007).
5.4
READING DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATERIALS AND DIFFERENT
DEVICES
Study the section that follows:
Reading material is available in many forms and combinations of forms. Traditional
written forms include books, magazines, documents and newspapers. Digital forms
include e-mail, text messaging and internet websites where text often is integrated
with various multimedia formats (Mullis et al 2016).
The new modern lifestyles we live, the city culture, the time we take to travel and
our increased levels of tiredness have an impact on the time we have available for
reading. Even the youth have less time available for reading due to their study
programmes. According to research, 68% of young people between the ages of 11
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and 18 years prefer to read in bed. The way information technology has changed
has also changed the focus of reading from gaining knowledge to gaining knowledge
with entertainment. The arrival of the internet age and the progress in information
technology are also changing our reading habits (Walia & Sinha 2014). Our learning
environment has changed drastically. Previous generations used to wake up and
skimmed or scanned the headlines of the sports pages in the newspaper, whereas
today's generation wakes up to their cellular phones, checking their messages and
their favourite websites for news alerts (Ortlieb et al 2015). Reading represents the
second largest online activity type (21%) (Hsiu-Sen & Chia-Chen 2014).
Different electronic reading devices
With the advancement of information technology, people's reading activity gradually
moved from paper-based reading to digital reading (Huang, Chen & Ho 2014).
Nowadays, people make use of e-books, smart phones and tablets to read their
preferred material.
•
•
•
An electronic book (also e-book, ebook or digital book) is a text and imagebased publication in digital form produced on, published by, and readable on an
electronic digital device (Zhang & Ma 2011).
Tablets are becoming very popular for digital reading. Compared with PC-based
reading, our reading behaviour on a tablet is more like paper-based reading.
With reading on a tablet, as with reading a book, we can read in a more relaxed
way, any time, any place. Although a tablet is a portable device, few people
would carry it around (Huang et al 2014). Research has shown that people feel
that reading on a PC is like doing a task on a computer. They feel rushed into
completing it. On the other hand, reading on a tablet allows you to read at a
slower pace, allowing you to really get involved in what you are reading and
getting a deeper understanding of what you are reading (Huang et al 2014).
Mobile phones are mostly used for unplanned reading, for example when you
quickly want to look up some information. Instead, when we have more reading
time, we usually spend in on a tablet. Most tablet users spend their spare time
reading on the tablet just before going to bed (Huang et al 2014). A total of
26.4% of users usually do mobile reading about one to three times per day and
21.7% of users use mobile reading services one to three times per week (Zhang
& Ma 2011).
Reading electronic texts or media
Electronic media refers to digital channels of communication such as the internet,
e-mail and SMS (short message service) (Botha et al 2007). New forms of short
messages are also becoming very popular, such as WhatsApp and WeChat. Online
reading, whether on tablet or mobile phone, includes reading for relaxation, updates
on trends, updates on current news, and research on particular products and
services. Online reading has extended people's information search beyond the
confines of printed page. Online learning gives us immediate access to a wealth of
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historic and current information that would take hours or days to find in a printed
environment.
Reading and learning online differs considerably from printed mediums in terms of
the approach, reading style, search and concept mapping (Ortlieb et al 2015). When
we read digital text, we tend to follow different reading practices, sometimes similar
to reading traditional print, from left to right, but also reading from the bottom up.
Online reading comprehension skills and strategies are very different from those
used when we read traditional printed materials. Internet webpages appear different
than typical printed pages (Mullis et al 2016). Electronic text allows you to decide
how and when you are going to access the information you are looking for (Botha et
al 2007).
Reading different electronic media forms discussion follows:
5.4.2.1
•
•
•
The internet and websites
Can online information be trusted?
We judge the credibility of information every time we read (Botha et al 2007).
Here are some suggested questions to ask yourself about the reliability of
online text:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Who is the author? If the author is not listed, you should question the
trustworthiness of the information. If the author is listed do an online
search to find out more about the writer.
When was the information published? Online information has the
tendency to date rather quickly. Try to find out when the site was last
updated and if the information is still relevant.
Does the text make reference to any other sources? Find out if the text
refers to especially offline sources. A well-researched document will refer
to other sources.
What is the intention of the author who wrote the text? Make sure that
the information is not biased to the opinion of the author only.
Is the information that you are reading part of an offline publication, for
example, a printed magazine? If the information is published by an
organisation or brand that you trust, you can assume that the information
is trustworthy.
Is the information useful to your purpose? Make sure that the information
that you get is in line with what you already know about the topic.
Do other reliable sites link to this text? To find out, you can type “link”
followed by the URL of the document into the into a search engine. URL
stands for “uniform resource locator”. A URL is the address of a specific
webpage or file on the internet (TechTerms 2016).
For more definitions of technical terms visit http://techterms.com.
The internet and the world-wide web (WWW) are actually not the same thing as
most people think. The internet is a big, complex network of computers linked to
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each other all around the world forming a communication and information-sharing
pool. The world-wide web is only a part of the internet, which includes videos, audio
and graphics. E-mail is also a part of the internet (Botha et al 2007).
Online text contains hypertext and hyperlinks that are non-linear text that takes you
other online pages or websites when you click on it. Information overload is a big
challenge when you read online and one can easily become distracted in search for
the information you are looking for (Botha et al 2007).
To read effectively online, one needs to know how and where to search on the
internet for the information you are looking for. Here are some tips for effective
information searching on the internet (Botha et al 2007):
•
•
•
•
•
Use phrases instead of just keywords.
Try different phrases of the same terms instead of only one phrase.
Put your phrases in inverted commas.
Use a metasearch engine like Dogpile or Metacrawler to search multiple search
engines at the same time. Meta search engines are search engines that search
other search engines and submit your search to a few other search engines and
return a summary of the results (TechTerms 2016).
If you find a website that offers some of the information you are looking for click
on “find similar pages”, which should return a list of pages where you can find
similar information.
Reading online is not the same as reading on paper. Here are a few tips for reading
online text (Botha et al 2007):
•
•
•
Decide what you are looking for and what information you need:
What is the most important information you need?
Are you looking for only one source of information or for many sources?
o
o
o
o
5.4.2.2
When you find the source of the information you are looking for use the
“sitemap” to pinpoint the location of the information. A “sitemap” gives you
an overview of the pages within a website and how the site is organised
(TechTerms 2016).
Scan through the headings, sub-headings and bullet points on the site in
the same way that you will use your skimming and scanning techniques for
printed material.
You can right click on the hypertext and hyperlinks on the page to open
additional pages in new windows so that you can refer to both pages at the
same time.
Look at the video, audio and graphic features on the page, which may help
you to understand the information offered by the website.
Reading e-mails
An e-mail is an instant written digital message send via the internet to a particular
person or group of people. The biggest challenge with reading an e-mail is to try and
understand what the writer means as there is no tone of voice, no non-verbal cues
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and no eye contact. The words on the screen can be misunderstood (Botha et al
2007.
Nowadays, people use emoticons, like smiley faces, to help the reader to understand
the intended message. Be careful not to jump to conclusions about what the writer
means by the e-mail. If you are not sure, rather ask the writer what the intention of
the message is and what he or she actually means by the words used (Botha et al
2007).
Difference between reading online and printed text
There are differences between reading online and reading printed material. The table
below illustrates the most obvious differences between reading online and printed
text.
Table 5.1: The most obvious differences between reading online and
printed text
Digital material
Printed material
Digital forms include e-mail, text messaging and
internet websites where text is often integrated
with various multimedia formats.
A print publication is any printed document that
offers
information,
for
example
books,
newspapers or magazines.
Fewer words are used.
More words are used.
Your eyes need to adjust to the online medium
and we find it more difficult to concentrate and to
understand the online information.
We concentrate and understand better when we
read printed documents.
Reading speed is slower when we read online
text.
Reading speed in faster when we read printed
documents.
Reading online in a non-linear manner can be
confusing because there is no structured
beginning, middle and an end to the text. We
need to learn to adjust to the new structure of
reading on the internet.
Most print publications are divided into different
sections, such as articles in magazines or
chapters in books to help readers find that they
are looking for.
Texts and information are spread across multiple
websites and not in a chronological order. You
must search for information and create your own
chronological path and constantly reconstruct
your concept of the webpage.
Text and information are organised in a
chronological order and the printed pages are
clearly numbered. Books are normally linear in
nature, which means that you read them from
the beginning to the middle to the end. You do
not start with the ending and then jump to the
middle. Newspapers and magazines are not as
linear in nature, though they are structured into
different sections to help the reader to what the
information he or she is looking for. For example,
you can start by reading the business section
first, then move the back sports pages and then
read the main stories normally printed at the
beginning of a newspaper.
Contains interactive, dynamic and experiential
features, for example, videos and audio clips;
animated graphics; pop-up windows and
No interactive features are used in printed text.
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code-based features, such as information that
appears and disappears, revolves, or changes
colour.
Readers first must access the appropriate
website, and then use navigation menus (e.g.
multiple navigation and sub-navigation menus,
tabs and links) to move efficiently within and
across one webpage or website to the next to
find information that meets their needs.
Readers will page through the printed document
in a chronological order from the start of the
document to the end.
When browsing the internet for reading material,
one has to be focused on the task at hand not be
distracted by other interesting topics or
advertising.
Readers are less often distracted as they are
engaged in the material they are reading.
Information is presented in various forms, such
as photos, illustrations, graphs, charts, tables,
maps and timelines.
Information is presented in various forms, such
as photos, illustrations, graphs, charts, tables,
maps and timelines.
Reading on the internet requires you to make
assumptions about the text that you have not yet
seen to determine if it will be useful while you
are trying to ignore distractive information and
advertising.
The reader can use skimming and scanning
techniques before reading the entire document to
make sure the document will be useful.
Most readers scan a webpage instead of reading
it.
Most readers read printed documents in more
detail than when they read online.
When you read online text, you are likely to read
and process the information on a macro-level,
identifying the section of the webpage that
contains the information you are looking for
before you can focus on the sentence, phrase, or
part of the graphic that has the information.
When you read printed text, you are likely to
read and process the information at a
micro-level, focusing on individual phrases or
sentences.
When you read the internet, you must be able to
read and process information from multiple
online sources. You must blend and understand
information across texts.
When you read a printed text you only have to
process and understand the document from one
source.
Because anyone can publish anything on the
internet, you must make judgments about the
credibility of the source of the information and
clarify the author's perspective, point of view,
and bias in the text.
Not everyone can publish a printed text and
therefore printed texts are more credible.
Source:
5.5
Adapted from Ortlieb et al (2015); Mullis et al (2016).
STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE YOUR READING
Study the section that follows:
It is essential that you improve your reading at every chance you get as it will
improve many other aspects of your career. Strategies for improving reading
include: your motivation for reading, improving your fundamental reading process,
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increasing your reading speed and fluency, increasing your reading volume,
improving your vocabulary, reading aloud, and improving your reading
comprehension. These reading strategies are discussed below; ensure that you are
study these strategies and are able to discuss each.
Your motivation for reading
Many organisations and countries go to great lengths to reduce illiteracy amongst
the employees and citizens of the country. However, many countries are now
concerned with the uprise of “aliteracy”, which is defined as choosing not to read.
Aliteracy means that those who have the ability or proficiency to read and write
don't have the desire or interest to do so (Olufowobi & Makinde 2011). Recently,
peoples' reading habits are competing with other leisure activities such as watching
TV, social networking or playing sports. The benefits of recreational reading or
reading for fun include improvement in vocabulary, grammar, writing and spelling.
Improving your reading skills will reduce unnecessary reading time and help you to
read in a more focused and selective manner. You will also be able to increase your
levels of understanding and concentration (University of Leicester 2016). Enhancing
your vocabulary is not the result of learning from textbooks or instructors, but from
practising your reading skills more and more. Therefore, the best place to start if
you want to improve your reading skills is with your self-motivation, because your
new improved reading skills will help you to achieve your academic and career
ambitions and give you a better view of yourself and your life (Khreisat & Kaur
2014).
Improve your fundamental reading process
Your ability to see clearly, your binocular coordination and fusion (use of your two
eyes in a coordinated manner that produces single vision), ocular motility (the ease
with which your eyes move) and accuracy in tracking influence your reading ability.
These visual capabilities influence the accuracy with which you perceive words and
how comfortable you feel while you are reading. We read through a series of small
glimpses of print, but these visual impressions overlap each other so quickly that you
experience a continuous flow of words. When you read, you may not even be aware
of rereading a section of the content that you did not understand. You are not
always aware of your reverse eye movements, but they can take up one third or
more of your total reading time. This reverse eye movement does not help you to
understand the text, but it rather hinders your reading and steals your time and
energy. Studies show that between 30% and 60% of students and adults suffer
from a lack of these visual capabilities (Taylor 2012).
If you consider yourself to be a less than average reader, it might be in your interest
to have your reading abilities tested by a professional. The Tina Cowley Reading
Centre will perform a scientific test of your reading ability to find out how to address
the problem. Visit http://tinacowley.co.za/ for more information.
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Activity 5.3
Read the following two articles to demonstrate how your knowledge of the words
used in the articles will influence your level of understanding of the text:
Article 1: Rhinos in the Kruger National Park
By 1896, white rhinos were extinct in the Lowveld, while elsewhere a relic 50
animals survived between the White and Black Umfolozi rivers in Zululand.
Successful conservation measures made it possible to re-introduce 337 rhinos from
1961 onwards, and the Kruger Park now safeguards the world's largest population.
White rhinos require a reliable supply of water, both for drinking (every two to three
days). In the Kruger National Park, 85% of the white rhino population occurs in the
southern region, where rainfall is higher than average and water holes are evenly
distributed. Their senses of smell and hearing are good, but their eyesight is poor.
A white rhino bull marks his territory by spray-urinating along its boundaries. Only
territorial males do this; subordinate males are allowed to live within the territory so
long as they remain submissive. Females are free to wander across the territories of
several males.
White rhinos coat their hides in mud to reduce bites from irritating flies, and during
the hot summer months, mud wallows help to regulate body temperature. With a
considerable body mass of up to 2 300 kilograms, and a vast surface area that is
increased by folds of skin, white rhinos can remove large quantities of mud from a
wallow with each visit. Over the decades, this has the effect of excavating significant
depressions in the veld, which are rapidly filled during the rainy season to form
pans.
Source:
http://www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_National_Park_Wildlife-travel/images-ofkruger-the-big-five.html
Article 2: Active vs passive investment strategies
The ongoing debate around passive versus active investment management has
received a lot of attention in recent years thanks to the explosion of exchange
traded funds that have become available to South African consumers. Unfortunately
for active managers, a lot of the facts that have emerged in this debate do not make
for pleasant reading.
Depending on what unit trust survey you consult, and the time frame over which the
analysis was conducted, only between 15% and 25% of active unit trust managers
in South Africa manage to outperform the All-Share index over a five-, ten- and
20-year horizon.
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You may think that you can deliberately lose at asset management, but that is not
necessarily the case. Sometimes a bull market can drag up the shares of even poorly
managed companies. The general consensus is that asset management generally lies
closer to the luck side of the continuum than pure skill. However, some argue that
this is only the case in the short term. Over the long term, active managers are able
to present some powerful evidence in their favour.
It is worthwhile doing some research to find out whether your asset manager follows
a deeply value-based investment strategy or whether they are more fundamental or
perhaps quantitative in their decision making. Value investors tend to favour assets
that are trading below their intrinsic value, whereas quant funds typically use
complex computer-based algorithmic models to determine whether or not a share is
worth buying.
Understanding your fund manager's investment philosophy, and more importantly
deciding if it is right for you, means you are much more likely to ride out short-term
market volatility and remain invested for the long term. That will help prevent the
tendency of many investors to switch out of funds every time their portfolio
experiences a minor downturn.
Source:
http://www.fin24.com/Wealth-and-Investment/Investments/Active-vs-passiveinvestment-strategies-20151012
There are many websites that you can visit to test your reading speed and
comprehension skills. The following website may be helpful to test your skills:
http://www.readingsoft.com/.
Further detail on how to improve your reading is discussed in the subsections below.
Increasing your reading speed and fluency
Reading speed is calculated by how many words you read per minute (WPM). When
you read for pleasure, your reading speed may be around 250 to 400 WPM because
you only need an average level of understanding of the text. When you read your
text book in preparation for text, your reading speed may reduce to around 150 to
250 WPM because you need a high level of comprehension (Botha et al 2007). For
the average reader, the eye fixes on each word individually (University of Leicester
2016). In figure 5.3, each dip of the curve represents the word that the average
reader fixates on or concentrates on.
Fixations
White rhinos coat their hides in mud to reduce bites from irritating flies
FIGURE 5.3: How the eye fixes on one word at a time
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It is easy for your eye to recognise four or five words in a single fixation without a
loss of understanding (University of Leicester 2016). In figure 5.4, each dip of the
curve represents the grouping or words a reader should fixate on or concentrate on.
Fixation
Fixation
White rhinos coat their hides in mud to reduce bites from irritating flies
Figure 4: How the eye can fix on more than one word at a time.
FIGURE 5.4: Fixations on groupings or words
To increase your reading speed, you don't have to increase the speed at which your
eyes move across the page, but you should increase the word span for a single
fixation. Instead of fixing your eyes on one word at a time, you should practise to
see four or five words at a time (University of Leicester 2016).
Activity 5.4
Take a page from your favourite book and divide it lengthwise into three sections
with two lines drawn down the page. Using a pen or pencil as your pointer, read
each line of text by allowing your eye to fall only in the middle of each of the three
sections, as indicated by your pointer as shown in figure 5.4. Concentrate on reading
the line in only three fixations and now on how quickly you are reading. As this
becomes easier for you, practise without drawing lines. Try and reduce the number
of fixations to two per line. When your increased word span becomes a comfortable
habit, you will notice that your reading speed will increase as well (University of
Leicester 2016).
A proven strategy to improve your reading skills is repeated reading. Read the same
text multiple times. Keep on reading the text until you can read it fluently and you
have reached your required reading rate. If you get bored with reading the same
text, don't be discouraged, you can also read another text with the same length and
difficulty level to keep you from getting bored (McCulley et al 2015).
Increasing your reading volume
If you struggle to read, make it your priority to increase the volume that you read.
By increasing the volume of your reading, you will enhance your word recognition,
fluency, vocabulary, reading speed and comprehension (Dalton & Jocius 2015; Botha
et al 2007). Nowadays, there are many text-to-speech technology options available
on e-readers, computers and other mobile devices to help you to increase the
volume of your reading (Dalton & Jocius 2015).
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For many struggling readers, their listening comprehension is stronger than their
reading comprehension. An exciting development is the design of e-books produced
for a particular mobile platform such as the iPad or smartphone, which includes
voice overs that can be used to read along with the narrator (Dalton & Jocius 2015).
Improving your vocabulary
A well-developed vocabulary plays an important role in how likely you will be able to
read a specific text with understanding. There is a strong relationship between
vocabulary and reading comprehension. For many readers, it is their difficulty with
vocabulary that hampers their understanding of the text (Dalton & Jocius 2015).
There are powerful digital solutions to help you to increase your vocabulary. There
are many free dictionary and thesauri reference tools available on e-reader devices
and on the internet. Some tools can be installed on your browser tool bar (e.g.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/add2ie.htm#addon). These tools give you
just-in-time support while you read. Translation tools such as Babelfish
(http://babelfish.yahoo.com/) and Google translator (http://translate.google.com/)
allow you to type or paste in the English word for a translation in your native
language. If we have the concept in our first language, we can then connect it to the
English word (Dalton & Jocius 2015). “Learner” dictionaries, originally designed for
students whose first language is not English, can also be useful for English speakers
as well, particularly struggling readers (McCulley et al 2015).
As a public relations practitioner, technology and media should be part of your
career life to better prepare you to read, learn, compose and communicate (Dalton
& Jocius 2015).
Activity 5.5
Use your dictionary or an online dictionary to find the meaning of the words printed
in bold in the article below.
8 ways climate change is already affecting Africa
(Source: http://350africa.org/2014/12/12/8-ways-climate-change-is-already-affectingafrica/December_12,2014)
Right now, the effects of climate change are already being felt by people across
Africa. Evidence shows that the change in temperature has affected the health,
livelihoods, food productivity, water availability and overall security of the African
people.
Africa has seen a decrease in rainfall over large parts of the Sahel and Southern
Africa, and an increase in parts of Central Africa. Over the past 25 years, the number
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of weather-related disasters, such as floods and droughts, has doubled, resulting in
Africa having a higher mortality rate from droughts than any other region. Flooding
is the most prevalent disaster in North Africa, the second most common in East,
South and Central Africa, and the third most common in West Africa (AWDR 2006).
Observable effects of climate change on water resources in Africa include: flooding,
drought, change in distribution of rainfall, drying-up of rivers, melting of glaciers and
the receding of bodies of water. Great stretches of the river is now facing
environmental devastation as a result of pollution.
Across Africa the landscape is changing. Droughts, heat stress and flooding have led
to a reduction in crop yields and livestock productivity.
Severe flooding and intense droughts have led to the destruction of many homes,
shelters and villages across Africa. Conflicts over resources also exacerbate these
impacts and, in turn, contribute to the ongoing migration within and between
countries in Africa. Children and the elderly face graver risks due to susceptibility
to infectious diseases, such as Malaria, limited mobility and reduced intake of food.
Climate change impacts have the potential to exacerbate national security issues
and increase the number of international conflicts. Conflicts often occur over the use
of already limited natural resources, fertile ground and water.
The changes in precipitation and temperature are already affecting crop yields in
Sub-Saharan Africa. Climate change has already led to changes in freshwater and
marine ecosystems in eastern and southern Africa, and terrestrial ecosystems in
southern and western Africa. The extreme weather events have demonstrated the
vulnerability of some of South Africa's ecosystems. The migration patterns,
geographic range and seasonal activity of many terrestrial and marine species have
shifted in response to climate change.
Reading aloud
According to some scholars, reading aloud is probably the most highly recommended
activity for encouraging language and literacy (Warner & Crolla 2015). Whether you
read aloud or silently, comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading (Johns, L'Allier
& Johns 2015).
Improve your reading comprehension
Every one of us has room for reading improvement. Often it is because of our
struggles with ‘‘meaning-making” or comprehension that we need significant reading
improvement. It may appear as repetition to say that ‘‘one needs to know the
meaning of the words one is reading to know the meaning of what one is reading”,
but there is a definite connection between knowing the meaning of words and our
ability to understand what we read (Ortlieb et al 2015).
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McCulley et al (2015) shares practices that are used during early elementary years to
enhance our comprehension before reading, during reading and after reading. These
practices have been proven to be effective for readers of all ages. Strategies to
improve your reading include the following:
Before reading:
•
•
•
•
Ask yourself what is the purpose for the reading you are about to do.
When you understand the reason why you are reading, you will interact with the
text according to your purpose.
Delve inside yourself for background knowledge that you already have on the topic.
When you can connect your background knowledge of a topic to the text you are
reading, are more likely to understand the content of your reading. Draw you
existing knowledge in the form of a mind map or chart.
Remember to use the different pre-reading techniques (skimming and scanning) and
to read for structure before you start to read for comprehension.
During reading:
•
•
Monitor yourself while you are reading to identify if, and when, you have read
something you don't understand. You can re-read the parts that you don't
understand, investigate the text for clues, compare what you have read with your
existing background knowledge, and even ask someone for help if you are still
struggling.
Remember to pause at stopping points that you have set for yourself to monitor
your comprehension up to that point and to identify key information from what you
read. You can generate your own questions based on the work that you are reading,
think aloud, or even think-pair-share with a friend or colleague to check your
comprehension. When you generate questions about what you are reading, you
become more involved with the text and the processing of information happens at a
deeper level. You can also write a brief summary statement that highlights the main
points.
After reading:
•
Summarise the most important parts of the text by using, for example, mind maps.
Graphic organisers will help you to visually represent what you have identified as
important in the text and will help you to memorise the information. Only summarise
the relevant and most important information. Ask yourself inferential questions
about the text that you have read. Try and look for information that is implied by
the text, even though it is not printed in words.
Source:
McCulley et al (2015)
Competent readers fluidly weave their knowledge of language, word reading,
vocabulary and background knowledge to make meaning of written text. While
reading, they monitor their understanding and possess an arsenal of coping
mechanisms so that when comprehension breaks down, they are able to get back on
track and resume understanding the text.
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5.6
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING AND WRITING
Study the section that follows:
To many of us reading is a chore – something to do that is less interesting than
most other activities. There is a saying that “the poorest man in the world is the
man limited to his own experience, the man who does not read” (Ortlieb et al 2015).
A positive attitude towards reading and writing may begin with your interest in a
specific topic. Many people are particularly interested in some subject areas over
others. Math, science, social studies, art, sport and English comprise a few of the
possibilities. Building the love of reading and writing is a complex venture that
involves reading for pleasure, which will enhance the scope of reading, language
consciousness, attitude towards reading and interests (Ortlieb et al 2015).
Similarly to reading, writing is also a cyclic process in terms of the constant reading,
understanding, rewriting and restructuring of written work in order to improve what
is written. When rereading the written work, we think of the accuracy and
authenticity of the writing. Thus, reading and rereading our writing is the means of
testing whether what we have written can be improved in any way. The attempt to
improve writing is the link between writing, thinking and reading. Engaging with the
writing process allows you to read, reread, think about improvements and then
rewrite. By attempting to improve your writing, you also become a more critical
reader (Ortlieb et al 2015).
The best writers are avid readers and vice versa. As a public relations practitioner
you have to not only read text but you will also be required to write text. For
example:
•
•
•
•
You may need to write a media briefing on a new product launch for your
company, but in order to write the media brief, you need to read the product
descriptions as provided by the company.
Once you understand what the product entails, how it is used and how it is
different to the competitors' product, then only can you write the media release
which is suited for your purposes.
To write a high quality media release, you will be required to make sure you
have improved the writing until it meets your satisfaction.
How will you know the media release is of high quality? You will know based on
your experience of reading other public relations practitioners' media releases,
which are clearly of high quality.
You may have a preference for either reading or writing, but you can use your
strengths in the one to improving the other (Ortlieb et al 2015).
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Visit these websites for more reading and language and comprehension exercises:
•
•
•
•
•
•
5.7
https://za.ixl.com/promo?partner=google&campaign=1090&adGroup=story+pr
oblems&gclid=CNW624yelcwCFUSVGwodBhMP4w
http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/reading.php
http://www.englishmaven.org/Pages/Reading%20Comprehension.htm
http://www.ereadingworksheets.com/free-reading-worksheets/readingcomprehension-worksheets/
http://www.agendaweb.org/index.php
http://www.agendaweb.org/reading/comprehension_interm2.html
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The following exercises are very good examples of what you can expect in the
examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the
feedback given in the prescribed book.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.8
Briefly discuss the differences between print and electronic reading materials.
Discuss the six elements that make up the cyclical reading process.
Describe the various reading techniques and give a practical example of when
each is suitable.
Explain what critical reading entails.
Assume that you are responsible for training your fellow public relations
practitioners. Discuss what practical tips you would give them for reading
online.
REFLECTION
Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.9
Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this
learning unit in your professional life?
What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more
help? What are you going to do about it?
What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
SUMMARY
People read in many different contexts and for different reasons. Reading is a vital
skill for all people, but particularly for public relations practitioners, as it contributes
to effective communication.
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Reading is a constructive and cyclical process. It does not necessarily start or end
with one of the elements of the cycle; they all happen concurrently (at the same
time) as you read.
For public relations practitioners reading different types of material is necessary,
whether it may be books, newspapers or magazines to gather information about
what is being said about the company that they work for. Different types of devices
are used alongside print media to communicate to stakeholders, including e-readers,
tablets and smartphones. To read for certain purposes requires a particular reading
technique, which could include pre-reading, scanning, skimming, underlining and
marking and active reading. You now know how important reading is for a public
relations practitioner, and you can use different methods to improve your reading
skills.
In the next learning unit, we look at how to write text intended for different media
formats.
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5.10 REFERENCES
Botha, D, Chaka, M, du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D
& Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Comcowich, WJ. 2010. Media monitoring: the complete guide. [Online] Available at:
http://www.cyberalert.com/downloads/media_monitoring_whitepaper.pdf
(accessed on 10 April 2016).
Dalton, B & Jocius, R. 2015. From struggling reader to digital reader and multimodal
composer – school-based interventions for struggling readers, K-8. [Online]
Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2048-0458(2013)0000003008
(accessed on 9 March 2016).
Daniels, D, Hunter, A, McGhie, V, Middleton Horn, J, Van Jaarsveldt, M & Van
Vuuren, T. 2014. Business communication. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Davis, DS, McElhone, D & Tenore, FB. 2015. A dialogic account of reader-text
interactions. English Teaching: Practice & Critique, 14(3):335–349. [Online]
Available at: http://dx doi.org/10.1108/ETPC-04-2015-0026 (accessed on
27 April 2016).
Hsiu-Sen, C & Chia-Chen, C. 2014. Exploring switch intention of users' reading
behaviour. The Electronic Library, 32(4):434–457. [Online] Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EL-06-2012-0070 (accessed on 27 April 2016).
Huang, K, Chen, K & Ho, C. 2014. Enhancement of reading experience. Library Hi
Tech, 32(3):509–528. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/LHT-012014-0002 (accessed on 27 April 2016).
Johns, JL, L'Allier, SK & Johns, B. 2012. Making the most of informal reading
inventories: moving from purposeful assessment to targeted instruction. In
Using Informative Assessments towards Effective Literacy Instruction: [Online]
Available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/S20480458%282012%290000001005 (accessed on 10 March 2016).
K12 reader. 2016. Phonemic awareness vs phonological awareness. [Online]
Available at: www.k12reader.com/phonemic-awareness-vs-phonologicalawareness/ (accessed on 10 March 2016).
Laster, BP. 2013. A historical view of student learning and teacher development in
reading clinics. Advanced Literacy Practices, 3–20. [Online] Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2048-0458(2013)0000002004 (accessed on
10 March 2016).
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Oludare, OO & Olanrewaju, MK. 2011. Aliteracy: A threat to educational
development. Educational Research, 2(2):824–827. [Online] Available at:
http://www.interesjournals.org/er/february-2011-vol-2-issue-2/aliteracy-a-threatto-educational-development (2013)0000002009 (accessed on 10 March 2016).
Ortlieb, E, Verlaan, W & Cheek. EH. 2015. Vocabulary/comprehension-based models
of reading clinics. Advanced Literacy Practices, 7(1):117–136. [Online]
Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2048-0458(2013)0000002009
(accessed on 10 March 2016).
McCulley, LV, Katz, S & Vaughn, S. 2013. Reading instruction and students with
learning disabilities. In Learning Disabilities: Practice Concerns And Students
With LD. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S02704013(2013)0000025005 (accessed on 8 March 2016).
Mullis, IVS, Martin, MO & Sainsbury, M. 2016. PIRLS 2016 Reading Framework.
[Online] Available at: http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/downloads/P16_FW_Chap1.pdf (accessed on 15 March 2016).
Reading Rockets. 2016. Fluency: an introduction [Online] Available at:
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/fluency-introduction (accessed on
27 April 2016).
Solak, E. 2014. Computer versus paper-based reading: a case study in English
language teaching context In Mevlana International Journal of Education,
4(1):202–211. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.13.78.4.1
(accessed on 1 April 2016).
Taylor, SE. 2012. The fundamental reading process. [Online] Available at:
http://www.gio.co.za/wpcontent/uploads/2012/06/FundamentalReadingProcess
.pdf (accessed on 1 April 2016).
Techterms. 2016. Meta search engine. [Online] Available at:
http://techterms.com/definition/metasearchengine (accessed on 1 April 2016).
University of Leicester. 2016. Succeed in your studies. [Online] Available at:
http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld?uol_r=7cd00ee5 (accessed on 15 March 2016).
Walia, PK & Sinha, S. 2014. Changing trend in reading habits of teenagers in Delhi.
In Library Review, 63(1/2):125–137. [Online] Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/LR-03-2013-0038 (accessed on 15 March 2016).
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Warner, L & Crolla, C. 2015. The practice of reading aloud in the high school: a
preliminary investigation. In English Teaching: Practice & Critique, 14(3):419–
426. [Online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ETPC-06-2015-0045
(accessed on 15 March 2016).
Zhang, L & Ma, W. 2011. Correlation analysis between users' educational level and
mobile reading behaviour. In Library Hi Tech, 29(3):424–435 [Online] Available
at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07378831111174396 (accessed on 15 March
2016).
Zimmerman, B, Rasinski, T & Melewski. M. 2013. When kids can't read, what a focus
on fluency can do: the reading clinic experience at Kent State University. In
Advanced Literacy Practices, 2:137–160. [Online] Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2048-0458(2013)0000002010 (accessed on
15 March 2016).
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Learning unit 6
Writing text intended for print media
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
6.1
Print media
6.2
Internal communication print media
6.3
External communication print media
6.4
Writing for print
6.5
Self-assessment questions
6.6
Reflection
6.7
Summary
6.8
References
6.
INTRODUCTION
Print content allows writers to control their readers. Writers can write from
introduction to conclusion and carefully build arguments. They know what the
readers have already read, and what they are going to read next. For example, in
writing an article discussing how to secure your finances, the writer knows that the
reader is now aware of his or her financial situation and that in the next section of
the article, the reader will read about the possible solutions. Written communication
is more permanent than oral communication. It can be either formal or informal,
personal or official. The information about how to secure your finances as published
in the article we used as an example above will remain available, and the reader can
read it again. A face-to-face conversation, however, will in time become just a
memory. Writing is one of the main communication tools that public relations
practitioners use.
Overview of this learning unit
In this learning unit, we explore the nature of print media. You should be able to
discuss and differentiate between the internal and external print media. It is
important to understand the characteristics of the various print media types. In this
learning unit, you will be equipped with the necessary tools and guidelines for
writing a news release, a feature story and a brochure.
This learning unit unfolds as follows:
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Writing for print
Learning outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain what print media are
discuss what makes something newsworthy
explain what the difference is between internal and external print media
discuss what the guidelines are for writing news release, feature story and
brochure
discuss the difference between controlled and uncontrolled media
explain what guidelines to follow when writing news releases, feature stories
and brochures
Key concepts
Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
define
define
define
define
define
define
define
print media
controlled media
uncontrolled media
print publications
newspapers
feature stories
brochures
Very important!
Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please
follow the URL below and download the material:
http://bookboon.com/en/practical-pr-ebook
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6.1
PRINT MEDIA
Study the section that follows:
Print media can be defined as the vehicle that distributes printed material. These are
generally books, newspapers and magazines, but can also include advertising
brochures and pamphlets. This is the oldest type of mass media. Newspapers tend
to be the primary source of news, whereas magazines tend to be more targeted
mediums, with magazines aimed at men, women, hobbies and so forth (Kurylo
2013:237–238). Due to the increased usage and availability of online resources, the
print media industry is looking into ways of reinventing itself. There have been cases
where newspapers and magazines had to close down due to the increased usage of
the internet for news and information (Mochiko 2015).
Print media, as an industry, can refer to the printing and distribution of news
through the use of printed material, such as magazines and newspapers, to name
but a few. It can be said that print media is more permanent than other forms of
media such as broadcast or social media (Fourie 2014:87–88). The most widely
known types of print media include newspapers, magazines, classifieds,
circulars, journals, yellow pages, billboards, brochures, posters and
catalogues. Examples of print media in South Africa are the Citizen and Mail &
Guardian newspapers, and The Economist and Getaway magazines. Print media is
normally divided into two categories, namely controlled and uncontrolled media.
For interesting information on media in South Africa, follow the link to the Media
Club South Africa at http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/.
Media control
A public relations practitioner has different types of control over what is presented in
the published print media.
6.1.1.1
Controlled media
This form of media allows the public relations practitioner to have control over
what is published and how it is published (Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman & Toth
2013:145). With controlled media, the PR practitioner not only has full control
over all elements of the message, words, images and so forth, but also controls
when, where and how often the message is communicated. Controlled media is
generally paid for by the sender of the message and include such forms as
leaflets, brochures, corporate print material and posters (Guth & Marsh 2012:257–
258; Fourie 2014:83).
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6.1.1.2
Uncontrolled media
Generally, this type of media is out of the PR practitioner's hands; the content is
decided on by the management of that specific publication. This is a non-paid form
of communication and can thus be seen as a more credible source of information
(Fourie 2014:83–84; Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman & Toth 2013:145). Publishers and
broadcasters of uncontrolled media have gatekeepers that control what information
is published and what is not. Even though gatekeepers exist, companies still have no
control over what, when or how often it is published. In many cases, uncontrolled
media can create stories and conversations against the wishes of a company (Guth
& Marsh 2012:260). Examples of uncontrolled media include newspaper articles, PR
releases and magazine articles.
There might be situations where it is difficult to differentiate between controlled or
uncontrolled media; in some instances, a type of media might represent both types
(Guth & Marsh 2012:260).
6.2
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION PRINT MEDIA
Study the section that follows:
Internal print communication, also known as organisational communication, can be
defined as the type of communication directed towards internal stakeholders; this
communication normally takes place between management and employees (Fourie
2014:91; Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman & Toth 2013:213; O'Rourke 2013:28). Internal
print communication can be used to communicate strategy to employees that
provide direction and purpose, keep employees informed, create and strengthen
relationships with employees, as well as informing and encourage employees to
support the marketing activities. Internal print communication is also very important
vehicle to facilitate change management. It is important to remember also that
internal communication should not be an organisation's primary means of
communication. Even though it is a very effective way of communicating,
interpersonal communication is still the most preferred. As organisations grow, they
need to adapt their means of internal communication. E-mail has primarily taken
over internal communication, but the sheer volume can overwhelm and cause
employees to take exception (Newsom & Haynes 2011:299–301). Examples of
internal print communication vehicles include newsletters, staff handbooks, libraries,
house journals, information brochures, bulletin boards and flyers (Fourie 2014:91–
92).
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6.3
EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION PRINT MEDIA
Study the section that follows:
Essentially, this form of communication includes all communications that take place
outside of the organisation. This will include all forms of marketing communication,
media relations (news releases), and any form of written communication relating to
corporate image, corporate advertising, sponsorship and events, promotional
activities, crisis management, lobbying and networking. The public relations
practitioner makes use of external communication to satisfy the needs and wants of
the company's target markets. External marketing is used to educate potential
consumers about the company's services. The most important external print
publications used by public relations practitioners are newspapers and magazines.
Public relations practitioners use magazines and newspapers to publish important
press releases so that their customers know exactly what is going on.
6.4
WRITING FOR PRINT
Study the section that follows:
A public relations practitioner will have to be able write newspaper articles, news
releases, feature stories and brochures for different types of print media, including
newspapers and magazines.
Definition of a newspaper
A classic newspaper is a collection of stories, pictures, advertisements and puzzles
assembled as a printed package made of lightweight paper. Newspapers tend to
have a limited shelf life depending on whether it is a weekly or a daily newspaper.
(Reeves & Keeble 2015:1). In the 21st century, news can also be available on a
website, an app, a Facebook page, multiple Twitter accounts, a YouTube channel,
blogs and even a series of podcasts, which are created by ordinary people. These
updates about news provide newspapers with fresh content to update readers, and
for online newspapers, this increases searchability (Theaker 2012:419). Even though
this type of news is not published by official sources and is largely consumer–
generated, people still deem it newsworthy (Reeves & Keeble 2015:6).
When writing for news releases, there are different types of foci, namely hard news
and soft news. Hard news relates to circumstances of an event such as issues,
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politics, economics, international relations, welfare and scientific development. Soft
news relates to news that can be considered as information and entertainment,
which relates to human interest stories that are more personality-centred (Rogers
2015).
Writing a news release
A news release is a statement written by the public relations department when
something important or noteworthy happens within an organisation. This will
normally include the information you as a public relations practitioner wishes to
publish about the organisation or its employees. For information to be newsworthy,
it must display one or more of these characteristics (Botha, Chaka, Du Plessis,
Krause, Rawjee, Porthen, Veerasamy & Wright, 2007:136–137; Media-studies.ca
2015):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Conflict – between individuals, organisations or countries
Oddity – anything strange or unusual that will attract media attention
Proximity – anything that affects the local community and be newsworthy for
that community
Prominence – high profile individuals
Timeliness – should always be recent
Impact – anything that will have an effect on or consequence for the reader
Human interest – the inclusion of a human element
Progress – any medical, scientific or technological breakthrough
Goals – meeting the goals of the editorial team
Then you need to decide on the media outlets available to you. It could be helpful in
deciding by answering the following three questions:
1. What type of coverage are you looking for – local, national or international?
2. Is this a story for public interest or is it time sensitive?
3. Does it need to be a full story or would a brief write-up do? (James & Wosh
2011:86)
6.4.2.1
Models for writing a news release
There are various models that PR practitioners can use when writing a news release.
Let's look at a few of these models, namely: 5Ws and H; SOLAADS and NIBSS. The
5Ws and H model is most commonly used by journalists, while the SOLAADS model
is common amongst public relations practitioners. The NIBBS model was developed
by a public relations theorist Cohen who identified the relevant components of the
model (Botha et al 2007:137–139). You need to know the different models and what
it stands for and how it is applied to writing news releases.
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(a)
The 5Ws and H model
This is a writing format that is commonly used by journalists. This model is
structured alongside the Who, Where, When, Why, What and How questions. It is,
however, important to list the questions in a specific order that will expedite the
writing of the lead sentence. The questions can be structured as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
(b)
Who is the story about?
What happened?
Why did it happen?
Where did it happen?
When did it happen?
How did it come about?
The SOLAADS model
This provides the public relations practitioner with a checklist:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
(c)
Subject – What is the story about?
Organisation – What is the name of the organisation?
Location – What is the location of the organisation?
Advantages – What is new or special about this product or service?
Application – Who can enjoy the product or service?
Details – What are the specifications or details?
Source – Is this different from the location?
The NIBS model
This model provides another set of guidelines for writing a news release. By
following it, ensure that you supply the following:
•
•
•
•
•
(d)
new information
interesting facts
background
selling points
superfluities
Other models for writing
The inverted pyramid method of writing is the most effective and efficient way of
organising the information in order to write a news release. This method helps you,
as the writer, to analyse information, establish what is most important to the reader,
and arrange the information in descending order of importance.
6.4.2.2
Guidelines for the format
When writing news releases, it is important to conform to a certain standard in order
to make the news release not only presentable to the relevant readers, but also
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appealing for the journalist to use as the news release would be in the format that
the journalist would have used, making it easier for him/her to publish. Here are
some guidelines for writing news releases (please note that these are just
guidelines, not a template):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The lead should be a single sentence comprising 30 to 35 words.
Use white A4 paper, double spacing and set wide margins of at least 40 mm
(1 inch) in which the subeditor can write instructions.
State clearly at the top of the page that this is a press release.
Then give the date and the date on which the news release should be released.
Leave a space of 40 mm (1 inch) open between the heading and the title.
Explain the where, when, to whom and how in the second sentence.
Paragraphs should not exceed 50 words.
Use a common font and font size.
It should be two pages or less.
Any contact information should be on the first page.
The date should be on the first page.
The title must be in capital letters.
Your press release must be typed in double spacing, with a blank line between
paragraphs.
In a long news release, use subheadings.
If your release runs over one page, write the word “more” at the bottom of each
page.
Each page must be numbered and the title must be repeated in the top
left-hand corner of each page.
Indent your paragraphs.
At the end of your news release, write the word “ends”.
(Botha et al 2007:140; James & Wosh 2011:86–88; Starr & Dunsford 2014:45;
Tyson 2010:46–47)
6.4.2.3
Guidelines for the content
There are particular guidelines for writing the content of the news releases, which
you intend for a journalist to eventual publish in the newspaper. The content
guidelines are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
Avoid qualifier words like could, would or should.
Do not use contractions or abbreviations.
Write in the third person.
When quoting someone use the word “said”.
When changing between speakers indicate this so there is no confusion (James
& Wosh 2011:87; Starr & Dunsford 2014:45; Tyson 2010:46–47)
Always let your news release be read by a good editor before distributing it
anywhere. E-mail your news release, or deliver it personally to the relevant
journalist. Once the news release has been sent to the journalist, it is a good idea to
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phone to confirm that he or she has received it (Botha et al 2007:140; James &
Wosh 2011:87).
Activity 6.1
Read the news release provided by Unisa committing to the hosting of the institute
for youth work.
1. Try and identify the model that was used to write this new release.
2. Try and see how many of the guidelines were followed when writing this news
release.
3. What would you have added or left out of this news release?
Below is an example of a media release, which was provided by the University of
South Africa relating to Unisa’s hosting of the institution for youth work.
Source:
http://www.unisa.ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewNewsItem&NewsID=
2306&Cmd=GetNav&NavID=6
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Writing a feature story
As the name suggests, feature stories can very often be written like stories and is all
about human interest; the narrative is about the human element of life (Newsom &
Hayes 2011:163). Feature stories can take on various forms depending on the
approach you choose to take. Different types of feature stories include: feature
stories, roundup or depth stories and profiles. Feature stories are generally happy,
about people or animals and tend to be more emotional in nature. Roundup or depth
stories are not necessarily happy in nature; they include the good and the evil of the
world. Finally, profiles are stories focused on specific individuals and their lives (Starr
& Dunsford 2014:163–164). So, feature stories could be something written about
anything going on within the organisation, new products, some research information
regarding special events, but it can also be about individuals or celebrities that have
achieved something within or is affiliated with the organisation (Reeves & Keeble
2015:168–170).
When you are writing a feature story, one the most important elements will be the
gathering of information; the integrity of your information will determine the
integrity of your feature. Information is generally collected from three sources, the
person the story is about, the people who are acquainted with that person, and
already published articles (Starr & Dunsford 2014:164).
Types of feature stories
Let's have a look at the different types of feature stories that one can get. The type
of feature story depends on the audience and the type of news being written about.
A story that is derived from a current news story is known as a spot feature. A
personality profile refers to a feature story that focuses on a person being placed
in the spot light to bring him or her closer to the public. A human interest story
emphasises something specific; it can be practical, emotional, or entertaining. A
story that focuses on the latest fads in the market is known as a trends story,
while an in-depth story is a more detailed story based on the extensive research
conducted by the interviewer and the interviews itself. A backgrounder is a story
that adds to the background information of a current news story (Starr & Dunsford
2014:172).
6.4.4.1
Guidelines for writing a feature story
As we have seen in the previous section, a feature story does not have the same
structure as a news release. The structure will depend on the type of feature
chosen. Generally, the writing of a feature will consist of gathering the facts,
interviewing people, taking notes, arranging the story order and, finally, writing the
story. When writing, organise the information is a logical order, omitting anything
that is not applicable. Lead with interesting information that will attract the reader.
Quickly describe what the story will be about, explain why it is important and, finally,
write clear and simple. Using a conversational narrative is preferred. Stay away from
too many verbs and always use the familiar or popular word for something rather
than the technical or farfetched version. Re-write continuously to improve your
writing style (Starr & Dunsford 2014:166, 172).
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Here are some more guidelines for writing a feature story:
Choose the theme.
• This is similar to a thesis or a scholarly paper.
• It provides unity and coherence.
• It should not be too broad or too narrow.
Write a lead that
invites an audience
into the story.
•
•
•
•
Write the body.
•
•
•
•
Provide vital
background
information.
If necessary, some background information should be placed early on
in the story to bring the audience up to date.
Write clear, concise
sentences.
• Use direct quotations, observations and additional background
throughout the story.
• Paragraphs should be written chronologically or in order of
importance.
Use a thread.
Connect the beginning, body and conclusion of the story.
Use transition.
Use transitioning language in long features to avoid readers losing
interest.
Use dialogue when
possible.
Writers should listen very well during the reporting process in order for
them to form a dialogue when writing.
Establish a voice.
Have a “signature” or personal style of writing.
Conclude with a
quotation or
another part of the
thread.
End your feature on a high note; it can end where the lead started,
with a single person or event.
One or two paragraphs begin the feature.
News elements should be in the lead.
The first two or three paragraphs set the mood and invite readers.
The significance of the story is found in the third or fourth
paragraph.
• Do not make readers wait until the 10th or 11th paragraph before
telling them what the story is about.
This provides vital information.
It educates, entertains and emotionally engages the audience.
The ending will wrap up the story.
Important components of the body of a feature story: background
information, the thread of the story, transition, dialogue and voice.
Source:
Adapted from Rogers (2015)
6.4.4.2
Tips for writing the best feature story
Rogers (2015) provides the following five tips for making sure your feature story is
the best:
1. A great lead can grab the reader's attention and pull them into the story.
2. The description sets the scene for the story to unfold. This can inspire the
readers to use their imaginations.
3. Quotes from the person(s) involved should always be included; it adds to the
credibility of your story.
4. Anecdotes can be very effective in features and help bring peoples' recollections
to life.
5. Background information is very important because if you don't have solid
information to back up the point your feature is trying to make, you lose
credibility.
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Below is an example of a feature story. Do you understand why the feature story is
newsworthy?
Activity 6.2
Read the feature story on Julius Malema provided by Unisa. Use what we have learnt
so far and answer the following questions:
1. What type of feature is this?
2. Isolate and identify the different sections of the feature.
3. Did the author use the guidelines for writing a feature?
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Writing for a magazine
The content of magazines are mostly controlled, as the magazine has a say in terms
of what is included in the text. Different types of magazines are available in the
market, including consumer magazines, professional or business magazines and
education or academic magazines.
Consumer magazines
These are the magazines that people generally think of if they hear the word
“magazine”. A very broad definition for consumer magazines will be a source of
information, advice and entertainment to readers, which normally relate to the time
they are not at work. Consumer magazines tend to be highly targeted, for example
women's magazines, health magazines, sport magazines, and so on.
Professional/business magazines
This refers to managerial publications, which are aimed at the business market,
providing professionals with advice and news on the current market position.
Examples of professional or business magazines are industry-specific magazines
such as The African Professional TM (link: http://www.africanpro.co.za/).
Education/academic magazines
Academic magazines or journals are also highly targeted and has a specific area of
focus in academia. Various disciplines have different journals. These are normally
written by researchers and academics with new findings and contributions to the
current body of knowledge in a specific field of study.
E-zines
These are the newest addition to the magazine world. This basically refers to a
magazine that is available online. The added advantage to this is the possible
inclusion of multimedia sources, which could lead to significant competition for
traditional print magazines (Whittaker 2008:171). Check out e-zines at the following
directory: http://www.ezine-dir.com/
6.4.5.1
Guidelines for writing for a magazine
Some tips you can use when writing for a magazine:
•
•
•
Most importantly, get to the point as soon as possible. Readers can lose interest
very quickly and needs to be engaged early on.
Write in an active voice, that is, write conversationally as the subject does the
action.
It is always advisable to have a copy editor. Copy-edit your writing as it
represents the readers, who will not have your intimate knowledge on the
subject when reading the story.
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•
•
•
Copy-editors will look for errors in style, spelling, punctuation and grammar, as
well as the misuse of words and lack of correct information.
Proofreading will take place once the printer's proofs have arrived. This will
represent the final draft before going to print for distribution.
Finally, make sure you stay out of the story. Never use first-person pronouns like
I, me and we; these are only permitted in direct quotes (Starr & Dunsford
2014:196–199).
Writing a brochure
A brochure, also sometimes referred to as a leaflet, is designed either as something
to create awareness or provide solutions and information. Brochures are normally
only one document, which can be folded, depending on its purpose. The most
commonly used type of brochure is folded in such a way that it has six separate
parts where information can be included. This is often referred to as a Z-card, due to
its shape (see http://gotprint.net/gotprint/uploadBrochure.do) (Gordon 2011:261).
When writing a brochure, follow the steps below (Botha et al 2007:147–148):
•
•
•
•
•
•
Clearly define the purpose of the brochure.
Develop and organise a concept for it.
Write the content.
Design the format and visuals, and decide on the type of paper, the space
needed and the colour.
Produce the brochure.
Distribute it.
Activity 6.3
Unisa will launch a new course on social media advertising in 2017. Design a
brochure for this course, which can be handed out to leaners in Grade 12. Use all
the info on brochure you have read.
6.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the
examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the
feedback given in the prescribed book.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define and discuss print media.
How would you go about writing a feature?
Explain in detail how you would go about writing a news release.
Discuss the process of writing a brochure.
List the various print media types.
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6.6
REFLECTION
Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions:
1. Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this
learning unit in your professional life?
2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more
help? What are you going to do about it?
3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
6.7
SUMMARY
We began this learning unit by exploring the nature of print media and noted that
the print media are among the media most frequently used to inform people. We
then discussed the difference between internal and external communication print
media and looked at some examples. You must be able to write a news release, a
feature story and a brochure. You learnt about the objectives of each of these
types of print media, and we suggested a number of writing models and guidelines
to help you in your writing.
We will now move onto the broadcast media, which differ from the print media.
Writing for the broadcast media is therefore quite different from writing for the
print media, as you will see in learning unit 7.
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6.8
REFERENCES
Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D
& Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Fourie, L. 2014. Public relations: theory & practice. Cape Town: Juta.
Guth, DW & March, C. 2012. Public relations: a value-driven approach. 5th edition.
Boston: Pearson.
Gordon, AE. 2011. Public relations. New York: Oxford.
James, RD & Wosh, PJ. 2011. Public relations and marketing for archives: a how-todo-it manual. Chicago: Society of American Archivists and Neal-Schuman.
Reeves, I & Keeble, RL. 2015. The newspapers handbook. 5th edition. New York:
Routledge.
Kurylo, A. 2013. Inter/cultural communication. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Lattimore, D, Baskin, O, Heiman, ST & Toth, EL. 2012. Public relations: the
profession & the practice. 4th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Mochiko, T. 2015. SA printing industry still looks good on paper. [Online] Available
at: http://www.bdlive.co.za/business/media/2015/08/03/sa-printing-industrystill-looks-good-on-paper (accessed on 9 May 2016).
Newsom, D & Haynes, J. 2011. Public relations writing: form & style. 9th edition.
Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.
O'Rourke, JS. 2013. Management communication: a case-analysis approach. 5th
edition. New Jersey: Pearson.
Rogers, T. 2015. What's the difference between broadcast and tabloid newspapers?
[Online] Available at: http://journalism.about.com/od/trends/fl/
Whats-the-Difference-Between-Broadsheet-and-Tabloid-Newspapers.htm
(accessed on 11 May 2016).
Starr, DP & Dunsford, DW. 2014. Writing the story. Plymouth: Rowman &
Littlefield.
Theaker, A. 2012. The public relations handbook. 4th edition. New York: Routledge.
Whittaker, J. 2008. Magazine production. New York: Routledge.
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Learning unit 7
Writing text intended for broadcast media
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
7.1
Broadcast media
7.
7.1.1
Rules for both television and radio writing (writing for the ear)
7.1.2
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.2.1
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.1.1
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
Importance of broadcast media for public relations
Radio as a broadcast medium
Importance of radio broadcasting for public relations
Writing a news bulletin for radio
Writing a fact sheet for radio
Digital radio
Radio in South African context
Television as a broadcast medium
Writing a news bulletin for television
Writing guidelines for television
Self-assessment questions
Reflection
Summary
References
Introduction
Writing text for the broadcast media requires different skills from those required for
writing for print. Public relations practitioners who write text for the broadcast media
contribute valuable information, which is used in speeches, advertisements, daily
news, interviews and documentaries. When you write for the broadcast media, your
role is to capture the attention and interest of the viewers and the listeners. You
need to use all of the techniques that you have learnt for writing for print, but you
need to adapt them for writing broadcast copy. The most important of these
techniques is condensation, as you must learn to select and condense information.
Brevity or conciseness is more important in writing broadcasting copy than in writing
for print.
In this learning unit, you will acquire the guidelines and tools that you will need to
write text intended for the broadcast media.
Overview of this learning unit
After you have studied this learning unit, you should be able to write content for
radio and television. In this learning unit, we explore the nature of the broadcast
media. You will learn more about radio as a broadcast medium, and how to write a
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news bulletin and a fact sheet for radio. You also need to understand television as a
broadcast medium, and how to write a news bulletin for television. There are two
forms of broadcast media, namely radio and television.
This learning unit unfolds as follows:
Learning outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
define broadcast media
explain guidelines for writing for radio
discuss the process of writing a news bulletin for radio
explain writing a fact sheet for radio
discuss guidelines for writing for television
explain the process of writing a news bulletin for television
evaluate text for television and radio broadcasting
Key concepts
Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
define broadcast media
define radio
define television
explain news bulletin
explain a fact sheet
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Very important!
Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please
follow the following URL and download the material:
http://bookboon.com/en/practical-pr-ebook
7.1
BROADCAST MEDIA
Study the section that follows:
Broadcast media make use of airwaves to transmit the audio for radio and the visual
and audio for television. Broadcast signals can be carried out over wavebands, which
include short-wave, medium-wave and high frequency or ultra-high frequency. Each
of the band waves carries their limited signals. Broadcast signals are transmitted
technically through the atmosphere at the speed of light and can allow for large
amount of information to be transferred. Television's bandwidth (channel space) is
much heavier as these are more information rich than radio or audio signals.
Television bandwidth is also not able to travel as far as radio signals, and uses more
bandwidth than radio or audio signals (Kellison 2009:19).
Band waves are not owned, but it is regulated and controlled by government
agencies. Broadcasting licenses are awarded to those who pay for a particular band
wave (Botha et al 2007:152–153). In South Africa, the agency that awards
broadcasting license is the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa
(ICASA). Commercial radio and television stations accept and broadcast paid
advertising, while community radio stations have community radio licences to
broadcast in a particular area or community.
Broadcast media are very different from print media and provide organisations with
various functions not available when using print media. Writing for broadcast media
is different from writing for print media. Broadcast media can make allowances in
language use and sentence structure, as it is written for the intention of someone
talking to the audience, whether it may be as a news broadcaster or radio presenter.
There is also the allowance of using more informal language, as the focus is now on
the audience hearing the message (Tuggle, Carr & Huffman 2011:3). Broadcast
writing can make use of the repetition of words and redundant words, as
broadcasting needs to use particular methods to grab viewers or listeners attention
and keep it. Furthermore, as radio and television does not always allow for the
repetition of an entire story, broadcast writing should cover the important
information without losing the audience’s interest by providing too much information
(Starr & Dunsford 2014:54–55).
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All types of media – print, online and broadcast – have a specific set of advantages
and disadvantages, which makes it critical that organisations make informed
decisions on what is to be communicated, what is needed to meet the objectives of
the communique and, finally, which type of media would suit this the best. A specific
challenge present in the use of broadcast media is the difficulty to retain a broadcast
message and give it a “shelf-life” as is the case with print media. If a broadcast
message is not taken in at the point of communication, and no recording is made,
the message is lost. With print media, however, the message can still be seen years
later; think about going to the doctor or the dentists' office where old magazines can
be found and the “shelf-life” concept becomes abundantly clear. In contrast to this
discussion, it can be said that the market being exposed to the broadcast media is
much larger than the readership numbers of newspapers and magazines (Rensburg
& Cant 2009; James & Wosh 2011).
SAARF is the name by which the South African Audience Research Foundation is
most commonly known. SAARF measures the audiences of all traditional media, such
as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema and out-of-home media. SAARF
aims to conduct and publish media audience product or brand information for the
benefit of its stakeholders. The data provided assists organisations with target
marketing and provides a deeper insight into “who” their target audience is.
Amongst the reports SAARF provides to the public are the radio audience
measurement survey (RAMS) and the television audience measurement survey
(TAMS).
For more information on SAARF, RAMS and TAMS follow the URL:
http://www.saarf.co.za/saarf/allabout.asp
Rules for both television and radio writing (writing for the ear)
There are particular rules of broadcast writing that differ from that of print media.
The rules for broadcasting media differ vastly because of the visual and audio nature
of television and the audio nature of radio, which makes it different. These rules are
(Tuggle et al 2011:3):
One chance to make ourselves understood: This means that you need to write so
that every sentence is clear when the presenter reads your work. Once you have
completed the writing, read it out loud – it might look good on paper but does it
sound good when heard?
Different story structure: An inverted pyramid style is typically used in print media,
where the important facts are indicated, first followed by less important details. This
style of writing can cause a problem when limited word space means that the lesser
important facts are often cut and the article ends abruptly. In broadcasting, the
listeners or viewers will immediately know that something is missing, thus cutting
out facts is not always an option. It is better to conclude a story with a summary or
a statement to make the viewers or listeners think so that they are not “lost” in the
middle of the report.
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Conversational tone: This is less formal language (although not totally colloquial
either), which ensures that the listener or viewer is on the same level of
understanding as the presenter. Using words incorrectly to impress people is highly
likely and therefore it is just better to use simpler wording.
Using contractions: Making use of contractions or shortening or words, for example,
“that'll" instead of “that will” or “shouldn't” instead of “should not”, allows the
presenter to sound less stiff and formal. However, there is a limit to this, as
overusing contractions and using contractions that are confusing can hinder
understanding.
There are rules that apply to both television and radio, which are indicated below
(Starr & Dunsford 2014:45):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Every paragraph should be indented and each paragraph should be one
sentence only.
Writing should be similar to telling the story to a friend.
The opening sentence should have 10 to 15 words that capture the essence of
the story.
Further details should be included in the second sentence.
Avoid using different words that have the same meaning – rather repeat words
to make the story consistent.
Place titles of individuals before the names.
Place the acknowledgement before statements.
Indicate that a direct quote will be made by starting with “in these words”.
Instead of giving exact numbers with many decimal places, rather round
numbers off (without indicating that the number has been rounded off).
You are allowed to fragment sentences in order to get a point across.
Importance of broadcast media for public relations
You may want to know why public relations practitioners must make so much effort
to write for broadcast media when there are journalists or media houses that could
take care of that. Well, the answer is simple, if public relations practitioners make it
easier for the journalists to broadcast your story by writing the news release or fact
sheet when a major story breaks, it is easier to create a short version of the public
relations practitioner's print news release, making it easier to get your story on air
without much copy revision. The more effort a public relations practitioner puts into
writing for broadcast media, the less effort the journalist has to make, which is
therefore also a factor that contributes to the likelihood of your story being
broadcasted (Zappala & Carden 2004:213). Public relations practitioners need to
know the media industry, because with that knowledge, public relations practitioners
succeed at having their stories placed in print or broadcast media. When public
relations practitioners’ writing for the media is newsworthy, uses creative headlines
and leads that capture the media's attention, while also meeting journalistic
standards, with consideration for timing issues with local focus, and is suitable for
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the best media channel for distribution, media placement is more likely (Zappala &
Carden 2010:91).
A sample of a media alert by the National Down Syndrome
http://www.ndss.org/About-NDSS/Media-Kit/Sample-Media-Alert/
Society:
Public relations practitioners write news releases and other forms of communication,
which can be broadcasted on either radio or television, making it easier for anchors
or broadcasters to broadcast your story as most of the work has been done.
In a radio scenario, the listeners must find your story newsworthy, either in terms of
how it can benefit them or how it is of value to them. When writing a story for radio,
think of the listener listening to your story and thinking: “What is in it for me?”. Your
story must be able to answer that immediately, otherwise you will lose that listener.
In a television scenario when the CEO of the organisation is being interviewed about
a recent crisis situation in the organisation, there are particular tasks to perform:
•
•
•
•
7.2
Think ahead of how the interview can be handled in terms of the approach from
the CEO.
Be prepared regarding the types of questions that could be asked and prepare
well-research answers that are fair and accurate.
Interview mechanics involve looking the person in the eyes during the interview,
not fidgeting during the interview, and being sure to pronounce words correctly
when speaking up or using a microphone.
Listening is a useful tool when phrases can be misunderstood or questions can
be misheard, because the interviewee did not pay attention to what is being
said, but instead just answered according to the planned answers.
RADIO AS A BROADCAST MEDIUM
Study the section that follows:
Radio is very much part of our everyday lives. Whether we listen to the radio to
actually listen or have it on in the background to break the silence, whether it being
in the car when driving or listening to it in the bank while waiting in the queue,
chances are each one of us is exposed to radio at some point during the day. In
South Africa, we mainly have different types of radio stations such as talk radio,
music radio and campus radio. No matter what type of radio station it is,
broadcasters are always on the lookout for interesting content (James & Wosh
2011).
The immediacy of radio trumps newspapers and television, as it is easier to interrupt
the current programme to provide breaking news. There are different news
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channels, which cater for different needs. There are the serious talk shows where
interviews and discussions on the latest happenings are the focus. There are radio
stations that are mostly music based – these too can vary from a radio station that
plays mostly Maskandi music (type of Zulu folk music) to those that play mostly
Afrikaans music, to those that play mostly kwaito music (house music featuring
African sounds and samples). There are faith-based radio stations and
business-focused radio stations, all catering for particular audiences. However, all
these radio stations have in common is the news, as each station needs to keep
abreast of the happenings in the world in order to remain relevant and current
(Fleming 2010:105–106). On the other hand, the news bulletin provided on radio is
limited to a particular time frame or airtime, which is the time available to
accommodate broadcasting material, whether it may be a 60-second news report or
a 5-minute news report. Those 60 seconds of news delivery could be equivalent to a
column and a half in a newspaper, which is considerably less news and detail.
There are various advantages of using radio as a broadcast medium, including the
following (Rensburg & Cant 2009)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
can deliver immediate announcements
has the intimacy of the human voice
is portable
can be used while doing other things
has a variety of listeners
reaches different ethnic groups
includes people who cannot read
good saturation
low cost
Importance of radio broadcasting for public relations
There are particular audiences that are more accessible with radio than other forms
of media. When taking a taxi to work in the morning, how often is the taxi driver
listening to his favourite radio station, which plays his taste of music and in his
particular language of choice? How often are particular radio advertisements played
that you may not hear on other radio stations? How often have you been in a
waiting room and the receptionist has her radio playing in the background, playing
those golden oldies she prefers? (See the http://www.saarf.co.za/ramspresentations/2016/March%202016%20RAMS%20Release%20Highlights.docx on
the next page relating to where people listened to radios the most.)
Imagine the impact it could have if you know that a large number of women in a
particular age group listens to a particular radio station, if they are your
organisation's target audience in terms of beauty products? How do you build a
relationship with such a group? You could maybe invite them to come to a beauty
workshop that will allow them to view your product in your organisation, so that you
can get to know your customers and so that they can get to know your organisation.
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Once you have done your research on your customers, you are able to use a
medium through which to communicate with them. In this case, it is through the use
of radio. The role of the public relations practitioner comes in when he or she needs
to be a source of information for a radio journalist. News comes from numerous
sources and journalists build up their contacts in their particular focus of news
reporting or beat. Therefore, it is important for a public relations practitioner to build
relations with journalists who are in a particular beat. For instance, a financial
organisation should know journalists who cover financial and economic matters,
making it easier for both of them to do their jobs having a named contact rather
than having to struggle to get information from an unknown individual. Newsrooms
are fed information through news releases, which public relations practitioners write
and often send through e-mail (Fleming 2010:110).
Guidelines PR practitioners can follow to maintain good relationships with radio
stations include (James & Wosh 2011):
submitting public service announcements
not going on air live
Being aware that taped interviews might be edited
•
•
•
In addition, it is good to know what the dynamics of radio stations are, for example,
who the target audience is, what focus the radio station has, what type of listener
there is in terms of demographics (study of population based on age, race, gender,
employment, economic status, education level and income level), to know who is
listening to the radio station. The locations where individuals listen to the radio,
which can give insight into the listeners’ lifestyles, is illustrated at
http://www.saarf.co.za/rams-presentations/2016/March%202016%20RAMS%20
Release%20Highlights.docx
The radio station with the highest listening ratings, which can provide a public
relations practitioner with the best overview of which radio stations are the most
popular can be seen at http://www.saarf.co.za/rams-presentations/2016/March
%202016%20RAMS%20Release%20Highlights.docx. Once the public relations
practitioner has an idea of the radio listening ratings, the public relations practitioner
can then target those radio stations with the listener base that is most relevant to
the messages that the organisation wishes to disseminate.
Activity 7.1
Study the figure relating to the incidence of radio listening. Do research on Ukhozi
FM regarding:
•
•
where the radio station is broadcasted
who the main audience is and what their characteristics are
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Once you have completed your research, indicate which organisation can make use
of this radio station to advertise a workshop they are hosting and what that
particular workshop can achieve.
Feedback
Ukhozi FM’s core audience falls in the age category of 16 to 24 and the LSM
grouping is 5 to 8. The typical listener for this radio station is aspirational Zulu
speakers who want to acquire things to show success. The listeners are culturally
and spiritually conscious but are modern with a sense of community and strong
cultural affinity.
Based on the radio station's audience, decide which organisation this radio station
will be best suited for to broadcast their story.
Writing a news bulletin for radio
Radio has two basic kinds of news stories, which are reader/actualities and wraps
(Tuggle et al 2011:85).
•
•
A reader/actuality (RA) will be reader by the anchor, who will read the opening
copy followed by the audio recording of the actuality or sound bite and then the
anchor will close with a closing copy.
A wrap includes the anchor lead and a voiced report from the report with the
sound bite.
An anchor introduces the topic and invites listeners to voice their opinions (Botha et
al 2007:154). An anchor is the radio personality who presents a radio slot, such as
the drive time slot in the morning or the evening slot – when most listeners are in
their vehicles travelling to and from work. Who is your favourite radio personality
(for example, Reddy Tlhabi, DJ Fresh and so on)?
7.2.2.1
Writing a fact sheet for radio
A factsheet is a list of details relating to a story that you want broadcasted. A
factsheet is written in short sentences, which allows the presenter to add in their
own words and deliver the story in their own manner without changing the essence
of your story (Botha et al 2007:154). It is suggested that when writing copy for
radio, one should use a factsheet format. A factsheet is basically dividing your paper
and labelling the columns. The right side of the page will be limited to the verbal
part of your message, while the left side of the page outlines the production
information. Have a look at an example of a factsheet http://www.liyuantv.
com/beajeus/123021-300793.html.
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The first and most important step is to write the message first. Spend some time on
this and decide carefully what exactly it is you want to say. Once this has been
finalised, you will enter it on the factsheet and complete production message or cues
on the left. It is important to ensure that the production cues correspond with the
message at any given point in time. The message can then be recorded in a studio,
digitally produced and distributed for broadcast (Newsom & Haynes 2011).
When writing copy for radio, the choice of words is extremely important, because we
do not have the luxury of graphics. We want listeners to use their imagination; we
need to thus elicit those responses by them through the words we choose to use. Be
careful of using regional or local language or specific dialects (Newsom & Haynes
2011).
Guidelines for the writing of the copy include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
One page is best.
Set the margins for a 60-space line, which allows for 3 to 4 seconds per line.
Use 12 pt Times New Roman or any serif-type font.
Use about 10 words per line.
Use about 15 lines per minute.
If printed use triple spacing.
Activity 7.2
Think about what we have learnt so far. If you were the PR practitioner for a
company that has been part of a major oil spill in our oceans, write a factsheet to
the public regarding this incident. Try and incorporate as many guidelines as
possible.
Feedback
Each student's response will be different depending on the message you wish to
disseminate.
Arrive Alive is well known for their radio campaigns to create awareness for safe
driving tips. Visit the following link to listen to their latest radio advert:
https://www.arrivealive.co.za/advert.aspx?p=14
Digital radio
Digital radio is digital audio broadcasting that can be transmitted over any digital
platform such as over digital television, stream over the internet and even over
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mobile phones (Fleming 2010:24–32). Radio broadcasted over frequency waves are
analogue. Digital radio has made it possible for listeners to tune into their favourite
radio station even though they are no longer in the broadcasting area. Think of
South Africans living in Canada who can listen to Heart FM (a Cape Town based
radio station) over the internet.
Radio in the South African context
“SAARF's main objective is to direct and publish media audience and product/brand
research for the benefit of its stake-holders, thereby providing data for target
marketing and a common currency for the buying and selling of media space and
time. SAARF has thus the responsibility to measure the audiences of all traditional
media such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema and out of home
media. This is done by ensuring that the necessary joint industry research surveys
are conducted every year to provide updated audience information for all traditional
media (All Media and Products Survey (AMPS), RAMS, TAMS and Out of Home Media
Survey (OHMS)).” (SAARF 2016)
Statistics and descriptions of media industry can be found in Entertainment and
media outlook: 2015- 2019 – South Africa – Nigeria – Kenya. Click on the link and
read what the media industry landscape looks like: https://www.pwc.co.za/
en/assets/pdf/entertainment-and-media-outlook-2015-2019.pdf
SABC to play 90% local music on its radio stations
BY BEKEZELA PHAKATHI, 11 MAY 2016, 17:15
IN AN effort to ensure that local content reflecting the diversity of South African cultures is
prioritised, the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) says it will play 90% local music
across its 18 radio stations from Thursday.
Local artists have long called for the percentage of South African music on community or public
radio stations' playlists to be increased. They argue that without radio airplay they are unable to
grow an audience and thus cannot sell records.
"The SABC will engage its audiences to evaluate whether the audiences are satisfied with these
changes. This process will pave the way for the corporation to make an informed decision going
forward," the broadcaster said in a statement on Wednesday.
The music to be played would be across all genres, with a special focus on genres such as
kwaito, jazz, reggae and gospel. In addition, the SABC will play more music from legends in the
industry and up-and-coming artists.
SABC chief operations officer Hlaudi Motsoeneng said: "The SABC has taken a radical decision
about its local content offering across all its radio, television and digital platforms. It is in this
context that the decision on local music will ensure that the SABC fully reflects the various styles
of local music on offer".
"Our respective radio stations will not be confined to playing local music which is language
specific, we want to come to a point where any of our 18 radio stations can become a home for
all South Africans.
"This cross-pollination of music is very important for the public service broadcaster, because part
of our mandate is to reflect the South African story and music is an important part in ensuring
that the SABC fulfills this mandate," said Mr Motsoeneng.
To promote local content on television, the broadcaster will use local music fillers between
programmes.
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From July, the SABC will increase its local content offering on television. Recently the
broadcaster called on independent and emerging producers to come up with fresh proposals and
content.
"The SABC looks forward to receiving contributions from all over the country. To support this
initiative, commissioning editors will be appointed in all the provinces at the various SABC
offices," the broadcaster said.
Source: http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/media/2016/05/11/SABC-to-play-90-local-music-on-itsradio-stations
7.3
TELEVISION AS A BROADCAST MEDIUM
Study the section that follows:
Television too is a big part of our daily lives, as people can discuss a soccer match
that was broadcasted or announcement from Parliament. Television has had a big
impact on the culture of societies as it is able to show a particular perception of the
society and thus shape culture. Television has combined all the best of other types
of media in that it is accessible, affordable, interactive, aesthetically appealing such
as in film in terms of look and sound, and it affords the imagination of radio and the
reach of the telegraph (Kellison 2009:17). Television allows for the dialogue relating
to social and political matters to be more widespread. Think of the conversations you
have with colleagues, friends and family when another incident has occurred in
Parliament, which was broadcasted, or when conversations in the workplace corridor
spark up relating to the latest episode of the most popular series at the time.
Television has a great impact on the conversations that people are having.
In the past, television as a medium used to be seen as very elitist. As you can see
from the viewer number from TAMS below, this is no longer the case. TV provides a
great broadcast medium for various reasons. One of the most beneficial elements is
that people watch it at home, so they are in a calmer state and peaceful. Even
though your audience is not as “captured” as in a cinema, you still have a fairly
captive audience; as TV is not as portable as radio, people need to sit and watch,
and so it is semi-captive. TV provides a good mix of sight and sound, movement and
radio. When people watch rather than listen, is possible that they are paying more
attention. Today, there is also the functionality of being able to record TV and
playback, so messages can be viewed over and over. Lastly, it is important to keep
in mind that TV is very expensive; there are costs for producing the TV segment as
well as flighting costs (Rensburg & Cant).
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A public relations campaign relating to health issues might be most suitable during
high peak viewer ratings (although a matter of cost is also important to consider). A
campaign on water saving tips aimed at children may be most suited during times
when children watch TV, such as in the afternoon, after school hours. The trends in
television may have an impact on when messages are most suited. These trends
include the following (Bivens 2014:19; Kellison 2009:42):
Digital TV (DTV) is television signals transmitted via an aerial town, phone lines, or
a cable into either the TV or through a decoder linked to the TV. This is, for
example, television signals through means of a DSTV dish and decoder.
Interactive TV (ITV) is digital signals that are transmitting a combination of
images, sound, graphics, games and information. This is, for example, when you link
to the internet to download series and movies, or even to upload user-generated
content, which you have created, to YouTube. User-generated content is especially
important as citizens also create news through their comments on blogs, and loading
pictures and videos of occurrences to social media, which become crucial in
reporting as it is an eye witness's testimony. Think of the images and videos
uploaded by students regarding the #FeesMustFall social movement to News24 or
other online newspaper social media pages, which became centre pieces in news
stories.
Multicasting is when broadcasters transmit programming via digital signals through
one high-quality, high-definition picture or by using the same amount of signalling to
send four regular, standard-definition pictures. For example, during the day, a
broadcaster has a channel on for kids’ programmes, cooking show, news shows and
documentaries. Later the evening, the broadcaster may have a high production
value series with well-known actors and expensive sets.
Video on demand (VOD) is a system which allows users the opportunity to watch
video, film and user-generated content to either watch immediately (thus stream the
content) or to download to watch later.
Digital video recorders (DVR) or personal video recorders (PVR) allow users
to record programmes to watch later, also allowing a programme to be played,
rewound and paused at the watchers’ will.
Why are these aspects important for a public relations practitioner? Will you allow a
pre-recorded interview to be downloaded? Will you allow an interview between a
journalist and the CEO regarding a recent crisis to be placed on a website so that it
can be live streamed? Knowing the implications, advantages and disadvantages of
the trends in the industry will enable the public relations practitioner to make more
sound decisions relating to the content.
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Particularly when it comes to news or interviews regarding the organisation, a PR
practitioner has a piece of information and needs to decide whether it is new he or
she can answer the following questions to decide (James & Wosh 2011):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Why is it news?
Who will it affect?
Why should our audience care?
Is there a link between your story and a larger news story?
Do we have images to available that will enhance our story?
In addition, the public relations practitioner can have a look at the ratings of
television during a particular time period to determine when the best time to report
on their story is. For example, a constant viewing rate is experienced during the
week of December 14, during the week of June 15, and during the week of
December 15 (a six-month interval, as seen in http://www.saarf.co.za/ramspresentations/2016/March%202016%20RAMS%20Release%20Highlights.docx).
Writing a news bulletin for television
News and current affairs are factual programmes, which are often considered as one
concept; however, there are differences. News is a straightforward report on an
issue, which may include sound bites or a reporter’s report, whereas current affairs
involves more discussion about a current event albeit with some debate, opinion
sharing and different views of the event being discussed. Important aspects when
reporting news is accuracy, fairness and impartiality.
Accuracy is ensuring that the facts are correct; therefore, the news reporter should
be able to answer the following:
What: what are the facts of the story?
Who: who is involved in the story and what role do they play in the story?
Where: where did the incident occur?
When: when did the incident occur?
Fairness is a subjective concept, which relates to the questions of why, how and the
consequences of the incident.
Impartiality relates to being balanced and using appropriate language. This means
balanced in the reporting and not siding with a particular party involved and using
appropriate language that does not give a negative slant to the story or that
exaggerates the story.
Television has three basic kinds of news stories, which are readers, voice-overs,
voice-overs/sound on tape (Tuggle et al, 2011:103–104).
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•
•
•
Readers involve no video or visual that is inserted over the anchors face,
although a visual to the side of an anchor is also considered a reader.
Voice-over involves video or visuals that are inserted over the anchors face,
although the anchors voice can be heard in the background.
Voice-overs/sound on tape involves a brief snippet of an on-camera interview
followed by a voice-over video.
When writing for any type of news bulletin, there are certain aspects that remain the
same such as the structure of the news report. A news report is about telling the
audience who, what, where, when, why and how regarding a story, but also
provides a structure for the story. A news report structure includes a headline, cues,
the facts, interviews and balancing arguments as well as concluding remarks. These
structural elements are discussed below (Willet 2013:219):
Headlines come from the presenter, which serves to grab the listeners' attention. It
provides details on why the rest of the report should be listened to and serves as a
heading of sorts, which appears on the news bulletin.
Cues are the introduction aspects to a field reporter's report. The cue sets up the
basic facts to give the listener reasons why they should continue listening to the
report.
The facts relate to the what, what, when and where of the story. Facts are the
details that the audiences should know, providing background before any discussion
commences.
Report from a correspondent/journalist is either the relay of facts or in other
cases, the interpretation of the facts.
Interviews/arguments/discussions relate to the why and how of the story,
which looks at the outcomes and consequences of the story. At this stage, primary
players in the story or experts in the field (relevant individuals) will provide their
opinion of the story.
Concluding remarks refer to when the argument or discussion is brought to an
end with a summary.
7.3.1.1
Writing guidelines for television
When developing a message for television, there are two specific areas that need
our attention, the copy and the complete production. For the development of the
production, we will begin with a storyboard. A storyboard is a rough sketch of the
major parts or scenes of the message drawn in sequence. The script of each scene
will appear below it on the story board. Production costs for television is very high
and along with that, the airing of these messages can be even more expensive.
Have a look at an example of a storyboard http://profcraigarmstrong.
wikispaces.com/Storyboarding.
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For the copy section of our message, we need to think both visually and verbally. It
is suggested that you take your piece of paper and draw a line down the middle; the
one side will represent the script and the other the description. This process is
followed to ensure we do not get caught up in the glamour of TV and lose the
message in the process. On the "script" side of the page, you will write down the
words you want the public to hear. You will go over this many times and ensure that
it says exactly what we want it to and does not leave room for misunderstanding.
The second part of this process will now be to write down a visual description for
each of the statements or words you have written already. Finally, you will take both
the verbal and visual messages and put them in a storyboard.
Guidelines for the writing of the copy include:
•
•
•
•
•
Set margins for a 30-space line.
Use 12 pt Times New Roman or any serif-type font.
Use about 6 words per line.
Use about 21 lines per minute.
If printed use triple spacing.
As we have discussed previously, Arrive Alive is an excellent example of a company
using broadcast media to get their message across. Visit the following link to view to
their latest TV advert: https://www.arrivealive.co.za/advert.aspx?p=2
Activity 7.3
Based on the Arrive Alive awareness campaign advert you have just watched, see if
you can draw or create a storyboard for this advert.
7.4
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the
examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the
feedback given in the prescribed book.
1. List and define the two types of broadcast media.
2. Explain how you would go about writing a fact sheet about obesity in South
Africa for a programme on Talk Radio 702.
3. Discuss the guidelines for writing for television.
4. What are the main differences between broadcast media and print media?
5. Discuss the guidelines for writing for radio.
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7.5
REFLECTION
Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions:
1
2
3
4
7.6
Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this
learning unit in your professional life?
What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more
help? What are you going to do about it?
What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
SUMMARY
You now know more about broadcast media, which differ from print media, and for
which you therefore have to write differently. We began the learning unit by
examining the nature of broadcast media. The key topics in this learning unit were
the definition and role of radio and television as broadcast media. As a prospective
public relations practitioner, you must understand the guidelines for writing for
radio and or television and be able to apply them by writing a news bulletin for
both radio and television.
In learning unit 8, you will learn about writing text intended for the electronic
media.
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7.7
REFERENCES
Bivens, R. 2014. Digital currents, how technology and the public are shaping TV
news. Toronto: University of Toronto.
Dovey, J. 2014. South Africa & Southern African Development Community Media
Facts 2015. [Online] Available at: http://www.omd.co.za/media_facts/FM%20AdFocus%20Media%20Facts%2028%20November%202014.pdf
(accessed on 16 May 2016).
Fleming, C. 2010. The radio handbook. 3rd edition. Abingdon: Routledge.
James, RD & Wosh, PJ. 2011. Public relations and marketing for archives: a how-todo-it manual. Chicago: Society of American Archivists and Neal-Schuman.
Kellison, C. 2009. Producing for TV and new media: a real-world approach for
producers. Oxford: Focal Press.
Newsom, D & Haynes, J. 2011. Public relations writing: form & style. 9th edition.
Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.
Rensburg, R & Cant, M. 2009. Public relations: African perspectives. 2nd edition.
Sandton: Heinemann.
SAARF. 2016. South African audience research foundation. [Online] Available at:
http://www.saarf.co.za/ (accessed on 16 May 2016).
Starr, DP & Dunsford, DW. 2014. Writing the story. Plymouth: Rowman &
Littlefield.
Willet, A. 2013. Media production: a practical guide to radio and TV. Abingdom:
Routledge.
Zappala, JM & Carden, AR. 2004. Public relations worktext: a writing and planning
resource. 2nd edition. New Jersey: Taylor & Francis.
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Learning unit 8
Writing text intended for online communication
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
8.1 Online communication
8.2 The internet
8.3 Writing for various online communication
8.4 Self-assessment questions
8.5 Reflection
8.6 Summary
8.7 References
8.
Introduction
Online communication is part of our life and it is one of the key ingredients to
survive in today's fast paced life. The use of online communication is increasing day
by day and is being implemented in almost every segment of our lives. It does not
matter which industry you are working in, online communication will be used in a
certain manner.
In your personal life you will use SMS, e-mail and Facebook to communicate with
friends and family. You will also use the internet to keep up to date with what is
going on in the world. If you are a public relations practitioner of a big corporate
organisation, some of your daily tasks would be to share information through the
organisation's website and social media accounts like Facebook and Twitter. Thanks
to the new smartphones, we are able to use online communication wherever we are,
whatever the time. According to Apple, iPhone and iOS are enabling every industry,
every line of business and every employee to work in astounding new ways (Apple
2016).
Overview of this learning unit
In this learning unit, we define media and briefly discuss different types of media.
(We have already dealt with two types of media, namely radio broadcasting and
television broadcasting in the previous learning units 6 and 7.) You will also learn
more about writing for online communication and the internet. It is important that
you know and understand the various electronic-based and internet-based media
types.
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This learning unit unfolds as follows:
Writing for various
online communication
Learning outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain online communication and the internet
explain writing for various electronic-based media types
explain the differences between the various types of internet-based media
evaluate online text
explain the internet and its benefits
discuss writing for the internet
explain writing e-mails
explain writing for SMSs
explain writing for webpages
explain writing for intranet
explain writing for e-newsletters
explain writing for discussion forums
explain writing for social media
explain writing for cloud-based computing
Key concepts
Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
define online communication
define e-mail
define SMS
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•
•
•
•
•
•
define world-wide web
define e-newsletters
discuss discussion forums
discuss blogging
explain social media
discuss cloud-based computing
VERY IMPORTANT!
Additional online material for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please
follow the URL below and download the material:
http://bookboon.com/en/communicating-with-technology-ebook (pages 283–302)
8.1
ONLINE COMMUNICATION
Study the section that follows:
Online communication is access to information through computer-based means. This
includes online newspapers, websites, social media, intranet and internet.
As a public relations practitioner, you would use the following online communication
to communicate to external stakeholders: online newspapers, websites and social
media. When a person communicates on behalf of an organisation, one must always
remember to uphold the image of the organisation.
To communicate with internal stakeholders, a person will use intranet, e-mails and
e-newsletters. Unisa, for example, has an intranet that sends mails to all employees.
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They also send out e-newsletters that give information on what is happening at the
various Unisa campuses.
The online communication revolution has renewed the ongoing debate whether print
media is still relevant. Both communication forms have its advantages. Please see
below the advantages as well as the disadvantages of online communication:
Advantages:
•
•
•
•
•
Speedy transmission – It requires only a few seconds to communicate online
because it supports quick transmission.
Wide coverage – It only takes seconds to communicate around the world.
Low cost – Online communication saves time and an SMS, for example, is a lot
cheaper than sending a letter.
Exchange of feedback – A person can send an e-mail and get a response within
minutes.
Managing global operation – It makes international business very easy, as one
can communicate with your overseas offices in real time without any delay.
Disadvantages:
•
•
•
8.2
Volume of data – You need to store the data to make it accessible in the future.
Cost of development – Online communication requires huge investment in
infrastructure. If the technology changes or becomes outdated, a company
needs to invest in new technology to keep up to date.
Dependency – The discrepancy between poor and rich countries increases as the
poor countries cannot afford to buy the newest and greatest technology.
THE INTERNET
Study the section that follows:
After studying this section, you should be able to explain what the internet is. You
should also be able to discuss how it can be used and what benefits it offers in
today's global business environment.
Previously, a company normally placed ads in the local newspapers and joined a
local networking organisation. Then they hoped that the customers needed what
they had to offer. All that changed with the beginning of the internet. A business is
no longer dependent on its local customer base for its survival; it now has a
worldwide audience for its goods and services. The internet has not only changed a
business's customer base but also the way it communicates with its employees and
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customers. Digital advertising, videos, banner advertisements and social media
advertising have become a norm.
The internet is a global communication network that allows almost all computers
worldwide to connect and exchange information. It also allows data to be
transferred between computers. In today's time, internet is not just used on
computers but a person can access the internet on a phone and tablet devices as
well.
An organisation will use the internet to advertise an organisation's products and
services, they will use it to communicate with various stakeholders, and they will
promote the organisation and build relationships with key stakeholders. There are
lots of ways to connect devices like mobile phones and computers to the internet.
The options will depend on where you live, what device you have, and if you want to
use the internet when you are away from home. The different connection types are
highlighted below:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dial up – The computer will dial a phone number using a telephone line.
Broadband – This is a high speed internet connection. You can watch news and
sport live. You can also download large files on broadband.
Fixed broadband – This is a permanent connection to the internet. You can use
the phone and internet at the same time.
Mobile broadband – You plug a USB modem into your device and use the mobile
as a tower to gain access to the internet.
Internet on mobile phones – Many phones let you access the internet. Smart
phones are mobile phones that are like small computers. They have software on
them to make it easy to surf the internet, check e-mail and use social
networking sites.
Wireless – Wireless hotspots are places like libraries and cafés that offer free
access to their broadband connection. You need to be a member of the library or
a customer at a café to get the password for the wireless.
In South Africa, the government and institutions have realised the need for people to
get connected to the internet, and they are thus implementing projects to give
people easier access to the internet. In Cape Town, there is currently a project to
create a fibre network to City-owned buildings to save them communication costs.
They have also linked their digital inclusion project that have created 61 access
points outside the buildings to broadcast Wi-Fi to the surrounding areas (Cameron
2015).
Project Isizwe along with the City of Tshwane have set up hundreds of Wi-Fi
hotspots to bring free internet to the residents in the city. This is achieved by
bringing fibre to a central point in the community. Broadband that are sponsored by
the municipality is broadcast from the central point, connecting 5 000 devices to
500 MB per day (Cameron 2015).
In the sections that follow, you will learn more about writing for various online –
communication media types.
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8.3
WRITING FOR VARIOUS ONLINE COMMUNICATION MEDIA TYPES
Study the section that follows:
As a public relations practitioner, you must be aware that there are different ways of
writing for different online communication-based media types. The main online
communication types are the internet, intranet, e-mail, blogs, Facebook and SMS. In
the next section, we discuss how to write for the various online-communication
media types.
Writing for the internet
Writing content for the internet is not the same as writing for print media.
After studying this section, you should know how to write for the internet and what
aspects you need to keep in mind. While writing for the internet, you should also
know what netiquette is and how to apply it while writing for the internet. Netiquette
is the network etiquette that is the guidelines for online communication
(Dictionary.com 2016).
Netiquette is network etiquette – the do's and don'ts of online communication. The
word netiquette is a combination of “net” (internet) and etiquette. It means
respecting the other users views and displaying common courtesy when posting on
the internet.
Below are a few useful guidelines for writing online communication:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Write simple and effective content. The content should be easy for everyone to
read and understand.
Understand that people read webpages differently than other media. People
scan the page for something that will keep their interest. Headings, bullet items,
text formatting and clear navigation will keep a reader interested in the article.
Write clean links. Specific links are navigation that will keep a reader interested
in the article.
Use visuals to grab and keep a reader's attention.
Be wary about sending attachments. The recipients may not have the necessary
or newest software to open the attachments.
Use an appropriate font and point size.
Write in a positive tone and avoid using negative words.
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Below is an example of a written public relations article written for the internet:
Health running shoes benefit athletes all over America
California: March 23, 2016. Four years ago our organisation Health introduced a
new kind of running shoe that supports a runner's feet while running.
The shoe was tested on numerous athletes from all ages. The feedback on the
shoe was amazing! A runner normally experience three types of problems, with
their feet and legs while running, which include blisters, runner's knee and black
nails from the pressure. A runner's feet undergo a lot of duress over the course
of a training cycle and blisters are a common occurrence after long runs or races.
The new Health running shoe is patented with similar special material use by
astronauts in space. The material is extra soft and bouncy, so from the very first
run with these shows it will protect the feet from blisters and black nails.
The second problem a runner can encounter is runner's knee. If a runner’s foot
is too unstable to land in a controlled manner, a runner could develop runner's
knee. The Health running shoe is extra soft and bouncy and thus decreases the
changes of a runner developing runner's knee.
The third problem runners experience with their feet are bruising or slight
bleeding under the nail from repetitive trauma of the top of the shoe, striking the
nail with each step or the shoe slides forward into the end of the shoe. Health
shoes are developed with extra padding on the top of the foot and the shoes are
made especially for the athletes and thus the shoes fits perfectly and minimises
the changes of the foot moving towards the front of the shoes.
Health running shoes were giving to a 1 000 athletes across America. After a
period of six months, interviews were scheduled with the athletes to get their
input and feedback regarding the shoes. A total of 60% of the athletes said that
they experienced less blisters while running with the Health shoes, 50% said
they had less problems with their knees since using the shoes and 70% said that
they had less bruising and bleeding under their toenails.
Health is very proud of what it has achieved in the running industry and strives
to improve the health of every athlete in America.
Press Contacts:
Anne Drinkwater
Health
drinkwater@health.com
(042) 556 2856
Matthew Jones
Health
jones@health.com
(042) 556 8896
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Note to editors:
(www.health.com).
For
additional
information
visit
Health's
website
Study the netiquette guidelines provided in this section and make sure you apply it
when you write for the internet.
Writing e-mails
E-mail, short for electronic mail, is defined as the transmission of a message by
telecommunication. After studying this section, you should be able to discuss the
rules for writing an e-mail. You will also come to understand that e-mail is an
effective method to communicate to various parties. Please see below the following
guidelines that you need to consider when writing an e-mail:
•
•
•
•
•
Do not use all capital or small cases unless when you are referring to an
acronym or term that is familiar with the reader. Capital letters may be
perceived as angry or aggressive.
Always address the reader in a professional manner. If you are not sure who the
reader is you should start with “Whom it may concern”.
Check your grammar before sending it and refrain from using slang.
Be polite and use words like “please” and “thank you”.
Use paragraphs to make it easier for the reader to read.
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Please see below examples of professional e-mails:
An example of poor communication:
An example of good communication:
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Activity 8.1
Read the “poor communication” e-mail in section 8.3.2. Study the guidelines for
writing an e-mail. Write down all the rules that Emma Smith broke when she wrote
the first e-mail.
Feedback
What e-mail rules did Emma Smith broke when she wrote the first mail?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Emma should have greeted the person to whom she was sending the mail and
not just say “Hi”.
Emma used capital letters for words like DEGREE.
Emma should have checked the spelling of the e-mail before she sent it.
Emma used slang language like “hav” and “pls”.
Emma should have ended the e-mail more professionally with “Yours sincerely”
or “Kind regards”.
Emma should have put a relevant subject in the subject line.
Writing SMSs
After studying this section, you should know what the definition of an SMS is. You
should also be able to explain the benefits of writing a high-quality SMS.
SMS stands for “short message service” and is called texting or text messaging. It is
a quick and convenient way of sending a short message to someone. The SMS is a
tool that the public relations practitioner can use to reach more people
simultaneously and instantly with an important message. SMS is included as online
communication as there are websites and online services that allow bulk SMSs to be
sent to a large number of people or specific individuals.
Below you will find an example of an SMS that a public relations practitioner might
send. In the case of this example, there were significant rainfall in Johannesburg
and the public relations practitioner of Quick Food wanted to warn the customers to
be careful:
JHB has experienced significant rain. Please be careful when visiting our
branches in North cliff and Fourways. Quick Food
SMSs can be used by a public relations practitioner to reach a large audience. SMSs
provide the urgency and flexibility to give customers valuable content at the most
precise time.
Netspeak is the special language, abbreviations and expressions used by people
when communicating using the internet. This is also used in SMS language and is
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usually informal and quick, and does not follow the usual formal rules of written
language. An SMS should be short, to the point and relevant to the reader. Public
relations practitioners should not use SMS language while communicating with the
public as it can be seen as unprofessional and the reader may not understand the
message that the public relations practitioner wants to deliver.
Activity 8.2
You are the public relations practitioner of SA Air. One of your planes has been
grounded because of engine trouble and flight 182 to Cape Town has therefore been
delayed. Write an SMS to inform the passengers of the situation.
Feedback
The SMS will look something like this: “Dear flight 182 passengers, due to
unforeseen circumstances the flight will be delayed until further notice. We apologise
for any inconvenience caused by SA Air.”
As a prospective public relations practitioner, you need to understand the
internet-based media types that we will discuss below. You will need to know how
they differ from one another, and you must be able to discuss and identify them,
and apply this knowledge practically.
Webpages
Many people think that the internet and the world-wide web are the same thing.
While they are closely linked, they are very different systems.
The internet is a huge network of computers that are connected together. The
world-wide web (web or WWW for short) is a collection of webpages found on this
network of computers. Your web browser uses the internet to access the web.
The world-wide web is important because it makes it easier for people to get
information, share information and communicate to the outside world. It allows for
people to share their work through social networking sites, blogs and video sharing.
Please see below a few guidelines to write for webpages:
1. Put your important information first – Writing for webpages is totally different
than writing for print media. Example: You are looking for a brown couch. When
you arrive at a website, you would like to see that they sell couches and,
secondly, you want a search box so you know you can quickly find out if they
have brown couches.
2. Don't use jargon or complicated word use – Simple statements work the best for
webpages.
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3. Write for a person that only scans – Only 16% of people read webpages word
for word. Visitors normally only hunt for information or products. Make sure they
can understand the important information.
4. Use familiar words – Imagine you want to fly to London and you are looking for
cheap flights. Most people will not search for cost-effective airlines, but rather
the words “cheap flights”.
5. Write for a lazy person – Make sure your copy is easy to understand by using
short paragraphs, short sentences and short text.
6. Expect people to arrive anywhere on the website – When people read a book,
they normally start from the first page at the first chapter. Imagine they open
the book and start in the middle or end of the book. This is how people read
things on a webpage; they will not start with the homepage, they may arrive
anywhere on the website.
7. Make a visual impression – The web designer and web copy editor must work
together. The visual appeal of your website will impact the readability of your
text and influence whether the visitor will quickly get what the company is
about.
A good example of a good website is www.whitehouse.gov.
The www.whitehouse.gov website is always changing. It has a clean design and it is
fairly easy to find what you are looking for on the webpages. There is even a “What
are you looking for?” search box.
After studying this section, you should be able to explain what the world-wide web
is and discuss its importance to you as a public relations practitioner.
Intranet
An intranet connects people within a network. It is simply a website within a
company's network. The main difference between an intranet and the internet is
that the internet is an open and a public space, while an intranet is designed to be a
private space. An intranet may be accessible from the internet, but as a rule it is
protected by a password and will only be accessible by employees or other
authorities.
E-newsletters
An e-mail newsletter is a message sent out to subscribers typically on a regular
interval. E-mail newsletters may be sent out daily, weekly, monthly or annually. The
content of the newsletter may vary with each edition. Some newsletters are so
popular they even sell advertising space. But the main aim of an e-mail newsletter is
to share information with the various stakeholders. You normally get two types of enewsletters – one that is aimed at internal stakeholders and one aimed at external
stakeholders.
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E-mail newsletters for internal stakeholders will be sent to individuals who reside
inside the company as board members, executives, managers and employees. E-mail
newsletter for external stakeholders will be sent to customers, suppliers or lenders
that influence the organisation.
After studying this section, you should be able to explain what an e-newsletter is.
You should also be able to discuss the guidelines for writing an e-newsletter, and to
apply your knowledge practically.
Discussion forums
A discussion forum is a web application for holding discussions and posting
user-generated content. It involves a group of people who use the internet to
discuss things of common interest such as cooking or the latest technology. As a
public relations practitioner, never ask questions that can be answered with a simple
“yes” or “no”. You need to know the needs of the participants in the discussion
forum, and to bring the conversation back to the original topic.
Please see below an example of a discussion post:
Barn Owl Forum
Topic: Barn Owl box
Posted by: Matthew Long
Date/Time:10/29/2015 5:32
Message: I have recently built a new barn and I have noticed
evidence of barn owls. I would like to build a box to
encourage them to nest? Any ideas on building a box?
Post a reply to this message:
Blogs
A blog can be defined as an online diary. Blog posts are assigned keywords to make
it easier to search for specific topics. The readers are also allowed to leave
comments to start a conversation with the writer and fellow readers. There are three
types of blogs: personal blogs, corporate blogs and news blogs. A personal blog is
where someone shares an experience, for example a mother that started a blog
because her son has leukemia. A corporate blog is a blog where the company uses
the blog to communicate with internal or external stakeholders on matters relating
to the company. The last type of blog is a news blog, which refers to online news
where readers can share their opinion regarding the article.
Social media
Social media is becoming one of the most exciting online tools available and it is
slowly moving into all areas of the web. It can sometimes be difficult to explain to
someone new to the internet the dynamic of social media. Douglas Wray wrote a
breakdown of all the major media services and explained how they differ from each
other by using the donut example found at https://smallbusiness.yahoo.com/
advisor/15-social-media-statistics-every-business-needs-know-001509118.html.
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The donut example is a simple example to explain the different social media sites.
Twitter is for telling people what you are doing at any given moment (eating a
donut), Facebook is more for sharing what you like in general (I like donuts), and
LinkedIn is for sharing what you are good at (skills with donuts).
There are lots of different social media platforms that a public relations practitioner
can use. Companies need to have an online presence; they cannot just wait for a
crisis to happen before commenting or responding on social media platforms.
Social media are very informal, but it is still important to be professional and create
a good image.
Cloud-based communication systems
Cloud-based computing is making use of the internet to store and access data.
“Cloud” is just another term used for the internet, which makes use of systems such
as Google Drive from Google or OneDrive from Microsoft, to allow individuals to
remotely access files, pictures, videos or any format for that matter from a cloud.
You can share folders with friends if you want them to see the pictures from last
night's function, or in the corporate environment, you can share documents with
colleagues on a project you are collaborating on. Documents saved to a cloud are
then immediate, accessible 24/7 and reduce printing costs. Cloud computing is
especially useful when sharing documents with other people in another city or
country as the documents are too large for e-mails.
For more information on cloud computing, see the article on the benefits, risks and
recommendations for information security relating to cloud computing. See the
following link:
http://www.oerafrica.org/system/files/8356/cloud-computing-security-riskassessment1_0.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=8356
Did you notice? There is no in text referencing in this learning unit?
What difference does it make to your perception of the sources of
information? How do you think it affects consumers' opinion of an
organisation when they don't seem to have fully detailed facts?
8.4
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the
examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the
feedback given.
1. Your cosmetic company, Forever Young, has a promotional special on this
month. If you purchase two Forever Young products, you will receive a
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2.
3.
4.
5.
8.5
cosmetic bag with small samples in. Draft a promotional SMS that you will send
to Forever Young clients.
Discuss five essential guidelines you need to apply when writing for the
internet.
What guidelines should you keep in mind when writing an e-mail?
You are the public relations practitioner for SA Air. The company has purchased
an airplane that is more environmentally friendly than normal airplanes. Write
an e-mail newsletter to your external stakeholders to introduce the new
addition to your fleet.
Explain the difference between the terms “intranet” and “internet”.
REFLECTION
Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions:
Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this
learning unit in your professional life?
2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more
help? What are you going to do about it?
3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
1.
8.6
SUMMARY
In this learning unit, you learnt the most important aspects of writing text intended
for online communication. You learnt about the factors to consider when writing for
the internet, and when it is appropriate for you as a public relations practitioner to
write and send an e-mail or SMS. You are now also able to identify the various
online-communication media types.
In learning unit 9, we will focus on writing text for business documents.
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8.7
REFERENCES
Apple. 2016. iOS and the new IT. [Online] Available at:
http://www.apple.com/za/ipad/business/it/ (accessed on 1 March 2016).
Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D
& Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Cameron, A. 2015. How partnerships are bringing the internet to Africa. [Online]
Available at: http://www.capetownpartnership.co.za/2015/12/partnerships-arebringing-the-internet-to-africa/ (accessed on 20 May 2016).
Davis, S. 2015. Types of online communication tools for business organization.
[Online] Available at: https://despreneur.com/types-of-online-communicationtools-for-business-organization/ (accessed on 6 May 2016).
Dictionary.com. 2016. Definition: Netiquette. [Online] Available at:
http://www.dictionary.com/browse/netiquette (accessed on 31 May 2016).
Griffith, E. 2016. What is cloud computing? [Online] Available at:
http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2372163,00.asp (accessed on 6 May
2016).
Internet society. 2016. How it works. [Online] Available at:
http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/how-it-works/ (accessed on 15 March
2016).
City University London. N.d. 10 rules for writing professional emails. [Online]
Available at: https://www.city.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/234354/Writing-Professional-Emails.pdf (accessed on 19 March 2016).
Henneke. 2013. 9 simple tips for writing persuasive web content. [Online] Available
at: http://www.enchantingmarketing.com/writing-for-the-web-vs-print/
(accessed on 7 March 2016).
Humphries, M. 2012. Social media explained with donuts. [Online] Available at:
http://www.geek.com/geek-cetera/social-media-explained-with-donuts1466613/ (accessed on 20 March 2016).
New York University. 2016. Writing for the web. [Online] Available at:
https://www.nyu.edu/employees/resources-and-services/media-andcommunications/styleguide/website/writing-for-the-web.html (accessed on
19 March 2016).
Fourie, L. 2014. Public relations: theory & practice. 1st edition. Cape Town: Juta.
Rensburg, R & Cant, M. 2009. Public relations: African perspectives. 2nd edition.
Sandton: Heinemann.
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Learning unit 9
Writing text intended for business
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
9.1 Business letters
9.2 Business reports
9.3 Business proposals
9.4 Self-assessment questions
9.5 Reflection
9.6 Summary
9.7 References
9.
Introduction
Today's business world is almost entirely information-driven. Whether you run a
small business or form part of a big corporation, chances are the bulk of your job
will consist of communicating with others, most often in writing. Good writing skills
allow you to communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger
audience than through face-to-face or telephone conversations.
As a public relations practitioner, you may be called to write a report or a grand
application or press release. You may also need to communicate daily through
official channels, for example by means of letters, e-mails, reports and proposals.
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Overview of this learning unit
In this learning unit, we deal with business documents. We start by discussing the
different types of business letters that you as a public relations practitioner may
have to write, and we investigate the formal process and format to be followed
when writing a business letter. Next, you will learn about the different types of
business reports, and we discuss annual reports and the important points to
remember when writing an annual report. Business proposals will be defined, and
you will learn the most important differences between proposals, letters and reports.
We also briefly discuss the development of a campaign proposal.
This learning unit unfolds as follows:
Learning outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain the structure for writing business communication
explain the guidelines to consider when writing business communication
explain the different types of business letters
explain the formal process for writing business letters
discuss the format of business letters
explain the different types of reports
explain business report writing
explain writing annual reports
explain writing business proposals
explain the main difference between business proposals, business letters and
reports
explain the format and writing of a campaign proposal
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Key concepts
Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain
explain
explain
explain
explain
explain
explain
business letters
business reports
business proposals
solicitation letters
transmittal letters
annual reports
campaign proposals
Very important!
Additional online material is for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please
follow the URL below and download the material:
http://bookboon.com/en/the-smart-guide-to-business-writing-ebook
9.1
BUSINESS LETTERS
Study the section that follows:
The term “business letters” refers to any written communication that begins with a
greeting, ends with a signature and where the contents are professional in nature.
Business letters are used to communicate formal matters in business or
jurisprudence (Quintanilla et al 2011:164). In the past, business letters were sent via
the post or courier, but because of the rapid change in business communication,
most of the letters are sent via the internet. There are many standard types of
business letters and each of them has a specific focus. The following are functions of
a business letter (Ramya 2012):
(a) Promotional function – The company can promote their company and products
using a business letter. The company can also try to expand their market by
sending out business letters.
(b) Information function – Business letters provide valuable data and information to
stakeholders of a company. Letters are used as reference. It is not only essential
to maintain good correspondence but also important to make them available in
the companies files.
(c) Legal function – Business letters can provide evidence in a legal dispute.
(d) Goodwill function – Business letters provide goodwill amongst parties. They
provide a good rapport between parties in a business transaction.
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Before starting to write the letter, you need to keep in mind particular format
details, which will ensure that your business letter remains professional.
Types of business letters
We will discuss the six types of business letters only briefly here. Pay close
attention to the examples provided, because these will help you understand the
differences between the types of business letters. All the types of business letters
follow the same format, but the context differs. Here is a list of, and brief details
about, the different types of business letters (Quintanilla et al 2011:169):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Informative letters are business letters where the letter informs and educate the
reader. After reading the letter, the person needs to gain knowledge and
information about something. A good example would be when an airline
announces that it will be flying to a new destination from now on.
Solicitation letters are letters where the writer asks for funds and charity
collection. A solicitation letter is always concise, clear, decent and to the point,
and to let the reader know the need for the money. An example would be a
letter from the charity organisation “Help Street Kids” asking companies to book
a table to the next charity ball organised by the “Help Street Kids” organisation.
Promotion letters are written to promote something, usually an organisation or
event. The promotion should be clear and to the point. For example, the public
relations practitioner of Big Air airlines will send out a promotional letter to
promote the new flight special where kids under six fly for free.
Transmittal letters accompany a larger item, usually a document. The transmittal
letter provides the recipient with a specific context in which to place the larger
document and at the same time gives the sender a permanent record of having
sent the material. A transmittal letter is usually brief. The first paragraph
describes what is being sent and the purpose. An example would be the public
relations practitioner sending a transmittal letter with the year reports of the
company Big Pirates Software to the relevant stakeholders before the yearly
AGM.
Cover letters are usually also sent with a larger item like a document. But the
cover letter is much shorter than the transmittal letter. For example, when you
send a CV to someone, you would send a cover letter with the CV as an
introduction.
Response letters are written in order to give response to any particular situation.
An example would be a response letter to a complaint received by a customer
due to fault in the service. Through a response letter the acceptance to the
complaint is shown and the customer is provided with a proper priority.
Thank you letters are used to express appreciation to co-workers and clients.
Letters of complaint are sent when the individual or organisation received poor
service or a faulty product. An example of a letter of complaint would be to an
airline where you received bad service from the airline and wish to bring it to
their attention. This does not necessarily need to be concise as it is important
that you detail your arguments and points as much as possible, as you would
like to provide the reader with enough detail to investigate the incident or
product.
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Activity 9.1
Read the below letter and determine what type of business letter it is and the
reasons for your answer.
Dr Viljoen and Partners
5 Hill Street
Maddison
Bloemfontein
53700
March 15, 2017
Ms Helen Jones
123 Church street
Bloemfontein
53701
Ms Helen Jones
Firstly, we would like to thank you for your support at Dr Viljoen and partners
through the years.
It is with great pleasure that we at Dr Viljoen and partners announce that we are
opening a pharmacy at the practice that will be open 24 hours a day. From now on,
you will be able to get your prescription medicine at the practice. The pharmacy will
be run by the Pharmacist Bettie Sithole.
Yours Sincerely,
Dr Viljoen and Partners
Feedback
The letter above is an informative letter because Dr Viljoen and Partners are
informing their patients that they are opening a pharmacy at the practice. The letter
informed and educated the reader.
Knowing what type of letter you need to write is the first step; now you need to be
sure that you use the correct layout.
Format of a business letter
Writing formal letters is very challenging when there are so many aspects that need
to be included. Who to address the letter to, language use, grammar, content quality
are all important when writing a letter. An illustration of a letter’s structure can be
found at http://www.goodletterwriting.com/formal-letters.html.
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Structuring of a business letter
It is important for the overall structure to be as clear and concise as possible and
that you avoid the use of colloquialisms (informal language). Colloquialisms are so
common, you might not even be aware you are using them. It is like saying “I
wasn't born yesterday” when you mean “you can't be fooled”. Aspects of the layout
include:
•
•
•
Addresses: Your preferred address should be included at the top right-hand
corner to inform the reader where they can send their response to when
replying. The letter recipient's address should be included in the left-hand side
corner along with the recipient's name.
Date: This should be displayed on the right-hand side of the page on the line
beneath your address and should be written in full format, for example 21st of
April 2016.
Salutation & greeting:
o
o
Use “Dear Sir” if you do not know the person's name that you are
addressing your letter to. It is, however, essential that you do research and
find the relevant person's name as it will show that you are serious about
the purpose of the letter and you are more likely to receive a response.
Most people will pay more attention to a letter addressed to them.
If you know the name, for example Jones, use one of the following titles:
Mr – for a male
Mrs – for a married female
Miss – for an unmarried female
Ms – for a female whose status is unknown or would prefer to remain
anonymous
o Dr – for a person with the status of a doctor
o Prof – for a person with the status of professor
o This title, whichever one it is, should be followed by
the surname only, for example, Mr Jones.
o
o
o
o
•
Content: Depending on the type of letter being written, there is still a general
structure to a letter with an introductory paragraph, main body and concluding
paragraph.
o
o
o
The introductory paragraph introduces the letter recipient to the purpose of
the letter. In this section, you need to make it clear why you are writing
the particular letter.
The main body provides the motivation for the letter, which should be to
the point, although it should also provide sufficient background information
where necessary.
The concluding paragraph should outline the action you would like the
letter recipient to take.
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Concluding words: There are different types of “signing off” wording that you
can use just above your signature, followed by your name in print underneath
the signature.
•
o “Yours faithfully” is recommended if you do not know the name of the
person.
o “Yours sincerely” is recommended if you name the letter recipient's name.
To understand the difference between formal and informal, see the video: “Writing
letters: formal vs informal” at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgwmAUJx248
Effective writing is like an
iceberg – 80% of your time
should be spend on:
–
–
–
–
–
–
analysing
structuring
planning
reviewing
proofing
editing
Technical guides on writing business communication
Know the purpose of your letter. To know your letter structure is not enough,
because you also need to ensure that your letter has quality content. See below the
aspects you need to take into consideration in terms of technicalities (Eichbaum
n.d.):
Message clarity
To maximise message clarity, you must evaluate your audience and avoid
generalities (Thill et al 2011:163). Ask yourself: “Who will read the communication?”
You will have both a primary and secondary audience. The primary audience is the
person or persons the communication is addressed to. The secondary audience is
other readers who will use the information in the communication. You need to keep
all the readers in mind when you are writing the communication. Message clarity is
achieved by using specific language instead of general language.
Message presentation
Message presentation is the lasting visual element to your written communication.
Use spelling and grammar checks and proof read your communication before it is
sent out. You will lose credibility if you send out communication in your name with
typo's and spelling mistakes. To also achieve professional excellence, your
documents and e-mail should be printed in black ink and should be legible (Thill et al
2011:164).
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“Keys” concept of writing (Thill et al):
K
E
Y
S
Know yourself. Make sure you know your strengths and weaknesses – you may
not be a good editor of your own work.
Evaluate the professional context. Make use of black ink and write legible.
Your communication interaction with the reader is vital.
Step back and reflect. Take in the whole communication; make sure it flows
and is easy for the reader to understand and read.
Message structure
Writing communication needs to have a general and clear purpose. Ask yourself:
What is the purpose of the communication? What is the key message you want to
get across? What do you want the audience to take away from this message?
Develop an outline before you start writing. The outline will help you define the
structure of the message.
Optimising your writing time
Start by figuring out the amount of time you need to spend on the project. The
general rule is 50% for planning, 25% for writing and 25% for completing (Thill et al
2013:136). The ideal split time will vary from letter to letter.
Planning effectively
An unexperienced writer may be tempted to start by writing the communication
immediately. However, if you do not start off with your planning first, you may end
up creating extra work for yourself. Firstly, planning is necessary to create the right
information in the right format to the right people. Secondly, with careful planning,
your writing may be faster and easier. And, lastly, planning can save you from
making unnecessary mistakes (Thill et al 2013:136).
Technology
Depending on the types of messages you are creating, you'll benefit from being
proficient in the following features (Thill et al 2016:209):
•
•
•
•
Templates, themes and stylesheets – These will save time.
Page set-up – use this to control margins, orientation and the location of
headings.
Column formatting – This will enhance the look of the document.
Tables – These are great for displaying information.
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Thill et al (2013:134) describe three steps in the writing process:
1) Plan
•
•
•
•
Analyse the situation.
Define the purpose and
audience.
Gather information
from primary and
secondary sources.
Select the right
medium to
communicate in.
2) Write
3) Complete
• Adapt to your audience.
• Compose the message.
•
•
•
•
Revise the message.
Produce the message.
Proofread the message.
Distribute the message to
the desired audience.
Activity 9.2
Read the newspaper article below and then complete the activity. You are the
public relations officer for Amigo airline. As a result of the incident below, write a
business letter to the passengers on board flight AG1250.
Johannesburg – Passengers flying on board the 9:30 am Amigo airline flight AG1250
from Johannesburg en route to George had an unfortunate experience. During the
flight there was an incident where the cabin pressure dropped, which resulted in
oxygen masks deploying from the overhead panels.
Amigo airlines confirmed in a statement that the incident did take place. The airline
decided to make an emergency landing at Bloemfontein's airport. “Medical
assistance was on standby to help any distressed passengers, but we are glad to
report that there were no serious injuries,” said Amigo airlines public relations
practitioner Gary Smith. The airline said that it was in constant communication with
all passengers affected by today's incident, and a back-up aircraft was scheduled to
leave Bloemfontein at 13:00 to embark to George. The incident has, however,
caused unexpected delays for passengers that have caused them to be very upset.
The affected flights were AG1800 – from CPT – PLZ (cancelled), AG1351 – PLZ –
CPT (delayed) and AG18200 – CPT – JNB (delayed).
Affected passengers could also phone 011 859 6425.
Feedback
Your letter could have looked something like this:
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Amigo Airlines
8 March 2017
Ms L Mthembu
321 Church street
Johannesburg 0001
INCIDENT ON FLIGHT AG1250
Dear Ms Mthembu
Firstly, we would like to take this opportunity to apologise on behalf of Amigo
flights for the experienced you had on one of our planes last week. The cabin
pressure incident that occurred last week was due to a technical difficulty that
the flight experienced. We are happy to announce that it was only a pre-warning
and nothing was wrong with the engines as speculated. However, the captain
decided to make an emergency landing to double check the engines. As Amigo
airlines didn't want to take any risks, we decided to rather get a new plane in
from OR Tambo.
To make up for any inconvenienced caused, Amigo airline would like to provide
you with a free flight ticket to a destination in South Africa of your choice.
Please contact our customer relations department at 011 589 1528 to make the
necessary arrangements.
Yours sincerely,
Gary Smith
Public relations practitioner, Amigo airlines
9.2
BUSINESS REPORTS
Study the section that follows:
Writing an effective business report is a necessary skill to communicate ideas in the
business environment. Reports usually address a specific issue or problem and are
often commissioned when a decision needs to be made.
As in all writing, planning is very important. The key questions to ask yourself when
you are planning to write a business report are:
•
•
•
•
What are the report's main messages?
What is the purpose of this report?
How will the report be structured?
Who are the readers of the report?
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A business report is a summary of information, usually linked to research or to
something that has already happened. A report can explain the reasons for a specific
occurrence, but does not propose any kind of action.
There are three types of reports, namely:
•
research reports
•
evaluation reports
•
annual reports
Activity 9.3
Choose a report from http://www.brandsouthafrica.com/research-analysis/researchand-reports and discuss what the purpose of the report is and who the audience is.
Research reports
You should be able discuss the different sections in a research report in detail and
apply your knowledge practically by writing a research report.
Research reports sum up the information derived from a research study. It is
important to plan your report so that it focuses on a single important finding or
group of findings.
Make sure that you are able to explain each section in detail, and also that you
would be able to write a research report if necessary.
To understand the business research report see the video at:
https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/slc/MBA/index.html
Evaluation reports
Evaluation reports evaluate the performance of a specific activity (Better evaluation
2013). Evaluation reports can be read by different audiences. Regardless of who the
target audience is make sure the report is readable and straight to the point. The
report could discuss the success or failure of the activity. For example, if you had a
public relations campaign to create awareness of your company's new improved
products, you may afterwards want to write a report in which you evaluate the
success of the campaign. See the table 9.1 that the public relations practitioner can
use as guideline to write an evaluation report for the campaign.
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Annual reports
An annual report is created once a year and it provides an analysis and assessment
of the trends of the past year. An annual report can help a company understand the
strengths and weaknesses of a certain company's business economy, since it paints
a picture of the corporate earnings (Stewart n.d). Annual reports can also be used to
show the company's financial situation to important users. It is very important to
have an accurate and a credible annual report as the annual reports are used to
access credit and borrow money should your company require funding.
Steps on how to write an annual report (Stewart n.d):
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
Determine the audience for the report and prepare the content
accordingly.
Prepare the report by reviewing each month of the preceding year.
Begin with a letter from the organisation's CEO.
Prepare charts and grafts that illustrate the organisation's financial
performance.
Conclude with content that recaps the report, outlines future initiatives
and sets performance goals.
The table below summarises the general headings often used in the different types
of business reports:
Table 9.1: Aspects relating to different types of reports
Section
Title Page
Table of content
Executive Summary
Introduction
Report type
Research &
evaluation
Research &
evaluation
Research
Purpose
Title of report. Author. Date
Shows sections of the report
Evaluation
Summary of the whole report. Outlines purpose,
research method, findings, main conclusion and
recommendations
Summary of what was evaluated
Research
Outlines background and purpose
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Evaluation
Program description
Evaluation purpose
Key questions of
evaluation scope
Methodology
Results/findings
Evaluation
Why the report was made and what did the public
relations practitioner intend to achieve by the
evaluation
Describe what was evaluated
Explained why it was evaluated
What did the practitioner wanted to achieve. What
questions needed to be answered.
Explain how research was done and outline how the
data was collected
What methodology was used
Research
Presents findings of the research. Facts only
Evaluation
What did the Public relations practitioner find after
the evaluation was done
Presents an interpretation and evaluation of the
results. Analyse results
A summary wrapping up the report
Brief statement of what was found
Evaluation
Evaluation
Evaluation
Research
Discussion
Research
Summary
Conclusion
Evaluation
Research
Evaluation
Recommendations
Research
Evaluation
Lessons
Appendix
References
9.3
What conclusion did the practitioner find and what is
the way forward
Suggest suitable changes and solutions
Evaluation
What does the practitioner recommend after doing
the evaluation
What lessons can be learned
Attachments of additional information eg. Surveys
and questionnaires.
Annexures with supporting documents
Research
All references used
Evaluation
Research
BUSINESS PROPOSALS
Study the section that follows:
In today's business world, your ability to write a powerful proposal is extremely
important. The main difference between a business report and a business proposal is
the call to or request for action. The writer proposes that the reader undertakes
some kind of action.
In this section, we will focus on just one type of business proposal, namely the
campaign proposal. A campaign proposal is designed to market a themed set of
public relations activities, and after studying this section, you should be able to
discuss the role of a campaign proposal in the public relations setting.
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Look at the following steps to write a winning proposal:
1. Study the requirements – To write a winning proposal, you need to
understand what the client's requirements are. While you are writing the
proposal ask yourself: “What are the company's goals? Is the time frame,
budget, scope of work reasonable?” You need to decide whether you want to
proceed with the proposal. You may decide to wait for a better opportunity.
2. Understand the client – If you don't understand the client's need, you won't
be able to write a proposal. The best way to understand what the clients really
needs is to talk to them. Ask people in the organisation about their concerns,
their policies and vision. You'll want to get some general information about the
company and the industry they are in. Ask questions like: “How long has the
company been in business?”; “Who are their major decision makers?”; “Who is
the competition?”; and “What are their main products or services?”
3. Develop the methodology – Once your client's goals are clearly identified,
you need to develop the steps or methodology to reach them.
4. Evaluate the solution – Will your solution satisfy your client? You should
describe your solution in a way that will receive the most favorable evaluation
from the decision maker.
5. Outshine your competition – Don't forget that a proposal is a sales
document, designed to persuade the client to hire your company instead of a
competitor. So make sure your proposal reinforces your company's strengths.
6. Write the proposal – Now that you've completed the first five steps, most of
the work is done. All that's left is assembling the information into a proposal
format.
The proposal will include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A situation analysis – Explain the background or problem that motivates the
organisation to write the proposal.
Objectives – Clearly explain the goals of your proposal.
Target audience or publics – Make sure you know who will read the proposal
and who the decision makers will be.
Key messages – What is the key message you want the audience to take in?
A strategy – Work out Your strategy that you are going to take; make sure
the strategy fits in with the organisation.
A conclusion – What will the benefits be in choosing your company? End
with stating projects your company has done for other companies.
A schedule – Provide the schedule that your company will follow.
A budget – Thoroughly explain the time and cost requirements for each
step. This section should also specify how you will be billing the client and
when payment will be expected.
7. Apply the finishing touches – Review the proposal carefully to ensure it
fulfills the requirement. Have someone proofread the proposal to catch any
spelling and grammatical mistakes.
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Outcomes: You should be able to discuss the role of a business proposal in
the public relations setting and discuss the format of the business proposal.
Activity 9.4
A public school, Green Acres Primary School, wants to build a new school. They
have published a call for bids to local construction workers. Your company, AAA
Building, wants to put in a proposal. What will your steps be before you start
writing the proposal?
Feedback
Your steps will be:
1.
2.
3.
9.4
Research – Find out all you can about the school. Go to their website. Find out
when they started and how many kids they currently have and plan to have in
the future. Find out what sports and culture activities the school partakes in so
you can make sure they building will be able to accompany it.
Arrange a meeting – Set up a meeting with the school principal and school
board. Ask them all the questions you have. Make sure to find out the goals
and plans of the school, and what they hope to achieve with the new building.
Develop your solution – Make sure you know exactly what your company wants
to achieve with the proposal and what solutions they want to offer Green Acres
Primary School.
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the
examination. Work through them carefully.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
9.5
Explain the promotional function of a business letter.
What are the different types of business letters?
What are the main components of a business letter?
Explain what a research report is.
What are the steps to write an annual report? Apply them.
REFLECTION
Before you go on to the next learning unit, reflect on the following questions:
1. Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this
learning unit in your professional life?
2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more
help? What are you going to do about it?
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3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study program?
9.6
SUMMARY
Today's business world is almost entirely information-driven. Whether you work for
a multinational company or a small corner shop business, chances are the bulk of
your job as a public relations practitioner will consist of communicating with others,
most often in writing. There is e-mail, traditional business letters, presentations and
proposals.
In this learning unit, we take a detailed look at the various business documents
public relations practitioners' deal with and the different formats of these
documents. You need to be able to identify the appropriate (correct) type of
business letter to write to the appropriate (correct) person at the appropriate
(correct) time. You will also often encounter business proposals and reports, and
the ability to write these types of documents will be of great value to you.
Learning unit 10 deals with all the planning that goes into a communication
campaign, as well as how a public relations practitioner manages a campaign of
this kind.
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9.7
REFERENCES
Better evaluation. 2013. Report and support use. [Online] Available at:
http://betterevaluation.org/evaluation-options/finalreports (accessed on
18 April 2016).
Boot, C. 2015. How to write a winning proposal. [Online] Available at:
http://www.plana.co.nz/how-write-winning-proposal (accessed on 18 April
2016).
Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D
& Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Eichbaum, C. n.d. Writing skills workbook: Victoria Business School – Student
learning support service. [Online] Available at:
http://www.victoria.ac.nz/vbs/teaching/resources/VBSWritingBooklet.pdf
(accessed on 18 April 2016).
Quintanilla, KM & Wahl, ST. 2011. Business and professional communication.
London: Sage.
Ramya, N. 2012. Functions of a business letter. [Online] Available at:
http://communicationtheory.org/functions-of-a-business-letter (accessed on
18 April 2016).
Stewart, A. n.d. How to write a CEO's annual report. [Online] Available at:
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/write-ceos-annual-report-64771.html (accessed
on 18 April 2016).
Taylor, S. 2015. Good writing should be everyone's business. [Online] Available at:
http://executivesecretary.com/why-good-writing-skills-are-important-in-todaysworkplace (accessed on 18 April 2016).
Thill, JV & Bovee, CI. 2013. Excellence in business communication. England:
Pearson Education limited.
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Learning unit 10
Planning and managing public relations communication campaigns
Introduction
Overview of this learning unit
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
10.1 Communication planning and management
10.2 What are public relations campaigns
10.3 The public relations campaign process
10.4 Public relations models
10.5 Self-assessment questions
10.6 Reflection
10.7 Summary
10.8 References
10. Introduction
Planning and managing a public relations communication campaign can be a very
rewarding activity. Before you start this section, take a look at the communication
campaign websites below. If you reside in South Africa, you may recognise them
immediately, having heard about these campaigns on the radio, having seen them
on television, or having read about them in the newspaper. Campaigns like these
are, however, not developed overnight. Well-known public relations communication
campaigns of this kind require a great deal of planning and monitoring to ensure
that their specific objectives are met.
Well known campaigns in South Africa:
•
•
•
Arrive Alive:
http://www.dispatchlive.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Arrive-alive.jpg
World Aids Day:
http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/styles/article_image/public/
article_pics/world-aids-day-2010.gif?itok=CFAotUsp
16 Days of Activism Against Woman and Child Abuse:
http://www.affinityrescue.co.za/wp-content/uploads/
2014/11/16-days-of-activism.jpg
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Overview of this learning unit
This learning unit deals with planning and managing public relations communication
campaigns. We will take a look at communication planning and the various theories
on which it is based. We will start by discussing the main functions of
communication planning, after which we explore the most important elements of
public relations planning and management. We will end the learning unit by
investigating the elements and objectives of communication campaigns and various
campaign models. This learning unit brings together all the concepts learnt thus far
in the study guide. In order to plan a campaign, you need to understand how
communication works and what public relations is (learning unit 1), then you need to
know what skills as a public relations practitioner you should have in order to
perform the tasks necessary (learning unit 2). The skills required for a public
relations practitioner is to know how to communicate effectively in terms of listening
(learning unit 3), speaking (learning unit 4) and reading (learning unit 5). Once you
have acquired the necessary skills, you should then be able to apply your skills by
writing for print media (learning unit 6), broadcast media (learning unit 7), electronic
media (learning unit 8) and writing business documents (learning unit 9).
This learning unit unfolds as follows:
Learning outcomes
In this learning unit, we will be covering the following aspects:
•
•
•
explain the main functions of communication planning
explain the key elements of public relations communication planning and
management
define communication campaigns
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•
•
•
explain elements of a campaign
define the types of campaigns
explain communication models
Key concepts
Having worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
define communication planning
define advocacy
define effectiveness
explain communication campaigns
explain Cutlip, Center and Broom's public relations process
explain the CBO model
explain the PRISA model
Very important!
Additional online material is for enrichment purposes for this learning unit. Please
follow the URL below and download the material:
http://bookboon.com/en/business-communication-ebook
10.1 COMMUNICATION PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Study the section that follows:
In this section, you are introduced to the various approaches that a campaign
planner can use when planning and managing a communication campaign. You will
notice that a communication planner needs to evaluate the effectiveness of
communication campaigns. Familiarise yourself with exactly how a campaign planner
will accomplish this. Note that the main functions of communication planning are to:
•
•
•
•
find new solutions to communication problems
formulate new messages
find and combine new communication channels
define the target audience in an interesting way
Note that communication planning should be done in such a way that:
•
•
•
•
a detailed analysis of objectives is done right at the beginning
the target audience is reached
the message is distributed effectively
research and evaluation are done after the plan has been put in place
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10.2 WHAT ARE PUBLIC RELATIONS CAMPAIGNS (ROLES)
Study the section that follows:
Public relations campaigns are numerous stipulated activities that are designed to
cause change within the target audience or to prevent certain behaviour within a
target audience (Riggelsford 2013:87).
A public relations campaign uses all the guidelines and skills discussed from learning
units 1 to 9. Remember that different campaigns have different objectives. The most
common objectives of communication campaigns are to:
•
•
•
•
•
inform the target stakeholders about a certain issue or event. For example, radio
stations may broadcast messages relating to an event like a 5 km race that
raises funds for cancer, or the date and locations for the CANSA Shavathon.
create awareness. For example, the Breast Cancer day, strives to make men and
women aware of breast cancer and the necessity to go for mammograms every
second year.
persuade the target stakeholders to change their attitudes about certain issues.
An example would be striving to change people's attitude towards dog fights to
see them as wrong.
urge target stakeholders to act or behave in a certain way. The Drive Dry
campaign urges people to not drink and drive, as by doing so they are a danger
to others.
educate the target audience regarding a specific issue or event. The Journey of
Hope campaign involves survivors of breast cancer riding around the country on
motorbikes to educate people about breast cancer and spread a message of
hope.
Different types of persuasive campaigns
Persuasive campaigns are efforts to gain public support for an organisation's course
of action or opinion. There are different types of persuasive campaigns, which can
either resolves problems or which use opportunities that exist in the marketplace.
There are five categories of campaigns, namely political, commercial, reputation,
educational and social action (Bobbitt & Sullivan 2014:3–4):
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A political campaigns are subdivided into candidate-oriented campaigns and
issue-oriented campaigns. In candidate-orientated campaigns, candidates are
arranged by political campaign officers who use unethical means to convince target
audiences, such as scare tactics including deception, exaggeration and other forms
of spin. Considering that spin is frowned upon, this type of campaign will not be
discussed. Issue-oriented campaigns are not free of spin, although these
campaigns are often aimed at attempting to have a bill, law or regulation either
passed or defeated. Think of the Consumer Protection Act, which many consumers
were happy about, as it meant less insurance and cellphone sales calls.
A commercial campaign is used to promote an organisation's new offerings,
whether it may be products or services. Marketing and advertising are mostly
utilised to promote the organisation's product and services, although some
techniques of public relations are also utilised. An example would be an
organisation selling beauty products using advertising, but also a news release if
the products are environmentally friendly that coincidences with Earth Week,
showing a consideration for the planet.
A reputation campaign also known as an image campaign, which is aimed at
improving the perception the target audience has of the organisation or non-profit
organisation. The difference between reputation and commercial campaigns is that
commercial campaigns deal with the organisation's services and product offerings,
whereas reputation campaigns deal with the organisation as a whole. Reputation
campaigns usually follow a crisis or occurrences that tarnished the organisation's
image or even when too many small negative events have occurred over a period
of time that have also tarnished the organisation's image. Often, oil companies
have reputation campaigns when a major oil spill has occurred. Even companies
that have had to recall their products due to health risks, often perform reputation
campaigns soon after in order to improve their image. Can you think of a South
Africa organisation that has performed a reputation campaign?
An educational campaign, which is also known as a public awareness campaign, is
conducted by a non-profit organisation or advocacy groups in an attempt to
educate audiences of social concerns. There are two main aims of these campaigns
in terms of advocating for a behavioural change, namely (1) to begin doing
something that the audience has never done before (such as examining oneself for
signs of cancer) and (2) to stop doing something that the audience has done for a
long time (such as to stop smoking). These campaigns are usually related to health
issues, such as information about medical conditions (stop eating too much salt as
it leads to high blood pressure, or stop eating fatty foods as it leads to a high
cholesterol), or it is to encourage a behavioural change in terms of social concerns
such as to stop smoking, to not drink and drive, or to protect yourself from
contracting HIV/AIDS during sexual intercourse.
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A social action campaign relates to the advocacy of a social issue or cause. The
techniques used for this campaign are very similar to issue-oriented political
campaigns; however, social action campaigns are long term. For example, an issueoriented political campaigning has a short-term focus, as it may pass a specific law
regarding gun control, whereas social action campaigns aim for a broader, openended campaign that continues the effort to pass laws relating to gun control
measures over a long period of time. A short-term goal could be to supply sanitary
wear to girls at poor schools, while the long-term goal is to encourage girls to
attend schools and excel in their academics.
10.3 THE PUBLIC RELATIONS CAMPAIGN PROCESS
Study the section that follows:
There are two processes that need to take place in order for the public relations
campaign to take place. Firstly, a public relations strategy needs to take place. A
public relations strategy is a management process whereby management formulates
a framework against which the public relations campaign takes place (Hansen-Horn
& Horn 2014:95). Secondly, a public relations plan needs to take place. This is the
actionable plan relating to what activities must take place in order for the campaign
to exist and be “live” (Steyn & Puth 2000:73).
For additional information on a public relations campaign, look through the slides
found at:
http://www.slideshare.net/mokshjuneja/public-relations-management-session-3developing-pr-plan-and-strategy
Communication strategy
The public relations strategy provides the framework from which all public relations
communication should follow (Hansen-Horn & Horn 2014:95). It is the management
blue print relating to guidelines on what type of communication with stakeholders
can and cannot be performed. The public relations strategy provides the context and
guiding principles that all public relations campaigns should follow. It is the link
between the “why” and “how” that links the objectives and tactics together (Steyn &
Puth 2000:52). The public relations strategy is indicated below:
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Environmental analysis
Stakeholder identification
Strategic issues identification
Communication strategy development
Communication policy development
Media analysis
Management agreement
Develop communication plan
Source:
Adapted from Steyn & Puth (2000:63)
FIGURE 10.1: A model for developing a public relations strategy
10.3.1.1
Environmental analysis
In order to make any organisatioinal decision, the organisation needs to be familiar
with themselves and with the external environment.
Internal environment
The organisation needs to be clear on (Cant 2013:24–29):
•
•
•
•
•
•
the mission statement – the course or pathway the organisation wants to move
towards in terms of actions and activities
the objectives – the specific targets that the organisation wishes to achieve
the scope – entailing the future direction the public relations campaigns should
take
the organisational culture – the culture within the organisation
the values – the principles that the organisation follows in its operations
the policies – the guidelines that indicate to each department or function within
the organisation what they are allowed to do and what is not allowed.
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External environment
The organisation needs to be clear on aspects that could affect its operations and
the decisions for the public relations plan. The external environmental aspects are
(Cant 2013:32–37):
•
•
•
•
•
The macro environment – This refers to the sectors within the market that can
affect an organisation, such as competition.
The sociocultural environment – This refers to the beliefs, attitudes, values,
lifestyle choices and opinions of individuals.
The economic environment – This refers to the economic changes at national
and international levels, which could have an effect on an organisation, such as
a recession or interest rate hikes.
The legal and political environment – Legislation passes rules and regulations,
which could affect the operations of an organisation relating to what the
organisation may and may not do in terms of operations. For example, the
tobacco industry has been affected in terms of the advertising of tobacco
products, as it is no longer possible to advertise on big bill boards and in
magazines.
The technological environment – Rapid changes in technology have changed the
way that organisations operate. For example, certain operations can be
completed by means of robots, such as the assembly of vehicles; greater
interaction is possible with people across the world due to communication
channels such as Skype and Dropbox.
10.3.1.2
Stakeholder identification
There are a number of important stakeholders that an organisation needs to take
into consideration when communicating through a public relations campaign. By
mapping stakeholder groups (creating a diagram that indicates which stakeholder
groups the organisation interacts with), an organisation can refer to the map when
making decisions on what communication will be suitable for the different
stakeholder groups. The stakeholders that an organisation will have to take into
account are (Gordon 2011:136) (remember that this was referred to as linkages):
•
•
•
Enabling stakeholders: These are stakeholders who have authority within the
organisation and control its resources. For example, government regulates
operations, while management indicates how an organisation is to be controlled
along with shareholders and directors.
Functional stakeholders: These are stakeholders who provide inputs and those
that make use of the outputs of an organisation. For example, employees and
unions are stakeholder groups who perform the activities in order to render a
service to the customers, while the customers are the stakeholders who make
use of the service, and thus make use of the outputs of the organisation.
Normative stakeholders: These are the stakeholders who provide connections to
the organisation and are similar to the organisation. Connections to the
organisation include offering outsourcing services to an organisation or
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•
professional services to the organisation such as consultation or professional
associations.
Diffused stakeholders: These are the stakeholders who are not part of the
organisation, although they play some sort of role to manage the organisation's
management of the other stakeholder groups. These stakeholders include media
relations, environmental relations and community relations.
10.3.1.3
Strategic issues identification
There are strategic issues that an organisation needs to consider before being able
to create a public relations plan:
•
•
•
Issues tracking: This is the process of scanning the environment for any mention
of negative comments that any stakeholder group may communicate using any
form of media channel. For example, an organisation is able to track any
mentions and any negative comments (although positive too).
SWOT analysis: This is the identification of the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats that an organisation may experience in the
environment.
Differentiating between the different strategic issues:
Organisational issue
Management communication issue
(1) Communication can provide a solution to the
existing problem, for example, misunderstandings of roles of employees linked to
tasks.
(2) Communication cannot solve the problem, but
can clarify the issue, for example, clarifying
that there is a problem with the IT system
and that it will be resolved shortly.
Lack of communication or insufficient information
with internal stakeholders is the cause of the
problem. For example, when a merger takes
place between two organisations, the employees
can be left confused and frustrated by the lack of
communication regarding retrenchment and new
organisational policies.
Corporate communication issue
Tactical communication issue
Lack of communication or insufficient information
with external stakeholders is the cause of the
problem, for example, an organisation not
indicating that their products have been
withdrawn due to health risks.
Messages are disseminated but do not reach the
intended target audience, for example, using the
incorrect communication channel to communicate
with stakeholders such as using blogs to reach
rural farm workers.
It is essential to identify the strategic issues from the internal environment as it
could affect the organisation's performance (such as productivity and employee
morale), while issues from the external environment could also affect an
organisation's operations (such as non-compliance of regulations that may cause the
organisation's operational pause). Therefore, based on the identification of strategic
issues, the organisation is able to determine what the implications of these strategic
issues will be on the relevant stakeholders.
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10.3.1.4
Communication strategy development
At this stage, the organisation can make a decision on what must be communicated
to each stakeholder group to solve the problem or in pursuing an opportunity as a
result of the strategic issue. The communication policy will give direction in terms of
the broad terms of communication messages and channels used in addressing the
particular issue. For example, if a new regulation provides health guidelines for an
organisation’s beauty products, the organisation may decide to communicate the
new regulations to the employees through meetings where employees can ask
questions. This can be followed by an internal newsletter to remind employees of
the issues and expand on them, and then cemented with the use of policy
documents that are distributed to each and every employee. To communicate the
regulation changes to suppliers, the organisation could send out memos relating to
new standards implemented to ensure the regulation is upheld by the suppliers. The
organisation can communicate the change in health regulations through beauty
campaigns advocating for more environmentally friendly testing, ingredients and
manufacturing process.
Communication goals should be set in order to have a set direction, which the public
relations plan can follow. This will ensure that no deviation from the strategy can
occur due to poorly set goals or non-communication thereof.
10.3.1.5
Communication policy development
The communication policy informs the relevant employees involved in the public
relations strategy who is allowed to communicate particular messages to particular
stakeholder groups. The communication policy is influenced by organisational
culture, values and norms.
The policy should address matters such as:
•
•
•
•
Functional
communication
areas:
This refers to internal or external
communication guidelines relating to which technique of public relations will be
utilised to communicate the message (media relations, lobbying etc).
Functional relationships: This refers to the relationship the public relations
division has with the other functional or departmental divisions within the
organisation (such as the public relations function with marketing and the public
relations function with human resources).
Public relations functional structure: This refers to the employee structure in
terms of chain of command within the function (public relations director, public
relations manager, public relations practitioner).
Public relations goals and objectives: This refers to the goals of the public
relations function.
10.3.1.6
Media analysis
Media analysis is the processes of assessing which media channels will be suitable
for the organisation's public relations campaign. Particular communication media
could be suitable for the organisation and its stakeholder, which may differ for its
competitor. The media analysis does not choose particular communication media but
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identifies those communication media that could be most suitable. The different
types of communication media include interpersonal media (face-to-face
discussions), group media (meetings), and mass media (radio).
10.3.1.7
Management agreement
In order to get the buy-in or support from the management of the organisation,
management needs to see what has been drafted for the public relations campaign,
in order to also provide input into how the campaign can be handled and other
insights which may be management specific. It is management that approves
budgets for organisational operations and it would be wasted time and effort if
management rejects budgets when the start of the implementation of the campaign
has already commenced. Imagine you were the public relations practitioner to
experience budget rejects by management at a late stage of campaign
implementation. Imagine you chose television as the communication media of choice
(which is very expensive) and you plan the entire campaign around television, but
when it comes to paying for the advertising, management rejects your budget, and
now you have to change the public relations strategy and the public relations plan.
Public relations plan development
At this stage, the public relations practitioner can start the public relations plan,
which represents the blue print for how to go about implementing the campaign,
who is involved, what tasks need to be completed and what will be done to ensure
the campaign is matched to the public relations strategy. The public relations plan is
the master plan and logic for all the public relations functions for all programmes,
campaigns and plans. The public relations campaign is the link between the public
relations plans and the realisation of the public relations goals.
•
•
Public relations programme: a collection of continuous public relations plans
Public relations campaign: a collection of plans although it is limited to a
particular period of time
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The communication plan is illustrated in the following figure.
Research
Planning
Adaptation stage
Message
Implementation
Scheduling
Budget
Evaluation
Management briefing
Source:
Adapted from Steyn & Puth (2000:82); Tripathy (2011:79)
FIGURE 10.2: Communication plan
Step 1: Research
Step 1 involves knowing what is occurring in the environment and being able to sum
the current circumstances that the organisation is experiencing up into a problem or
opportunity statement (Steyn & Puth 2000:83; Broom & Sha 2013:244–245; Bobbitt
& Sullivan 2014:25–28).
•
Research is necessary in order to gather information on what the target
audience might perceive is most effective for them, in terms of remembering
campaigns best when a celebrity was used as the face of the campaign, or when
a particular song was used for the radio and television campaigns, which made
the campaign memorable. There is quantitative research that is used when
precise results are necessary, such as how many people remember a particular
campaign or what percentage of the population are smokers. Research methods
include surveys, which provide exact answers for questions. Qualitative research
is used when general information is required, which is described during
interviews, focus groups, field observation or direct observation. You should
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•
•
•
learn more about these methods as it will be helpful when deciding which
research methods to use.
Problem or opportunity statement is the statement that indicates why it is
necessary for an organisation to take action in terms of a public relations
campaign or programme. The problem or opportunity can arise from positive
influences on stakeholders' attitude, opinions and behaviour towards the
organisation. The source of the influence can either be derived from the
organisation, management or communication issues or even through tactical
public relations communication that needs correction.
Situational analysis is the examination of the environment in which the
organisation operates, to identify the motivation for the need for a public
relations campaign or programme. The situational analysis will also reveal what
type of public relations will best suit the organisation's purpose.
Client interview is applicable in situations where the public relations
practitioner works for an agency and is outsourced to perform public relations
activities for clients.
Step 2: Planning
Step 2 involves setting the long-term goals and the short-term objectives that
provide the organisation with a direction in which to focus on when running a public
relations campaign (Steyn & Puth 2000:83; Tripathy 2011:81; Broom & Sha
2013:270–271; Bobbitt & Sullivan 2014:25–28).
•
•
Public relations goals: Each activity that should take place in the process
should be goal oriented, in order to ensure that there is a direction set for each
activity. Goals which were set during the public relations strategy (depending on
the research stage results and if the goals are still relevant) can simply be
transferred to the public relations plan.
Objectives: These are the short-term goals that an organisation strives to
achieve. Objectives must meet certain characteristics, namely:



Objectives must be realistic – it should be achievable as it doesn't help
setting goals which are unrealistic in achieving.
Objectives must be clearly defined – confusion can arise when objectives are
not clear, for example an objective such as “improve your image” is too
vague.
Objectives should be measurable – if an objective cannot be measured,
there is no way of assessing the success of the objective.
Objectives can be divided into two types, namely impact objectives and output
objectives.
•
•
Output objectives relate to work that is to be produced, such as contacting all
media houses to attend a campaign launch or sending media kits to all
shareholders first.
Impact objectives relate to the desired communication outcomes of the
campaign, such as what you want the stakeholders to change or how you want
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them to act after having heard or seen the public relations campaign. There are
numerous types of impact objectives which include:






•
Informational objectives: This includes the message that the stakeholders are
exposed to and the understanding of the message, for example, for young
adults to be aware of the HIV/AIDS campaign.
Attitudinal objectives: The aim is to change the way the stakeholders feel or
think about the organisation. Forming new attitudes strives to create a
perception that was not there before. Reinforcing existing attitudes is to
reinforce an idea that already exists, such as the blood bank being an
essential association citizen should strive to support.
Changing existing attitudes: This is to change stakeholders' perception from
a negative perception to a positive perception, such as individuals' perception
of a car manufacturer that recalled vehicles in the past year to be more
favourable once again.
Statutory objectives: This is to influence policy decisions of governmental
associations and to persuade the citizens of a country to support or oppose
certain proposed laws and regulations. For example, there were public
meetings where citizens could discuss with governmental officials and the
media the implementation of the South African Protection of State
Information Bill and how it will affect how news, especially news relating to
governmental news, is covered. To read more on the bill, follow the URL:
http://www.sanef.org.za/images/uploads/b_6b_-_2010_protection_
of_state_information_1.pdf
Financial objectives: This relates to the increase of sales for an organisation,
thus increased profts, or it could relate to an increase in donations for a nonprofit organisation. Think of the non-profit organisations trying to raise funds
to save the rhino from extinction as a result of rhino poaching.
Process objectives: This relates to the number of activities performed in the
public relations campaign, such as broadcasting a radio advertisement two
times daily over a period of two weeks.
Management cooperation: This is essential as public relations campaign
decisions should always be in line with the organisational policies. Campaigns
should be approved at every level in order to ensure that no misunderstandings
crop up at the end of the campaign planning process. Transparency and a direct
access to campaign planning makes for successful campaign planning.
Step 3: Adaptation stage
The resources, problem statement and relevant stakeholders are matched.
•
Stakeholders' identification should have already been completed based on
the stakeholder group the audience fall into as well as according to the
psychographics (grouping individuals according to lifestyle choices). The most
common targeted stakeholders are the community, potential employees, media,
government, employees, consumers, shareholders, third parties, investors and
the financial community (Gordon 2011:137–138).
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•
Limitations statement should indicate which resources were identified as
limited during the situational analysis and research. Limitations could include
money, time, human resources, office space to complete a task, skills,
equipment and so on. Based on the limitations, the necessary arrangements can
be made to make up for the shortfall, such as having a time frame for when
tasks must be completed, assigning particular employees to tasks based on their
skill sets, the possibility of outsourcing equipment or even individuals to perform
particular tasks, and renting additional office space for additional individuals or
material (Steyn & Puth 2000:83).
Step 4: Message
The message is the basic idea that the organisation wants the target audience to
remember as a result of being exposed to the communication. One central message
should be derived from the goals and objectives (Bobbitt & Sullivan 2014:69).
Consistency in your communication with all stakeholders is important, despite having
a slight difference for each stakeholder group. Not only is the message construction
essential, but also the channel that the message will be transmitted through, such as
the media channels discussed in learning units 6, 7 and 8.
There are also themes that are the overarching ideas that apply to all the target
audience groups, which for an Arrive Alive campaign could be "safe driving", "do not
drink and drive", "wear seatbelts", "stop when tired" or "keep to the speed limits".
This step entails crafting the message for the intended target audiences. When
crafting the message, the guidelines discussed in learning units 3 to 9 should be
applied for the relevant media channels.
Step 5: Implementation
The core of the public relations plan is the implementation strategy, where the most
favourable approach is selected to achieving the public relations goals and
objectives. The implementation strategy involves selecting a series of activities,
special events and relevant communication media that is most promising in
achieving the goals to reach the most noteworthy stakeholders. The strategy is the
overall approach to achieve the public relations goals in a particular time frame,
whereas the activities or action plans are the specific, detailed tasks to complete in
order to achieve the goals (Steyn & Puth 2000:88–89; Broom & Sha 2013:277).
•
The tentative implementation strategy is where the activities are
performed to complete the public relations plan. The first place to start is to
base the implementation strategy on previous successful implementation
strategies for each stakeholder group. The planning should be in the interest of
all the participants. Therefore, if electronic newsletters receive the most
response from employees and it is the most effective, look into using electronic
newsletters again. Where social media worked best with younger generation
customers, keep using social media (although look for the most popular and
successful social media site). For information relating to which media channel is
best for which stakeholder group, have a look at case studies, reports by similar
organisations and so forth.
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•
Choosing an implementation strategy involves selecting the particular
number of activities that will either lead to the accumulation of many events or
lead to one big event. The effects on all stakeholders should be considered,
which should be based on the information gathered from the research and
situational analysis. Criteria for building strategic actions or events are:
o A relationship is required between the activity and the sponsoring
organisations.
o Inherent news values increase the impact of the activity, where hard news
occurs when a crises situations or emergency arises, while soft news relates
to competitions and achievements which are most commonly used in
programmes and campaigns.
o Each activity should be labelled appropriately, while being short and novel,
significant and memorable. This leads to a bandwagon effect where people
start talking about an event.
o Tie-ins of events to special dates or particular facts make it more effective.
o Joining an organisation to host an event, where both organisation benefits
from the event, is known as trade-outs.
o Reinforcing publicity with a series of related events makes for a greater
effect.
•
•
•
Testing the implementation strategy involves where the strategy is tested
on a small sample of stakeholders in order to see if the strategy will produce
desired results. This allows the public relations practitioner to make changes to
the plan where necessary to ensure that the strategy is successful and does
yield the desired results (Broom & Sha 2013:277).
Designing public relations actions refers to the action that could change the
organisation's policies, procedures, products, services and behaviour to better
serve the mutual interest of the organisation and its stakeholders. The actions
are designed to achieve the indicated goals and objectives. The public relations
actions include providing instructions to the relevant individuals involved in the
campaign to do certain tasks acceding to certain standards, for example,
designing invitations according to organisational design standards and after
approval sending the invitations to the identified stakeholders, or writing feature
stories on the upcoming event and sending it out to the relevant media
publications.
Planning the public relations media is based on the media analysis
completed previously, which identified the types of media that will be best suited
to the campaign and that are best suited to the different stakeholder groups. A
media mix is decided on to communicate with the different stakeholder groups.
The division of media are:
o Internal organisational media include house journals, bulletins,
newsletters, magazines, brochures, flipcharts, slide shows, organisational
website, electronic mail, group meetings, videotapes and conferences.
o External organisation media include electronic publications, webpages,
chat rooms, electronic mail, newspapers, feature stories, magazines,
captioned photographs, social media websites, films, talk shows, interviews,
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radio programmes, exhibitions and billboards. A major external
communication media that organisations should distribute are media kits,
which is a collection of the public relations material in a pocket folder that
has a cover letter summarising the content of the folder and the contents,
which could include news releases, fact sheets, background information,
biographies, event schedules, photographs, brochures, annual reports, and
CDs with visual and audio material. Recently, media kits can be simply emailed, shared through cloud computing (like Google Drive, which is the
easiest option), or saved to a memory stick, which is distributed to the
relevant individuals.
Step 6: Scheduling
To ensure that the strategy and planning goes according to the timeframe that was
indicated, a schedule needs to be set up to indicate what needs to be done when.
The entire campaign activities should be outlined in a Gantt chart or schedule where
each activity deadline is indicated.
This is an example of a
Gantt chart. Do some
research on what a
Gantt chart looks like. It
might come in handy in
future when planning
big projects or when
planning
a
public
relations campaign.
Step 7: Budgeting
The cost involved in performing each activity to complete the campaign should be
listed in order to keep track of the funds necessary to perform the public relations
campaign.
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Step 8: Evaluation
Evaluation is important to ensure that the campaign is on track and going according
to plan. This is actually an ongoing process, which should take place at every step to
avoid a mistake taking place without immediate corrective measures. Once the
campaign has been completed, evaluation is handy when it measures the
awareness, knowledge, opinions and behaviours of stakeholders before and after the
communication plan has been completed (Butterick 2011:136–137).
The initial evaluation provides the benchmark from which to compare the summative
evaluation. This measures whether the public relations campaign accomplished the
goals and objectives that it set out in the strategy.
Below is an example of the types of evaluation criteria a public relations practitioner
could evaluate a public relations campaign on, depending on what the goals and
objectives of the public relations campaign was. See the types of evaluation criteria
that match to the relevant step of the public relations plan.
Preparation
Implementation
Impact
•Information base: adequacy of content used to plan campaign
•Campaign content: arrangement and appropriateness of the message and events produced
•Presentation quality: technical and production values of the message and events produced
•Distribution: number of messages distributed and events designed
•Placement: number of messages placed in the media and events produced
•Potential audience: number of individuals potentially exposed to the message and event content
•Attentive audience: number of individuals who actually attend to the messages and attend events
•Knowledge gain: number of individuals who learn the message and content
•Opinion change: number of individuals who form or change opinions
•Attitude change: number of individuals who form or change attitudes
•Behaviour change: number of individuals who act in the designer manner
•Repeated behaviour: number of individuals who continue or sustain behaviour
•Social and cultural change: long-term changes in society and culture
FIGURE 10.3: Evaluation criteria during public relations campaign
Step 9: Management briefing
Management needs to be briefed on the public relations plan, as it is important to
have their buy-in or support when it comes to public relations plans. Management's
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concern is not only the achievement of the public relations goals and objectives, but
also the performance specific objectives that will affect the organisation as a whole,
such as return on equity, return on investment, delivery date of products and
services, and profit sharing. Although management's stamp of approval has been
provided during the strategy phase, they still need to be informed of the finer details
of the implementation plan. The public relations practitioner can inform those
involved in the implementation of the public relations plan (Broom & Sha 2013:279).
10.1.1.1 Important communication plan considerations
There are some important points to consider when ensuring the success of a
communication campaign. They include the following (please study them):
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mass media create awareness and knowledge and lead to participation.
Interpersonal communication, for example among peer groups, changes
attitudes and behaviour.
Credibility of the communicator and media is very important in encouraging the
target audience to believe the message.
Campaigns must be evaluated to measure their effectiveness.
Campaign appeals refer to the way the campaign communicates to the audience
about the product/service/issue.
Messages must be acceptable, and must come at the right time through an
accessible channel that reaches the audience.
10.4 PUBLIC RELATIONS MODELS
Study the section that follows:
There are a number of models that provide a step-by-step process to plan a
campaign, although there may be additional or fewer steps included. The most
commonly used models are:
•
•
The communication by objectives (CBO) model, which involves planned,
purposeful communication actions. This model was developed to plan and
manage a communication or public relations campaign through communication
actions, which are planned and purposive. The four stages are planning
(step 1–15), encoding (step 16–17), delivery (step 18) and feedback (step 19–
21) (Rensburg & Cant 2009:208).
The PRISA model identifies seven key stages in planning a public relations
campaign. PRISA is an association for public relations professionals and
communication management throughout the Southern African region, who has
created the PRISA model (Rensburg & Cant 2009:208). You have to search for
the PRISA model on their website.
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•
The Cutlip, Center and Broom's four-step public relations process emphasises
the broad phases in the public relations process. A breakdown of the process
can be seen below in table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Cutlip, Center and Broom's four-step public relations process
DEFINE PUBLIC
RELATIONS
PROBLEMS
PLANNING AND
PROGRAMMING
•
•
•
•
Identify the problem.
Gather information regarding the problem.
Identify internal influencers on problem.
Identify external influencers on the problem.
Identify stakeholders.
Identify overall objectives and stakeholder objectives.
Identify programmes for each stakeholder group.
Identify overall communication programme and
stakeholder specific programme to be utilised.
• Identify media and message channels that will be
utilised.
• Indicate how the programme will be implemented.
• Indicate budget and schedule for the overall programme
as well as the stakeholder programmes.
•
•
•
•
TAKING ACTION
• Indicate to relevant individuals the operational plan
AND
(day-to-day tasks and activities).
COMMUNICATING
• Indicate how feedback regarding the operational plan
will be provided.
• Indicate the regulator measures of the operational plan.
EVALUATING THE
PROGRAMME
Source:
• Indicate the evaluation measures in place in order to
measure the success of the overall programme and
stakeholder-specific programmes.
Adapted from Lattimore et al (2013); Rensburg & Cant (2009)
Activity 10.1
Look for the PRISA model online in order to complete activity 10.1. Discuss how a
major airline in South Africa (AirlineSA) could use the PRISA model to draw up a
public relations campaign.
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Feedback
Step 1: Situation analysis
A situation analysis is important for any strategy because it provides the answer
to the fundamental question: “Where do we find ourselves right now?” Unless
AirlineSA determines its current position within a strategic framework, it will not
be able to plan the way forward by means of a detailed strategy.
From a problem statement, the company can do a SWOT analysis to determine
what its internal strengths and weaknesses and external opportunities and threats
are. It is important to do a SWOT analysis to determine whether the company is
making progress in solving the problem as set out in the rest of the campaign
plan. You should have provided some practical examples of AirlineSA's possible
SWOT analysis.
Possible reasons for a public relations campaign can now be derived from the
SWOT analysis and the problem statement. A public relations campaign could be
planned to:
 create a positive perception of AirlineSA
The next step is to formulate objectives for the promotional campaign.
Step 2: Formulating objectives
Objectives should be specific, measurable, realistic and compatible with the
company. Long-term and short-term objectives are important when planning a
public relations campaign. Objectives could include informing, motivating, or
educating the target publics of the company. Informational objectives concentrate
on the spreading of information. AirlineSA could:
 provide information to all stakeholders about the airline, about how they can
benefit from it, and about how it may affect them inform target publics
Attitudinal objectives aim at changing the way the target public feels about the
organisation. AirlineSA could:
 change the target public's negative attitude about the airline
Behavioural objectives aim at changing the action of target publics. AirlineSA
could:
 inform customers who have defected owing to the glitches experienced in the
initial business stages that changes have occurred and that problems have
been solved
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Step 3: Identifying the target publics
Target publics can be internal or external to the company, as well as primary and
secondary in importance to the campaign. Internal publics would be employees,
shareholders and suppliers of services. External publics would be the community,
spectators and the media. It is important to identify the target publics, as knowing
who they are will influence the type of message created and sent. A further
important aspect is to determine how people are involved and affected by
AirlineSA.
Step 4: Message formulation
The message must relate to the interest and concerns of target publics. The
shareholders, customers and the suppliers of AirlineSA will not all find the same
information important, and so each message must be formulated to fit each target
public. Things to remember when formulating the message would be:
 The mass media affect different individuals differently.
 A message could have both intended and unintended effects on the target
public.
 A message should be explicit (directly formulated) and implicit (indirectly
formulated).
 AirlineSA must reach as many interested parties as possible in a short period
of time.
Step 5: Implementing actions
Strategies and techniques require research, an evaluation of costs and prioritised
activities. Activities should relate to the objectives of the campaign, the target
publics and the message the company wants to convey. An action programme,
which contains a detailed breakdown of the tasks to be performed, as well as a
time sequence for each task, will ensure that all activities are performed. Activities
and tasks bear a cost for which the company is accountable. It is therefore
important to prepare a budget.
Step 6: Drawing up a budget
It is important to know how much each activity and task will cost the company.
The budget of the public relations department of AirlineSA can be divided into an
administration budget and a campaign budget. The administration budget
comprises costs that form part of the everyday running costs of the public
relations department. These costs could be salaries, stationery and so on.
Step 7: Evaluation
To determine whether the objectives of the campaign have been met, the public
relations campaign has to be evaluated. Informal and formal research techniques
could be used for this purpose.
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10.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The following questions are very good examples of what you can expect in the
examination. Work through them carefully and compare your answers with the
feedback provided throughout the learning unit.
There are several roles in the communication process. Explain these roles in
detail and provide examples where appropriate.
2. List and discuss the key elements of the communication planning and
management process.
3. List the different types of campaigns.
4. Discuss the PRISA seven-step model in detail.
1.
10.6 REFLECTION
Before you start with exam preparation, reflect on the following questions:
1. Do you think you will be able to use the skills you have learnt in this learning
unit in your professional life?
2. What did you find difficult in this learning unit? Why do you think you found
this aspect difficult? Do you understand this aspect now, or do you need more
help? What are you going to do about it?
3. What did you find interesting in this learning unit? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this learning unit? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
10.7 SUMMARY
Public relations practitioners are there to communicate with the public. Campaigns
are an excellent tool for this purpose. However, these campaigns must be planned
and managed properly. You need to know what the various types of campaigns are
and also what the objective of your campaign is before you start. We began this
learning unit by considering communication planning and management and the
elements associated with it. We then discussed communication theories and
communication campaigns, and the objectives of these campaigns. We ended by
investigating campaign types and models.
The job of a public relations practitioner is not an easy one. He or she has to be able
to position a brand, company or person in the market and use various
communication tools to communication with the public. To be successful, the public
relations practitioner needs to master a variety of tasks. Now that you have
completed this module, we hope that you have acquired many of the skills that,
together with hard work and motivation, will help you make it to the top in this field.
The public relations campaign is achieved by sending out messages that were
written for print media (learning unit 6), broadcast media (learning unit 7),
electronic media (learning unit 8) and business documents (learning unit 9), by
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applying the skills learnt to communicate effectively in terms of listening (learning
unit 3), speaking (learning unit 4) and reading (learning unit 5). The ability to
perform the relevant activities of the public relations campaign are also linked to the
public relations practitioners characteristics (learning unit 2) and their understanding
of what communication and public relations entails (learning unit 1).
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10.8 REFERENCES
Bobbitt, R & Sullivan, R. 2014. Developing the public relations campaign: a
team-based approach. 3rd edition. Boston: Pearson.
Botha, D, Chaka, M, Du Plessis, N, Krause, B, Rawjee, VP, Porthen, D, Veersamy, D
& Wright, B. 2007. Public relations: fresh perspectives. Cape Town: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Broom, GM & Sha, B. 2013. Cutlip & Center's effective public relations. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Butterick, K. Introducing public relations: theory and practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications.
Cant, M. 2013. Marketing: an introduction. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Juta.
Gordon, AE. 2011. Public relations. New York: Oxford.
Hansen-Horn, T & Horn, AE. 2014. Strategic planning for public relations: beginning
the journey. New York: Peter Lang.
Rensburg, R & Cant, M. 2009. Public relations: African perspectives. 2nd edition.
Sandton: Heinemann.
Riggelsford, M. 2013. Health and medical public relations. New York: Routledge.
Steyn, B & Puth, G. 200. Corporate communication strategy. Sandown: Heineman.
Tripathy, M. 2011. Public relations: bridging technologies and monitoring public and
the media. Delhi: Authorspress.
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