ARANAS, PRNCESS JOY G.
REVIEWER FOR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING QUESTIONS
- Always use simple and everyday language.
- Do not use ambiguous questions.
- Do not ask double-barrelled questions.
- Do not ask questions that are based on presumptions.
- Do not ask leading questions.
Guidelines in Constructing Research Instrument
OBSERVATION
- A purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to
an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
- It is best used when you are more interested in the behavior than in
the perceptions of individual or when subjects are so involved in the
interaction that they are unable to provide objective information about it.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION- When you as a researcher, participate
in the activities of the group being observed in the same manner as its
members, with or without their knowing that they are being observed.
NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION-When you do not get involved in
the activities of the group but remains a passive observer, watching and
listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from this.
HAWTHORNE EFFECT
- When change in behavior of persons or groups is attributed to their
being observed.
RECORDING OF OBSERVATION
1.
Narrative
2.
Scales
3.
Categorical Recording
4.
Recording on Mechanical Devices
THE INTERVIEW
A. Unstructured Interviews
- Flexible interview structure
- Flexible interview contents
-Flexibility in interview questions
EXAMPLE
1. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS
2. FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
3. NARRATIVES
4. ORAL HISTORIES
B. Structured Interviews
- Rigid interview structure
- Rigid interview contents
- Rigidity in interview questions and their wording.
- The Nature of the investigation
The geographical distribution of the study population
The type of study population
EXAMPLE
1. INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
2. QUESTIONNAIRE
WAYS OF ADMINISTERING A QUESTIONNAIRE
- Mailed questionnaire
- Collective Administration
- Administration in a public place
Forms of Question
- OPEN-ENDED
-CLOSED- ENDED
COVERING LETTER

Introduce you and the institution you are representing;

Describe in two or three sentences the main objective of the study;

Explain the relevance of the study;

Convey any general instructions;

Indicate that participation in the study is voluntary

Assure respondents of the anonymity of the information provided
by them;

Provide a contact number in case they have any questions;

Give a return address for the questionnaire and a deadline for its
return;

Thank them for their participation in the study
PRE-REQUISITES FOR DATA COLLECTION
- Motivation to share the required information.
- Clear understanding of the questions.
- Possession of the required information.
Collecting data using secondary sources
- Government or semi-government publications.
- Earlier research
- Personal records
- Mass media
Problems with collecting data using secondary sources
- Validity and reliability
- Personal bias
- Availability of data
- Format
LESSON 2 (PARSSU)
Categorical Variables
• CATEGORICAL VARIABLES are also known as
qualitative variables.
Examples of categorical variables:
– GENDER (2 categories: male and female);
– MARITAL STATUS( 3 categories: Single, married, separated,
widowed/widower);
– PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVEL (e.g., 4 categories: sedentary, low,
moderate, and high).
A categorical variable can be further categorized as NOMINAL,
DICHOTOMOUS, or ORDINAL.
• NOMINAL VARIABLE if the categories cannot be ordered or ranked.
Marital Status is a nominal variable because the categories
(such as single, married, separated, and widowed/widower) cannot be
ordered or ranked.
DICHOTOMOUS VARIABLES are nominal variables with only
two categories.
Gender is a dichotomous variable because it is a nominal variable with
only two categories.


ORDINAL VARIABLE if the categories can be ranked or ordered.
Physical Activity is an ordinal variable because the categories (such as
sedentary, low, moderate, and high) can be ordered.
Continuous Variables
• CONTINUOUS VARIABLES are also known as quantitative variables.
Examples of continuous variables are:
Height, Mass, Distance, Weight, Temperature
Continuous variables can be further categorized as either INTERVAL or
RATIO variables.
• Interval variables are variables for which their central
characteristic is that they can be measured along a continuum and they
have a numerical value.
Example: temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheint
• Ratio variables are interval variables, but with the added condition
that 0 (zero) of the measurement indicates that there is none of that
variable.
Examples: height, mass, distance, weight.
Independent Variables are those that influence, or affect
outcomes in experiment. They are described as “independent”
because they are variables that are manipulated in an experimental
studies and thus independent of other influences.

Dependent variables are those that depend on the independent
variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the
independent variables.
PREDICTOR VARIABLES (also called antecedent variables) are
variables that are used to predict an outcome of interest in survey
method studies. Consider the research of Wright & Cropanzano (2000)
titled “Psychological wellbeing and job satisfaction as predictors of job
performance”.
The Predictor variables are:
• Psychological Well-being
• Job Satisfaction
OUTCOME VARIABLES (also called criterion or response variables) are
variables that are considered outcomes or results of predictor variables
in survey method studies.
The Outcome variable is:
• Job Performance

Parametric Tests
• Parametric tests are those that make assumptions about the
parameters of the population distribution from which the sample is
drawn.
• Common Assumptions: Normal Distribution (Bellshaped) and Equal
Variance
Flowcharts: Choosing the Right Statistical Tests
Statistical Tests for Testing Differences in Means Among Groups
• Ttest for Equal Variances
• Ttest for Unequal Variances
• One Way ANOVA (F Statistic)
• One Way ANOVA (Welch or Brown-Forsythe F Statistic)
Both TTests and One-way ANOVA can be used to address Research
Questions like: “Are there significant differences in the Students’ Math
Scores when they are grouped according to their gender, course, and
household economic status.
TTest: T Statistics
• There are two versions of TTest:
o Equal Variances Assumed TTest (or, TTest for Equal Variances)
o Equal Variances not Assumed TTest (or, TTest for Unequal
Variances) • Both versions of TTest require that the distribution of the
outcome variable per group is normally distributed. Hence, prior to the
TTest analysis, the normality test should be performed.
One-way ANOVA
• One-way ANOVA is used to test the null hypothesis that the means of
the independent groups are equal.
• When performing a one-way ANOVA, you are testing the null
hypothesis
“H0: All group means are equal.” against the alternative hypothesis
“Ha: Not all the group means are equal.
Reliability and Validity of Instrument
Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures something. If
the same result can be consistently achieved by using the same methods
under the same circumstances, the measurement is considered reliable.
- You measure the temperature of a liquid sample several times under
identical conditions. The thermometer displays the same temperature
every time, so the results are reliable.
Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended
to measure. If research has high validity, that means it produces results
that correspond to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the
physical or social world.
Validity is harder to assess than reliability, but it is even more important.
To obtain useful results, the methods you use to collect data must be
valid: the research must be measuring what it claims to measure. This
ensures that your discussion of the data and the conclusions you draw
are also valid.
How are reliability and validity assessed?
How to ensure validity and reliability in your research ?
Research designs
- A Plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to
obtain answers to research questions or problems.
- The complete scheme or program of the research.
- A procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher to answer
questions validly , objectively, accurately and economically.
- Help you conceptualise an operational plan to undertake the various
procedures and tasks required to complete your study.
DESIGNS BASED ON THE NUMBER OF CONTACTS
1. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY DESIGN
- One shot or status designs
- Most commonly used design in the social sciences
- Studies aimed at finding out the prevalence of a phenomenon,
situation,problem, attitude or issue, by taking a cross section of the
population
- Useful in obtaining an overall picture as it stands at a time of the study.
2. BEFORE AND AFTER STUDY DESIGN
- Can measure change in a situation, phenomenon, issue, problem or
attitude.
- Measuring impact or effectiveness of the program.
3. LONGITUDINAL STUDY DESIGN
- To determine the pattern of change in relation to time,
- You need to collect factual information on a continuing basis.
- The study population is visited a number of times at regular
intervals,usually over a long period to collect the required information.
DESIGNS BASED ON THE REFERENCE PERIOD
RETROSPECTIVE STUDY DESIGN
1. RETROSPECTIVE STUDY DESIGN
-Investigate a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue that has
happened in the past.
- Usually conducted on the basis of the data available for that period or
on the basis of respondents’ recall of the situation.
2. PROSPECTIVE STUDY DESIGN
- Studies attempt to establish the outcome of an event or what is likely
to happen.
- Experiments are usually classified as prospective studies as the
researcher must wait for an intervention to register its effect on the
study population
3. RETROSPECTIVE-PROSPECTIVE STUDY DESIGN
- Focus on past trends in a phenomenon and study it into the future.
- When you measure the impact of an intervention without having a
control group.
- Part of the data is collected retrospectively from the existing records
before the intervention is introduced and then the study population is
followed to ascertain the impact of the intervention.
DESIGNS BASED ON NATURE OF INVESTIGATION
- EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
- The After-only design
- Before and after design
- Control group design
- Double control design
- Comparative design
- NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
- QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 1
A. INTRODUCTION
1.
Begin with a broad introduction to the general field or topic of your
research.
Example: Introduce the concept of play-based learning.
2.
Provide a brief overview of the subject matter to give readers a
sense of what the study is about.
Example: Explain play-based approach as a central element in
teaching and learning in elementary grades.
3.
Provide Historical Context (Ex: Jean Piaget Theory of Cognitive
Development) Highlighting the Key Developments (Ex: RA 10157 in
Universal Kindergarten Act or DEpEd Order) Cite Literature and
Explain the Relevance Describe why the topic and the specific
research problem are relevant and timely. Discuss any practical or
theoretical implications.
4.
Highlight the Gap or Problem: Explicitly state the research problem
or gap in the existing literature that your study seeks to address.
Explain why this gap or problem is important.
5.
Highlight the potential benefits of your research, both in terms of
advancing knowledge and addressing real-world issues.
B. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1. Start with a Clear Statement: Provide a clear and concise
statement of the problem. Explain why the problem is significant.
2. Highlight the Importance: Emphasize the significance of the problem
by addressing the various aspects;

Students

Parents

Educators

School

Future Researchers

Others (defend on the study)
3. THINGS TO CONSIDER:

Follow the format of writing the significant of the study

Identify who might benefit from your research.

Discuss the potential positive impacts of your research to various
aspects.

Discuss how your study can pave the way for future research.
C. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1. Start with a Clear Description:

Provide general objective of your study.

Clearly describe the problem or issue you intend to investigate by
narrowing down your specific objectives.
2. Be Specific and Focused:

Your statement of the problem should be specific and well-defined.
Avoid unclear or overly broad descriptions.

Ensure that the problem statement is concise and to the point.

Make it understandable and relevant to your intended audience.
D. SCOPE AND LIMINATION
Objective/Purpose
Respondents/Participants
Limitation of responses and results and limitation of
applicability and who will benefit.
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 2
Start with a Clear Introduction:
Begin by introducing the reader to the general topic.
Define the Scope:
Determine the specific scope of your review. What specific topics, themes, or concepts are
you going to cover?


Thematic or Topical Presentation
Aligned to SOP
THEORETICAL FRMEWORK
Review Existing Theories and Models:
Conduct a thorough review of existing theories, models, and frameworks relevant to
your study. Choose one that aligns closely with your research.
CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
In-text citation
in every lines/statements/paragraph
Briefly Discuss the content of IPO
Relate
the Theory
to Your Research: Explain how the chosen theory or model is
First Part:
Input (SOP)
relevant
your specific
question
Clarify the connection between
SecondtoPart:
Processresearch
(Statistical
Toolsor&hypothesis.
Instruments)
the
theory
andOutput
your study.
Third
Part:
(Determined Result)
Discuss the Justification: Explain why the chosen theory or model is the most
appropriate
Alignfor
with
Questions
or Objectives:
yourResearch
study. Discuss
how it provides
a conceptual foundation for your
research.
Ensure that the null hypothesis directly addresses the research
questions or objectives of your study.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Identify Key Terms: Make a list of terms that might be unfamiliar or
have specific meanings in the context of your research.
2. Alphabetical Order:
3. Arrange the terms in alphabetical order. This makes it easier for
readers to find and reference specific definitions.
4. Use Contextual Explanation:
5. Explain the terms in the context of your study. This helps readers see
how each term is relevant to your research.
6. Avoid Overloading with Information:
7. While it's important to be detailed, be cautious not to overwhelm the
reader with excessive information.
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1. Introduction to the Methodology: Begin with a brief introduction that
provides an overview of what this chapter will cover.
2. RESEARCH DESIGN:
- Begin by introducing the concept of research design.
- Clearly state the specific research design you have chosen.
- Explain how it aligns with your research questions or objectives.
- Reiterate how your chosen research design is aligned with the research
questions or hypotheses.
3. Define the Respondents: Clearly describe the individuals or groups
who will participate in your study.
4. Sample Size and Composition: Discuss the total number of
respondents and the composition of the sample.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
1. Cite research instrument (Title, author and year)
2. Mention if it is adopted, modified or research made
3. Discuss the parts of Instrument (Questionnaire)
Example:
Part 1 - Profile of the Respondents
Part 2 – Teacher’s Perception
Part 3 – Teacher’s Utilization
Part 4 – PBA – Social Emotional Development
Data Collection Procedures:
Provide step-by-step details on how data was collected.
Timeline or Duration:
Mention the timeline or duration of the data collection process. Include
any specific dates or time.
DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction to Data Collection:
Begin by introducing the data collection process.
Explain its purpose and significance in the study.
Provide Introduction:
Description of Figure 1. IPO (Input, Process and Output)