Economics for CIE IGCSE Students Revision book
2. Basic Economic Problem: Talk like an Economist • Utility: happiness, satisfaction, welfare or benefit • Profit: payment for enterprise, reward for risk, revenue
– cost • Scarcity: excess demand at price=0, so we have to choose • Opportunity Cost: the alternative given up when we choose • Freegood:plentiful good
without opportunity cost • Economicgood: scarce good with opportunity cost. But varies eg water
3. Basic Economic Problem: Economic Concepts • What is economics about ? “How to allocate limited resources to provide for unlimited wants” • What
questions help answer that ? What / How / For whom to produce • Microeconomics looks at parts of an economy like what ? Labour and other resources •
Macroeconomics looks at the whole of an economy like what ? Economic growth
4. Basic Economic Problem: Scarcity and Choice The basic economic problem is that people want more than they have but there is scarcity: not enough
resource to make more products for everyone. Because of this scarcity, all people have to make choices. Examples: A government must decide whether it
wants a new school or a new warplane because it can not get enough resources to make both. When making choices, we assess the opportunity cost or the
alternative forgone The opportunity cost of taking action is what we could have got if we had taken an alternative action The opportunity cost of making a
product is another product we could have made with the resources used OR ?
5. Basic Economic Problem: Production Resources are combined to satisfy wants and needs. This is called production which can be • Primary Sector: taking
raw materials or land from nature, eg farming, mining • Secondary Sector: using resources to make goods eg car manufacturing • Tertiary Sector: using
resources to provide services eg selling goods, teaching Sectoral Shift As an economy develops, its production moves from primary to secondary to tertiary.
This happens because as efficiency increases not so many resources are needed to fulfil primary and then secondary sector needs. People can then work to
provide services instead. Production can also be: Labour Intensive or Capital Intensive based on the resource it uses most
6. Test Yourself • Explain the term opportunity cost and discuss why an increase in spending on police and armed forces may result in an opportunity cost. [4]
(S2009) • After studying for your Economics qualification you have to decide whether to leave school and find a job or enrol at a college for more specialised
training. What factors might you consider when making your decision? [5] (W2009) • Explain with the use of one example what is meant by a natural resource of
a country. [3] (S2008) • Discuss which factor of production might be most significant in the operation of a luxury hotel. [4] (W2005)
7. Allocation of Resource: Market Function Centrally Planned (or Command) Economy: people do not always let the market decide. In some cases they prefer
a government to decide how much resource to use for a product. The market is nature’s way of answering the economic problem Individual people, or the
Private Sector, decide what to make, for profit; and what to buy, for satisfaction. This, in turn, decides how much resource should be used for each product. So
the market decides resource allocation without anyone planning it. This is a Market Economy. Decisions about resources are made by individual people. They
might want the government, or Public Sector, to make fewer undesirable products like illegal drugs, or to make more desirable products like economics lessons.
Market Economies lead to inequality and pollution. Command Economies lead to inefficiency. A system where the market decides resource allocation for some
products and situations, and the government decides it for others, is called a Mixed Economy.
8. Test Yourself • Distinguish between the private sector and the public sector of an economy. [3] (S2006) • Discuss the disadvantages of allocating resources
through the public sector. [7] (S2006) • Explain the most important features of ‘the market system’. [4] (W2001) • Describe what is meant by a mixed economy.
[4] (W2009)
9. Allocation of Resource: Demand & Supply & Determinants • Supply means the quantity of a product producers will supply at each price • This quantity
changes with • population • environment and weather • law and taxes, • resource availability and cost • producer substitutes (what else could those resources
make), among other things Demand means the quantity of a product consumers are willing and able to buy at each price This quantity changes with • population
• environment • fashion • Income • law • the availability and price of substitutes and complements, among other things Equilibrium is where the quantity supplied
is equal to the quantity demanded all product is sold and no resources are wasted. This is the market’s way to answer the economic problem of scarcity. The
price adjusts to reach this quantity. The market then uses enough resource to make this quantity for efficient resource allocation
10. Test Yourself • Explain, using a demand and supply diagram, what is likely to happen in the market for air travel as a result of increased delays at airports. [4]
(W2009) • Identify a complementary (jointly demanded) good or service industry connected with cruise ships and discuss the possible employment prospects in
that industry as a result of the increase in airport delays. [6] (W2009) • Explain the difference between an equilibrium price and a disequilibrium price.
[4](W2006) • Identify three causes of a change in the demand for a good. [3] (W2002)
11. Allocation of Resource: Price Elasticity of Demand (PED) & Supply (PES) Elasticity: The responsiveness of one variable (V1) to changes in another
(V2)Formula: % △ V1 / % △ V2 PED:The responsiveness of quantity demanded to changes in price. % △ QDx / % △ Px What decides this? The determinants
are: time, necessity, habit, price as % of income, substitutes PES:The responsiveness of quantity supplied to changes in price. % △ QSx / % △ Px What decides
this? The determinants are: time, factors of production, other products supplier could make Elastic demand: ↓ price→↑revenue Inelastic demand
↑price→↑revenue Elastic supply Inelastic supply
12. Test Yourself • Define what is meant by price elasticity of demand and explain how it is calculated. [3] (W2002) • Discuss whether the demand for chocolate is
likely to be price elastic or price inelastic. [7] (W2009) • Use the concept of elasticity of demand to discuss how indirect taxes may be used by a government to
(i) increase its revenue, (ii) decrease imports. [4] (W2005) • Explain the concept of price elasticity of demand. Choose two goods and explain why they might
have different price elasticities of demand. [6] (W2005)
13. Allocation of Resource: Market Failure Externalities: Costs and benefits affecting people who aren’t involved with producing or consuming a product, where
private+external = social (costs/benefits) Merit goods: products with external benefits which we should allocate more resource for, eg medicine, books Demerit
goods: products with external costs which we should allocate less resource for, eg cigarettes, polluting products What is it ?The market does not allocate
resource effectively How does it happen ? Public goods: which 1) can not be used up and 2) people can not be stopped from using, eg police and lighthouses,
so businesses will not provide them. Non-sustainability: businesses may use up resources gaining growth and profit now, but reducing future life quality.
Inequality: The market fails if some people are poor and lack food whilst others have all they want. Monopoly: limits output to increase profit. What should we do
? The government can intervene and change the resource allocation for example by controlling production, taxing the rich and feeding the poor.
14. Test Yourself • Discuss whether a country should conserve or use its resources. [5](W2009) • Explain what is meant by (i) external cost, [2] (ii) social benefit.
[3](W2002) • Sometimes the government provides services in an economy, sometimes the private sector provides services. Explain why it is that the
government provides some services. [6](S2004) • Some countries have now prohibited smoking in public areas in buildings. Use the concepts of private and
social costs and benefits to explain this policy. [6](S2009)
15. Role of the Individual: Money Functions We use money so we don’t have to barter ie swap or trade one item for another. Otherwise we have to find someone
with what we want who wants to trade it for what we have (a double coincidence of wants) What is money? A medium of exchange (can be used to buy things)
A store of value (for saving) A unit of account (to measure value) What features should money have ? Acceptable, durable, portable, scarce, divisible Who
controls the money supply? The Central Bank in a country. It includes the printing of money and overseeing the whole financial system including the high street
banks Banks, stock markets and insurance companies also serve the financial system by channeling money from savers to businesses for investment or buying
capital
16. Test Yourself • Explain why some people prefer to keep money in cash and current accounts in banks even though other accounts earn more interest. [5]
(W2001) • Outline the functions of a central bank. [4] (W2008) • Analyse how a central bank might influence consumer saving. [6] (W2008)
17. Role of the Individual: Work Choices & Context The price of labour is decided by supply and demand Supply: depends on skills, experience & education
needed as well as the conditions and location of the job. Demand: depends on the productivity of labour (how much product it can make) and the price of the
product. People decide what work they want to do according to: Wage factors: the money (weekly wage or monthly salary) they can earn. Non-wage factors: the
convenience of the job (hours, distance, safety) and the benefits such as perks, holidays and pension. Wage differentials The level of pay is affected by :
Sectors:public / private, primary / secondary / tertiary, age, experience, degree of specialisation, talent, qualifications, location, discrimination
18. Role of the Individual: Labour Market Wages may not be decided purely by the free market as intervention comes from: Governments may also impose
minimum wages to help workers. Trade Unions intervene using collective bargaining and industrial action such as strikes, picketing and work to rule. They try to
improve work conditions and benefits as well as pay. + they can improve worker relations and productivity - they push up wages and costs for firms However
these may push up wages so that supply exceeds demand and surplus labour or unemployment results
19. Test Yourself • Describe how a person’s income is likely to change during their life. [3] (W2008) • Discuss what might determine why one job is paid more than
another. [7] (W2008) • State three factors that might determine an individual’s choice of occupation. [3] (W2004) • If a company is large and employs many
people it often has to deal with trade unions. What is a trade union and what is its role in an economy? [6] (W2007)
20. Role of the Individual: Save or Spend Choice Disposable income is what is left for spending after tax People can choose to spend or save. Saving often
increases with age, income and interest rate. Expectations for the future also affects peoples’ decisions People may choose to borrow using credit cards,
mortgages and overdrafts or other bank loans so they can spend more than their income. Borrowing increases current consumption and sacrifices future
consumption Saving reduces current consumption and allows more future consumption Income affects spending and saving decisions. High income people
spend and save more money in all than others, but it is still a lower percentage of their income.
21. Test Yourself • Discuss what motives consumers have for deciding whether to spend or save. [6] (S2002) • Analyse why different income groups have different
spending patterns. [6] (W2009) • How might a reduction in interest rates on credit card borrowing affect the way that people choose to save or spend? [6]
(W2007) • How might inflation affect a person’s spending, saving and borrowing? [10] (S2009)
22. The Firm: Business Structures Limited Liability: Business owners can only lose money they invested in the firm. This reduces risk and so makes investing
more attractive. Sole proprietor / trader One person owns and manages a business eg store Partnership: from 2 to 20 partners own and manage a business eg
doctors, law firm Ltd Company Ownership & management separate, can sell shares for funding, profit paid as dividend to shareholders. limited liability, 2 types:
Private Company (Ltd): sells shares to friends Public Company (PLC): sell shares on stock exchange Cooperative: common interest groups own and run
business to serve their interests Public Corporation: Business owned by state and run by managers chosen by government Multinational: Business producing
using resources in more than one country. They get access to markets and resources and can bring money, resources and knowledge to a country but is
working in its own interest, not that of the hosts.
23. Test Yourself • State four ways in which multi-national companies can help developing countries such as Bangladesh. [4] (W2006) • What is meant by ‘labourintensive’ production? [2] (S2004) • Is intervention by a foreign multi-national always beneficial for a country? [6] (W2008) • Discuss what might happen to costs
if a firm replaces labour with machines. [6] (W2006)
24. The Firm: Business Structures Firms size can be measured by number of staff, turnover (revenue), market share (%), or capital employed (asset value) Firms
generally aim to maximise profit and may choose to do this by growing through Natural Growth: reinvesting profits, or Integration, by Takeover or Merger
Nationalisation: when the government takes over a business. It may cut prices and increase output but is often inefficient . Privatisation: when a state owned
industry is sold to private owners, to avoid public loss or to make the business more efficient. Integration can be: Horizontal: joining competitors Backward
Vertical: joining suppliers Forward Vertical: joining customers Lateral / Conglomerate: joining unrelated firm
25. The Firm: Costs (Money paid to produce) and Revenues (Money received for product) What is the goal of most firms ? Profit maximisation = make as much
profit as possible But they may only: Break Even: When total revenue = total cost As a firm increases its output, total cost usually rises, but average cost may
rise, stay constant or fall
26. The Firm: Market Structures Some businesses like haircutting suit small firms, others like making ships or electricity are best done by large firms As firms get
bigger they can benefit from economies of scale where costs fall with specialisation, production lines, bulk buying and cheap credit or borrowing But if firms get
too big they may get diseconomies of scale where inefficiency increases costs Monopoly one firm which controls the market Benefits: economies of scale,
money for research to make new products Problems: they can charge high prices and make unfair profits Perfect competition many firms which have little
market power, must follow the market price and make low profit
27. Test Yourself How do some firms become large? [4] (W2005) Discuss how a supermarket might benefit from economies of scale. [6] (W2005) Why might a
company have an increase in revenue and a fall in profits at the same time? [2] (W2002) What is meant by fixed cost, variable cost and average total cost? [4]
(W2006)
28. The Government In an economy the government is: An employer A producer of goods and services A policy maker It aims to ensure: Full employment Price
stability Growth (of GDP) Equality Foreign balance Governments get income from taxes These can be Direct: paid on income, profit or cash Indirect: paid on
products eg sales tax Progressive: higher income higher rate Regressive: lower income lower rate Proportional: fixed rate These add to business costs. If the
government gives money to producers to reduce costs it is called a subsidy . It uses policies that include: Demand side: Fiscal(tax and spending) or Monetary
(money supply and interest rates) Supply side: reduce intervention Trade policy: protection, exchange rates
29. The Government: Macroeconomic Models Aggregate Demand / Supply Diagram Circular Flow Diagram Business Cycle We use economic models to simplify
and present ideas about the real economy. The government can then use them to predict the effect of events and policies.
30. Test Yourself Discuss how some aims of government policy might conflict with each other. [6] (S2007) Discuss how a government might influence private
producers. [8] (S2007) Using examples, describe the difference between direct and indirect taxes. [4] (S2008) How might a reduction in taxation help any two
macro-economic aims of a government? [6] (S2008)
31. Economic Indicators What is it ? A sustained increase in the general level of prices. How is it measured ? By comparing the price of an index (the price of a
basket of goods such as the Consumer Price Index) from one year to the next. What makes it happen ? Demand Pull = An increase in the money supply or an
increase in demand for products. Cost Push = An increase in the cost of resources used for production. Why is it a problem ? Money loses value and Becomes
dysfunctional, people and businesses get worried, governments and borrowers gain whilst others lose, resources get wasted What should governments do
?Demand side : Print and/or spend less money, raise direct taxes. Supply side : Make resource markets work better.
32. Economic Indicators What is it ? When people are willing and able to work but have no job How is it measured ? By counting tax or welfare data, by survey
Why is it a problem ? People lose income and skills and get depressed Society wastes resource. Areas get poorer, crime occurs What should governments do ?
Demand side : Print and/or spend money, cut taxes. Supply side : Make resource markets work better. What makes it happen ? Natural Unemployment:
Seasonal, Frictional (between jobs), Structural (change in products and production methods) Cyclical Unemployment: A fall in demand for products and labour
in recessions
33. Economic Indicators : GDP What is it ? The total output from inside a country in a year How is it measured ? By counting income or spending or total product,
which should all be equal. What is the goal ? Governments want to increase GDP so the country gets more income and gets richer. This is called economic
growth. What other measures are there ? Real GDP per Capita: The total inflation adjusted output of a country per person GNP Gross National Product: Total
output in a year from resources belonging to the people of a country. Human Development Index (HDI) : Shows the standard of living based on education and
life expectancy as well as income
34. Test Yourself Explain how different types of unemployment may be caused and consider which might be the most serious. [10] (S2007) Explain what is meant
by GDP. [3](S2005) What might be the result of a general increase in the level of consumer spending in an economy? [4] (S2008) What is meant by inflation? [4]
(S2009)
35. Development: Population Population data includes the Dependency ratio or how many people depend on each worker. There are a lot of dependents in
countries with many old or young people who can not work. That slows development because they use resources. A low dependency ratio helps an area to
develop The birth rate is also important. If it is higher than the death rate then the population may be growing which gives more labour to make things, but also
more need for food. Saving The population and culture also helps to determine how much of what is made is consumed or used up. The rest can be saved, it
can be traded for other products or used for investment which means buying capital or man-made resource or even schools and hospitals. This increase in
resources means an economy can develop and enjoy a better standard of living.
36. Development Other factors influence the level of development in an area: Geography, politics, culture, climate, resource endowment, population age size and
density What is it ? It describes the standard of living or the quality of life Many factors can be measured to see the level of development in an area: Income,
education, life expectancy, freedom, technology, healthcare, equality, nutrition Sectoral shift: As an economy develops, people move from primary to secondary
and then tertiary sectors. This is because 1) Increases in efficiency means less labour is needed for food and other basic need so it can be used elsewhere, and
2) with development people have enough necessities and want other things like education, football matches and art so they will pay labour to make those
products Governments can set policies to support development. These might include: population controls, laws to help businesses, government spending on
infrastructure including roads and buildings like airports
37. Test Yourself Discuss why many countries aim to increase economic growth. [4] (S2009) How might a government affect economic growth in a country? [8]
(W2007) What determines the change in the size of a country’s total population? [3](S2002) How may living standards between countries be compared?
[10](W2009)
38. International Economics: Trade Specialisation: different countries, people or areas have different resources and so are better at making certain products. This
is called comparative advantage. They should specialise in making these items and trade them with other place for items they are not good at making.
Switzerland could make chocolate and export it in exchange for imports of coffee from Vietnam. Then there is more for everybody. • With trade, countries get
more efficient because: • They are making what they are good at • They can practice and get even better at that product • They might get economies of scale in
that product • Competition from other countries encourages efficiency • New ideas come from other countries with trade • People have more choices of product
Increased trade supports Globalisation where there is more communication and standardisation and it seems like the world is getting smaller.
39. International Economics: Protection Why: Some countries want to protect themselves from imports from other countries because: They want to keep jobs for
their own workers They want their own businesses to sell more and make more profit They don’t want to depend on other countries They don’t like the country
they buy products from They want to maintain their foreign balance of trade How:do countries protect themselves and stop trade? They use Quotas: limits on
the number of imports of a product Tariffs: taxes on imports Subsidies: money for their own producers to make it cheaper The WTOaims to support and
encourage free trade to help development but some countries say the WTO is unfair and helps the rich countries more than poor ones
40. International Economics: Foreign Balance The balance of payments is a country’s account with the rest of the world. It includes the financial, capital and
current accounts Current Account: counts the net (total inflow minus total outflow) cashflow for: Visible trade or trade in goods + Invisible trade or trade in
services + Transfers gifts or payments made not for trade or debt + Income from Investment in other countries The current account balance can be: Surplus if
more money flows in than out, leading to saving Deficit if more money flows out than in, leading to debt Balanced if money flows in and out are equal
41. International Economics: Exchange Rates An exchange rate is the rate at which one currency can be exchanged for another. Exchange rates might be
Floating where the rate is decided by the free market forces of supply and demand, or: Fixed where the government controls the rate by buying or selling
currency, or Managed floatwhere the government controls a floating rate if it moves too much Floating exchange rates might appreciate (rise) if many people
want to buy that country’s products or hold its money, or depreciate (fall) if people do not want the products or money of a country. If a currency appreciates, the
products of that country will get more expensive and so people may not buy them and it could lead to a trade deficit If a currency depreciates, the products of
that country will get cheaper and so people may buy more of them and the country’s foreign balance can improve.
42. Test Yourself Explain what is meant by a visible trade deficit and identify in which part of the balance of payments the deficit would be recorded. [3] (S2004)
Discuss what might lead to an improvement in the balance of payments of a country. [6] (S2005) Discuss the consequences for an economy if its currency ‘was
gaining strength.’ [5] (W2004) Distinguish between a tariff and a quota. [4] (S2009) Why do countries trade with each other? [6] (W2009)