Tantra Mantra in
NUSUNTARA
Dr.Uday Dokras
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INTRODUCTION Tantra is not all SEX…but almost
Tantra has become more widespread, and more misrepresented in this current age precisely
because it offers us a vastly accelerated, no bullshit and embodied pathway into Enlightenment.
It challenges us to directly confront all that we fear, judge and despise in ourselves and others,
and provokes us to face every part of our own self that is absent of love and compassion. It is a
path for the courageous hero daka and heroine dakini who have the burning desire for total
transformation, whatever the cost. This is what defines a Tantrika, until this term too is dissolved
in the fire of emptiness and love.
Yet it is one of the most misunderstood terms, processes and ways of living in the modern
‘spiritual’ world. When in doubt about what something means, and when modern culture
imposes its own meanings on timeless wisdom based on laziness, convenience, marketability
and ignorance, we have to return to the original word-meaning and the direct experience of what
it is.
In Sanskrit, each word has upto 7 levels of meaning in 3 modes of sound, depending on what
level of consciousness you are residing at. Hence, many Sanskrit terms, teachings, processes
and wisdoms are mis-interpreted. When you add cultural bias and ignorance, which started with
the British translating / butchering Sanskrit texts according to their views of the world based on
their culture and imperialist history, the resulting cultural appropriation of which the USA and
Europe lead the way, the lack of initiation by these people into an authentic Tantric lineage, and
the desire to sell, market, greatly dilute and leave out the main wisdom seeds of these teachings
and reduce the deeper wisdom into bite-sized packages for public consumption, one can see
how the Tantric teachings have been misappropriated and reduced to a sexual only status in the
eyes of the mainstream.
Tan means to extend, propagate, stretch a cord, spread, expand. Tan also means to render, to
cause something to become usable. Making unseen, invisible and mysterious energies usable
and available to us is a core tenet of Tantra, by teaching us how to experience them, access them
and utilise them to transform ourselves. In a larger sense, advanced tantric practices access
quantum (matter in non-matter states) and formless (no matter) states of emptiness, causing
them to become usable to us.
Tan also means “to prepare a way for”. Tra means to liberate, free, unbind, uncord one from
contracting cycles of suffering. Tantra is an instrument (tra) that leads to expansion (tan). This
instrument is a practice and application of our inner organic technology that leads a person into
expansion. Tantra is preparing a way for our expansion, tantra is extending and expanding
ourself into freedom, tantra is spreading oneself outwards into the world and cosmos, seeing it
as an extension of oneself.
Tan also means our physical body, and Tra is expansion in the 3 Gunas of goodness, stability
and action and liberation from these 3 limitations as well; thus Tantra means a method of going
beyond our unconscious karmic driven actions, our karmic ideas and virtues around goodness,
and karmic inertia / ignorance/ stuckness, i.e going beyond karmas of body-mind-soul into pure
Self.
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Another meaning for Tantra is a framework for a system of practices that leads to expansion,
hence Tantric schools and Lineages have been established. Tantric paths and lineages vary.
Some use the meditation technology of the unified 5 M’S:
1. mudra,
2. mantra,
3. mandala (yantra sacred geometry)
4. marma (meridian points) and
5. mauna (silence at the end of this generating of massive amounts of energy.)
Some Tantric schools advocate the total experiencing and embracing of all polarities and their
experiences/expressions in order to enter non duality; some advocate the full coming into the
world from within the silence of the Self in order to express, discover, delight in and embody
the Self both within and without.
Most Tantric Lineages have outer Tantras, available to the general public, and which can be
done with other people/a partner; Inner Tantras which are done within yourself; and Secret
Tantras, which are imparted by a living Tantric Master or directly from the Lineage to the
Tantric Adept in meditation after they have mastered outer and inner tantras to a degree.
Sexual energy is about 20% of the Tantric Way. Many Tantric Masters are also celibate and
have mastered all 3 levels of Tantra within their own self. Many Tantric Masters have also
mastered all 3 levels of Tantra utilising their sexual practice with partners or a partner. Making
love is not a pre requisite for the Tantric path.
However, it is widely acknowledged that the fastest way to Awakening is to include sexuality
and Tantric lovemaking with a partner, as then nothing is left out on the path. One becomes
naked, literally and totally. Everything is exposed, nothing can be hidden, intellectualised,
conceptualised or abstracted upon on the meditation cushion or yoga mat.
The height of Tantric sexuality is the Yabyum tantric practice, the penultimate Tantric practice
given to a Tantric Adept to lead one into enlightenment as a Secret Tantra. This means one has
to have done a huge amount of inner work before doing this practice. Yabyum involves all the
energies of an individual, which is why it is so potent. In the Buddhist Tantric tradition it is a
practice to enter emptiness. In the western hierogamos tradition, it is more about dissolving into
divine love and sacred union with your soulmate as the fullness of emptiness.
Tantra is the fast, direct bullet path Way to Awakening, as nothing is left out in the authentic
Tantric path. It is the alchemy of transformation that uses everything in your life, everything in
creation, to transform you. Everything becomes fuel for the Tantrika to evolve, to embrace, to
experience, to accept, to live, to embody. It is a Way of Life.
Our sexuality, all the spectrum of our emotions, our breath, our messiness, our drama, our bliss,
our embodiment, our physicality, all of our energies, all our vibrational states, the architecture
of creation, mind and no mind, gods and no gods, demons and angels, flow, presence, delight,
love …all are included as fuel on the Tantric Path. Nothing is left out and everything in your
life becomes a tantric practice, from looking after your kids, washing the dishes, sitting in a
forest, drinking tea, to meditation, ecstasy and simple, ordinary yet ever present presence. This
Presence is within and amidst all activities, underlying all your experiences, actions and
behaviours.
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Tantra Mandalas> Mandalas are used in the rituals of tantric initiation. They are
constructed at the beginning of the initiation, out of grains of colored sand carefully placed on
a specially prepared platform. Thus mandalas, like Vedic altars, are temporary structures built
of impermanent materials.In Buddhism Deities represent states of the mind to be obtained on
the path to enlightenment, the mandala itself is representative of the deities palace which also
represents the mind of the deity. Each mandala is a pictorial representation of a tantra.
Then the Tantricity of a mandala-in particular the Vāstupuru mandala, the mandala associated
with vāstu (inhabited or built site)-has played a determining role in the genesis of architectural
form in India. Within more popular, and less circumspect, writings, this influence is held to be
directly formal; the Vāstupuru mandala is traditionally drawn within a square grid, and any
sign of an orthogonal planning or a grid-like layout is taken to be a sign that the form in question
was based upon the mandala. In investigating the foundations of such a belief, this paper
reviews two bodies of literature.
“Through countless births in the cycle of existence
I have run, not finding
although seeking the builder of this house;
and again and again I faced the suffering of new birth.
Oh Architect! Now you are seen.
You shall not build a house again for me.
All your beams are broken,
the ridgepole is shattered.
The mind has become freed from conditioning:
the end of craving has been reached.
This is the end of desire”- Gautama Buddha
The first is modern art-historical scholarship, an examination of which shows that the idea of
a morphogenetic mandala emerged only recently. The other body of literature examined is that
of the traditional writings on architecture, many of which are cited as key sources of evidence
for this idea. Here it is argued that there is almost no direct evidence for the use of mandalas in
laying out complexes or designing buildings, and that such ideas of the use of mandalas rest on
several assumptions that must themselves be questioned.
The concept of Vastu Purusha through "bindu" and "mandala" have been the primary form
generators in the architecture of several Asian cultures and particularly in India. Through
literary resources this paper examines the ability of Sri Yantra to unpack itself into various
progressive spatial geometries that have inherent relationships which attain its final form as the
"mandala", which is also known as the "mask of God through which eternity is to be achieved."
The "mandala" is the Hindu cosmic model through which the Buddhist cosmic thinking is
evolved.
The pioneering practice for three decades in architecture forms the basis of practice based
research methodology. This will examine the real time architectural projects that demonstrate
how the various elements of nature that manifests within the mandala and the geometries help
generate an ephemeral form as a symbol of spirituality and awakening of consciousness.
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Chapter 1
Kala Bhairava Tantra in Indonesia
Kertanegara (King) of Singosari ascended to the throne, his title was Bhattara Shivabuddha,
which glorified his embrace of the syncretic Indonesian Shiva-Buddha religion.
Lesser known is that he was also an adept of the esoteric Kala Bhairava Tantra Hindu-Buddhist
lineage. His deified statue is that of Bhairava, who is portrayed standing on a pedestal of skulls,
wearing a chain of human heads around his naked body, a crown of skulls on his head and
holding a skull drinking cup.
This esoteric lineage was based on the worship of Shiva Bhairava, a wrathful
manifestation of Shiva. Bha means Creation, ra means Sustenance and va means Dissolution.
Therefore, Bhairava is the One who creates, sustains and dissolves. He is Para Shiva, or the
Supreme God in that spiritual lineage.
Shiva Bhairava, or Kala Bhairava is depicted as ferocious because he protects his devotees from
all sins such as greed, lust and anger and at the same time protects his devotees from his enemies.
Worshiping him destroys enemies. He is also described as the protector of timid people.
Bhairawa Tantrayana in Java and Sumatra
Bhairawa Tantra is a secret lineage that emerged from the syncretism of Tantrayana
Buddhism and Shaivism. This lineage first appeared in the 6th century AD in Bengal. From
there it quickly spread across the land and maritime routes of Asia through Tibet, China, Japan,
Malaysia and Indonesia.
The Bhairawa Tantra lineage first appeared in Java in 674 AD in the Kalingga kingdom,
led by Queen Shima. It also flourished under King Dharma Udayana Warmadewa and his
empress Mahendradhatta around the 10th century.
Tantrayana was widespread in Indonesia for a thousand years, in Java, Sumatra, Bali and
Kalimantan, in both its Buddhist and Shaivist form. Its most powerful and elitist aspect was
the Kala Bhairava lineage. Followers of the Bhairava Tantra tried to achieve enlightenment
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(moksa) in the shortest possible way. In pure Shaivite tradition, meditations were conducted in
the cremation grounds, to remind the practitioner of the impermanence of existence.
Bhairava Tantrayana was an elite lineage that merged the teachings of both Saivism and
Buddhism and was at the core of Indonesian civilization for almost a thousand years.
The Age of the priest-kings
Bhairava is also worshiped in Esoteric Buddhism, where various Bhairava forms are
called Mahākāla, Vajrabhairava, or Heruka). Buddhist Bhairava Tantrayana has its own set of
scriptures, the Vajrabhairava tantras. Bhairava is central to Newar Buddhism, where the
spiritual practices associated with Bhairava focus on the transformation of anger and hatred into
understanding.
King Kertanegara was a devout follower of the Indonesian Buddhist Tantra. In both
the Pararaton and Negarakertagama, Kertanegara is referred to as an expert in the Kalachakra
Bhairava Tantra.
The famous Joko Dolog statue of Buddha Akshobya in honor of King Kertanegara, Surabaya
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There were three main Bhairava lineages in Indonesia:
• Bhairava Kalacakra (mostly in West and Central Java)
• Bhairava Heruka (mostly in Sumatra)
• Bhairava Bima Sakti (mostly in East Java and Bali).
Kertanegara followed the Bhairava Kalachakra to balance the influence of Emperor Khu Bhi
Lai Khan of China who adhered to Bhairava Heruka. Meanwhile, Singasari adhered
to Bhairava Bhima and Adityawarman his successor followed Bhairava Kalachakra as well to
balance the Pagaruyung kings in western Sumatra who embraced Bhairava Heruka.
Interestingly, the only three remaining Bhairava statues in Indonesia today are: Bhairava Heruka
in Sumatra, Bhairava Kalacakra in East Java, and Adityawarman as Bhairava Bima in Bali.
Adityawarman in Sumatra
After Kertanegara, Adityawarman was another powerful priest-king, also initiated in this
lineage. Adityawarman was the Majapahit ruler in Swarnadvipa. He was named the leader of
Pagaruyung (Minangkabau) after successfully expanding Majapahit to Bali with Gajah Mada.
Adityawarman’s statue show him grasping a sacrificial knife and stand on skulls — the skulls
represent the ineluctable advance of Time and Death. He also stands on a corpse with a throne
made of skulls.
An inscription states that King Adityawarman was ordained while silently dwelling in a seat in
the form of a pile of corpses under the name Wicesadharani, which means “a person of high
concentration”. “Meanwhile, the large human casualties emit an unbearable foul odor, but for
those who have been ordained as the fragrance of tens of thousands of flowers” — again, all
symbolic statements, that have been taken literally by some people.
The corpse field according to the Kala Bhairava Tantra is considered a place where the
bonds of Samsara were released. This is the place where worldly life ends. The corpse field,
or cremation ground is therefore the most appropriate holy place to carry out on it important
ceremonial acts, and especially meditations.
The mystical area of Tanah Toba, North Sumatra was a center of Adityawarman’s
lineage. The ruins of the Padang Lawas temples show the image of Heruka dancing on a pile of
corpses, symbol of the victory of the mystics over Death itself.
Kala Bhairava sasana in Java.
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Left: Bhairava Shiva in sampada (standing with feet together) with right hand showing the
vitarkamudra signifying teaching and the left hand resting on a gada (cudgel). Right:
Adityawarman as Bhairava in sampada on a pedestal of skulls with the right hand holding a
kāpalā (skull bowl) and the left hand a kaḍitula (sacrificial knife).
Shiva Bhairava worship
According to Kala Bhairava Tantra, Shiva Bhairava is the supreme ruler of the Universe, as per
the Shaiva scriptures (āgama). Bhairava is the ultimate form of manifestation or pure “I”
consciousness.
Ritual worship of Bhairava is performed with ghee bath (abhiṣeka), red flowers, ghee lamp,
unbroken coconut, honey, fruits etc. The right time to pray to Bhairava is midnight. At that time
it is said that Bhairava and his consort Bhairavi will appear (give darśana) to their devotees.
The most appropriate time is a Friday midnight.
Bhairava is called upon as protector, as he guards the Eight Directions of the Universe, by
splitting Himself into the Ashta Bhairava, who control of the eight cardinal points. There are 64
Bhairavas in total, grouped under 8 categories and each category is headed by one major
Bhairava.
Each of the eight Bhairavas are different in appearance, have different weapons, different
mantras and vāhanas (vehicles) and they bless their devotees with the Eight Types of Wealth
(Ashta Lakshmis). All the different forms of Bhairava emanate from the Mahā Bhairava.
The eight different manifestations of Kala Bhairava are:
• Asitanga Bhairava — Grants creative skill, powers to generate new ideas and
conceptions
• Guru Bhairava — Gives divine education, success in all ventures, spiritual knowledge
• Chanda Bhairava — Destroys evil and enemies and enhances confidence, removes
fears, clears path to progress and provides incredible energy to attain success
• Kroda Bhairava — Gives strength and courage to take massive action that ends in
success, emerge victorious by overcoming hurdles and oppositions.
• Unmatta Bhairava — Controls negative emotions like depression, mood swings,
anxiety, mental disorders, ego etc.
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Kapala Bhairava — Ends all profitless work and action. He helps overcome delays in
major projects and assures matters are settled in a fulfilling manner.
• Bhishana Bhairava — Eliminates evil spirits and negative energy. Installing this form
in your space emits positive and energetic vibrations.
• Samhara Bhairava — Though benevolent, this form of Kala Bhairava looks fierce and
eliminates bad karma effects and bestows them with fresh vigor.
•
In India, Bhairava shrines are present within or near all the 12 sacred Jyotirlinga temples.
Kalabhairava is also celebrated every year with the Kalabhairava Ashtami, celebrated with the
chanting of Nirvana Shatakam — the famous chant written by Adi Shankaracharya over a
thousand years ago.
Kalabhairava Ashtami, celebrated with the chanting of Nirvana Shatakam with Sadhguru at
the Adiyogi
Death and Time
In Bhairava Tantrayana worship, the devotees seek to unite with higher and higher
manifestations of Shiva. This is why the famous statue of Kertanegara depicted as Bhairava
presents lots of similarities with depictions of the Goddess Kali, one of the manifestations
of Parvati (called Bhairavi in Kala Bhairava Tantra).
Kali is the personification of Time and is usually portrayed as a black woman with a terrible
face, covered in blood and wearing skulls and snakes. Skull-bearing in all representations of
deities is a symbol of Death and Time. Her tongue sticks out as a symbol that everyone will be
swallowed by Time.
Misunderstood rituals and fantastic rumors
Often, the highly symbolic representations of deities drinking blood and eating human flesh —
symbols of overcoming the human condition through meditation — were taken literally by the
outsiders. Yet the depictions of corpses are there to remind the devotees of the untemporality of
everything and of the ineluctable presence of Time, or Kala.
The Kala Bhairava rituals were secret, which led to the most fantastic and even ridiculous
rumors. Among uninformed commoners, the Tantric symbolism often aroused the wrong
interpretations. The simple-minded Moslems took all this literally instead of symbolically and
interpreted this as ‘’cannibalism’’ and other absurdities.
This lead to legends and accusations of “human sacrifice”, “eating corpses”, “sacrificing
virgins” and others, which are still propagated by Indonesian Moslem books until today, and
even by certain uninformed Western authors.
In the same way, the Tantric sexual practices that were well-known all around Dvipantara at
that time, were basely interpreted by the sex-shy Moslems as ‘orgies’.
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Due to the secrecy surrounding them, the Bhairava rituals were usually totally
misunderstood, such as the Pancamakara puja, or ‘five Ms’ ritual. The five Ma are said to
be matsya (fish), mamsa (meat), madya (drink), madra (dance
to
ecstasy),
and maithuna (sexual tantra), all actions and substances considered ritually or socially impure
by the orthodox Hindu tradition.
The pancha-makara is actually a cleansing of the panca tattva — a worship of deities in order
to eradicate five types of sins — quite the opposite of what it is made up to be. Each
metaphorical substance relates in reality to one of the elemental principles: wine is Fire, Air is
flesh, Water is fish, cereals represent Earth and sexual union, Ether. It is related to the bhuta
shuddhi process.
Kala Bhairava Tantrayana in Bali
The development of Tantrayana in Bali began in the 10th century, around the time of the
marriage of the king of Dharma Udayana Warmadewa with a daughter of the king of East Java
named Mahendradhatta. It is around that time that the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan was
compiled, which outlined the teachings of Indonesian Tantric Buddhism.
Empress Mahendradhatta worshiped Hyang Bhairawi (or Bhatari Durga). When she died,
she was celebrated in Gianyar in the form of a large statue of Durga Mahisasuramardhini. This
statue reminds us that Mahendradhatta was following a Shakta lineage.
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Then around the 13th century in East Java King Kertanegara ruled as the last king of the
Singasari kingdom. Then he occupied Bali in 1280 and the Kala Bhairawa lineage spread there.
In the courtyard of the Kebo Edan temple in Bali are other giant statues that are reminiscent of
the Bhairawa statue found in Singasari temple, East Java. The attribute on the statue’s hand is a
large knife, trident, drum and skull bowl.
Similar statues are also found in Biaro Bahal II Temple, Padang Lawas, Batak and Central
Sumatra, which show an Indonesia-wide distribution of the Kala Bhairawa teachings.
The Shiva Bhairava statue in Pura Kebo Edan in Bali. The shape of the statue is similar to the Bhairava statue
in Singasari. Around the 13th century the Shiva Bhairava Tantrayana started to develop widely in Bali from
East Java.
The Kala Bhairawa’s resistance to islamization in Java
The spread of Islam in Indonesia is officially attributed to a group of nine semi-mythical ‘Wali
Songo’ missionaries. One of these Moslem proselityzers was Sunan Bonang, who reported
having encountered the strongest resistance in Kediri from the followers of Kala Bhairawa.
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Of all the Indonesian islands, the Javanese were already the most difficult to accept the foreign
religion because of their powerful Shiva-Buddha tradition. Violent sporadic conflicts lasted for
the next two centuries before the Moslems could take a hold in South and East Java.
Bonang gave up on East Java and emigrated to Demak, where he continued his preaching,
becoming a mosque priest there. This time he focused more on slowly changing the Javanese
culture to make it more porous to Moslem beliefs, instead of confronting the Javanese directly
with his Semitic religion.
His student, Sunan Kalijaga, a former highway robber converted to Islam, continued his task
by, instead of preaching directly, opting for a cultural approach. He chose to progressively strip
Javanese culture — such as batik and wayang — of its most obvious Hindu meanings, opting
for a more creeping approach to islamization.
Kalijaga also attempted to replace the popular Javanese literature of the time with his own poetic
creations, such as the “Wijuk Wijil”, in which he had translated some Persian Sufi teachings to
woo more followers.
Worship of the fierce form of Lord Ganesha is also part of Kala Bhairava rituals//Shiva Bhairava guides the
devotees through the destruction of ignorance and ultimately, spiritual liberation.
After leaving his position as “imam” (priest) of the Demak Mosque, Bonang was told to go to
Lasem and used there his experience in Islamic proselytism, using the lessons he learned from
the difficult experiences he had received while preaching in Kediri.
There again, Bonang had difficulties with his preaching strategy, and sought, instead of
convincing people to convert directly, to slowly infuse the Javanese customs with Moslem ideas.
Bonang started by copying Javanese rituals and practice a parallel, islamized version of the
Javanese ritual with his followers, for example replacing mantra japa with the Mohammedan
‘’tahlil’’ and so on.
Then he got the idea to imitate the Hindu custom of forming a circle (cakra) and
eating tumpeng with the local congregation, but with the ceremony being given an Islamic style
instead. This is still known today as the selamatan.
After years of failure, Bonang finally stoke a chord in the population with his islamicized version
of the selametan which then spread to almost all parts of Java. The famous Panca-makarapuja ritual was then Islamized into ‘five taboos’ for Javanese people. The “five M” made up by
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Bonang were: Thieving (stealing), Madhat (smoking opium), Drinking (drinking liquor),
Gambling) and Madon (prostitution).
Bonang was later also known as Sunan Wahdat Cakrawati, derived from the word cakra (circle
in Sanskrit) because he had taken over the Hindu circular ritual through the selamatan.
This selamatan tradition is now itself under attack by the radical Moslems of today for being
part of Islam Nusantara, because the selamatan’s tumpeng is a symbol of Mount Meru and of
the Javanese Cosmic Mountain.
Eventually Islam slowly prevailed in Java due to a combination of proselytizing, economic
conversions, opportunistic political rivalries and the financial influence of the Moslem
merchants entrenched along the Northern coast of Java. Yet important pockets of HinduJavanese subsisted in the interior — especially in East Java — well into the 19th and 20th
centuries.
The Sang Dwija Naga Naraswara — the Javanese version of Shiva’s trishula, with Nāga on the sides.
The Bagelen (Purworejo) spiritual center
The city of Bagelen in Central Java (2 hours from Yogyakarta, 15 minutes from Borobudur) had
been a center of the development of the Shiva-Buddha religion since the Galuh-Tarumanagara
kingdom.Bagelen used to include parts of Wonosobo (a name derived from the
Sanskrit Vanasabha, which means “gathering place in the forest”), and was known as a place of
escape for the Majapahit elite. The Bagelen countryside is still dotted with Shivalingas from
that era.The regency is crossed by a river called Bagawanta, which comes from the word
Begawan, because it is along this riverbank the monks settled.
The regency is rich in caves that were used for meditation retreats. In the Seplawan Cave, a gold
statue of Shiva and Parvati was found.
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In Bagelen were concentrated many powerful Kala Bhairava Tantrayana priests and mystics.
Bagelen had long been a famous place for Buddhist monks to live and meditate. Many were
skilled in martial arts. The region was known to produce many tough soldiers as well.
During the islamization of Java, with such a background, there was no other choice for the
Moslem proselytizers such as Sunan Kalijaga than to first accommodate the Kala Bhairava
values in order to get a foothold in the place. Even after they were islamized, the Bagelen
resistance against the Dutch was stiff, and most of Prince Diponegoro’s followers came from
this region. In order to break the identity of Bagelen as a strong region, this area was reduced
by Dutch authorities to become only a district within the Kedu Residency. The Dutch built a
new settlement in this area and built a highway dividing it to make it easier to monitor. That is
the origin of today’s Purworejo. Before 1830 the area covered Berangkal (now Purworejo),
Semawung (Kutoarjo), Ngaran (Kebumen), and Karangduwur (southern Wonosobo), but after
1830 Bagelen remained only in an area of four districts east of Purworejo. Today, the area is
entirely islamized, but the inhabitants mostly follow Kejawen Islam, which keeps many of the
ancient traditions alive. The peaceful energies of the place are still felt there today.
0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o
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Chapter 2
Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia
Bharat and Dvipantara
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers
to the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the
7th century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by
pilgrims and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like
the Sailendras and the Srivijaya. This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes
with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and
Japan, to the extent that it is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a
complex of "Esoteric Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia”. In many of the key South Asian
port cities that saw the growth of Esoteric Buddhism, the tradition coexisted
alongside Shaivism. The Hindu worldview, especially the relationship to the sacrality of the
land and social structures, was already present in local traditions, and thus Hinduism only
structured older beliefs, such as that of the Cosmic Mountain in Java. The Mahābhārata and the
Rāmāyaṇa were recognized by local rulers, who easily identified with a divine ruler who battled
and defeated the wrong doers that threaten the ethical order of the world.
Culture spread via the trade routes that linked India with southern Burma, central and southern
Siam, the Malay peninsula and Sumatra to Java, lower Cambodia and Champa. The Pali and
Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism,
Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred texts
and Indian literature.
The caste system, although adopted, was never applied universally and was not as strict as in
India. It stated that no one is equal within society, while everyone has their own place.
Buddhism arrived in Burma in the first century and reached Funan in the second century and
by the fifth century had spread all across Southeast Asia where Hinduism and Buddhism
became interwoven. In Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Laos and Vietnam, both
Buddhism and Hinduism are intertwined to this day, with for example Lord Ganesha
appearing predominantly as a protector, guardian and deity of success.
In Indonesia, Hinduism was so intermingled with Buddhism, that Shiva and the Buddha
were incorporated in the same religion. Balinese Hinduism maintains this syncretism to this
day, and the Saiva and Buddhist priests sit side by side, although dressed differently, as they
bless the laity.
Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with monumental
architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist empire
of Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.
The decline of Buddhist-Hindu states and the rise of Islamic states in the region during the
13th-16th centuries saw the steep decline of this tradition
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism (Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna or Tantrayāna) emerged along
the maritime trade routes and port cities of Java, Sumatra and Malaysia. This tradition was
also linked with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham, Cambodia and all the
way to China and Japan.
15
It is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of “Esoteric
Buddhism of Maritime Asia.” In many of the key South Asian port cities that saw the growth of
Esoteric Buddhism, the tradition coexisted alongside Shaivism.
Buddhism in Indonesia decreased with the fall of Majapahit because of the civil war that saw
the appearance of the Mohammedans. By that time, the Javanese Buddhists started to resorb
within Kejawen, the original Javanese ascetic religion.
Pockets of original Javanese Buddhists still exist in Central and East Java. The regencies of
Temanggung, Blitar and Jepara count about 30.000 Javanese Buddhists. Indonesian Esoteric
Buddhism is also experiencing a revival among the educated classes in Jakarta and Surabaya.
----------------------------
16
1.100 years-old Pustakashala Temple dedicated to Ganesha, located within the Central
Library of the Islamic University of Indonesia, Yogyakarta (ABOVE)
India and Indonesia have celebrated their 73rd and 75th independence anniversaries this year.
Although India declared its independence three years after Indonesia, it was the leadership and
activism of the Indian independence movement in international forums that guaranteed and
paved the way for Indonesia’s independence.
At that time, it was the conviction of the founding fathers of India that Indonesia would be
India’s partner for the long run just as it had been in the ancient past. Relations
between Bharat and Dvipantara (or in another term, Nusantara) had endured against all odds
long before the advent of the Westphalian nation-state order. With this deep-rooted historical
memory, the first independent leaders of India and Indonesia believed that this linkage would
eventually become an anchor for a lasting partnership.
Relations between Bharat and Dvipantara (or in another term, Nusantara) had endured against
all odds long before the advent of the Westphalian nation-state order.
Consequently, during the early years of the Cold War, both countries promoted similar values,
particularly on the idea of Non-Alignment. The relations between the two countries suffered
some setbacks due to the circumstances forced by the Cold War, which eventually affected
both countries in their political choices. Nevertheless, the realities of the post-Cold War global
order stimulated them to build a closer relationship than ever before.
The sentiment of close relations could be felt when Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed
his speech at the Ram Mandir in early August. He mentioned Indonesia when he referred to
the legacy that the Ramayana had left behind in the Asian countries. Although Indonesia is a
predominantly Muslim country, the Prime Minister emphasised that most of the Indonesian
people still cherish the Indic values left behind by their ancestors. The preservation of oral,
textual and visual Indic tradition through literary works like Kakawin Ramayana, the legendary
architectural heritage like the Prambanan Temple and the continuing usage of Sanskrit for the
motto of governmental agencies stands as proof that Indonesia is willing to keep to the
exhortation of its founding father, Soekarno: “Never ever forget history.” It is also widely
known that Islam in Indonesia was propagated using the infusion of Indic culture with Islamic
values. This style of propagation was done by Wali Songo, the revered nine Muslim saints in
Java. When the excavation began in 2010 to build a new university library in the Islamic
University of Indonesia, the construction team found two 1,100-year-old temples with two
altars, lingam, yoni, and the statue of Ganesha within the complex. Given the presence of a
murti of Ganesha, there is a probability that our ancestors thought the place where they built
the temple could be a place of study and knowledge. TOP PIC
17
hen Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed his speech at the Ram Mandir in early August.
He mentioned Indonesia when he referred to the legacy that the Ramayana had left behind in
the Asian countries- highlighting the close sentiments. Recently, despite the rising tendency of
radicalism and anti-historicism stemming from close-minded religious groups, the Indonesian
government and Indonesian people are still not willing to forsake the past. One of the recent
examples of the effort to preserve the Indic heritage of Indonesia can be seen in the institution
to which the writer is affiliated.
Preservation of oral, textual and visual Indic tradition through literary works like Kakawin
Ramayana, the legendary architectural heritage like the Prambanan Temple and the
continuing usage of Sanskrit for the motto of governmental agencies stands as proof that
Indonesia is willing to keep to the exhortation of its founding father, Soekarno: “Never ever
forget history.”
With this strong civilisational and enduring cultural linkage, Indonesia and India should realise
that the advancement of bilateral relations between the two countries could have a positive
impact on the dynamic and young population of both countries.
There are three points that could be improved upon to further strengthen the cultural and
people-to-people exchanges between India and Indonesia. As both countries signed the
Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2018, India and Indonesia expressed intent to expand
collaborations not only at high-level official levels, amongst governmental bodies and MultiNational Companies but also between the people of both the countries.
Firstly, India and Indonesia need to have more city-to-city collaborations. Paradiplomacy or
diplomacy conducted by regional governments could be a way to close the existing gaps
between the two countries. Driven by a more local-centric developmental outlook, local
governments in India and Indonesia are both playing important roles to contribute to the
national economy and development projects. The significant economic growth experienced by
regional governments in India and Indonesia has influenced positively toward the welfare and
well-being of local citizens. Based on this achievement, India and Indonesia must venture a
new approach and work to benefit from the best local practices of each other. Recently, India
and Indonesia have agreed to strengthen connectivity between two neighbouring regions, the
Province of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam and the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. This connectivity would help strengthen a shared vision on the future of the Indian
Ocean.
Nevertheless, this kind of arrangement should also be expanded into cities in different
sectors. One of the possible models that can be considered is a city-to-city or state-to-state
collaboration between the Yogyakarta Special Region in Java and the State of Uttar Pradesh in
India in the field of cultural interactions. As both provinces have a lot to offer in terms of their
architectural and cultural heritage, both Yogyakarta and Uttar Pradesh could learn from each
other on how to protect historical sites and advance cultural development. Both provinces could
also exchange art students and art workers to learn best practices and ideas.
18
As the Indian foreign policy analyst Falguni Tiwari has said in her report, the development of
paradiplomacy in India is still at a nascent stage. A lot of work needs to be done in terms of
formulating a common ground between the Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India
and regional governments. Whereas in Indonesia, Indonesian Foreign Policy experts,
Surwandono and Ali Maksum explained that the implementation of paradiplomacy in
Indonesia still needs more improvement because of the strongly bureaucratic nature of the local
governments. Keeping these challenges in mind, India and Indonesia should consider
paradiplomacy as a key part of the agenda for bilateral relations.
Paradiplomacy or diplomacy conducted by regional governments could be a way to close the
existing gaps between the two countries.
Secondly, people-to-people engagements, either people-led or government-led, should be
encouraged by both governments. Until recently, most Indonesian people only knew India and
Indian people mainly from Bollywood series and documentary movies. Most Indians have
relatively minor knowledge about Indonesia and the Indonesian people. A more grounded
diplomacy effort needs to be conducted by both governments with the help of research
institutes and civil society organisations. An excellent example of a recent people-led initiative
is the webinar recently conducted online between CSIS, Jakarta and ORF, New Delhi on the
issue of the Indian Ocean.
Additionally, there are events such as Bali Yatra, an annual festivity which celebrates the ageold India-Indonesia relation. However more such venues must be discovered and encouraged
for cooperation. Deeper cultural and civilisational ties could be revived through inter-faith and
inter-cultural dialogues conducted not only between prominent figures but also especially
between academics, youth and women.
Finally, the reinforcement and multiplication of cultural and civilisational ties between the
two countries should not solely rely upon formal agreements and mere paperwork. Gurudev
Rabindranath Tagore had led the way in this regard when he visited Indonesia in 1913 to find
inspiration for the foundation of Visva Bharati. India and Indonesia could be Gurus for each
other to create a better future. Hadza Min Fadhli Robby, https://chintan.indiafoundation.in/articles/bharatand-dvipantara-advancing-cultural-and-civilizational-ties-between-india-and-indonesia/Bharat and Dvipantara:
Advancing Cultural and Civilizational ties between India and Indonesia
19
Maha Vihara Mojopahit in Trowulan
Esoteric Buddhism and Dvipantara - The whole South Asian continent was a continuum of
civilization. This is mentioned in the Matsya Purana, where for the first time is mentioned the
cultural unity of Jambudvipa and Dvipantara. So there was no “Indianization” per se, but more
of a cultural continuum over two millenia where local cultures and religious traditions were
standardized and somewhat uplifted within the fold of Hinduism. The Hindu kingdoms of
Dvipantara were a result of centuries of socio-economic interaction having incorporated central
aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, literature and
architecture.
Hinduism in Southeast Asia often became richer and more complete due to its integration of
local wisdom. The climate, flora and fauna of India and Southeast Asia are very similar,
fostering the merging of similar lifestyles and culture.
References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in
Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief of
Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.
According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called
Nagapuram. The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon
National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated from the 1st
century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island. There is also
archaeological evidence of Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, and
Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was probably built around this time. South
Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th and
5th century. and by the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were found in
Java and Borneo.
Hindu beliefs arrived in the archipelago before the second century AD with traders and
missionaries from India, these beliefs were greatly modified when adapted to Indonesian
20
society. Traders, Buddhist monks, and Shaivite Brahmans spread art, architecture and material
culture all over Dvipantara (Southeast Asia). The book lays emphasis on the mobile networks
of human agents (‘Masters’), textual sources (‘Texts’) and images (‘Icons’) through which
Esoteric Buddhist traditions spread.
The Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms all over Southeast Asia acted as crossroads of political
power, mercantile entrepreneurship, and centers of learning, worship, and pilgrimage where
esoteric forms of Hinduism and Buddhism coexistedThe central concept of ritual purity,
maintained through a division of society into occupational groups, or castes (varna, literally
color), was never rigidly applied in Indonesia. The categories of Brahman (priests; brahmana
in Indonesian), Kshatriya (ruler-warrior; satria in Indonesian), Vaishya (merchant-farmer;
waisya in Indonesian), and Shudra (commoner-servant; sudra in Indonesian) do exist in Bali;
besides the category of Brahman, however, they appear to have little influence over
occupational choices, or even over social status and marital opportunities. Two Hindu epics,
the Mahabharata (Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata) and the Ramayana (The Travels
of Rama), have become classics among Indonesians, both Hindu believers and others,
especially in Java, and are rendered in wayang and dance performances.
Nusantara is a historical Old Javanese term which literally means "outer islands in essence
referring to the islands surrounding Java (or parts of it). The word is taken from an oath
by Gajah Mada in 1336, as written in the Old Javanese Pararaton and Nagarakretagama:
Gajah Mada was a powerful military leader and prime minister of Majapahit credited with
bringing the empire to its peak of glory. Gajah Mada delivered an oath called Sumpah Palapa,
in which he vowed not to eat any food containing spices until he had conquered all
of Nusantara under the glory of Majapahit.
The concept of Nusantara as a unified region was not invented by Gajah Mada in 1336. Earlier
in 1275, the term Cakravala Mandala Dvipantara is used to describe the Southeast Asian
archipelago by Kertanegara of Singhasari.
Dvipantara on the other hand is a “sister term”- a Sanskrit word for the "islands in between",
making it a synonym to Nusantara as both dvipa and nusa mean "island". Kertanegara
envisioned the union of Southeast Asian maritime kingdoms and polities under Singhasari as
a bulwark against the rise of the expansionist Mongol Yuan dynasty in mainland China.
In modern Indonesia specifically, the name is generally taken to mean areas in the Southeast
Asian archipelago in the sovereignty of Indonesia. On the other hand (plus in a wider sense),
neighbouring countries use Nusantara to describe Malay-related cultural and linguistic lands
not
just
in Indonesia but
also
namely Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand,
the Philippines, Brunei, East Timor and Taiwan, while excluding Papua New Guinea."
Without conquest or invasion, Hindu culture and organization had helped to organize and
shape kingdoms and principalities from Malaysia to Borneo, from Java to Vietnam. The
creative influence of Indian ideas alone, combined with trade, led to the emergence of the
brilliant civilization of Dvipantara.
While South-East Asia became was a flourishing center of Indian culture, they were never
subjects of any Indian king. They were perfectly free, politically and economically and their
people representing an integration of Indian and indigenous elements had no links with any
Indian kingdom.
21
Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Southeast Asia
Ancient Indians travelers and traders had a famous motto: ‘Wasudhaiva-Kutumbakam’ (‘the
whole world is one entity, one family’).
From Burma to Indonesia and the Philippines, was a chain of settlements along the coasts from
which they traded for gold, precious stones, perfumes, and spices. Sanskrit was the linga franca,
Hindu art, technology, science and mathematics circulated freely along the coastlines. Adoption
of Indian civilization stimulated the development of highly organized societies. Kings ruled in
accord with universal moral principles, through the spiritual concept of the chakravartin. The
region’s ruling classes invited Hindu Brahmans to serve at their courts as priests, astrologers
and advisers. Art, architecture, rituals, and cultural elements such as the Rāmāyaṇa and the
Mahābhārata had been adopted and customized increasingly with a regional character.
Borobudur in Java and Angkor in Cambodia are examples of a distinctly developed regional
culture, style, and expression.
22
Cultural and trading relations between the Chola dynasty of South India and the Southeast Asian
Hindu kingdoms led the Bay of Bengal to be called “The Chola Lake”. The Cholas
developed links all over south India. They then brought Srilanka, South — East Asia and even
China under the network of trade-mostly barter system was employed in trade and commerce
where even paddy was used as a unit of exchange. Large scale exchanges of gold coins such
as Pon, Kasu, Kalanju were used. In 1025, Rajendra Chola I, the Chola Emperor from Tamil
Nadu in South India, launched naval raids on the city-state of Srivijaya in maritime Southeast
Asia, Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and
its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places in present
day Indonesia and Malaysia were
invaded
by Rajendra
Chola
I of
the Chola
dynasty. The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as
the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Cholan invasion led to
the fall of the Srivijays. Cholan rule or influence on Srivijaya would last until 1070.These
attacks on Srivijaya in the 10th century are the only example ever of military attack by Indian
kings in Southeast Asia.
The Buddhist Pala dynasty of Bengal also maintained close economic, cultural and religious ties
with the Srivijaya empire, which itself competed with the Khmer Empire to the north for
influence in the region.
For a thousand years, the Javanese were a major influence over Southeast Asia and especially
the great Khmer kingdoms had a great maritime influence, trading from the Philippines to India
and all the way to Japan. They took all the knowledge they needed from abroad, merged it into
their own culture, while trading in gold, precious woods and gemstones.
A Hindu realm. Indian religion was profoundly absorbed by local cultures that formed their own
distinctive variations of these structures in order to reflect their own ideals. Hinduism does not
have a single historical founder nor a centralized authority, thus ensuring religious freedom. It
also allowed for multiple forms of divinity that harmoniously integrated local traditions, instead
of imposing a foreign form of worship.
Art and Architecture in Dvipantara
Art and architectural creations rivaled those built in India, in size, design and aesthetic
achievements. The most notable examples are Borobudur in Java and Angkor in Cambodia.
Many of the Indian artists came from Kalinga (today’s Orissa). Many of the motifs on the
walls of Borobudur and Angkor Wat resemble carvings of the temples of eastern India.
Modelled after Gupta period icons, the Khmer sculpture of 8th to 13th centuries are very
different in appearance and form uniquely Southeast Asian stylised figures of gods, goddesses,
Buddhas, Apsaras and demons.
The art which the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Dvipantara produced owes its extraordinary
qualities to the genius of the native people. Indian spirituality only provided themes and
patterns for transformation opening up local avenues of cultural and artistic development, as
can be seen in the art of Java, Bali, Burma and Thailand and Cambodia.
In short, Southeast Asia built its own indigenous civilization based on an Indian blueprint. The
Hindu-Buddhist culture and achievements of Southeast Asia often surpassed that of India.
Sculptors and artists integrated Indian motifs with local artistic motifs to arrive at something
distinctively Southeast Asian and produced stylized masterpieces of their own.
23
Trade and Culture
The traders brought gold, spices and natural resources from Southeast Asia to India, while the
Brahmins brought the Hindu religious and philosophical traditions from India to the various
kingdoms of Dvipantara. Brahmins influenced beyond just the fields of religion and philosophy
however. They also brought their very efficient codes of law and architecture. It was therefore
a natural symbiosis rooted in a similar geographical environment.
The food and flavours of South East Asia are closely related to the Indian ones. Indian herbal
medicines also reached Southeast Asia from ancient times and are used even today in many
countries. The Indonesian ‘jamu’ medicine of today is only a remnant of the Ayurvedic practices
from the time of the Javanese Hindu kingdoms.
The trade networks also allowed the influx of Brahmin scholars, who impressed many Southeast
Asian elites with their knowledge of law, arts, philosophy. The Brahmin scholars, who through
their knowledge were able to stir prosperity in all kingdoms, became sought after and their
practices were propagated throughout all of Southeast Asia.
The Brahmins were not only experts in performing religious rites but were also knowledgeable
in political affairs, art and architecture. They were invited by rulers to serve as advisors,
administrators and priests. Sanskrit was the vehicle for the transmission of knowledge. Sanskrit
terminology was used in all legal aspects of government and spirituality. Similar codes of law
and public administration wee adopted everywhere.
24
The ancient city of Polonnaruwa in Sri Lanka, the Thousand Pagodas at Pagan in Burma, the imperial city of Angkor Wat
in Cambodia, the holy temples of Borobudur and Prambanan in Java are all testimony to the classical cultures of Dvipantara.
Reconstruction in the Majapahit style
Indian knowledge found a fertile environment in Southeast Asia, a fertile land of spices, precious
woods, gemstones and other natural resources. As the various kingdoms developed and
prospered through their knowledge of the scriptures and shastras, Hindu-Buddhist religion and
civilisation spread to in Southeast Asia. Indian spirituality, political thought, literature,
mythology and art were absorbed deeply into local culture.
All over Southeast Asia, the Ramayana is seen as the founding myth of society, and has long
been the theme for art, drama, dance and poetry. Southeast Asia incorporated and blended the
best of Indian culture. This complementary unity-in-diversity of that vast area springs from the
fact that while Indian philosophy and wisdom is the most profound, its most perfect means of
expression are to be found in Southeast Asia (Angkor, Borobudur).
The epic traditions of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa gave legitimacy to a ruler identified
with a god who battled the demonic forces that threaten the ethical order of the world. In
Southeast Asia, as in India, local ancestor and spirit worship traditions were blended with Hindu
and Buddhist conceptions.
In the 9th century, King Yashvarman of Angkor is said to have built hundreds of ashrams. Each
of these, headed by a priest called a Kuladhyaksha, or visitor, was primarily a centre for higher
learning and promoting religious and spiritual practices attracting large followings of devotees.
25
The kings of Cambodia, Jayavarman VII (the founder of Angkor) and his successors were
addressed by the people as King of the Mountain and they built their palaces and temples on hill
peaks (as with the Bayon temples).
The Sanskrit Cosmopolis
All names of places in Southeast Asia are Sanskrit in origin. Jeyapora is a derivation of the
name Jaipur. Aranya Prathet in Thailand is simply ‘the jungle province’ or Aranya Pradesh.
‘Indianization’ did not come from outside, but was the product of the indigenous cultures using
Sanskrit as a linga franca and Hinduism as the cultural and spiritual frame.
The political cultures of Java, Cambodia, Burma, and Thailand today still reflect the heritage of
early kingdoms in which Indian religious concepts were welded to local traditions.
All Southeast Asian scripts derive from the Brahmi script used to write Sanskrit. Languages
from Burmese, Thai, Laos, Cambodian and Indonesian languages are all derived from Sanskrit.
The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined with local deities and ancestor
worship. Hinduism and Buddhism apparently were not clearly differentiated, as rulers often
patronized both religions In most of the kingdoms, like Cham in coastal Vietnam, Cambodia
and Java, the predominant strain of Hinduism was Shaivism. The Śailendras of Java and
Śrīvijaya identified with Buddhism, as did the rulers of Pagan in today’s Burma.
Angkor Borei Temple, Cambodia
The Majapahit was Javanese Hindu thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia that was based
on the island of Java (in modern-day Indonesia). It existed from 1293 to circa 1527 and reached
its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 was marked
by conquests that extended throughout Southeast Asia. His achievement is also credited to his
prime minister, Gajah Mada. According to the Nagarakretagama (Desawarñana) written in
1365, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea;
consisting of present-day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, East
Timor, southwestern Philippines (in particular the Sulu Archipelago) although the scope of
Majapahit sphere of influence is still the subject of debate among historians. The nature of
Majapahit relations and influences upon its overseas vassals, and also its status as an empire are
still provoking discussions.
26
Majapahit was one of the last major Hindu empires of the region and is considered to be one
of the greatest and most powerful empires in the history of Indonesia and Southeast Asia. It is
sometimes seen as the precedent for Indonesia's modern boundaries. Its influence extended
beyond the modern territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies
After the 13th century, the decline of Southeast Asian civilization followed that of India, when
the Indian coast and interior fell under attack from the Mughals and other Mohammedan
tribes, who then made their way through the trade routes all the way to Malaysia and
Indonesia, where a slow, creeping islamization progressively destroyed the native kingdoms
that had flourished for fifteen centuries.
With the Moslem destruction of Buddhist universities in India, particularly Nalanda
University, Buddhism in India was almost obliterated by the 12th century, yet became very
dominant in Southeast Asia. Later, Southeast Asia was dismembered into British colonies:
Myanmar and Malaysia; French: the Indochinese states of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam;
Dutch: Indonesia; and Spanish: the Philippines (which was later to become a US colony). In
this process, the cultures of Southeast Asia were totally obscured by these new colonial
dominions.1
Today, the complete Indonesian Buddhist teachings can be found in Buddhayana, a syncretism
between Vajrayana, Mahayana and Theravada, as a continuation of the 2000-years old syncretic
Indonesian Buddhist tradition. Buddhayana was established by the Venerable Ashin
Jinarakkhita after Indonesian independence.In China and countries with large Chinese
populations such as Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore, Chinese Esoteric Buddhism is
commonly referred to as Tángmì, or Hànchuán Mìzōng Its manifestation through subsequent
Japanese transmission is sometimes referred as Dōngmì-"Eastern Esotericism", meaning the
succession of Tang Esoterica in Japan (east of China) transmitted by the Japanese monk Kūkai.
During the Tang dynasty the actual term widely used to refer to these teachings by Tantric
masters was "mantra teaching" and "path of mantras. Chinese tantric masters like Vajrabodhi
and Amoghavajra also used the term Vajrayana.
In a more general sense, the Chinese term Mìzōng "Esoteric Tradition" and Mìjiào "Esoteric
Teaching" are popular Chinese terms used when referring to any form of Esoteric Buddhism.
__
Timeline of Buddhism in Indonesia- RIGHT Javanese Buddha in gold, 33,7 cm, 11th century
_________________________________________________________________________1.
https://medium.com/@Kalpavriksha/dvipantara-the-golden-age-of-southeast-asia127fc22c9fce
27
A Pan-Asian Network of Buddhist Masters
Researcher Andrea Acri demonstrated in a groundbreaking book called Esoteric Buddhism in
Mediaeval Maritime Asia: Networks of Masters, Texts, Icons how from the early 7th century,
Esoteric Buddhist masters, texts, and icons traveled far and wide across Asia in a circular
manner through multiple centers of diffusion.
In this book, he makes an argument for the important role played by regions such as Sri Lanka,
Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Malaysia and Indonesia in the genesis and propagation of Esoteric
Buddhist lineages, scriptures and art across Asia. The book is divided into three thematic
sections on (1) monks, texts, patrons, (2) art, architecture, and material culture, and (3) BuddhaShaiva dynamics.
This research provides a treasure trove of detail on the ‘networks of masters, texts and icons’ of
Esoteric Buddhism that united monastic, dynastic and lay practitioners in a vast geographical
zone that stretched from South Asia through Southeast Asia to China, Korea and Japan. . It
demonstrates how the region was both a crossroads and terminus of Buddhist lineages. The book
also draws our attention to the links between the kingdom of Srivijaya and Tibet, studied through
the life of the monk Atisha not justn ‘passively’ received overseas influences’.
Esoteric Buddhism in the Indonesian Kingdoms
The kingdom of Śrīvijaya, located near the current city of Palembang in Sumatra, was for
many centuries a prominent international center in the Buddhist world. A stronghold of Esoteric
28
Buddhism, the Srivijaya empire patronized Buddhist monks and institutions and attracted
pilgrims and scholars from all parts of Asia.
These included Yi Jing, who made several long visits to Sumatra on his way to study
at Nalanda University in India, and the Buddhist scholar Atisha who played a major role in the
development of Vajrayana Buddhism in Indonesia and Tibet. Atisha lived in Sumatra from 1011
to 1023. He studied under the guidance of Dharmakirti, a leading monk of Srivijaya.
The Kalingga Kingdom was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Central Java,
located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. The kingdom was described as being
surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing in a multiple storied palace covered
with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees. The kingdom exported silver, gold and
elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very orderly and serene, and led by Queen Sima. It
was a center of Buddhist studies and practice, and the Chinese came to Kalingga to study
Buddhism., which around that time became the official religion in China. Two temples remain
from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi Angin and Candi Bubrah in Tempur Village, the present
day Jepara.
The great Manjusrigrha Templeof Medang.
The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of the
great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is the
original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in Indonesia
after Borobudur, with 249 buildings.
Singhasari and Majapahit
Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism, with monumental architecture
such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The largest Buddhist stupa in the world is
the Borobudur temple in central Java, built as a mandala, a giant three-dimensional
representation of Esoteric Buddhist cosmology. The temple shows both Indian and Javanese
influences. The reliefs depict stories from the Lalitavistara sūtra, Jataka tales and
the Gandavyuha sūtra. In the 13th century, Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, where King
Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized Esoteric Buddhism (Vajrayana). Buddhism continued to
thrive under the Majapahit Empire. Some of their kings were Vajrayana practitioners, such as
King Adityawarman whose inscriptions state he was “always concentrated on Hevajra”.
The oldest Buddhist statue in Indonesia was found in West Sulawesi, at the mouth of the
Sampaga river, Sikendeng Village, Mamuj. It represents Dīpankara Buddha, the protective deity
in Buddhism. The statue is in the Amarawati style. Buddhist holy sites in Indonesia include the
Kalasan Temple, near Yogjakarta, the Sari Temple, near Kalasan Temple, Borobudur, the
Mendut and Pawon temples on the eastern side of Borobudur, the Ngawen temples complex
near Muntilan, the Sewu temples complex near Prambanan, the Plaosan temples complex on the
Eastern side of the Sewu Temple and a few others. The classical era of ancient Java also had
produces some of the exquisite examples of Buddhist art, such as the statue of Prajnaparamita
of Java and that of Buddha Vairochana and Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani in Mendut
temple.
29
An important gold artefact was recovered from the Ratu Boko temple near Prambanan. The inscribed gold foil
consisting of two connected diamond-shaped leaves recalling a vajra, bears the Sanskrit mantra oṁ ṭakī hūṁ
jaḥ svāhā repeated on each of its four sides.
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Chapter 3
Ancient Indonesia(Funan) and the Immigration of indian
Tantrism through the ORISSA State
The cultural heritage of each nation confines the real value of cultural formation process, the
positive expression of the historical tradition and national characteristics. Ancient Odisha,
popularly known as Kalinga was the epicenter of the inland and foreign trade and played a
leading role in the dissemination of their culture and civilization in the Indonesian islands and
there is a need to ensure that these cultural practices and traditions borne out of enduring
commercial and cultural relationship live on and its meaning, symbolism and significance is
not obliterated from social consciousness with the passage of time and confrontation with
modern lifestyles.
Kalinga is a historical region of India. It is generally defined as the eastern coastal
region between the Mahanadi and the Godavari rivers, although its boundaries have
fluctuated with the territory of its rulers. The core territory of Kalinga now encompasses a
large part of Odisha and northern part of Andhra Pradesh. At its widest extent, the Kalinga
region also included a part of present-day Chhattisgarh.
The Kalingas have been mentioned as a major tribe in the legendary text Mahabharata. In the
3rd century BCE, the region came under Mauryan control as a result of the Kalinga War. It
was subsequently ruled by several regional dynasties whose rulers bore the
title Kalingadhipati ("Lord of Kalinga"); these dynasties
included Mahameghavahana, Vasishtha, Mathara, Pitrbhakta, Shailodbhava, Somavamshi,
and Eastern Ganga. The last two dynasties to rule over Kalinga were the Gajapati
dynasty and Suryavansh of Nandapur.
One of the unique aspects of India’s Cultural Heritage is that we have persevered our traditions
and customs through our evolution since ages without a break to the present day. The unbroken
thread of our ancient civilization and its preservation has also startled scholars from far and
wide. We Indians have always felt a sense of pride in our rich cultural heritage but somewhere
in our march towards adopting the glittering aspects of Western ethos we have somewhat lost
touch with the actual glory of our past and do not give due regards to the cultural identity,
historical continuity and significance to many of our long standing cultural traditions and the
lasting impressions they left on faraway lands.
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Kalaratri and Vadyarupa of the 64 Yoginis
Chamunda, Orissa State Museum, Odisha
"Chamunda should be with sunken eyes, three eyed, without flesh and reduced to skeleton,
having hairs shooting upwards, sunken belly, wearing the skin of an elephant, holding a
pattisa and a decapitated head in her two left hands and a spear and a sword in her two right
hands, seated on a corpse and adorned with a garland of skulls."
-Agni Puran (50, 21-23)
"The ladies of these Places
Bestow siddhis upon practitioners,
They always come at night,
They always go at night.
-Hevajra Tantra
A
board in State Museum of Orissa with informaiion on Shaktism
In Odisha Tantra vidya was known to have been popular from 6th century A.D. which marked
the beginning of decline of Buddhism. However some scholars believe that Hindu and Buddhist
Tantrism and the Shakti cult all have a common source in antiquity. Many Tantric texts
connected with Shakti worship were composed during this period. Many Shakti temples were
constructed and devis were worshiped in their myriads of forms. Side by side the cults of
Matrikas and Yoginis also evolved in various parts of Odisha.
Baitāḷa deuḷa or Vaitāḷa deuḷa is an 8th-century Hindu temple of the typical Khakara style of
the Kalinga architecture dedicated to Goddess Chamunda located in Bhubaneswar, the capital
city of Odisha, India. It is also locally known as Tini-mundia deula due to the three spires on
top of it, a very distinct and unusual feature. The three spires are believed to represent the three
powers of the goddess Chamunda - Mahasaraswati, Mahalakshmi and Mahakali.
Baitaḷa Deuḷa Temple’s striking feature is the shape of its sanctuary tower. The semicylindrical shape of its roof is a leading example of Khakhara order of temples— which bears
an affinity to the Dravidian Gopuram of the South Indian temples. Its gabled towers with a row
of Shikharas reveals unmistakable signs of southern intrusion.The plan of the deuḷa is oblong
33
and the jagamohana is a rectangular structure, but embedded in each angle is a small subsidiary
shrine. Baitala deuḷa boasts of some figures, although executed in relief, are however
characterized by delicacy of features and perfect equipoise.
The outer walls are encrusted with panels of Hindu deities, mostly Shiva and his
consort Parvati, hunting processions, capturing of wild elephants and the occasional erotic
couples.The facade of the deuḷa above the left of the jagamohana is dominated by
two chaitya windows—the lower one having a carved figure of the sun god, Surya noted for
its facial expression, with Usha (Dawn) and Pratyusha shooting arrows on either side and
with Aruna in front, driving a chariot of seven horses.
The medallion in the upper Chaitya window houses a 10-armed Nataraja, the dancing form of
Shiva. In front of the flat roofed Jagamohana is a stone post relieved with two Buddha like
figures seated in Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana mudra.
Another striking feature is temple's Tantric associations, marked by eerie carvings in the
sanctum. The image enshrined in the central niche, eight armed Chamunda, locally known as
Kapaḷini, is the terrifying form of goddess. Thus, Baitāḷa Deuḷa is a Shakti shrine.
Vertical panorama of the entire temple
The presiding deity, Chamunda or Charchika sits on a corpse flanked by a jackal and an owl
( See pictutre to RIGHT above) and decorated with a garland of skulls. She holds a snake,
bow, shield, sword, trident, thunderbolt and an arrow, and is piercing the neck of the demon.
The niche is capped by a chaitya window containing seated figures of Shiva and Parvati.
Chamunda is surrounded by a host of other smaller size allied deities carved in the lower parts
of the walls, each within a niche separate by a pilaster. The figure on the east wall, to the right
of the door, is a skeleton form of Bhairava, the counterpart of Chamunda.
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The other, carved on the north wall, rises from ground, having filled his skull-cup with the
blood of a person whose severed head lies on the right. On the pedestal is an offering of two
more heads on a tray resting on a tripod, flanked by a jackal feasting on the decapitated body
on the right and a woman holding a head on the left.
The tantric character of the temple is also marked by the stone post, to which sacrificial
offerings were tethered, just in front of the jagamohana. Artificial light is needed to see in the
darkness of the interior, though early morning sun lights up the interior.
Tantra in Odisha
In Odisha Tantra vidya was known to have been popular from 6th century A.D. which marked
the beginning of decline of Buddhism. However some scholars believe that Hindu and Buddhist
Tantrism and the Shakti cult all have a common source in antiquity. Many Tantric texts
connected with Shakti worship were composed during this period. Many Shakti temples were
constructed and devis were worshiped in their myriads of forms. Side by side the cults of
Matrikas and Yoginis also evolved in various parts of Odisha.
Chinnamastaka mounted on a severed human head and the bull-faced Vrishabhanana mounted
on, what looks like, rock caves, Chausath Yogini Temple, Hirapur, Odisha
Hevajra Tantra (Tantric Buddhism/Vajrayana Buddhism) known to have been compiled in 7th
century A.D. mentioned four important Tantra pithas of India namely Jalandhara, Oddiyana,
Purnagri and Kamarupa. Of these four, two pithas have been assigned to Orissa. Oddiyana
pitha of Orissa was the fountain head of all Trantric knowledge since early time. Pushpagiri
too was a major centre. The four early pithas of Tantrism proliferated into one hundred and
35
eight pithas later. In an inscription of 12th century A.D. of Maharashtra there is mention about
Mahayogesvari Ugrachamunda as the presiding deity of the sixty four Yoga pithas (Patel).
A placard at the Odisha State Museum on Matrikas
The Hevajra version of the Matrika/Yogini Mandala (Ref. Snellgrove)
36
37
A beautiful idol of Varahi /// A beautiful idol of Varahi , one of the 64 Yoginis, at the Odisha State
Museum, Bubhaneshvar
In Odisha we find innumerable sculptural pantheons of Yogini deities. Yoginis are feminine
divinities. They are also called Matrikas. They also personify different forms of subtle energies.
Master female practitioner of Yoga, more often Tantric Yoga is also called a Yogini. Their
number of divine Yoginis was initially seven or eight but subsequently their number increased
to sixty four and got mingled with Tantric cult and rituals. The Markandeya Purana refers to
seven Matrikas.
The word Matrika is derived from the Sanskrit word, Mantra or formula which are the basis of
all forms of creation. In Yoga, mantra corresponds to the sound formula that which is a verbal
expression of an archetype that represents a state of being i.e.a divinity and allows that divine
being to be summoned.
According to Hevajra Tantra the thirty-two veins of the Hevajra's body are equated with the
Yoginis, two for each vein adds up to sixty-four. (Douglas). According to another interpretation
(Singh), the symbolic 64 is a product of 8 directions and the replication of each one in ashthamandala, 8 points of the cosmic circle. The number 8 (matrikas/mother goddesses) symbolise
the condensation (sankoch) of cosmic rhythm which on expansion (purna vikas) gives rise to
64 matrikamandal.
Among all symbols, the circle is the purest and the simplest, both in form and concept. It may
represent the Sun, the Eye, Zodiac and many other things on heaven and Earth, but ultimately
it represents the cyclic eternity and the One source of it all.
Since ancient times, a circle has been used to mark the boundaries of a sacred space. The Agni
Purana lists nine types of circular temples.
The circle also represents a chakra used for specialized tantrik rituals. In the Yogini Tantra,
images of various yoginis are placed within a circle to form a Yogini chakra or a Yogini
Temple.
In Orissa, two Chausath Yogini temples survive. One is at Ranipur Jharial in Bolangir district
and the other one at Hirapur in Khurda district. The Ranipur Jharial circular Yogini temple
belongs to 7th Century A.D. while the Hirapur yogini temple may be dated to 8th/9th century
A.D.
Hirapur
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The Chausath or 64 Yogini temple that we visited is situated in the village of Hirapur, 20 km
outside Bhubaneswar. As soon as we arrived a small built middle aged man and two Pandits
appeared from no where, all eager to tell us about the temple. The man, who appeared to be an
ASI certified guide, began reciting the history of the temple, the name and the vahan (vehicle)
of each of the Yoginis. He had memorized the entire list of 64 yoginis but was unable to answer
much beyond that. The Pandits, as usual were eager for dakshina and found a very hesitant
devotee in me. However they managed to recite a mantra and hastily put a vermillion tilak on
my forehead before I could change my mind.
This was one of those rare temples whose basic architecture was more akin to the Stone Henge
structure in U.K. than a Hindu temple in the sense that it was simple, circular and was open to
the sky. But that was where the resemblance ended. This Yogini temple, made of a low circular
wall without a roof and a square shaped main shrine (Chandi Madap) at the center, had beautiful
and exquisitely carved female deities housed in each of the 60 niches on the inner wall of the
circular structure.
Veerkumari mounted on a Scorpion and Maheshwari mounted on a Bull, Chausath Yogini
Temple, Hirapur, Odisha
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There were two Dvarpalas on both sides of the entrance and nine Katyayanis in the niches of
the outer wall. The Dvarpalas and Katyayanis embody wrath and anger and are possibly the
guardians of this unique temple:
The square structure or Chandi Mandap at the center is believed to house the image of dancing
Nataraj or Moha Bhairav which had been removed.
On both sides of the Pillars there were a total of eight niches housing four Bhairavs and four
Yoginis. Yoginin no. 61 had been removed.
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While the two Pandits rattled off mechanically about how this temple was that of Kali and only
fish was offered as sacrificial bhog, to me this temple was a tribute to feminine energy in all its
beauty, power and wrath. https://www.tripoto.com/orissa/trips/odisha-iii-the-oc-cult-of-shakti5a4f2aa1bdd32
The Kalinga War (ended c. 265 BCE) was fought in ancient India between the Maurya
Empire under Ashoka and the state of Kalinga, an independent feudal kingdom located on the
east coast, in the present-day state of Odisha and north parts of Andhra Pradesh. The Kalinga
War included one of the largest and deadliest battles in Indian history. Kalinga did not have a
king as it was culturally run without any.
This is the only major war Ashoka fought after his accession to the throne. In fact this war
marks the close of empire building and military conquests of ancient India that began with
Maurya king Bindusara.The bloodshed of this war is said to have prompted Ashoka to
adopt Buddhism with them.
BACKGROUND OF KALINGA WAR:
The Kalinga War was fought between the Maurya Empire with Ashoka and the state
of Kalinga, a feudal republic located on the coast of the present-day Indian state of Odisha and
northern parts of Andhra Pradesh. The main reasons for invading Kalinga were both political
41
and economic. Kalinga is then said to be a glorious and prosperous region consisting of
freedom loving and artistic skilled people. The Kalinga Kingdom, also known as the “Utkala”
were the first from the Bharata (present day India) who traveled offshore to South East for
Trade.They use to follow open culture and uniform civil code. Since the time of Ashoka’s
father, King Bindusara, the Mauryan Empire based in Magadha was following a policy of
territorial expansion. Kalinga was under Magadha control during the Nanda rule, but regained
independence with the beginning of the rule of the Mauryas. That was considered a great
setback for the traditional policy of territorial expansion of the Magadhan emperors and was
considered to be a loss of political prestige for the Mauryas merely imperative to reduce
Kalinga to complete subjection. To this task Ashoka must have set himself as soon as he felt
he was securely established on the throne.
A view of the banks of the Daya River, the supposed battlefield of Kalinga from atop Dhauli hills,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha State
Kalinga (adjacent Bay of Bengal) and Maurya Empire (blue) before the invasion of Ashoka
The reasons for invading Kalinga were both political and economic. Kalinga was a prosperous
region consisting of peaceful and artistically skilled people. Known as the Utkala,[9] they were
the first from the region who traveled offshore to the southeast for trade. For that reason,
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Kalinga had important ports and a powerful navy. They had an open culture and used a uniform
civil code.
Kalinga was under the rule of the Nanda Empire until the empire's fall in 321 BCE. Ashoka's
grandfather Chandragupta Maurya had previously attempted to conquer Kalinga, but had been
repulsed. Ashoka set himself to the task of conquering the newly independent empire as soon
as he felt he was securely established on the throne.[10] Kalinga was a strategic threat to the
Maurya empire. It could interrupt communications between Maurya capital Pataliputra and
Maurya possessions in central Indian peninsula. Kalinga also controlled the coastline for the
trade in bay of Bengal.
No war in the history of India as important either for its intensity or for its results as the Kalinga
war of Ashoka. No wars in the annals of the human history has changed the heart of the victor
from one of wanton cruelty to that of an exemplary piety as this one. From its fathomless womb
the history of the world may find out only a few wars to its credit which may be equal to this
war and not a single one that would be greater than this. The political history of mankind is
really a history of wars and no war has ended with so successful a mission of the peace for the
entire war-torn humanity as the war of Kalinga.
— Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra, Military History of Orissa
The war was completed in the eighth year of Ashoka's reign, according to his own Edicts of
Ashoka, probably in 262 BCE.[1] After a bloody battle for the throne following the death of his
father, Ashoka was successful in conquering Kalinga – but the consequences of the savagery
changed Ashoka's views on war and led him to pledge to never again wage a war of conquest.
According to Megasthenes, the Greek historian at the court of Chandragupta Maurya, the ruler
of Kalinga had a powerful army comprising infantry, cavalry and elephants.
Ashoka had seen the bloodshed and felt that he was the cause of the destruction. The whole
area of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed. Some of Ashoka's later edicts state that about
150,000 people died on the Kalinga side and an almost equal number of Ashoka's army, though
legends among the Odia people – descendants of Kalinga's natives – claim that these figures
were highly exaggerated by Ashoka. As per the legends, Kalinga armies caused twice the
amount of destruction they suffered. Thousands of men and women were deported from
Kalinga and forced to work on clearing wastelands for future settlement.
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Priyadarsi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his
coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were
killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered,
Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dharma, a love for the
Dharma and for instruction in Dharma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for
having conquered the Kalingas.
— Ashoka, Rock Edict No. 13
Ashoka's response to the Kalinga War is recorded in the Edicts of Ashoka. The Kalinga War
prompted Ashoka, already a non-engaged Buddhist, to devote the rest of his life
to ahimsa (non-violence) and to dharma-vijaya (victory through dharma). Following the
conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka ended the military expansion of the empire and began an era of
more than 40 years of relative peace, harmony, and prosperity.
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Transoceanic trade relations of Kalinga with Java
The Early Historical Period saw India forge transoceanic trade relations with Thailand,
Malaysia and islands of Java and Bali (Indonesia). Suvarnabhumi and Suvarnadvipa has many
references in our ancient Indian literature and scriptures which refers to present day “South
East Asia” and “Indonesia”, respectively Chanakya’s Arthasashtra also has references on how
Ashoka of Mauryan dynasty had set proselytizing missions to Ceylon (modern day SriLanka)
as well South East Asia. The Mahaniddesa work also has detailed references on hazards of
voyages to foreign known-unknown lands including Suvarnabhumi. Some ancient scriptures
also suggest that an important role was played by Brahmanas (invited by local rulers) in
spreading Indian Cultural Heritage in Suvarnabhumi. These seafarers, merchants and traders
who went on oceanic voyages were pioneers in spreading Indian Cultural Heritage in
Suvarnabhumi.
While we will mostly touch on the aspect of how political voyages from Kalinga, merchants
and traders of Kalinga were influential in spreading Indian Culture in Suvarnabhumi. This
article will focus on the cultural interactions and try to regain the lost glory from the prism of
rich ancient Maritime Trade of Kalinga (ancient Odisha). Maritime activities of Kalinga forms
one of the interesting facets of Indian History. B’coz of these trade activities cultural heritage,
customs, beliefs, language, ideas, scriptures, Sanatana Dharma’s finer aspects of Kalinga got
popularized and accepted in those habitations in other countries where settlements were
established by Kalinga’s merchants, traders and political voyagers Kalinga’s Role in South East
Asia
Kalinga was instrumental in shaping the history and culture of South East Asia especially in
the Malayo-Indonesian World. As per some of the scholars of history, Kaundinya (founder of
the kingdom of Funan) was either from Kalinga or Vidarbha or Krishna Valley. The Kaundinya
and the Kalingans were settled in the upper part of Malay Peninsula. The Kaundinya’s were
associated with the Funan and Borne royal dynasties. The Kalingan’s were mostly settled in
Malaya and Java whereas Indians from lower Krishna valley (the Cholas, the Pandyas, the
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Malayalese, and Kannadiga’s) were settled in Sumatra Also the historical records of Sui
Dynasty (581-618 A.D.) and other Chinese texts mention about king’s courts of that time
period had several hundred Brahmins sitting in rows facing each other on both sides. Presence
of so many Brahmins in inhabitations dominated by Kalingans also hints that the script referred
by Chinese as K’un-Lun must have been scripts of KalingansMany of the Chinese scriptures
and texts speak of K’-un-Lun people, K’-un-Lun scripts, K’-un-Lun merchants and traders.
K’un-Lun can also be pronounced as Ku-lung. Ku-lung was used by Chinese scriptures to
designate an ethno-linguistic entity. Indonesian linguistics permits changing ‘u’ to ‘i’ or ‘e’, so
K’un-Lun / Ku-lung is also referred as Keling. Keling i.e. Kalinga has been referred in many
Indonesian scriptures in the most glorious periods of Indo-Southeast Asian Cultural Countries.
Apart from this people of Kalinga also played a greater role in Java as compared to other
regions of South East Asia from 8th century A.D. onwards. The Aryamanjusrimulakalpa
(composed in Sanskrit between 700-800 A.D.) refers to some regions of South East Asia in
verses 636-649. The verses are “unrasandhisu” (the confluence of the seas) and “ambhodheh
kuksitiranta” (in the bays of the seas of their coasts). In verses 884-894, the author has given
direction about the worship of Tara in the east, southern India and the islands of the sea. The
author refers modern Java seas as Kalinga seas and it can be implied that he refers the most
important part of Java as Kalinga
In Old-Javanese epigraphy Kling i.e. Kalinga appears in the inscription from 840 A.D. During
the reign of King Airlangga (1019-42 A.D.), scriptures has mention about the
countries/kingdoms from where traders used to come their kingdom like “Kling, Aryya,
Singhala, Pandikira, Dravida, Campa, Kmir, Rmen…” Kling refers to Kalinga and Aryya refers
to lower Krishna Valley. Also, in some inscriptions of East Java reference of King Girindra
Vardhana as Bharat Kling i.e. King of Kalinga and his queen Kamalavarnadevi as queen of
Kalingapura
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Scene of Vijay’s landing in Ceylon, Paintings of Ajanta Cave
Wall Painting at Kelaniya Temple of princess Hemamala and her husband prince Danta Kumar. It is
portrayed that Hemamala is crying Gautam Buddha’s tooth relic hidden in her hair to Sri Lanka
KALINGA - INDONESIA
The ancient relations between Kalinga and Sinhala had spread and impacted various aspects of
life i.e. starting from political relations to trade and concluding in the domains of religion and
culture Kalinga’s maritime relations with Bali and influence on adoption of Hinduism in Bali
Kalinga was instrumental in shaping the history and culture of Indonesia especially in the island
of Bali. The maritime trade of Kalinga brought prosperity to the kingdom which could largely
be attributed to her overseas trade with distant lands like Indonesia. The people of Kalinga
maintained lasting commercial and cultural relationship with the Indonesian islands of Java,
Sumatra, Bali and Borneo collectively sometime referred by some scholars as “Suvarnadvipa”.
The island of Bali, formed the most attractive destination for the merchants of Kalinga. In this
process, Odia culture, customs, religious beliefs, ideas, language, script and manners were
popularised in this island.
Bali is the only island in Indonesia where Hinduism combined with Balinese concepts is still
predominant. Even now Bali has an absolute repository of the Hindu culture of India. Hindu
gods like Bhagwan Shiva, Bhagwan Vishnu, Bhagwan Brahma, Bhagwan Indra, Varuna Dev
and Bhagwan Ganesha are worshipped and highly respected. H. B. Sarkar in his book titled
“Some Contributions of India to the Ancient Civilization of Indonesia and Malaysia” published
in 1970 says, “Indeed, all known gods of any importance in the Hindu and Buddhist pantheon
of India had their heyday in Bali.”Bhagwan Shiva was considered as the most powerful divine
power and was considered as the elder brother of Buddha. As per traditional beliefs, Bali was
the considered to be the centre of the Universe and the home of Devi’s and Devta’s. The
Balinese verses, which refer to five pious women are very much similar to India i.e. “Om
Ahalya Draupadi Sita Dara (for Tara) Mandodari talha panchakanya smarennityam”. After
Hinduism, Buddhism was also very popular in ancient Bali. Indian influence on Bali could be
easily seen in composition of works on astrology (Balinese called wariga). Sanskrit also had a
great influence on their language and literature. The Balinese till today celebrate Indian
festivals like Maha Shivratri, Saraswati Puja, Durga Puja etc.
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The name Bali is said to have originated from the kingdom of the demon emperor Maha Bali
who had gifted away the entire world to Vamana Avatar of Bhagwan Vishnu. There are ample
proofs to testify that the Hindu influence from India reached Bali b’coz of trade relations
between the two nations. Recent archaeological discoveries indicate that the contact between
India and Indonesia, particularly Bali, had been at least since beginning of the Common Era or
CE.
Discovery of rouletted ware23, glass beads, semi-precious stone beads, potsherds with kharosthi
characters etc., from Bali points to ancient cultural contact between Bali and different regions
of India. The Hindu texts such as Vrihat Samhita and Kathasarita Sagar affirms trade relations
between India and Bali since very early times
Kalinga had close links with the Hindu kingdom of Bali. The island of Bali was known to the
sailors of Kalinga as Nariketa dvipa. Many Balinese inscriptions refer to Bali as the island of
coconut24. The sailors of Kalinga made frequent voyages to the island of Bali and had their
settlements in the island who consequently spread various aspects of Hindu culture. This
glorious past has been preserved in a festival of Odisha known as Bali Yatra, celebrated
throughout the length and breadth of Odisha. It is also known as Boita Bandana festival and is
celebrated on the auspicious day of Kartika Purnima. Even today, people of Odisha celebrate
this festival by sailing boats of banana peel in rivers, ponds and sea chanting:
“aa – ka – ma – ba (bha) i
pana – gua – thoi
pana – gua – tora
masaka dharama mo ra”
Kalinga and the island of Bali have influenced each other’s culture very extensively. I.G.P.
Phalgunadi, an Indonesian scholar who visited Odisha and did some field work in connection
of his research was surprised by seeing the similarity between the culture and life styles of the
people of both the places. There are many cultural elements that are similar between Odisha
and Bali, e. g. religious activities, dance forms, art and crafts, temples and monuments, textile
designs, even food habits, manners and the vocabulary. Temples as socio-cultural centres are
common both to Bali and Odisha. The discovery of similar type of rouletted ware at Sembiran,
located in north eastern Bali and from the sites like Shishupalagarh, Manikpatna, Tamluk etc.,
of Odisha suggest deep ancient trade contacts between Odisha and the island of Bali25. In Bali,
there is an inscription of the fourteenth century CE written in Odia language and script26. Also
an interesting aspect came to light i.e. the scripts used in Bali in the tenth century CE were also
used in Kalinga.
Odisha played a significant role in the evolution of Hindu culture in Bali. A section of
Brahmanas in the Karangasam district of Bali styled themselves as Brahmana-BouddhaKatinga. It seems very likely that their ancestors were immigrants from Kalinga. Some words
and usages with regard to vocabulary crafts, religious practices, form of worship, food habits
and manners prevalent in Bali are of Odia in origin. For example, in the coastal districts of
Odisha, mother is addressed as BOU and father as BABA and in Bali the former is called BU
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(BOU) and the latter as BAPA. In some places of Odisha, father is also called as BAPA
Table showing similarities between Odisha & Bali
The Balinese term for betet-nut is buah(goah) and in Odisha it is gua or guah. Cina/China is
the Balinese word for groundnut, while in Odia it is china or chinabadam. Both Balinese as
well as Odia’s used to call uncooked rice made out of part-boiled (or sun dried) paddy as arua29.
The plough is called lengallo in Bali while the Odias used the term langala for the same.
Another very interesting example is the use of the word peja or pelo both in Odisha and Bali it
refers the thick fluid which is separated from cooked rice before serving it. The Brahmin priest
in Odisha is known as PANDA whereas in Balinese temples he is called PADANDA30 “the
holder of Dharmic Scripture.”
I.G.P. Phalgunadi mentions in his observation “We worship in Bali three deities, represented
by masks, very much resembling the trinity, Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra in Orissa
[Odisha]… In Bali, we are especially fond of leaves of sag as in Orissa [Odisha], especially the
young leaves of the drum-stick tree, known in Orissa [Odisha] as sajana. We love to cook its
sag along with mashed coconut as is done in Orissa [Odisha]. We also love to eat cooked
banana-flowers and the core-stem of the banana plant, and also to have our food on banana
leaves as in Orissa [Odisha] and Bengal. We also prepare and eat a cake made of rice-flour
with stuffing’s like those known as manda and enduripitha in Orissa [Odisha], among other
such cakes made of rice flour. We worship a knotted bundle of paddy-sheaves as Shridevi, the
goddess of crops or harvesting, who is worshipped with the same connotation as Devi Lakshmi,
in the month of Margashira in Orissa [Odisha]. Goddess Shri Lakshmi receives regular
propitiation when the harvest is over. Lakshmi is regarded as the real owner of the rice fields.
In west Java, this goddess is known as Devi Pohachi, the Goddess of rice.”
48
Balinese and Odia’s have many similarities w.r.t. food habits. Both are fond of eating saga,
especially sajana saga (young green leaves of drum-stick tree). Other favourite vegetables
common to both include banana flowers (bhanda) and core stem (manja) of the banana plant.
The Balinese also serve their food on banana leaves as in Odisha and Bengal. Similarly cakes
made out of rice-flour known as manda pitha and enduripitha are also favourite dishes of both.
The habit of chewing betel and keeping the ingredients in a wooden box are found in both the
regions
Not only food habits but also there is so much commonality is there w.r.t. religious structure
and scriptures. The Vasuki temple complex dedicated to Bhagwan Shiva (Parama Shiva),
where Shiva is supposed to sit on the head of the Vasuki, was constructed with the belief that
Bali is the centre of Universe and Mount Agung on which it was built represented
Mahameru31 (highest mountain) or pivot axis of the universe. The kirtimukha motifs (themes)
of Bali are influenced by that of the Muktesvara temple of Odisha (Bhubaneswar). Various
forms of worship also shows similarity between the two regions. One of such instances is the
worship of Goddess Sri Devi (Bali) and Devi Maa Lakshmi (Odisha). Both Devi’s are
associated with dhanya and tandula. People of both the regions worship a knotted bundle of
paddy-sheaves paying their respect to both the Devi’s. In Odisha, this worship is performed on
every Thursday in the month of margashira (November-December) and is popular as Gurubara
Manabasa.
Besides, the worship of Devi’s along with worship of Bhagwan Vishnu and Bhagwan Shiva,
Buddhism is also established in Bali. As per scriptures, Bhagwan Vishnu is regarded as a sage
like the Buddha, the Balinese speak of Shiva as an elder brother of the Buddha33. ln the
observation of daily rituals the Shaivite priests address God as Jagannath, Suresvara and Rudra.
Suresvara and Rudra are being used for Bhagwan Shiva. The priests chant shlokas like “Om
Ksamam mam Sivadeva, lagannath hitamkara”
In Bali, some of the rituals began with following slokas:
Om ksamasva : nama Jagannatha sarvapapanirataram
Sarvakaryam idam dehi pranamami Suresvaram
xx
xx
xx
Om ksamsva mam Sivadeva Jagannatha hitamkara
Sarevapapa vimutkena pranammyaham Suresvaram
Jagannatha Mahaprabhu was also worshipped by people of Bali in ancient days. K. S, Behera
who visited Bali in 1992 on the occasion of Kalinga Bali Yatra festival was astonished to see
the wide spread popularity of Jagannath worship in Bali.. At Denpasar in Bali, there is a temple
of Bhagwan Jagannatha. The names of Puri and Nilachala were also used in ancient Java and
Bali. In Bali, the temple where images were worshipped was called Puri/Pura. 36 Like the
famous Ratha Yatra (Car festival) of Puri, the Balinese also carry three wooden Gods in a
grandeur procession. Masks resembling the three murtis, Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra
of Odisha cover the three wooden Gods37
The accessory articles of Indian worship such as ghrta (clarified butter), kusa (a type of grass
used in religious ceremonies), tila (sesame) and madhu (honey) are also used in Bali. Also,
divine water is used in their rituals as it’s used here in India.
Many rivers in Bali are named after the sacred rivers of India, like Ganga, Sindhu and
Yamuna. The Balinese thought that those rivers really were in Kling (Kalinga). Along with
other rivers, the Mahanadi River flowing in Odisha is considered sacred by the Balinese. They
49
chant “Om Ganga, Sindhu, Saraswati, Vipasa, Kausiki-nadi, Yamuna, Mahanadi, srestha
Sarayu mahati”. Mahendratanaya, another famous river of Odisha, was also held in high esteem
in Bali. This river originating from the foot of the Mahendragiri mountains falls in the Bay of
Bengal and is regarded as a holy river similarly it is regarded as the most sacred river in Bali.
Even in the Balinese stutis (verses), this river Mahendratanaya is mentioned along with other
sacred rivers. This may indicate that in ancient times some of the emigrants definitely were
from the Mahendra Parvata (Mahendra mountain) area of the Ganjam district of Odisha.
The stuti or shloka runs as follows:
Om Ganga Sindhu Saraswati su Yamuna
Godavari Narmada Kaveri Sarayu Mahendratanaya
Cornavati Renuka Bhadra Netravati Mahasuranadi
Khyata ca Gandaki Punyah Puranjalah Samudrasahitah
Kurvantu te mangalam
Buddhism was also quite established in Bali. Clay stupikas and votive tablets inscribed with
Buddhist dharani of c. 8th century CE are some of the positive evidences of the popularity of
Buddhism in Bali. In Odisha, votive tablets with inscriptions and figures of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas are known from the excavations at Ratnagiri and Avana in the coastal Odisha.
Similar objects have also been discovered from Bali.
Another resemblance between Odisha and the island of Bali is the designing patterns of clothes.
The tie-and-dye fabric of Odisha has its close parallel in Bali. Bali is the only state in the
Indonesian Archipelago famous for a particular type of tie-and-dye fabric known as PATOLA.
Odisha and Gujarat are the only states in India which specialise in this type of weaving. It is
believed that the famous Sambalapuri style of textile weaving has influenced the PATOLA tie
and dye style of textile weaving of Bali. In Balinese cremation textile, Odishan kumbha designs
are there.
The Hindu caste system of India is also found in the Indonesian society, though the Brahmins
and Kayasthas (a branch of kshatriyas) are held in equal regard. The behavioral features in both
places also have much similarity. The youngsters, while passing along elders sitting or standing
on the way, bend down separating themselves by stretching down their right hands towards
ground. Raising of folded hands, as a common form of greeting, is a practice in both Odisha
and Bali. Like Odisha, in the island of Bali, if a guest comes to a Hindu family he is first treated
with a betel leaf and a nut. On auspicious occasions like marriage, the Balinese Hindus invite
relatives to their house by sending betel leaf and nut as it is in practice in the coastal districts
of Odisha39. In Bali, during marriage ceremony the bride and the groom wear a type of head
dress (MUKUTA), which is very much like the head dress used in marriage ceremonies in
Odisha.
Masakapam Kepesih Ceremony, Bali
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The folk dances of Odisha like chaiti ghoda nata (chaiti ghoda dance), danda nata, naga nata
(naga dance), kandhei nata (puppet dance), Ramalila etc., are very much present in both the
islands of Bali and Java, though in a slightly different form. There is also striking affinities
between Prahalada Nataka performance of Odisha and Barong dance of Bali. Masakapam
Kepesih (as shown in image) ceremony in Bali is same as Bali Yatra “Boita Bandana” of
Odisha. The festivals are held in both countries in the month of November
Hence, it can be said that Kalingans extensively contributed towards the evolution and
development of Hindu Culture in Bali. In spite of the outside influences, the Balinese have
never lost their indigenous practices like Balinese calendars follow five days a week and
Saturdays are considered auspicious marked for worship of Devi Saraswati,
Temple Architecture Resembling Oceanic vesseal
Lingaraj Mandira, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Lingaraj Mandira has a magnificent representation of a boat (c.11th century CE). The scene
represents a woman steering a boat with an oar. The depiction of a woman steering a boat is a
unique specimen in the history of the Indian art tradition. It indicates that maritime activities
were so popular in those days among the people of Odisha that even women were associated
with the steering of the boat.
Sri Mandira (Jagannatha Mandira), Puri, Odisha
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Boat with King on Bhogamandapa of
Jagannatha Mandira, c. 12th Century CE, Puri
Jagannatha Mandira also has a magnificent representation of a boat in chlorite stone on the
Bhogamandapa (hall of offering). The represented scene is of the Nava Keli Utsava “Chandan
Jatra” (rowing festival) of Jagannath Mahaprabhu. From the analysis of this depicted boat, it
can be presumed that the king and his attendants are shown preparing for this festival. The
middle portion of the boat has a cabin and in its entrance, representation of attendants on either
side can be discerned. Four women are shown seated with their oars. In the rear end, two ladies
are depicted. Between the two, one is standing with a chhatra (parasol) and the other is shown
holding something in her hand, probably associating with a sort of worship to be performed
before the rowing festival begins. The boat represented here, is also of MADHYAMANDIRA
type
Brahmeswar Mandira (Temple), Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Shipment of Elephants from Odisha Coast/ Depiction of boats carrying elephants, Brahmeswar Mandira,
c.11th Century CE, Bhubaneswar, Odisha/ Vaital Mandira, c. 8th Century CE, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
The earliest representation of ships can be found in the sculptured frieze collected from the
vicinity of the Brahmeswar Mandira, Bhubaneswar and is now preserved in the Odisha State
Museum. The frieze depicts two ships, one is fully represented and in the second one, only the
frontal part is shown. In the first ship, it can be noticed that there is a standing elephant in the
front part of the ship. In the centre of the ship, two persons are represented being seated, and
two sailors are shown with oars in the rear end steering the ship.
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Vaital Mandira, western side of Bindusagara pond (adjacent to famous Lingaraj
Mandira of Bhubaneswar)
Mandira is known as Vaital Deula after the peculiar form of its roof resembling a ship or boat
capsized. (The word “deula” in Oriya language means a building structure built with a
particular style that is seen in most of the temples from Odisha. Sometimes the whole temple
is called Deula)
The term Vaita is probably a contraction of the Sanskrit word vahitra which means a sea-going
vessel or ship. The word Vaitara denotes a ship, and as the roof of this temple resembles an
overturned boat, it is reasonable to call it as Vaital Deula. The external appearance of the
mastaka is similar to the hull of a ship reversed, and with the ends removed by planes at right
angles to the longitudinal axis. The three crowning members resemble the masts of a ship
Konark Mandira (Sun Temple) Odisha .
Giraffe in the Sculpture of Sun Temple, Konark, c. 13th Century CE/ A sailing boat (c. 18th
Century CE Palm Leaf Painting), Odisha
At Konark, on the beki (parapet) of the Jagamohana (audience hall or hall in front of the
sanctum) of the Sun temple, the martandabhairavas are shown as dancing on boats. Another
interesting stone sculpture of a fullfledged boat of Odisha, supposed to have been collected
from Konark (c. 12th century) and now preserved in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, depicts a
boat being rowed by four persons. It is observed from this sculpture that in the middle of the
boat there is a cabin with an upraised platform inside, and a man probably of a royal personage
is sitting with a bow and arrow. This type of boat on the basis of the location of cabin is called
madhya-mandira type of royal pleasure boat as described and categorised in the Yuktikalpataru
of King Bhoja. The depiction of a giraffe, exclusively an African animal in the sculpture of the
sun temple, Konarak positively indicates that Kalinga had overseas commercial link with
Africa.
Paintings illustrated on palm leaf manuscripts preserved in the State Museum at Bhubaneswar
The drawing shown in the figure is a representation of a beautiful ship. It is regarded as the
saruamandira type of ship as referred to by Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja, as it is covered by cabins
at the front, middle and the end. Three masts can be noticed in this ship. The mast at the middle
is fastened with ropes and its top is decorated with a temple like design in which representation
of a god or a symbolical representation can be seen. Above it, a flag is noticed. On the top of
53
the ship, a flying bird is artistically shown. Below the ship, representation of waves and aquatic
animals like crocodile, fish etc. are depicted in an artistic manner. On both sides of the ship,
two sailors can be observed. On the whole, the ship is realistically depicted with essential
details as cabins, masts, flag, birds etc.
References in Literature
Scene from Ramayana, Indonesia
The interesting feature of Rama literature in Orissa is that it has striking similarities with the
Rama literature of Indonesia. The earliest reference to Indonesia in the Indian literature is found
in the Valmiki Ramayana where Sugriva gives description of the different places of the world
to his messengers. In the message, he refers to Sisirontama, Ratna dvipa, Java dvipa and
Suvarna dvipa, etc. From the passage cited above, it can be said that the contact between India
and Indonesia began at least some centuries before the Christian era and continued for a long
time
Illustrations in Overseas Kingdoms.
In some of the sculptures of the Shwezayan Pagoda at Thaton in Burma (Myanmar), remarkable
similarities with the Odishan art are found. The dressing and hair style of some of the females
are of the Odishan varieties. Some of the bas-reliefs, in high technical as well as artistic
efficiency show affinity with early medieval sculptures of Odisha. Image of Shiva seated with
Parvati from this Pagoda is very similar with the Hara-Parvati carved on the outer wall of Vaital
temple of Bhubaneshwar,Orissa. The Odishan influence is also evident in the architectural and
decorative programmes found in the Ananda temple, constructed during the reign period of
Kyanzittha (c. 12 century CE), the Pagan king of Burma (Myanmar). Builders of the Ananda
Temple were inspired by the cave temple of Ananta in the Khandagiri hills (near Bhubaneswar
in Odisha). The shikharas (spire or tower) of the monuments of Prome have remarkable
similarities with that of Bhubaneswar temples.
Also, the Buddhist art of Odisha, particularly, the standing Buddha images of Lalitagiri, had a
profound influence on the stylistic Buddha images of Thailand. I. C. Giover the excavator of
Dan-Ta-Phet site, gives credit for such sculptural transactions between Odisha and Thailand to
the Buddhist missionaries. The tower or shikhara of the 12th century CE temple of Maha-Tat
at Sawank’alok shows an affinity with Bhubaneswar temples in detail.
54
There is also some resemblance between Indonesia and Odisha w.r.t. art and architecture which
is asserted by striking similarities statues of Buddha found in Indonesia with images of Buddha
of Odisha (as shown in image on the right hand side)
Bhubaneshwara.
Vaital Deula Temple (Temple of
A vetala or Betal is a Bhairava form of Shiva in Hindu mythology, usually defined as a
knowledgeable (fortune telling) paranormal entity said to be dwelling at charnel grounds. The
vetala is comparable to the vampires of Western mythology. Reanimated corpses are used as
vehicles by the spirits for movement, the corpse no longer decays while it is inhabited by
a vetala. A vetala may possess and also leave a dead body at will.
In front of the flat roofed jagamohana is a stone
post relieved with two Buddha like figures
seated in dharma-chakra-pravartana mudra. The
temple is appreciated for its sculpture and
architectures. The entrance is decorated with a
four-faced linga with remarkable carvings. The
outer walls are covered with panels of Hindu
deities, mostly Shiva and his consort Parvati in
her Shakti form, hunting processions, capturing
of wild elephants and the occasional erotic
couples.
Another striking feature is the temple's tantric
associations, marked by strange carvings in the
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At a distance of 700 m from Lingaraja Temple
and 4.5 km from Bhubaneswar Railway Station,
Vaital Deula Temple or Baitala Deuḷa is an
ancient Hindu temple situated on the banks of
Bindu Sarovara in Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
Locally known as 'Tini Mundia Mandira', it is
one of the oldest temples in Bhubaneswar.
sanctum and the image enshrined in the central
niche, eight armed Chamunda, locally known as
Kapalini. The presiding deity, Chamundi is
depicted as enthroned upon a corpse, wearing a
necklace of skulls and protruding out her bright
red tongue. She holds a snake, bow, shield,
sword, trident, thunderbolt and an arrow, and is
piercing the neck of the demon. Around the
The Vaital Temple is an 8th century temple of image of Chamundi, there are 15 niches that are
typical Khakara style of Kalinga School of filled with strange figures.
architecture. This is one of the rare temples in
India that was used as a shrine devoted to tantric
cult. The temple is dedicated to Goddess
Chamundi, the tantric form of Goddess Durga.
The temple is one of the most highly revered
ones among the Hindus and a large number of
devotees come to offer their prayers on some
auspicious
occasions.
The deul or tower of the temple is the most
striking feature of the temple. The semicylindrical shape of its roof bears an affinity to
the Dravidian gopuram of the South India
temples. The plan of the deul is oblong and the
jagamohana is a rectangular structure, but
embedded in each angle is a small subsidiary
shrine. The facade of the deul above the left of
the jagamohana is dominated by two chaitya
windows. The lower one having a beautifully
carved figure of sun god Surya noted for its
facial expression, with Usha and Pratyusha
shooting arrows on either side. The upper
chaitya-window is adorned with a 10-armed
Nataraja.
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Wind, Weather and Significance of Kartika Purnima w.r.t.
ancient voyages.
The phrase Aa-Ka-Ma-Bhai doesn’t find much reference w.r.t. to its meaning due to scarcity
of any historical inscriptions (materials), but the local belief of Kalingans is like this “It is
considered as a promise that the merchants would return back between Ashadha and Kartika (
July to November) and they would be protected by Devi Mangala in their return trip”
The timings of the commencement of the journey and the return journey were associated with
many guiding factors such as the direction of the wind, the movement of the water, the river/sea
route followed, etc.
“Direction of the Wind “
Since, mostly the voyagers moved with the help of the sails they depended especially on the
weather condition and direction of winds, monsoon being the guiding factor (In Yajur Veda
there’s a reference to Salilvata an equivalent of monsoon).India has particularly two types of
monsoon winds. The return monsoon or the North-East monsoon (as shown in the image) blows
during the months of November / December during which the wind direction is quite favorable
to go up to Sri Lanka from any coast of East Coast. The Bay of Bengal majorly remains calm
during this period. Hence, it can be inferred why Sadhabas use to commence their onward
journey during the auspicious period of Kartika Purnima.Similarly the South-West monsoon
(as shown in image) blows during the period from June to September. The wind direction of
this period is quite favourable for the return journey from Sri Lanka to any port of Kalinga.
This fact is further confirmed by festivals associated with the return journey like Khudurukuni
Osha
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Now, the next guiding factor i.e. “Movement of the Water”
Scientific studies have concluded that the water moves in a particular direction during a
particular period of the year and this is directly connected with the wind direction. Although
normally the water moves in the opposite direction of the wind but it moves along the direction
of the wind at the surface level. In the Bay of Bengal in particular the water currents move with
the wind. The ships during ancient times were not very big ones. Hence it can be inferred that
they could have moved with the surface water. Therefore the wind direction and the movement
of water all confirm the theory of commencement of the journey during November / December
time period especially during Kartika Purnima.
And finally the next important guiding factor “Route: River or Sea to be followed”
The water routes in ancient India were generally categorized into three types i.e. as The Nadi
Patha (river route), Kulya Patha (canal route) and the Vari Patha(sea route). The Vari Patha is
further categorized as into Kula Patha (coastal route) and Samyana Patha (oversea route). The
traders followed both the types of sea routes for journey to Swarnabhumi and Subarnadwipa
The first route which was generally followed for a journey to Indonesia and China was Kula
Patha i.e. the sailors proceeded along the east coast of India up to Sri Lanka and from there
with the North equatorial current up to Indonesia and then finally to China.
In the book, titled “Periplus of Erytheaean Sea” (composed between 80 and 89 A.D.) describes
the route along the coast. Fa Hein sailed through this route to go back to china. He sailed from
Tamaralipti to Sri Lanka then to Indonesia and finally to China. The other coastal route was
through Tamaralipti, Bangladesh and Mynmar (Burma). This route came into extensive use
much during 9th/10th Century A.D.
The second route known as Samyana Patha was rarely used by Sadhavas due to lack of
knowledge of the sea, absence of mariners compass, fear of pirates, unsuitability of the of the
ships to traverse the deep sea, etc. Hence, they generally used the Kula Patha
Ptolemy in his geography book (150 A.D.) has reference of an apheterian (point of
embarkation) near Gopalpur (Paloura) where the ships bound for Chryse turned towards deep
sea. This establishes the fact that the Samyana Patha was known in early 2nd Century A.D.
Even, there’s a mention of one of the trips of I-Tsing in 7th Century A.D. in ancient texts. He
traveled directly from Indonesia via Andaman Nicobar islands to Tamaralipti. From Java he
sailed for 10 days and reached Nicobar “Nikaber” “Land of Naked People”. From Nicobar he
sailed for another 15 days and reached Tamaralipti
Hence, it can be inferred that the Kartika Purnima was celebrated as the auspicious occasion
for the commencement of the journey to wish the Sadhavas a bon voyage and Khudurkuni Osha
for receiving back the traders after a long voyage.
Maritime related Festivals & Traditions
Fairs, festivals and traditions provide us relevant information on the overseas commercial
traditions of Odisha. The role of the maritime merchants finds numerous mentions in the stories
and legends, narrated and depicted in festivals, folk tales and traditions of Odisha. A merchant,
in ancient times, before setting out for voyage was honoured by the priests and the ladies of the
household at the place of departure and the ship was worshipped at the anchor. After numerous
adventures in the course of his voyage the merchant would come home at last with a lot of
treasures. Numerous references of the maritime trade activities can be found in the stories
58
and bratakathas (the story portion of the worship), narrated during the fairs and festivals, that
have come down to us since ancient times
Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava
Some images showcasing the celebration of Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava
Some images showcasing the celebration of Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava
Boita in local language is an argosy or a large sail boat and bandana is worshipping with
lighted lamp (dipa). Thus, Boita Bandana Utshava symbolises the festival of worship of sail
boats with lighted lamps
The Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava (ship/boat worship ceremony in Kartika) is the most
important festival which commemorates the past maritime glory of Kalinga and is celebrated
throughout the length and breadth of Odisha. Every year, on the auspicious occasion of
Kartika Purnima day (full-moon day of Hindu month Kartika, October-November), the
people of Odisha celebrate this ceremony with pride full of splendor, fun and joviality.
59
On this day, the Odia people, especially the ladies, set afloat miniature boats made of barks of
the plantain trees or of paper with the lamps burning inside them in the same manner in
which the ladies of yester years used to send off their men on voyages wishing them good
luck. The ladies put betel, betel nuts, rice, oil seeds, pulses, yava and barley and other such
things representing various commodities in the miniature boats that were taken out in
shiploads by the merchants for trade during ancient Kalinga days. They recite these words
“aa – ka – ma – ba (bha) i
pana – gua – thoi
pana – gua – tora
masaka dharama mo ra”
Women also sing folklores with fabulous accounts of voyages. They also
blow Sankha (conch shells), beat Ghanta (bell) and make joyous sounds Hulahuli with their
tongues in front of the ships. Finally, looking towards the south, in which direction flows the
rivers to meet the ocean, they pay homage in memory of the early navigators
The custom appears to be symbolic of the sea voyage, which was generally undertaken in the
month of Kartika when the rainy season came to a close and the Indian Ocean remains calm
after the stormy days of the monsoons. The Kartika Purnima was also considered as an
auspicious day to start voyages for trade (as explained in detail in section titled “Wind,
Weather and Significance of Kartika Purnima w.r.t. ancient voyages”)
Bali Jatra “Bali Yatra” Festival. On this Kartika Purnima Day every year on the bank of the
great river Mahanadi, at a place called Gadagadiaghata, in Cuttack, people celebrate the
festival known as “Bali Jatra” (voyage to the island of Bali) with pride full of splendor, fun
and joviality.
It is observed to commemorate the glorious ancient maritime history of Kalinga especially the
sea voyages to island of Bali. Another religious significance60 is also associated with the same.
In 15th Century CE, Chaitnya Mahaprabhu on his way to Jagannatha Puri arrived at Cuttack on
the Kartika Purnima and organised SANKIRTANA (mass religious prayer) on the sandy bed
(bali) of the river Mahanadi at Gadgadia ghat. The residents of the city continued it in his
memory and named it Bali Jatra since it was held on the sandy bed of the river. Further, Jatra
also means a large fair or festival. As the trade fair is held on the sandy bed of the river, it is
named Bali Yatra (Jatra)
Bali Jatra of Cuttak
In Cuttack, Bali Jatra is celebrated annually as a large open fair near the Barabati Fort
area. It is said to be the largest fair of Odisha state. There are several attractions for children,
and food stalls selling Oriya delicacies (Cuttacki Dahivada Aludum, Thunka Puri, Barafa
Pan, Gupchup, etc.) from different parts of the state, and it also provides provided
opportunities to the local artisans and craftsmen to display their products. Bali Jatra also
provides a lot of cultural programs like display of martial arts, folk dances, folk songs and
other variety programmes – all by amateur artists. For the children, there are various
attractions like the magic shows, charmers displaying the acrobatic tricks of their tamed
animals and merry-go-rounds, etc. Every year millions of people from all over the nation
come to experience it.
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During Bali Jatra, children float toy boats made of colored paper, dried banana tree barks, and
cork in the Mahanadi, ponds, water tanks, etc., to commemorate the voyage of their ancestors
to Indonesia. These toy boats, usually launched after sunset contain small oil lamps, which
are lit and placed inside them, to provide an attractive sight during the festival. This festival is
also celebrated with great fanfare in Paradeep Port. Bali Jatra bears testimony to the rich
maritime legacy of ancient Odisha. 1992 Expedition of INS V-Samudra to commemorate
ancient maritime trade by State Govt. of Odisha
To revive the legacies of the maritime glory, the State government launched an expedition to
Bali islands on the Kartika Purnima day in 1992. History was recreated when the seven
member crew on board of a thirteen meter long naval yacht INS V-Samudra sailed for the
islands from Paradeep Port amidst much fanfare to retrace the ancient trade route
On 10th Nov, 1992, the Kalinga Bali Yatra began the retracing of the old trade route taken by
the ancient Kalingas of Orissa to Bali, Java and Sumatra after the traditional ceremony of
‘Boita Bandana’. The then Chief Minister Late Biju Patnaik and several Indonesian diplomats
were present during the flag-off. Thousands of people gathered to witness and cheer the crew.
The yacht covered a distance of 5,810 nautical miles over a period of seventeen weeks and
reached Bali islands (following this route Paradeep to Campbell Bay and finally reached Bali
via Padang and Jakarta).
A grand reception was accorded by the local government and the citizen. The H.E Governor
of Bali was personally present. Seminars and exhibition of cultural arts and crafts of Odisha
were the highlights of the function
The voyage culminated in a three day festival comprising a seminar on Indonesian cultural
ties, an exhibition of Orissan handicrafts and classical arts performances of classical (Odissi),
martial (Chhau) and folk (Sambalpuri) dance traditions of Orissa
During the two-day Kalinga Bali Yatra conference the points of conclusion arrived at are as
follows:
1. There is a significant close relationship between India and Indonesia which is
manifested in several aspects of life such as philosophy or way of life, languages,
technology and arts
2. It seems that the contact between India and Bali has been existing since the
3rd century BC., yet it is not clear, however, whether the contact between India and
Indonesia is direct or indirect. Recent archaeological discoveries testify to the contact
between India and Indonesia, particularly Bali
Khudurukuni Osha
61
Worship of Boat on the occasion of Khudurukuni Osha, Odisha
It is one of the most important festivals w.r.t. maritime trade activities of Kalinga (ancient
Odisha). The celebration of this festival also reminds us of the glorious maritime tradition of
Kalinga, when there was sea-borne trade with the South-East Asian islands of Java, Bali,
Sumatra, Borneo, Ceylon, etc (as shown in image). It is observed on the Sundays of the
month of BHADRAVA (August-September), majorly by unmarried girls and newly married
wives (in some parts) of all castes throughout Odisha, 64 especially in the coastal districts of
Balasore, Bhadrak, Kendrapada, Jagatsinghpur, Cuttack, Puri, Khordha, Nayagarh and
Ganjam
Some images showcasing the vidhi’s of Khudurukuni Osha being celebrated in a village
(worshiping Devi Maa Mangala)
The Kaḷinga architectural style is a style of Hindu architecture which flourished in the
ancient Kalinga previously known as Utkal and part of the kingdom of Magadha or present
eastern Indian state of Odisha. The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha
Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. The former two are associated
with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly
with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula houses
the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and offering halls.
In Kalinga, the ancient land of Sakta cult, divine iconography existed since the mythological
era. Present day research implies that idols (deities) were placed under auspicious trees in the
ancient days. And maybe today a temple in general carries various minute details and the
overall shape of some heritage tree. The various aspects of a typical Kalinga temple include
architectural stipulations, iconography, historical connotations and honoring the traditions,
customs and associated legends.
Architecture: According to Manusmṛti there is a specific hierarchy of Command for the
management of people involved in they are classified as:
1. Kartā : The Chief patron of the temple, generally the king of the state is designated as
kartā. Hence these devotional ancient architectures often reflect various socio-cultural
aspects of society of the time.
62
2. Mukhya Sthapati : The Chief Architect, The master of the Shilpa Shastras, Vastu
Shastra, Dharma Shastra, Agni Purana and Mathematical Calculations. Besides being
a very knowledgeable person he is also a very pious man. He translates the Kartā's
vision into an architectural design based on stipulations.
3. Sutra Grahaṇi : The Chief Engineer (can be equated) as he is the person who
translates the architecture into actual geometrical dimensions. He is equally proficient
in all the required knowledge and most often is the son of the Mukhya Sthapati.
4. Bārdhanikas : The masons, the stone setters
5. Takṣaka : The sculptor with hands that create poetry in stone does all the magnificent
carvings and engravings of various forms that has left us spell bound.
Besides these primary set of specialists, various supportive functions are carried out by other
people.
Material selection
Primarily certain classes of stones are considered auspicious for the construction of Kalinga
deula (temples). Shilpa Chandrika, an ancient architecture book define some specific seven
varieties of stone as ideal and specific types are used for certain portions of the temple :
1. Sahaṇa
2. Chhita Sāhaṇa
3. Baḍa Pagaḍa
4. Dhobā Kuṇḍa
5. Rasa Chiṇḍa
6. Niḷa Kusāṇa
Though clay bricks have been used in very rare cases most Kalingan temples are built using
these stones.
Site Selection
Various aspects like type of soil, shape of the Plot, location of the plot, availability and type
of space and ground water level, etc. are taken into consideration while selecting the site.
Color, density, composition and moisture content of the soil discriminates between the best,
middle, sub-middle and worst kind of soil. Based on Vastu Shastra, a rectangular, square,
elliptical or circular plot of land is selected in order of preference.
Naga Bāndhēṇi
This is an intricate and ancient method in Shilpa Shastra, by which the temples direction and
the auspicious moment for beginning the sacred construction is determined. Like the present
day Geomorphology, Seismology, Topology etc., probably this is some ancient science which
guides the architect to understand natural forces and build stable massive structures
in Odisha.
Scale Model
The Mukhya Sthaptya (Main Sculptor similar to Chief Architect) creates a scale model based
on traditional stipulations and takes the Karta's (producer / financier) approval. In many
instances we see such depictions on walls and motifs.
63
Pota Pitha Mobile foundations By observing conventional masonry and going through the
following steps of the preparation of potā and piṭha the foundation of a temple could be
understood:
1. A square or rectangular area is dug out depending on the type and combination of
temple proposed at the center of the preselected Nāgabandhani plot of land.
2. The depth of this Potā is 1/3 of the height of the proposed temple, from plinth level.
3. The length and width of this Potā (pit) is always sufficiently broader than the diameter
of the proposed temple.
4. Hard stone slabs are laid at the bottom to create a level.
5. Then with uniformly cut hard stones, the four walls of the Potā are erected and the
outer perimeter space between the pit wall and ground is properly filled with soil.
6. The Asṭadala Padma Chakaḍā (Eight lotus petal shaped), is then laid at the exact spot
required. This is a square or rectangular shape of hard uniform stone slab at the center
of which an eight petaled lotus shape in exact geometric proportions is engraved. The
petals are aligned to the north, north-east, east, southeast, south, south-west, west and
north-west. The exact perpendicular line through the center of this Asṭadala Padma
Chakaḍā determines the axis (rekhā/meru) of the temple. The traditional method of
such alignment is termed as Sanku.
7. Thereafter the Potā is properly packed up with large pieces of stone and soil, probably
pressed down by elephants.
8. The Potā (pit) is leveled off at ground level with huge and thick cut theodolite stones.
9. Another layer of theodolite stones, corresponding to the shape and size of the ground
plan called the piṭha is constructed. This is the base of the temple. In many instances,
we see this piṭha at various levels of elevation.
Bhunaksā (the ground plan)
Keeping the Sanku (the vertical axis through the center of Asṭadala Padma Chakaḍā) as the
exact center of Garbhagruha, the ground plan of the proposed temple is engraved by the
Sthapati and Sutragrahaṇi with the help of a sharp edged instrument, on the perfectly leveled
Piṭha. As temples in every of their details depend on proportions, complex ancient methods
are used for correct geometric designing and executing the ground plan (bhunaksa) to ensure
long term stability and aesthetic appearance of these huge structures. Simplicity or intricacy
of the temple is reflected in this ground plan.
Thereafter, the Bardhanikas set about precut stones, under the strict vigilance of Sutragrahaṇi
as per the Bhunaksa, deula gaddanni has started.
Deula- Temple architecture in Odisha evolved over a long period of time. Stipulated
architectural principles with ample provision for artistic improvisation enabled the
progressive generations. Temples in Odisha are based on certain fundamental principles of
stability and take their cue from the human body. The superstructure is basically divided into
three parts, the Bāḍa (Lower Limb), the Ganḍi (Body) and the Cuḷa/Mastaka (Head).
Accordingly, each part is given a different treatment throughout, from the architecture to the
final ornamentation of the Temple.
Temples in Odisha in the classic local style very often have a figure
of Gajalaxmi in lalitasana as their lalatabimba or central protective image over the doorway
to a temple or the sanctuary of one.
.
64
Baitala deula, a 9th-century Hindu temple typical Khakara temple dedicated to
Goddess Chamunda, Bhubaneswar, Odisha/Sculpture of Alasa Kanya at Baitala
/Deula, Bhubaneswar/Konark Sun Temple, one of the most well renowned temples in India, a World
Heritage Site but the tower has collapsed in the past.
Classification of deuḷa temples at Bhubaneswar, Puri & Konark
Rekhā deuḷa
• Padma Garbha
• Ratha Yukta
• Meru Shaili
Examples of Rekha deuḷa are Lingaraja Temple (Bhubaneswar), Jagannath Temple (Puri)
• Piḍha deuḷa
• Dwichallia Pidhha
• Nahachallia Pidhha
• Kathachalia Pidhha
• Ghantashree Mohana
• Pidhha Mohana
• Naddu Mohana
Example: Konark temple, Konark
• Baitaḷa /Khakarā deuḷa
Example: Baitala deula, Bhubaneswar
• Varahi Deula, Chaurasi
• Durga Temple, Baideshwar
REFERENCES
This One state in India has shaped the Entire Maritime History of South East Asia,by Asutosh Mohanty
https://tfipost.com/2017/11/kalinga-bali-yatra-01/
10 November 2017
65
Chapter 4
Adityawarmana as BHAIRAVA
Why did a Sumatran King make a statute of himself as the
Tantric SHIVA
Dr Uday Dokras
Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Suwarnadwīpa ('Island of Gold')
and Suwarnabhūmi ('Land of Gold'), because of the gold deposits in the
island's highlands. The earliest known mention of the current form "Sumatra" was in 1017,
when the local king Haji Sumatrabhumi ("king of the land of Sumatra") ] sent an envoy
to China. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri (Lamuri, Lambri or Ramni) in the
tenth through thirteenth centuries, in reference to a kingdom near modern-day Banda
Aceh which was the first landfall for traders. The island has also been known by other names,
including Andalas[ or Percha Island.
In the late 13th century, Marco Polo referred to the kingdom as Samara, while his
contemporary fellow Italian traveller Odoric of Pordenone used the form Sumoltra. Later in
the 14th century the local form "Sumatra" became popular abroad due to the rising power of
the kingdom of Samudera Pasai and the subsequent Sultanate of Aceh.
From then on, subsequent European writers mostly used Sumatra or similar forms of the name
for the entire island. By the year 692, the Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya.
Srivijaya influence waned in the 11th century year 1025 after being defeated by
the Chola Empire in southern India. By the end of the 12th century Srivijaya had been reduced
to a small kingdom, and its dominant role in South Sumatra with the last king ratu
Sekekhummong. At the same time, the spread of Islam in Indonesia occurred gradually and
indirectly, starting from the western regions of Indonesia such as the Sumatra area which
became the first place for the spread of Islam in the archipelago then Java to the eastern regions
of Indonesia, Sulawesi and Maluku. The island of Sumatra is also an area in the archipelago
that received the spread of Islam first compared to other islands or other areas. The island of
Sumatra became the first area to receive the spread of Islam because of the position of the
island of Sumatra which is close to the Malacca strait.
The esoteric Shaivism of which Bhairava is the Avatar of SHIVA was adopted in Sumatra 1000
years ago. Exactly when, no one knows. Why- that also is unknown. One can surmise that
Shiva worship spread to Sumatra early on and after a study over a period of time the royalty
absorbed the Tantric avatar as opposed to the normal one for a variety of reasons not clear but
one can guess.
Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव lit. 'frightful') or Kala Bhairava is a Shaivite and Vajrayāna deity
worshiped by Hindus and Buddhists. In Shaivism, he is a powerful manifestation, or avatar,
of Shiva associated with annihilation. In Trika system Bhairava represents Supreme Reality,
synonymous to Para Brahman.[5][6] Generally in Hinduism, Bhairava is also
called Dandapani ("[he who holds the] Danda in [his] hand"), as he holds a rod or Danda to
punish sinners, and Svaśva, meaning "whose vehicle is a dog".[7] In Vajrayana Buddhism, he
is
considered
a fierce
emanation of boddhisatva Mañjuśrī,
and
also
called Heruka, Vajrabhairava, and Yamantaka.
He is worshiped throughout India, Nepal and Sri Lanka as well as in Tibetan Buddhism.[10][11]
66
Bhairava originates from the word bhīru, which means "fearsome". Bhairava means "terribly
fearsome form". It is also known as one who destroys fear or one who is beyond fear. One
interpretation is that he protects his devotees from dreadful enemies, greed, lust, and anger.
These enemies are dangerous as they never allow humans to seek God within. There is also
another interpretation: Bha means creation, ra means sustenance and va means destruction.
Therefore, Bhairava is the one who creates, sustains and dissolves the three stages of life.
Therefore, he becomes the ultimate or the supreme.
Legend
Aakash Bhairab in Kathmandu.
The origin of Bhairava is traced to a conversation between Brahma and Vishnu which is
recounted in the Shiva Puranam. In it, Vishnu inquired of Brahma, "Who is the supreme creator
of the Universe?" Arrogantly, Brahma told Vishnu to worship him as Supreme Creator. One
day, Brahma thought "I have five heads. Shiva also has five heads. I can do everything that
Shiva does and therefore I am Shiva." Brahma became a little egotistical as a result of this.
Additionally, he began to forget the work of Shiva and also started interfering in what Shiva
was supposed to be doing. Consequently, Shiva threw a small hair from his head which
assumed the form of Kala Bhairava and casually went to cut off one of Brahma's heads. The
skull (kapala) of Brahma is held in the hands of Kala Bhairava, Brahma's ego was destroyed
and he became enlightened. From then on, he became useful to himself and to the world, and
deeply grateful to Shiva. In the form of the Kala Bhairava, Shiva is said to be guarding each
of these Shakti Pitha (Shakti temples). Each Shakti Pitha is accompanied by
a temple dedicated to Bhairava.
There is another school of thought that states that Shiva himself created Bhairava. It states that
there was once an asura named Dahurāsura, who got a boon that he could be killed only by a
woman. Parvati took the form of Kali to kill him. The wrath of Kali killed the asura. After
killing the asura, her wrath metamorphosed as a child. Kali fed the child with her milk. Shiva
made both Kali and the child to merge with him. From this merged form of Shiva, Bhairava
appeared in his eight forms (Aṣṭāṅga Bhairavas). Since Bhairava was thus created by Shiva, he
is said to be one of the sons of Shiva.
67
The Puranas also give a version of Bhairava. In this version there was a war between devas and
asuras. To eradicate the asuras, Shiva created Kala Bhairava from whom Aṣṭāṅga
Bhairavas were created. These Ashta Bhairavas married Ashta Matrikas. These Ashta
Bhairavas and Ashta Matrikas have dreadful forms. From these Ashta Bhairavas and Ashta
Matrikas, 64 Bhairavas and 64 Yoginis were created.
Depiction
Normally in Shiva temples, idols of Bhairava are situated in the north, facing Western direction.
He is also called Kṣhetrapāla. He appears in a standing position with four hands. His weapons
are drum, pāśa (noose), trident and skull. In some forms of Bhairava, there are more than four
hands. He appears with a dog. His weapons, the dog, protruding teeth, terrifying looks, and a
garland with red flowers all give him a frightening appearance.
In all Shiva temples, regular puja (reverence) rituals begin with Surya and end with Bhairava.
Devotees offer what is understood to be favored by Bhairava: a ghee bath (abhiṣeka), red
flowers, ghee lamp, unbroken coconut, honey, boiled food, fibrous fruits etc. If a Bhairava idol
is facing west, it is good; facing south is moderate; facing east is not good. The right time to
pray to Bhairavi is midnight. At midnight it is said that Bhairava and his consort Bhairavi will
give darśana (appearance) to their devotees. The most appropriate time is a Friday midnight.
There are eight types of flowers and leaves used in archana (अर्चन) to Bhairava.
In Kashmir Shaivism, Bhairava is the ultimate form of manifestation or pure "I" consciousness.
One of his forms is called Svarṇākarṣṇa Bhairava ; In this form, he has red or blue complexion
and is clothed in golden dress. He has the moon over his head. He has four hands, one of which
he holds a golden vessel. He gives wealth and prosperity. Performing pūja on Tuesdays gives
quick results. In some of the ancient texts he is said to have thirty two hands, the shape of a
bird, golden complexion, terrible teeth, and a human form above the hip. Worshipping him
destroys enemies.
Some forms of Bhairava are guardians of the eight cardinal points. There are 64 Bhairavas.
These 64 Bhairavas are grouped under eight categories and each category is headed by one
major Bhairava. The major eight Bhairavas are called Aṣṭāṅga Bhairavas. The Ashta Bhairavas
control the eight directions of this universe. Each Bhairava has seven sub Bhairavas under him,
totaling 64 Bhairavas. All of the Bhairavas are ruled and controlled by Maha Kala
Bhairava otherwise known as Kala Bhairava, who is the supreme ruler of time of this universe
as per some Śaiva tantric scriptures (āgamas). Bhairavi is the consort of Kala Bhairava. The
eight Bhairavas are said to represent five elements viz. ākāś, air, fire, water and earth and the
other three being sun, moon and ātman. Each of the eight Bhairavas are different in appearance,
have different weapons, different vāhanas (vehicles) and they bless their devotees with eight
types of wealth representing Ashta Lakshmis. Continuous worship of Bhairava leads the
worshiper to a true Guru. There are separate mantras to all the eight Bhairavas.
Bhairava is also called upon as protector, as he guards the eight directions of the universe. In
Shiva temples, when the temple is closed, the keys are placed before Bhairava. Bhairava is also
described as the protector of women. He is described as the protector of the timid and in general
women who are timid in nature.
It is generally believed that worshiping Bhairava gives prosperity, success and good progeny,
prevents premature death and gives solution to debts and liabilities. Different forms of Bhairava
evolve only from Śiva, who is called the Mahā Bhairava.
68
Trika System
Trika and Kashmiri Shaivism names the Absolute Reality (Para Brahman) as Bhairava.
The Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra is a key Tantra text of the Trika System. Cast as a discourse
between the god Bhairava and his consort Bhairavi it briefly presents 112 Tantric meditation
methods or centering techniques (Dharana). The text is a chapter from the Rudrayamala Tantra,
a Bhairava Agama. Bhairavi, the goddess, asks Bhairava to reveal the essence of the way to
realization of the highest reality. In his answer Bhairava describes 112 ways to enter into the
universal and transcendental state of consciousness. References to it appear throughout the
literature of Trika, Kashmir Shaivism, indicating that it was considered to be an important text
in the schools of Kashmir Shaiva philosophy and Trika.
List of Bhairavas
• Trisandhyeshvara
• Viśveśvara
• Bhiruk
• Vakranath
• Lambkarna
• Vamana
• Pachali Bhairava
• Bagh Bhairava
• Varaha (Baraha)
• Rudra Mahadev
• Bhoothnath Vetal / Betal Bhairava
• Chakrapani
• Vikritaksh
• Vimocanā
• Kramadishwar
• Chanda
• Unmatta Bhairava
• Nakuleshwar
• Umananda or Bhayaanand
• Ruru
• Nimish
• Abhiru
• Sanwart
• Ghanteshwar
• Ambar
• Amar
• Sarvanand
• Mahodar
• Rakshaseshwar (Nayanair)
• Kapali
• Chandrashekhar
• Maharudra
• Vakratund
• Bhava
• Sthanu
• Nandikeshwar
• Vatsnabh or Dandpani
69
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Krodhish
Bhadrasen
Sambaranand
Sanhar
Trayambak
Tripuresh
Kapilambar
Marthanda
Kala Bhairava
Sarvanand
Amritaksha
Bhishan
Baidyanath
Ksheer Kantak
Batuk Bhairava
Kapalbhairav
Tumbeswar
Jogesh
Shri Khutkuni Bhairava
Shai Bhairava
Matang Bhairava
Swarnakarshan Bhairava
Akshobhya Bhairava
Asitanga Bhairava
Samhaar Bhairava
Kshetrapaala Bhairava
Vikrant Bhairava
Patal Bhairava
Kala Bhairava attended by devotees at Kathmandu Durbar Square
Thangka Depicting Vajrabhairava, ca. 1740s.
70
Buddhism also adopted Bhairava (Tibetan: 'Jigs byed; Chinese: Buwei) as a deity and
a dharmapala or dharma protector. The various buddhist forms of Bhairava (variously
called Herukas,
Vajrabhairava, Mahākāla and Yamantaka)
are
considered fierce
deities and yidams (tantric meditational deity) in Tibetan Buddhism. They also have their own
set of buddhist tantras, the Vajrabhairava tantras. According to Tibetan tradition, these tantras
were revealed to Lalitavajra in Oddiyana in the tenth century. These texts play a particularly
important role in the Sarma (new translation) traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, especially
among the Gelug school where Vajrabhairava is one of the three central highest yoga tantra
practices of the lineage. Because of this, it is also popular in Mongolia as a protector deity and
was also popular among the Manchus. The deity is also central to Newar Buddhism. The
tantric practices associated with Bhairava focus on the transformation of anger and hatred into
understanding.
WOPRSHIP Bhairava Ashtami
Temples or shrines to Bhairava are present within or near most Jyotirlinga temples. There are
also the sacred twelve shrines dedicated to Shiva which can be found all across India including
the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi and the Kal Bhairava temple, Ujjain. The Patal
Bhairava and Vikrant Bhairava shrines are located in Ujjain as well.
One of the ancient temples of Kala Bhairava is situated in Dhuri city (District Sangrur), Punjab.
The idol of Kala Bhairava in the temple was found hundreds of years ago. The temple has been
managed by "Baba Shri Pritam Muni Ji" for many years. It is believed that Kala Bhairava
Ji resides here.
Gorat Kashmiris are known to worship Bhairava during Shivratri.[40] The renowned Hindu
reformer, Adi Sankara composed a hymn on Kala Bhairava called "Sri Kalabhairava
Ashtakam" in the city of Kashi.
Bhairava Ashtami, commemorating the day Kala Bhairava appeared on earth, is celebrated
on Krishna paksha Ashtami of the Margashirsha month of the Hindu calendar. It is a day filled
with special prayers and rituals.
Rakta Bhairava/ Dancer dressed as Sveta Bhairava from Bhaktapur, Nepal.
Bhairava is depicted as being ornamented with a range of twisted serpents, which serve as
earrings, bracelets, anklets, and sacred thread (yajnopavita). He wears a tiger skin and a ritual
apron composed of human bones.[43] Bhairava has a dog (Shvan) as his
divine vahana (vehicle). Bhairavi is a fierce and terrifying aspect of the Devi who is virtually
indistinguishable from Kali, with the exception of her particular identification as the consort of
Bhairava.
Bhairava himself has eight manifestations i.e. Ashta Bhairava:
• Asithaanga Bhairava
• Ruru Bhairava
71
•
•
•
•
•
•
Chanda Bhairava
Krodha Bhairava
Unmattha Bhairava
Kapaala Bhairava
Bheeshana Bhairava
Samhaara Bhairava
Kala Bhairava is conceptualized as the Guru-Nath (Teacher and Master) of the planetary
deity Shani (Saturn)..
Bhairava is known as Bhairavar or Vairavar in Tamil, where he is often presented as a Grama
devata or village guardian who safeguards the devotee in eight directions (ettu tikku). Known
in Sinhalese as Bahirawa, he is said to protect treasures. Lord Bhairava is the main deity
worshiped by the Aghora sect.
List of Bhairava temples
Reflection of blue sky on mask of Shwet Bhairava at Basantapur, Kathmandu, Nepal
Bhairava is an important deity of the Newars. All the traditional settlements of Newars have at
least one temple of Bhairava. Most of the temples of Bhairava in Nepal are maintained by
Newar priests. There are several Bhairava temples in the Kathmandu valley.
In south Karnataka, Lord Sri Kalabhairaveshwara is present as Kshetra Palaka in Sri
Adichunchanagiri Hills.
Kala Bhairava temples can also be found around Shaktipeeths. It is said that Shiva allocated
the job of guarding each of the 52 Shaktipeeths to one Bhairava. There are said to be 52 forms
of Bhairava, which are considered a manifestation of Shiva himself. Traditionally, Kala
Bhairava is the Grama devata in the rural villages of Maharashtra, where he is referred to as
"Bhairava/Bhairavnath" and "Bairavar". In Karnataka, Lord Bhairava is the supreme God for
the Hindu community commonly referred to as Vokkaligas (Gowdas). Especially in the Jogi
Vokkaliga, he is considered the caretaker and punisher Shri Kala Bhairava Nath Swami
Temple of Madhya Pradesh is also popular.
Mahakala Bhairava and Agnidurgha.
In Mangalore there is an agnidurga temple at a place called karamogaru near gurupura
bridge Karnataka it was believed that nath panth saints where workshiping Lord Shri
Mahakala Bhairava and Shri Agnidurgha. Presently Mahakala Bhairava and Agnidurgha has
been one of the main deity in Gurupura, Karamogaru prathistapan rituals has been carried out
by Sri Sri 1008 Sri Rajyogi Nirmalnathji Maharaj.
72
Dharmasraya, is the capital of the 11th century Buddhist polity known as Melayu Kingdom,
based on the Batanghari river system in modern-day West Sumatra and Jambi, on the island
of Sumatra, Indonesia.[1] The kingdom itself could be identified by the name of its
capital Dharmasraya or by the name Bhumi Malayu or Suvarnnabhumi according
to Padang Roco Inscription.
After the invasion by Rajendra Chola I the king of the Chola Empire from Koromandel,
authority of Sailendra dynasty over the islands of Sumatera and the Malay Peninsula
weakened. Some time later came a new dynasty that took over the role of Sailendra Dynasty,
called by the name of Mauli dynasty.[2] The Dharmasraya can be considered as the successor
of Srivijaya.
The oldest inscription bearing the name of Maharaja Mauli is the Grahi inscription dated 1183
discovered in Chaiya (Grahi) Malay Peninsula, Southern Thailand. The inscription bears the
order of Maharaja Srimat Trailokyaraja Maulibhusana Warmadewa to the bhupati (regent) of
Grahi named Mahasenapati Galanai to make a statue of Buddha weight 1 bhara 2 tula with the
value of 10 gold tamlin. The artist name that responsible to create the statue is Mraten Sri Nano.
The second inscription from Mauli dynasty appear approximately a hundred years later in 1286.
The inscription in which the name Dharmasraya and the name of king is Srimat
Tribhuwanaraja Mauli Warmadewa appears dates from the 13th century,[3]: 201 namely
the Padang Roco inscription discovered around the headwaters of Batanghari river
(now Dharmasraya Regency in West Sumatera), dated 1286.
73
The Maharajas of Dharmasraya:
Stone inscription or embassies
to China and events
Date
King's of name
Capital
1183
Grahi inscription 1183 at Chaiya,
Srimat Trailokyaraja
South of Thailand, the order to
Maulibhusana
Dharmasraya regent
Grahi,
namely
Warmadewa
Mahasenapati Galanai to make a
Buddha stone.
1286
Srimat
Tribhuwanaraja
Mauli Warmadewa
1347
Srimat
Sri
Udayadityawarman
Pratapaparakrama
Pagaruyung
Rajendra
Mauli
Warmadewa
Padang Roco inscription 1286 at
Dharmasraya Siguntur, (now Dharmasraya
regency), Pamalayu expedition.
Moved to Pagaruyung
Amoghapasa
Statue 1347
at
Dharmasraya, Kuburajo
inscription at Pagaruyung (now
Tanah Datar regency).
Adityawarman the follower of Tantric Shaivism
Adityawarman (formal regnal
name Maharajadiraja
Srīmat
Srī
Udayādityawarma
Pratāpaparākrama Rājendra Maulimāli Warmadewa was a king of Malayapura Suvarnabhumi,
and is the successor of the Mauli dynasty based on central Sumatra. He was the cousin
of Jayanegara, king of Majapahit from 1309–1328, and the grandson of Tribhuwanaraja, king
of Melayu Kingdom. Adityawarman was awarded the Senior Minister of Majapahit
(wreddamantri) and used this authority to launch Majapahit military expansion plans and
conquered east coast region in Sumatra. Adityawarman then founded the royal dynasty
of Minangkabau in Pagaruyung and presided over the central Sumatra region to take control of
the gold trade between 1347 and 1375.
Adityawarman was born around in 1294 in Trowulan, East Java, the capital of the kingdom
of Majapahit, as recorded in the poem of Pararaton. According to Kuburajo inscription found
in Limo
Kaum, West
Sumatra,
Adityawarman's
father
was
Majapahit
[3]
nobleman Adwayawarman; and according to the 15th East Javanese text Pararaton his
mother was Dara Jingga, a Malay princess of Dharmasraya. He might have visited China for a
diplomatic expedition in 1325 if, as some historians believe, he is the envoy whom a Chinese
source calls Sengk'ia-lie-yu-lan.
According to George Coedes, "His name appears in Java as early as 1343 on an image
of Bodhisattva Manjusri that was originally located in Candi Jago."[6]: 232 This is the sanctuary
built by Kertanegara for his father Visnuvardhana. In one of various inscriptions about him, he
explicitly calls himself Lord of the Golden Earth (Kanakamedinindra). An inscription in
localised Malay Sanskrit found on the back of the Amoghapasa statue found at Rambahan,
West Sumatra, dated 1347, written (and perhaps composed) by Adityawarman, commemorates
his role as protector and source of welfare to the people of the capital of Malaya (Malayapura)
and his power as an embodiment of Amoghapasa. "At Malayapura, Adityawarman bore the
royal title of Udayadityavarman (or Adityavarmodaya) Pratapaparakramarajendra
Maulimalivarmadewa, a title which one scholar believes he can detect an attempt at synthesis
74
of the royal title traditionally in use in Srivijaya and Malayu." His kingdom is believed to be
the predecessor of the present-day Minangkabau matrilineal society in Indonesia.
Adityawarman's inscriptions as a Sumateran ruler, shows that he was a devotee of Tantric
Buddhism. He ruled until at least 1375, the year of his last known inscription. He was described
as the Lord of Suravasa; and the name Suruaso itself is still used to refer to the area
near Pagaruyung, Kingdom of the Minangkabau people.
His son was Ananggawarman.
Adityawarman as Bhairava
The sizeable Buddhist statue in the form of Bhairava is a depiction of King Adityavarman of
Malayu. Bhairava is a Hindu deity, a fierce manifestation of Shiva associated with annihilation.
Bhairava, although originating in Hindu legends, is sacred to Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains
alike. Today he is worshipped throughout India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal.
Adityawarman was a king of Malayapura, a state in central Sumatra. He founded the royal
dynasty of Minangkabau in Pagarruyung and presided over the central Sumatra region to take
control of the gold trade between 1347 and 1375.
Adityawarman was a devotee of Tantric Buddhism, and
this Buddhist statue of him was discovered in Rambahan,
Padangroco, West Sumatra. One can confirm that
Adityawarman switched to the Tantric Buddhist umbrella
later and became a follower of Buddhist Tantricism. The
reason we do not know but one can conjecture that he felt
the power of the 2- the Buddha and Shiva as a better and
more potent craft in helping him achieve whatever he
wanted to, using the esoteric crafts and practices.
He could also project himself as a Buddha ( see Pic) as
opposed to projecting himself as SHIVA which would
have been difficult for this citizenary to accept
.
Ananggawarman his son was a crown prince (yuvaraja) of the Malayapura kingdom, which
ruled at the end of the 14th century. The Malayapura kingdom was centered on
the Minangkabau Highlands and its territory covers much of central Sumatra. The name
Ananggawarman is inscribed on Saruaso II inscription as the son of King Adityawarman (r.
1347–1375). It is not clear when Ananggawarman began to reign in place of his father, but it
was written in the History of Ming that the kingdom sent a messenger again to China in 1376.
Ananggawarman is mentioned in the inscription with the title Hevajra nityasmrti, which
indicated that he professed the same belief as his father, the Tantric Buddhism. This means that
the rulers of Sumatra embraced esoteric Buddhism at least until the 14th century. In those days
it was also thought that trade between Sumatra and South India was going well and there were
quite a number of South Indian merchants settled in Minangkabau, as there is also found an
inscription (Bandar Bapahat) written in two scripts, the Kawi and the Grantha.
After the reign of Ananggawarman, the historical record of Minangkabau was not found again
for a century and a half, until the arrival of the Portuguese adventurer Tomé Pires who wrote
75
about it in Suma Oriental around 1513–1515. Subsequently, the royal power (now
called Pagaruyung kingdom) further weakened until its coastal regions such
as Kampar, Indragiri, and Siak were seized by the Aceh and Malacca sultanates, and
eventually became independent polities.
The
statue
of
Amoghapasa on top of
the inscription.
1. 1208 Saka or
1286 CE
2. Andelesite
stone
The Padang Roco Inscription, in Indonesian Prasasti Padang Roco, is an inscription dated 1286 CE,
discovered near the source of Batanghari river, Padangroco temple complex, Nagari Siguntur,
Sitiung, Dharmasraya Regency, West Sumatra, Indonesia.
The inscription was named after the location it was discovered; Padang Roco, which is local Minangkabau
language, translated to "field of statues". Padang means "field", while roco is equate to arca or murti, the
image of Hindu-Buddhist deities.
The inscription was discovered in 1911 near the source of Batanghari river, Padangroco.[1] The inscription
was carved on four sides of rectangular shaped stone is served as the base of the Amoghapasa statue. On
the back side of the statue carved inscription called Amoghapasa inscription dated from later period in
1347 CE(NBG 1911: 129, 20e). The inscriptions was carved in ancient Javanese letters, using two
languages (Old Malay and Sanskrit) (Krom 1912, 1916; Moens 1924; dan Pitono 1966). Today the
inscription is stored in National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta, with inventory code number D.198-6468
(the base or inscription part) and D.198-6469 (the statue part).
The inscription was dated 1208 Saka or 1286 CE, in the same period of Singhasari kingdom in Java
and Melayu Kingdom Dharmasraya in Sumatra. The inscriptions tell that in the year 1208 Saka, under the
order of king Kertanegara of Singhasari, a statue of Amoghapasa Lokeshvara was transported from
Bhumijawa (Java) to Svarnabhumi (Sumatra) to be erected at Dharmasraya. This gift made the people of
Svarnabhumi rejoice, especially their king Tribhuwanaraja Mauliwarmmadewa.
The content of inscription as translated by Slamet Muljana:
76
1. Rejoice ! In the year Śaka 1208, in the month of Bādrawāda, first day of rising moon, Māwulu
wāge day, Thursday, Wuku Madaṇkungan, with the king star located on southwest ...
2. .... that is the time of the statue of lord Amoghapasa Lokeśvara accompanied with all fourteen
followers and also seven ratna jewel taken from bhūmi Jāwa to Swarnnabhūmi, in order to be
erected at Dharmmāśraya,
3. as the gift of Srī Wiśwarūpa Kumāra. For that purpose pāduka Srī Mahārājādhirāja Kṛtanagara
Wikrama Dharmmottunggadewa has ordered Rakryān Mahā-mantri Dyah Adwayabrahma,
Rakryān Śirīkan Dyah Sugatabrahma and
4. Samagat Payānan hań Dīpankaradāsa, Rakryān Damun pu Wīra to presented lord Amoghapāśa.
May this gift make all the people of bhūmi Mālayu, including its brāhmaṇa, ksatrya, waiśa, sūdra
and especially the center of all āryyas; Srī Mahārāja Srīmat Tribhuwanarāja Mauliwarmmadewa.
In 1347 Adityawarman moved the statue further uphill to Rambahan site near Langsat River, the source of
Batanghari river. He also added inscription inscribed on the back side of the statue, this inscription refer
as Amoghapasa inscription dated 1347 CE. While the rectangular base refer as Padang Roco inscription
remain in Padang Roco area.
77
Chapter 5
Lord Bhadreshvara and his Temple of
My Son
Shiva शिव, 'The Auspicious One', or MAHADEV ( महादे व). 'The Great God' ,or Hara, is one
of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major
traditions within Hinduism. Shiva is known as "The Destroyer" within the Trimurti,
the Hindu trinity which also includes Brahma and Vishnu. In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is
the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe. In the goddessoriented Shakta tradition, the Supreme Goddess (Devi) is regarded as the energy and creative
power (Shakti) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva. Shiva is one of the five
equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.
Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted
as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with
his wife Parvati and his three children, Ganesha, Kartikeya and Ashokasundari. In his fierce
aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded
as the patron god of yoga, meditation and the arts.
The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent around his neck, the
adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the third eye on
his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the trishula or
78
trident as his weapon, and the damaru drum. He is usually worshipped in the aniconic form
of lingam.
Shiva has pre-Vedic roots, and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various
older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the Rigvedic storm god Rudra who may also
have non-Vedic origins, into a single major deity [ Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely
by Hindus in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Indonesia (especially in Java and Bali).
GOD SHIVA-Beyond the Indian subcontinent
During the millennium from 1500 to 500 BCE, people who called themselves Aryans (from
the word for "noble" in Sanskrit, the major language of ancient India) came to dominate
northern India politically and culturally. They created a body of sacred works, epics, hymns,
philosophical treatises, and ritual texts called the Vedas, which serve as the primary source of
information about this era. The traditional view is that the Aryans came into India from the
north using the superior military technology of chariots and bronze weaponry, and conquered
the indigenous tribal population. (This is why, in the twentieth century, the Nazis glorified the
Aryans as a superior race and claimed links with them.) Although archaeological evidence for
the Aryan invasion is slim, this is the story told in the Vedas—the oldest of the Hindu religious
texts—which present their leaders as heroic figures, aided by priests and warriors.
The Aryans recognized a number of gods and goddesses, who could be approached through
the ceremonies of priests called Brahmins. These rituals might allow a person to achieve union
with the ultimate unchanging reality that is the source of the universe, called brahman.
Originally this was seen as possible only for men who were Brahmins and lived an ascetic life
focused on purity rather than pleasure, but in the third century BCE this idea began to widen.
The brahmanic religion developed into what was later called Hinduism, a diverse set of
practices and beliefs in which individual worshippers could show their devotion to the gods
directly, without using priests as intermediaries. Personal gods could be honored through
saying prayers, singing hymns, dancing, presenting offerings, and making pilgrimages to holy
sites, and also by living an honorable life in one's own situation.
The spread of Hinduism
The Aryans established small kingdoms in northern India, and priests supported the expanding
power of rulers, who in return confirmed the superior status of the priests. The Persians and the
79
Greeks under Alexander conquered parts of northwest India, but at times Indian rulers also
created larger empires, some of which favored Buddhism and some Hinduism.
Religious and social practices associated with Hinduism spread into Nepal and Sri Lanka,
where they blended with local religious and social systems. They also spread into Southeast
Asia, carried across the Indian Ocean by merchants and sailors on ships. After about 100 CE,
Indian priests and officials travelled to Southeast Asia as well, where they married into
powerful families and were appointed as advisers by rulers attempting to build up their
authority on the Indian model. In these Indianized kingdoms of Southeast Asia, imported
traditions fused with local ones. Some groups understood themselves to be members of specific
Indian castes, especially lineages within the Kshatriyas warrior caste. Huge stone temples were
built to Hindu deities, but rituals also continued to indigenous gods and spirits, who retained
their power over the rice harvest, daily life, and cosmic order. Other than among South Asian
migrants, the impact of caste was limited, and locally-created social hierarchies remained the
most important.
In Indonesian Shaivism the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guru, which is derived
from Sanskrit Bhattāraka which means "noble lord" He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual
teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of
Shiva in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian
Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru's wife
in Southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times,
and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized
with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others. In contrast to Hindu religious texts,
whether Vedas or Puranas, in Javanese puppetry (wayang) books, Batara Guru is the king of
the gods who regulates and creates the world system. In the classic book that is used as a
reference for the puppeteers, it is said that Sanghyang Manikmaya or Batara Guru was created
from a sparkling light by Sang Hyang Tunggal, along with the blackish light which is the origin
of Ismaya. Shiva has been called Sadāśiva, Paramasiva, Mahādeva in benevolent forms, and
Kāla, Bhairava, Mahākāla in his fierce forms.
The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivite traditions
found in the Indian subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the
contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa
Siddhanta, Sridanta).[
During the pre-Islamic period on the island of Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered
very close and allied religions, though not identical religions. The medieval-era Indonesian
literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu). This tradition continues
in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the
younger brother of Shiva
Devdatt Patnaik says in his article https://devdutt.com/articles/how-hara-and-harihelped-kings-of-cambodia/ \
“In the 5th century AD, i.e. 1,500 years ago, the Gupta kings rose in India. They were
amongst the earliest royal families to establish themselves through a Hindu framework.
Following the Gupta period, trade with Rome was disrupted, as the Roman Empire
collapsed. But trade from the eastern coasts to Southeast Asia thrived. In regions now
known as Vietnam and Cambodia we find the Hindu kingdoms of Champa and Khmer.
The Champa Kingdom lasted from the 3rd to 13th centuries. In the coastal part of Vietnam,
we find temples dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. While the Hindu trinity is found
80
in Vietnam, in Cambodia a different pattern is seen. In the northern inland part of
Cambodia, there are a lot of Shiva lingas. While on the southern coastal part, we find a lot
of Vishnu statues. There are also carvings that show ascetics as well as apsaras. They reveal
an exposure to Hindu thought, where there’s constant tension between the material and
spiritual world, the world of pleasure and the world of renunciation. In other words, 1,500
years ago, Hindu ideas had spread out beyond India to Southeast Asia. They had planted
themselves, in the farthest regions of Southeast Asia, that is Vietnam and Cambodia.
Shiva linga is aniconic i.e., a geometric not human shape, while Vishnu images are shaped
like a human, but with four arms. The Shiva linga was a smooth pillar, planted in the ground
and identified as Shiva’s phallic symbol. The earliest Shiva linga found has a close
anatomical relationship with the human penis. Later ones are more symbolic: the lower part
is octagonal and the upper part is circular, indicating a shift from finite to infinite. This is
planted in the ground to indicate the king’s claim over surrounding territory. On the coastal
areas, the four arms of the Vishnu images hold a shankh (conch), a chakra (wheel), a gada
(mace). But, instead of a lotus flower, one often finds a spherical object. This is identified
with the earth or Bhumi.
Harihara and the ruling dispensation
How did these images reach Vietnam? The traditional explanation is that sea-faring
merchants travelled from the coasts of India to Southeast Asia. They were trading in spices
and cloth. Indian textile was much sought after in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian spices
were in high demand, not in India but beyond, in Rome. But most traders were Buddhists.
It is an easy explanation for the spread of Buddhism in these regions, especially in Burma,
Thailand, Sri Lanka. But in the faraway lands of Vietnam and Cambodia, where Hinduism
planted itself, the spread took place through a special group of people known as Pashupata
Shivas.
These people practised a different form of asceticism. They spoke not of giving up the
world but of harnessing and transmitting special spiritual power called Siddha, obtained
through asceticism. This power of the gods could be brought down from the spiritual realm
to the human realm. It could elevate a common man to the status of a king and create a
kingdom filled with prosperity, pleasure and security. Through the body of the king, the
realm of the gods would intermingle with the realm of humans. They connected the human
world with the divine world through the king. Naturally, they were invited by powerful
warlords who wished to be kings.
Along with the Pashupata Shaivas, came the Pancharatra Bhagavatas. These were sages
who worshipped not Shiva but Vishnu, especially in his Krishna form. There was a
fundamental difference between the Shiva way of thinking and the Vishnu way of thinking.
Shiva’s way of thinking was more austere, the Vishnu way of thinking was more worldly.
Shiva was more masculine and Vishnu more feminine. Shiva was more about force while
Vishnu was more about cajoling and diplomacy.
Shiva’s thought was more inland while Vishnu’s was along the coast. Then between the
7th and 8th centuries, we find a shift. We find the rise of what is called Harihara images.
Now we have images of a god with four arms. One half of him is Vishnu and he wears a
81
golden crown. The other half is more ascetic and wears tiger skin and has matted locks.
This indicates the conquest of the Vishnu regions by kings who saw themselves as forms
of Shiva. But in typical Hindu style, the Vishnu images were not replaced. Shiva merges
with the Vishnu images to create Harihara, and this is a point to note for disting. uishing
Hinduism from other forms of kingship. There is even a place called Hariharalaya,
indicating the temple of fused gods near Siam Riep.
Often the king was seen as Shiva, free to do as he pleased, while governance was managed
by Vishnu, who manifested as Ram and Krishna, whose epic battles were carved on the
walls of later temples. These epic battles of Ram and Krishna were first seen in Central
Java island of Indonesia on the walls of the Hindu temple of Prambanan in the 9th century.
It inspired Khmer kings of Cambodia to do the same in their Angkor Wat temple complex
of the Mekong Delta in the 12th century.
If the king accepted the Buddhist way, then the older Vishnu and Shiva images would have
been wiped out. But by staying within the Hindu fold, we feel the older gods are not being
wiped out but merged into the body of one god. Thus, the rise of the Harihara images
indicates a union of Shaivism and Vaishnavism. It depicts a desire to amalgamate two rival
ideas rather than supersede the rival idea. Shiva and Vishnu though rivals were part of the
same Hindu scheme, opposing the Buddhist scheme. Some Hindus tried to make Buddha
an avatar of Vishnu, while some Buddhists tried to make Shiva and Vishnu the fierce and
gentle Bodhisattvas who are guided by Buddha. But generally, Buddhism and Hinduism
remained rivals.
Across India, we find Harihara images too. The famous Lingaraj temple in Odisha is
dedicated to Shiva and built under Pashupata influence. But the rituals involve offering not
just bilva leaves, which are a favourite of Shiva, but also tulsi leaves, a favourite of Vishnu.
Lingaraj is thus identified as Harihara. It must be kept in mind that the older kings of Odisha
were Shaiva. It is they who built the temples in Bhubaneshwar. But the later kings were
Vaishnava. They worshipped at the temples on the coast of Puri. But, realising the value of
keeping amity in the kingdom, between rival factions, they promoted the idea of Harihara.
Thus even Jagannath is seen by many as a form of Shiva, a kind of Bhairava. This syncretic
tradition, which you find in Vietnam, Cambodia and Odisha, even in Tamilakam, through
the image of Harihara, is a reminder of the syncretic and the conciliatory power of
Hinduism. The point of change is never to replace the old, but simply to add to the old.
In more recent times, South Asian migrants have taken Hinduism around the world, though it
has not spread widely to people from other areas. Today there are about a billion Hindus, about
95 percent of whom live in India.
1. Angkor Thom
The towers of Bayon in Angkor Thom
82
Angkor Thom is an inner royal city built by Jayavarman VII, the Empire's famed 'Warrior
King', at the end of the 12th century and is renowned for its temples, in particular the Bayon.
Other notable sites are Baphuon, Phimeanakas, the Terrace of the Elephants, and the Terrace
of the Leper King. The city can be accessed through five city gates, one at each cardinal point
and the Victory Gate on the eastern wall.A number of significant temples are dotted around
Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom within the Angkor Archaeological Park, including
2. Preah Khan Hindu Buddhist site with peripheral Shiva temple
3. Phnom Bakheng a Hindu temple in the form of a temple mountain in Siem Reap
Province, Cambodia. Dedicated to Shiva, it was built at the end of the 9th century,
during the reign of King Yasovarman (889-910).
4. Ta Keo, At the foot of the eastern one there is a statue of a kneeling Nandi, which
confirms that Ta Keo was a Shivaite temple
5. East MebonThe East Mebon was dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva and honors the
parents of the king. Its location reflects Khmer architects’ concern with orientation and
cardinal directions. The temple was built on a north–south axis with Rajendravarman's
state temple, Pre Rup, located about 1,200 meters to the south just outside the baray.
The East Mebon also lies on an east–west axis with the palace temple Phimeanakas,
another creation of Rajendravarman's reign, located about 6,800 meters due west.
6. Pre Rup, At the top, five towers are arranged in a quincunx, one at each corner of the
square and one in the center. Deities carved as bas-reliefs stand guard at either side of
the central tower's eastern door; its other doors are false doors. The southwest tower
once contained a statue of Lakshmi, the northwest tower a statue of Uma, the southeast
tower a statue of Vishnu and the northeast tower a statue of Shiva. The last one has an
inscription on doorjambs that dates from Jayavarman VI and is the only proof of his
reign at Angkor.
7.
Neak Pean. These temples may be visited along the grand circuit or the small circuit
routes.
8. Angkor Wat (Wat temple) is the central feature of Angkor |Thom however it is not
dedicated to Shiva but Vishnu
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Bhadreshvara
Bhadreshvara, is a Forgotten Form of Shiva in India and South-Eat but the present-day main
stream Hindus have completely forgotten this god. There is no India-fame temple of
Bhadreshvara built by any king or high official. Some remote villages in different parts of India
preserve the memory of this god in pre-modern temples, though an inscribed seal from Bhita
(Allahabad) establishes the existence of Bhadreshvara as a two-armed god with indistinct
attributes in the fourth century A.D.
Sri Kothakonda Veerabhadra Swamy Temple,
Kothakonda, Bheemdevarpalli Mandal,
Karimnagar District.
A statue in Dharmapuri district depicting
Veerabhadra
This is one of the veerabhadra swamy temple which is located at kaavakulam ,a village in
ramanathapuram district.It is built with artistic and wonderful scriptures.The people for whom
veerabhadra is consider as very sacred celebrates festival at certain period.The festival includes
lots of cultural activities with different pooja given to lord.
84
Veerabhadreshwara temple in RACHUTTY kadapa .AP
According to Hindu mythology Lord Shiva sends Veerabhadra to quell the anger of Lord
Narasimha after the latter had vanquished the demon King Hiranyakashipu. Unable to control
the turbulence of Lord Narasimha, Veerabhadra pleads to Lord Shiva for help. A shaft of light
enters Veerabhadra who assumes the magnificent form of Lord Sarabeswara. The 12-foot icon
of Sri Veera Sarabeswara at Chennai Skandasramam is half-bird and half-beast, with two wings
bearing Goddess Prathyankira and Goddess Soolini on either side. The face is that of a Yali.
Sarabeswara bears a deer, battleaxe, snake and fire in his four hands. He also bears Bhairava
and Agni in his abdomen. Two of his four feet rest on a mountain. The benign grace of Lord
Veera Sarabeswara is said to protect devotees from all kinds of malevolent forces. The Asta
bhairavar’s `Achithanga Bhairavar, Ruru Bhairavar, Chanda, Krodana, Kabala, Unmatha,
Bheeshana, Samkara, svarnakarshana Bhairavar are installed around the Sannadhi
VEERABHADRESHWARA SWAMY
85
Lord veerbhadra swamy statue in Srisailam.
Srisailam with in out roof.
Temple of Lord veerabhadra swami in
This depiction of Virabhadra is from the 17th to 18th century, cast out of silver and bronze.
Bonthapally VeeraBhadra swamy Temple and god Andra Pradesh.
kothakonda temple and god Andra Pradesh
86
kurvi veerabhadreshwara temple god //rathayatra Andra
Pradesh
Indian Puranas declare him as a form of Shiva. Though lost in India, many aspects of Indian
culture, are preserved in Southeast Asia. Some of the temples depicting him are:
1. Cho-Dinh Rock and
2. My Son in temples in Southeast Asia,
3. Wat Phu in Laos, Angkor and
4. Preah Vihear in Cambodia
represent literally the travel of Bhadreshvara-Shiva from India to mainland in Vietnam, to
mainland Southeast Asia.
Mỹ Sơn is a cluster of abandoned and partially ruined Hindu temples in central Vietnam,
constructed between the 4th and the 14th century by the Kings of Champa, an Indianized
kingdom of the Cham people. The temples are dedicated to the worship of the god Shiva,
known under various local names, the most important of which is Bhadreshvara.
Mỹ Sơn is located near the village of Duy Phú, in the administrative district of Duy
Xuyên in Quảng Nam Province in Central Vietnam, 69 km southwest of Da Nang, and
approximately 10 km from the historic Champa capital of Trà Kiệu. The temples are in a valley
roughly two kilometres wide that is surrounded by two mountain ranges.
From the 4th to the 14th century AD, the valley at Mỹ Sơn was a site of religious ceremony for
kings of the ruling dynasties of Champa, as well as a burial place for Cham royalty and national
heroes. It was closely associated with the nearby Cham cities of Indrapura (Đồng Dương) and
Simhapura (Trà Kiệu). At one time, the site encompassed over 70 temples as well as
numerous stele bearing historically important inscriptions in Sanskrit and Cham.Mỹ Sơn is
perhaps the longest inhabited archaeological site in Mainland Southeast Asia, but a large
majority of its architecture was destroyed by US bombing during a single week of the Vietnam
War.
The Mỹ Sơn temple complex is regarded one of the foremost Hindu temple complexes in
Southeast Asia and is the foremost heritage site of this nature in Vietnam. It is often compared
with
other
historical
temple
complexes
in
Southeast
Asia,
such
87
as Borobudur of Java in Indonesia, Angkor
Wat of Cambodia, Wat
Phou of Laos, Bagan of Myanmar and Prasat Hin Phimai of Thailand. As of 1999, Mỹ Sơn has
been recognized by UNESCO as a world heritage site. At its 23rd meeting, UNESCO accorded
Mỹ Sơn this recognition pursuant to its criterion C (II), as an example of evolution and change
in culture, and pursuant to its criterion C (III), as evidence of an Asian civilization which is
now extinct.
The over 70 temples and tombs extant at Mỹ Sơn have been dated to the period between the
4th century and the 14th century AD. However, the inscriptions and other evidence indicate
that earlier now defunct constructions probably were present from the 4th century.[5] The
complex may have been the religious and cultural centre of historical Champa, while the
government was based in nearby Simhapura or Đồng Dương.
Bhadravarman and Bhadreśvara
The great temple "A1" dedicated to the god Sambhubhadresvara by King Sambhuvarman in the 7th
century is now a pile of rubble: scholars were able to make this diagram before its destruction during the
Vietnam War./ This linga-like stone column is dated to the 10th century. It stands next to the temple known
as "B4."
The earliest historical events documented by the evidence recovered at Mỹ Sơn relate to the
era of King Bhadravarman I (literally "Blessed armour" but also meaning the Jasminum
sambac flower; Vietnamese: Phạm Hồ Đạt), who ruled from 380 until 413, and who spent the
latter part of his reign waging war against the population of Chinese-occupied northern
Vietnam. At Mỹ Sơn, Bhadravarman built a hall containing a lingam to worship Shiva under
the Sanskrit name Bhadreśvara "Blessed Lord", a composite created from the king's own name
and the word īśvara "lord" commonly used to refer to Shiva.
King Bhadravarman caused a stele to be erected at Mỹ Sơn the inscription on which recorded
his foundation. The stele indicates that the king dedicated the entire valley of Mỹ Sơn to
Bhadreśvara. The text ends with a plea from Bhadravarman to his successors: "Out of
compassion for me do not destroy what I have given." Drawing upon the doctrines
of saṃsāra and karma, he added, "If you destroy [my foundation], all your good deeds in your
different births shall be mine, and all the bad deeds done by me shall be yours. If, on the
contrary, you properly maintain the endowment, the merit shall belong to you
alone."[ Bhadravarman's successors heard his plea, it seems, for Mỹ Sơn became the religious
hub of Champa for many generations.
Sambhuvarman
88
The original temples of Bhadravarman were mainly composed of wooden materials such
timber logs. Unfortunately, the temple complex was comsumed by a great fire occurred in
535/536 AD, during the reign of Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). In the 7th century,
King Sambhuvarman (Phạm Phạn Chi in Vietnamese, Fan Che as transcribed from the
Chinese), who reigned from 572 until 629 and son of Rudravarman, rebuilt the temple,
reinstalled the god under the name Sambhu-Bhadresvara, and erected a stele to document the
event. The stele affirmed that Sambhu-Bhadresvara was the creator of the world and the
destroyer of sin, and expressed the wish that he "cause happiness in the kingdom of Champa."
The stele also applauded the king himself, claiming that he was "like a terrestrial sun
illuminating the night" and that his glory rose "like the moon on an autumn evening."
Ironically, perhaps, Sambhuvarman's reign was marred by one of the most devastating
invasions ever suffered by the country of Champa. In 605 AD, the Chinese general Liu Fang
led an army southwards from the area of what is now northern Vietnam, defeated the elephantriders of Sambhuvarman, and sacked the Cham capital, making off with an enormous booty
that included over one thousand Buddhist books as well as the gold tablets commemorating the
reigns of the previous eighteen kings. Heading back north with their heist, the Chinese invaders
were struck by an epidemic that felled a large number of them, including Liu Fang.
Sambhuvarman, for his part, returned home to his kingdom, began the process of rebuilding,
and made sure to send regular shipments of tribute to the Chinese court, in order through
appeasement to prevent a recurrence of the recent disaster.[12]
French scholars investigating Mỹ Sơn at the beginning of the 20th century identified a then still
existent edifice distinguished for "its majestic proportions, the antiquity of its style, and the
richness of its decoration" as the temple of Sambhu-Bhadresvara constructed by King
Sambhuvarman. The edifice, which is known to scholars as "A1", was practically destroyed by
US aerial bombing in the Vietnam War and is now little more than a formless pile of bricks.
Prakasadharma
A Cham artist of approximately the 10th century depicted a Cham temple tower in this fragment
located in the museum at My Son./ Circular pedestal at E1 bearing the inscription: "This kosa
is offered to Vikrantavarman, the most powerful King of kings"
King Prakasadharma (Po Kia Pho Pa Mo, as transcribed from the Chinese) ruled Champa from
653 AD to approximately 687. Upon ascending to the throne, he also assumed the name
Vikrantavarman. During his reign, he expanded the borders of Champa toward the South and
89
sent ambassadors and tribute (including tame elephants) to China. Inscriptions link him not
only to Mỹ Sơn, but also to the nearby urban settlements of Trà Kiệu and Đồng Dương. He
began the religious practice of donating "kosas" or decorated metallic sleeves to be placed over
a lingam. Unusually for a king of Champa, he was devoted not only to Shiva, but also to Vishnu
One of the most important steles to be found at Mỹ Sơn is that erected by Prakasadharma in
657 AD. The purpose of the stele was to commemorate the king's establishment of a god
identified as the ruler of the world, i.e. Shiva, with a view to overcoming the seeds
of karma that lead to rebirth. The stele is important because it sets forth the king's ancestry and
is of great help in reconstructing the sequence of Champa's rulers. Among his ancestors,
notably, the king claimed a Cambodian king named Isanavarman I. And like the Cambodian
kings, he traced his ancestry to the legendary Kamma Kshtriya King from Kakatiya kingdom
and the nāga-princess Soma.
Later developments
Subsequent kings renovated the older temples and constructed additional ones. For many
centuries, the building of temples and shrines of varying sizes continued, and Mỹ Sơn served
as the religious and cultural center of the Cham civilization in central Vietnam, as well as the
burial place of kings and religious leaders. Most of the extant temples at Mỹ Sơn, such as the
Isanabhadresvara, were built in the late 10th century and 11th century AD by king Harivarman
II (r. 989–997) and later king Harivarman IV (r. 1074–1080). The inscriptions from this period
have not survived, except in fragmentary form. At the beginning of the 10th century, the Cham
center of power was at Đồng Dương, not far from Mỹ Sơn. By the end of the century, it had
been displaced southward to Bình Định Province on account of military setbacks in wars with
the Viet. However, Cham kings continued periodically to renovate the temples at Mỹ Sơn and
even to build new foundations. The latest significant Cham record at Mỹ Sơn is a pillar
inscription of King Jaya Indravarman V dated 1243 AD. By the early 15th century, the Cham
had lost their northernmost lands, including the area of Mỹ Sơn, to the Viet.
Modern scholarship
Following the conquest of central Vietnam by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong which
reduced the status of Champa kingdoms to autonomous subordinate regions and the decline
and eventual fall of Champa, the Mỹ Sơn complex fell into disuse and was largely forgotten.
Vietnamese people settled and built villages, towns, cities on conquered Cham lands. It was
rediscovered in 1898 by the Frenchman Camille Michel Paris . A year later, members of the
scholarly society called École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) began to study the
inscriptions, architecture, and art of Mỹ Sơn. In 1904, they published their initial findings in
the journal of the society called Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême Orient (BEFEO). Henri
Parmentier gave a description of the ruins at Mỹ Sơn, and M. L. Finot published the
inscriptions that had been found there.
Restoration
In 1937, French scholars began to restore the temples at Mỹ Sơn. In 1937 and 1938, the main
temple known as "A1" and the smaller temples surrounding it were restored. Other major
temples were restored between 1939 and 1943. However, many historical buildings were
destroyed during the Vietnam War. The temples were part of a People's Army of
Vietnam and Viet Cong base area and consequently United States aircraft bombed the region
in August 1969. The surrounding area is still rendered dangerous through the presence of
unexploded land mines.
The majority of the temple sites in the centre of the complex have survived to this day.
However, worries persist regarding the structural soundness of the remaining temples, some of
90
which are vulnerable to collapse. Although many statues have been removed to France or to
historical museums in Vietnam, such as the Museum of Cham Sculpture in Da Nang, others
can be viewed in an in-situ museum that has been set up with the funding of benefactors from
Germany and Poland. In 1981, the restoration works were carried out by a team of Polish
conservators from Lublin, headed by Kazimierz Kwiatkowski Kazik.
From 2002 to 2004, the Ministry of Culture of Vietnam allotted around US$440,000 to
maintain the site. A draft plan of UNESCO was funded by the Government of Italy and
sponsors from Japan to prevent further degradation. These efforts are also funded by the World
Monuments Fund.
The ruined E4 Temple, destroyed by bombing.
The only main temple building (C1) remaining intact.
Types of buildings
All of the remaining buildings at Mỹ Sơn are believed to be religious buildings. They are of
the following types
•
•
•
A kalan is a brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower, used to house a deity.
A mandapa is an entry hallway contiguous with a sanctuary.
A kosagrha or "fire-house" is a construction, typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used
to house the valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity.
• A gopura is a gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex.
System for the identification of buildings
When he began his studies of Mỹ Sơn in 1899, Henri Parmentier found the remnants of 71
temples. He classified them into 14 groups, including 10 principal groups each consisting of
multiple temples. For purposes of identification, he assigned a letter to each of these principal
groups: A, A', B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K. Within each group, he assigned numbers to the edifices
comprising it. Thus "My Son E1" refers to the edifice at My Son belonging to group "E" that
has been assigned the number "1."
Architectural styles
91
Group G temple.
Art historians have classified the architectural and artistic legacy of Champa into seven
artistic styles or phases of development.[27] Six of the styles are represented at Mỹ Sơn, and
two are believed to have originated from there. They are known as the Mỹ Sơn E1 Style and
the Mỹ Sơn A1 Style. In particular the temple known as "A1" is often referred to as the
architectural masterpiece of the Cham. The six styles of Cham architecture represented at Mỹ
Sơn are the following:
•
•
•
The style of Mỹ Sơn E1 and F1 dates to the 8th century AD.
The temple known as "E1" is now ruined. The style which it
established is represented today by two works of art that
formerly belonged to the temple but today are housed in
the Museum of Cham Sculpture in Da Nang: a pedestal and
a tympanum.
The style exemplified by My Son A2, C7 and F3 is similar to
the style of Hòa Lai from the turn of the 9th century.
The Đồng Dương style of the late 9th century is reflected in Mỹ
Sơn A10, A11-13, B4, and B12. This style is named after the
Vietnamese town that occupies the site of the 9th century city
and Buddhist monastery of Indrapura. The archeological site of
the monastery has been largely destroyed; French scholars of
the early 20th century were able to create diagrams of its layout
and the disposition of its buildings. Numerous striking works
of sculpture belonging to this style survive in Vietnamese
museums.
92
This pedestal and the outline of a wall are all that remain of the once magnificent temple called
"A1."/ The storehouse known as "B5" is the outstanding surviving exemplar of the My Son A1
style.
The Mỹ Sơn A1 style of the 10th century is exemplified by Mỹ Sơn B5, B6, B7, B9, C1, C2,
C5, D1, D2, and D4. It is the most heavily represented style at My Son, and is known for its
elegance and grace. The style's namesake and most important architectural exemplar, the once
magnificent tower known as "A1," is largely ruined. It is a mound of earth, surrounded by
rubble and the outline of a wall, at the center of which stands a whitish pedestal. A scale model
of the former temple created by Japanese researchers as well as a schematic frontal view are
exhibited in the Museum of Cham Sculpture in Da Nang. The most striking of the remaining
buildings belonging to the style may be the storehouse B5, which exemplifies the saddleshaped roof peculiar to Cham artchitecture. The My Son A1 style is sometimes also known as
the Tra Kieu Style, after the nearby town of Trà Kiệu which may be the site of the historical
Cham city of Simhapura. Many architectural ornaments from this style survive and are
displayed in the Museum of Cham Sculpture.
A transitional style of the early 11th century to the middle of the 12th century is exhibited in
Mỹ Sơn E4, F2, and the K group of sites.
The style of Bình Định that prevailed in Cham architecture from the end of the 11th century,
when the center of the Cham polity was displaced southward from the area around My Son to
Vijaya in Bình Định Province, to the start of the 14th is represented by Mỹ Sơn B1 and groups
G and H.
Building techniques
Most of the temples at Mỹ Sơn were made of red brick, and only one (the temple labelled "B1")
was made of stone. Even the decorative carvings on the Cham temples were cut directly onto
the bricks themselves, rather than onto sandstone slabs inserted into brick walls as is observable
for example in the 9th century Cambodian temple of Bakong.
To this day, the construction techniques used by the Cham builders are not completely
understood.[30] Issues that have not been completely resolved include issues about the firing of
the bricks, the mortar between the bricks, and decorative carvings found on the bricks.
93
The temples at Mỹ Sơn are made of a reddish brick. Decorative carvings have been cut directly
into the bricks.
At what point in the building process were the bricks hardened by fire? Were the bricks
hardened first, and then arranged in order to build the structures, or were the structures built
out of partially hardened bricks, after which the entire structures were heated by fire to finish
the hardening of the bricks? The hypothesis that the entire structures were reheated following
assembly is supported by evidence that the mortar between the bricks was at some point
subjected to high temperatures. The contrary hypothesis is supported by the observation that
the structures bear no signs of scarring from large intense fires such as would be needed in
order to reheat them as whole.[31]
How were the bricks stuck together? One hypothesis is that the builders at Mỹ Sơn developed
a way to glue bricks together using tree resin native to central Vietnam. Another hypothesis is
that the builders used a sticky mortar made from the same clay as the bricks themselves. The
latter hypothesis is supported by chemical tests that have found no trace of any organic
substance between the bricks, but instead have found mineral substances similar to those
present in the core of the bricks. Today the mortar that once held the bricks together has largely
decayed, and even a strong wind can knock loose bricks from the structures.
At what point in the process were the decorative carvings made? Were the walls constructed
and then carved, or were the bricks carved first and then assembled so as to create the walls?
An examination of the carvings reveals no broken lines as would be expected if the bricks were
carved first and then assembled; and as a result scholars have concluded that the Cham
craftsmen made their carvings directly onto finished brick walls
Inscriptions
94
Stele at Temple E, erected by King Prakāśadharman-Vikrantavarman in 657 AD.
The people of Champa maintained written records in both Sanskrit and old Cham. They wrote
on perishable materials, such as large leaves, and also created inscriptions in stone. They used
scripts borrowed from India. None of the writings on perishable materials have survived.
However, numerous stone inscriptions have been preserved, transcribed, and translated into
modern languages.
Many of Champa's most important inscriptions are on steles, that is to say on slabs or pillars of
stone erected precisely for the purpose of hosting inscriptions. Scholars have found
approximately 32 steles at Mỹ Sơn, dated between the 5th and the 12th century AD.
The subject-matter of Cham inscriptions is mostly political and religious. They are written from
the perspective of kings or very high potentates seeking to affirm their legitimacy and their
relationship to the divine. Many of the inscriptions document a gift to a god, such as a gift of
land, of people, or of treasure, or a foundation dedicated to a god, such as the foundation of a
temple, an altar, or a pedestal. The inscriptions also provide us with important information such
as the name of the country (typically Campadesa in the Sanskrit inscriptions, nagara Campa in
the Cham inscriptions), and the names of some of its most important cities: Simhapura ("Lion
City"), Virapura ("Knight City"), Rajapura ("King City"), Vijaya ("District"). Finally, a
number of the inscriptions allude to or describe interesting historical events, such as the
ongoing wars between Champa and Cambodia in the 12th century.[
95
Chapter 6
Vajrayāna Shiva Bhairava worship in “India” and Indonesia
FeaturingTantric Ganesh articles
https://www.academia.edu/87001066/Ganesh_as_a_Buddhist_Demigod
https://www.academia.edu/71886549/Tantric_Age
Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव lit. 'frightful') or Kala Bhairava is a Shaivite and Vajrayāna deity
worshiped by Hindus and Buddhists. In Shaivism, he is a powerful manifestation, or avatar,
of Shiva associated with annihilation. In Trika system Bhairava represents Supreme Reality,
synonymous
to Para
Brahman. Generally
in
Hinduism,
Bhairava
is
also
called Dandapani ("[he who holds the] Danda in [his] hand"), as he holds a rod or Danda to
punish sinners, and Svaśva, meaning "whose vehicle is a dog". In Vajrayana Buddhism, he is
considered
a fierce
emanation of boddhisatva Mañjuśrī,
and
also
called Heruka, Vajrabhairava, and Yamantaka.
He is worshiped throughout India, Nepal and Sri Lanka as well as in Tibetan Buddhism.
Bhairava originates from the word bhīru, which means "fearsome". Bhairava means "terribly
fearsome form". It is also known as one who destroys fear or one who is beyond fear. One
interpretation is that he protects his devotees from dreadful enemies, greed, lust, and anger.
These enemies are dangerous as they never allow humans to seek God within. There is also
another interpretation: Bha means creation, ra means sustenance and va means destruction.
Therefore, Bhairava is the one who creates, sustains and dissolves the three stages of life.
Therefore, he becomes the ultimate or the supreme.
Aakash Bhairab in Kathmandu.// 12th-century Bhairava sculpture from Karnataka-Hoysala
Dynasty
The origin of Bhairava is traced to a conversation between Brahma and Vishnu which is
recounted in the Shiva Puranam.[13] In it, Vishnu inquired of Brahma, "Who is the supreme
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creator of the Universe?" Arrogantly, Brahma told Vishnu to worship him as Supreme Creator.
One day, Brahma thought "I have five heads. Shiva also has five heads. I can do everything
that Shiva does and therefore I am Shiva." Brahma became a little egotistical as a result of this.
Additionally, he began to forget the work of Shiva and also started interfering in what Shiva
was supposed to be doing. Consequently, Shiva threw a small hair from his head which
assumed the form of Kala Bhairava and casually went to cut off one of Brahma's heads. The
skull (kapala) of Brahma is held in the hands of Kala Bhairava, Brahma's ego was destroyed
and he became enlightened. From then on, he became useful to himself and to the world, and
deeply grateful to Shiva. In the form of the Kala Bhairava, Shiva is said to be guarding each
of these Shakti Pitha (Shakti temples). Each Shakti Pitha is accompanied by
a temple dedicated to Bhairava.
There is another school of thought that states that Shiva himself created Bhairava. It states that
there was once an asura named Dahurāsura, who got a boon that he could be killed only by a
woman. Parvati took the form of Kali to kill him. The wrath of Kali killed the asura. After
killing the asura, her wrath metamorphosed as a child. Kali fed the child with her milk. Shiva
made both Kali and the child to merge with him. From this merged form of Shiva, Bhairava
appeared in his eight forms (Aṣṭāṅga Bhairavas). Since Bhairava was thus created by Shiva, he
is said to be one of the sons of Shiva.
The Puranas also give a version of Bhairava. In this version there was a war between devas and
asuras. To eradicate the asuras, Shiva created Kala Bhairava from whom Aṣṭāṅga
Bhairavas were created. These Ashta Bhairavas married Ashta Matrikas. These Ashta
Bhairavas and Ashta Matrikas have dreadful forms. From these Ashta Bhairavas and Ashta
Matrikas, 64 Bhairavas and 64 Yoginis were created.
Depiction
Normally in Shiva temples, idols of Bhairava are situated in the north, facing Western direction.
He is also called Kṣhetrapāla. He appears in a standing position with four hands. His weapons
are drum, pāśa (noose), trident and skull. In some forms of Bhairava, there are more than four
hands. He appears with a dog. His weapons, the dog, protruding teeth, terrifying looks, and a
garland with red flowers all give him a frightening appearance.
In all Shiva temples, regular puja (reverence) rituals begin with Surya and end with Bhairava.
Devotees offer what is understood to be favored by Bhairava: a ghee bath (abhiṣeka), red
flowers, ghee lamp, unbroken coconut, honey, boiled food, fibrous fruits etc. If a Bhairava idol
is facing west, it is good; facing south is moderate; facing east is not good. The right time to
pray to Bhairavi is midnight. At midnight it is said that Bhairava and his consort Bhairavi will
give darśana (appearance) to their devotees. The most appropriate time is a Friday midnight.
There are eight types of flowers and leaves used in archana (अर्चन) to Bhairava.
In Kashmir Shaivism, Bhairava is the ultimate form of manifestation or pure "I" consciousness.
One of his forms is called Svarṇākarṣṇa Bhairava ; In this form, he has red or blue complexion
and is clothed in golden dress. He has the moon over his head. He has four hands, one of which
he holds a golden vessel. He gives wealth and prosperity. Performing pūja on Tuesdays gives
quick results. In some of the ancient texts he is said to have thirty two hands, the shape of a
bird, golden complexion, terrible teeth, and a human form above the hip. Worshipping him
destroys enemies.
Some forms of Bhairava are guardians of the eight cardinal points. There are 64 Bhairavas.
These 64 Bhairavas are grouped under eight categories and each category is headed by one
major Bhairava. The major eight Bhairavas are called Aṣṭāṅga Bhairavas. The Ashta Bhairavas
97
control the eight directions of this universe. Each Bhairava has seven sub Bhairavas under him,
totaling 64 Bhairavas. All of the Bhairavas are ruled and controlled by Maha Kala
Bhairava otherwise known as Kala Bhairava, who is the supreme ruler of time of this universe
as per some Śaiva tantric scriptures (āgamas). Bhairavi is the consort of Kala Bhairava . The
eight Bhairavas are said to represent five elements viz. ākāś, air, fire, water and earth and the
other three being sun, moon and ātman. Each of the eight Bhairavas are different in appearance,
have different weapons, different vāhanas (vehicles) and they bless their devotees with eight
types of wealth representing Ashta Lakshmis. Continuous worship of Bhairava leads the
worshiper to a true Guru. There are separate mantras to all the eight Bhairavas.
Bhairava is also called upon as protector, as he guards the eight directions of the universe. In
Shiva temples, when the temple is closed, the keys are placed before Bhairava. Bhairava is also
described as the protector of women. He is described as the protector of the timid and in general
women who are timid in nature.
It is generally believed that worshiping Bhairava gives prosperity, success and good progeny,
prevents premature death and gives solution to debts and liabilities. Different forms of Bhairava
evolve only from Śiva, who is called the Mahā Bhairava.
Trika System
Trika and Kashmiri Shaivism names the Absolute Reality (Para Brahman) as Bhairava.
The Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra is a key Tantra text of the Trika System. Cast as a discourse
between the god Bhairava and his consort Bhairavi it briefly presents 112 Tantric meditation
methods or centering techniques (Dharana). The text is a chapter from the Rudrayamala Tantra,
a Bhairava Agama. Bhairavi, the goddess, asks Bhairava to reveal the essence of the way to
realization of the highest reality. In his answer Bhairava describes 112 ways to enter into the
universal and transcendental state of consciousness. References to it appear throughout the
literature of Trika, Kashmir Shaivism, indicating that it was considered to be an important text
in the schools of Kashmir Shaiva philosophy and Trika.
List of Bhairavas-The list of manifestation of Shiva:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trisandhyeshvara
Viśveśvara
Bhiruk
Vakranath
Lambkarna
Vamana
Pachali Bhairava
Bagh Bhairava
Varaha (Baraha)
Rudra Mahadev
Bhoothnath Vetal / Betal Bhairava
Chakrapani
Vikritaksh
Vimocanā
Kramadishwar
Chanda
Unmatta Bhairava
Nakuleshwar
98
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Umananda or Bhayaanand
Ruru
Nimish
Abhiru
Sanwart
Ghanteshwar
Ambar
Amar
Sarvanand
Mahodar
Rakshaseshwar (Nayanair)
Kapali
Chandrashekhar
Maharudra
Vakratund
Bhava
Sthanu
Nandikeshwar
Vatsnabh or Dandpani
Krodhish
Bhadrasen
Sambaranand
Sanhar
Trayambak
Tripuresh
Kapilambar
Marthanda
Kala Bhairava
Sarvanand
Amritaksha
Bhishan
Baidyanath
Ksheer Kantak
Batuk Bhairava
Kapalbhairav
Tumbeswar
Jogesh
Shri Khutkuni Bhairava
Shai Bhairava
Matang Bhairava
Swarnakarshan Bhairava
Akshobhya Bhairava
Asitanga Bhairava
Samhaar Bhairava
Kshetrapaala Bhairava
Vikrant Bhairava
99
•
Patal Bhairava
Thangka Depicting Vajrabhairava, ca. 1740s.
Buddhism also adopted Bhairava (Tibetan: 'Jigs byed; Chinese: Buwei) as a deity and
a dharmapala or dharma protector. The various buddhist forms of Bhairava (variously
called Herukas,
Vajrabhairava, Mahākāla and Yamantaka)
are
considered fierce
deities and yidams (tantric meditational deity) in Tibetan Buddhism. They also have their own
set of buddhist tantras, the Vajrabhairava tantras.[34] According to Tibetan tradition, these
tantras were revealed to Lalitavajra in Oddiyana in the tenth century. These texts play a
particularly important role in the Sarma (new translation) traditions of Tibetan Buddhism,
especially among the Gelug school where Vajrabhairava is one of the three central highest yoga
tantra practices of the lineage Because of this, it is also popular in Mongolia as a protector deity
and was also popular among the Manchus. The deity is also central to Newar Buddhism The
tantric practices associated with Bhairava focus on the transformation of anger and hatred into
understanding.
Bhairava Ashtami
Kala Bhairava attended by devotees at Kathmandu Durbar Square
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Temples or shrines to Bhairava are present within or near most Jyotirlinga temples. There are
also the sacred twelve shrines dedicated to Shiva which can be found all across India including
the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi and the Kal Bhairava temple, Ujjain. The Patal
Bhairava and Vikrant Bhairava shrines are located in Ujjain as well.One of the ancient temples
of Kala Bhairava is situated in Dhuri city (District Sangrur), Punjab. The idol of Kala
Bhairava in the temple was found hundreds of years ago. The temple has been managed by
"Baba Shri Pritam Muni Ji" for many years. It is believed that Kala Bhairava Ji resides
here.Gorat Kashmiris are known to worship Bhairava during Shivratri. The renowned Hindu
reformer, Adi Sankara composed a hymn on Kala Bhairava called "Sri Kalabhairava
Ashtakam" in the city of Kashi.Bhairava Ashtami, commemorating the day Kala
Bhairava appeared
on
earth,
is
celebrated
on Krishna
paksha Ashtami of
the Margashirsha month of the Hindu calendar. It is a day filled with special prayers and rituals
Rakta Bhairava
.
Bhairava is depicted as being ornamented with a range of twisted serpents, which serve as
earrings, bracelets, anklets, and sacred thread (yajnopavita). He wears a tiger skin and a ritual
apron composed of human bones.[43] Bhairava has a dog (Shvan) as his
divine vahana (vehicle). Bhairavi is a fierce and terrifying aspect of the Devi who is virtually
indistinguishable from Kali, with the exception of her particular identification as the consort of
Bhairava.
Bhairava himself has eight manifestations i.e. Ashta Bhairava:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Asithaanga Bhairava
Ruru Bhairava
Chanda Bhairava
Krodha Bhairava
Unmattha Bhairava
Kapaala Bhairava
Bheeshana Bhairava
Samhaara Bhairava
Kala Bhairava is conceptualized as the Guru-Nath (Teacher and Master) of the planetary
deity Shani (Saturn).
Bhairava is known as Bhairavar or Vairavar in Tamil, where he is often presented as a Grama
devata or village guardian who safeguards the devotee in eight directions (ettu tikku). Known
in Sinhalese as Bahirawa, he is said to protect treasures. Lord Bhairava is the main deity
worshiped by the Aghora sect.
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Reflection of blue sky on mask of Shwet Bhairava at Basantapur, Kathmandu, Nepal
Bhairava is an important deity of the Newars. All the traditional settlements of Newars have at
least one temple of Bhairava. Most of the temples of Bhairava in Nepal are maintained by
Newar priests. There are several Bhairava temples in the Kathmandu valley.
In south Karnataka, Lord Sri Kalabhairaveshwara is present as Kshetra Palaka in Sri
Adichunchanagiri Hills.
Kala Bhairava temples can also be found around Shaktipeeths. It is said that Shiva allocated
the job of guarding each of the 52 Shaktipeeths to one Bhairava. There are said to be 52 forms
of Bhairava, which are considered a manifestation of Shiva himself. Traditionally, Kala
Bhairava is the Grama devata in the rural villages of Maharashtra, where he is referred to as
"Bhairava/Bhairavnath" and "Bairavar". In Karnataka, Lord Bhairava is the supreme God for
the Hindu community commonly referred to as Vokkaligas (Gowdas). Especially in the Jogi
Vokkaliga, he is considered the caretaker and punisher.[51] Shri Kala Bhairava Nath Swami
Temple of Madhya Pradesh is also popular.
Mahakala Bhairava and Agnidurgha.
In Mangalore there is an agnidurga temple at a place called karamogaru near gurupura
bridge Karnataka it was believed that nath panth saints where workshiping Lord Shri
Mahakala Bhairava and Shri Agnidurgha. Presently Mahakala Bhairava and Agnidurgha has
been one of the main deity in Gurupura, Karamogaru prathistapan rituals has been carried out
by Sri Sri 1008 Sri Rajyogi Nirmalnathji Maharaj.
Worship of the fierce form of Lord Ganesha is also part of Kala Bhairava rituals. The Tantric
aspects of the deity have certainly been studied too little. This book contributes to our
knowledge of this less familiar side of Ganesha. It describes his forms according to the
Vidyarnavatantra, a large compilation on mantrashastra attributed to Vidyaranya Yati and
compiled around the seventeenth century. This text gives the iconographic peculiarities,
mantras, and yantras of fourteen forms of Ganesha as well as instructions for the ritual
application of the mantra. According to Kala Bhairava Tantra, Shiva Bhairava is the supreme
ruler of the Universe, as per the Shaiva scriptures (āgama). Bhairava is the ultimate form of
manifestation or pure “I” consciousness.
Ritual worship of Bhairava is performed with ghee bath (abhiṣeka), red flowers, ghee lamp,
unbroken coconut, honey, fruits etc. The right time to pray to Bhairava is midnight. At that time
it is said that Bhairava and his consort Bhairavi will appear (give darśana) to their devotees.
The most appropriate time is a Friday midnight.
Bhairava is called upon as protector, as he guards the Eight Directions of the Universe, by
splitting Himself into the Ashta Bhairava, who control of the eight cardinal points. There are 64
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Bhairavas in total, grouped under 8 categories and each category is headed by one major
Bhairava.
Each of the eight Bhairavas are different in appearance, have different weapons, different
mantras and vāhanas (vehicles) and they bless their devotees with the Eight Types of Wealth
(Ashta Lakshmis). All the different forms of Bhairava emanate from the Mahā Bhairava.
The eight different manifestations of Kala Bhairava are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Asitanga Bhairava — Grants creative skill, powers to generate new ideas and
conceptions
Guru Bhairava — Gives divine education, success in all ventures, spiritual
knowledge
Chanda Bhairava — Destroys evil and enemies and enhances confidence, removes
fears, clears path to progress and provides incredible energy to attain success
Kroda Bhairava — Gives strength and courage to take massive action that ends in
success, emerge victorious by overcoming hurdles and oppositions.
Unmatta Bhairava — Controls negative emotions like depression, mood swings,
anxiety, mental disorders, ego etc.
Kapala Bhairava — Ends all profitless work and action. He helps overcome delays
in major projects and assures matters are settled in a fulfilling manner.
Bhishana Bhairava — Eliminates evil spirits and negative energy. Installing this
form in your space emits positive and energetic vibrations.
Samhara Bhairava — Though benevolent, this form of Kala Bhairava looks fierce
and eliminates bad karma effects and bestows them with fresh vigor.
In India, Bhairava shrines are present within or near all the 12 sacred Jyotirlinga temples.
Kalabhairava is also celebrated every year with the Kalabhairava Ashtami, celebrated with the
chanting of Nirvana Shatakam — the famous chant written by Adi Shankaracharya over a
thousand years ago.
Death and Time
In Bhairava Tantrayana worship, the devotees seek to unite with higher and higher
manifestations of Shiva. This is why the famous statue of Kertanegara depicted as Bhairava
presents lots of similarities with depictions of the Goddess Kali, one of the manifestations
of Parvati (called Bhairavi in Kala Bhairava Tantra).
Kali is the personification of Time and is usually portrayed as a black woman with a terrible
face, covered in blood and wearing skulls and snakes. Skull-bearing in all representations of
deities is a symbol of Death and Time. Her tongue sticks out as a symbol that everyone will be
swallowed by Time.
Misunderstood rituals and fantastic rumors
Often, the highly symbolic representations of deities drinking blood and eating human flesh —
symbols of overcoming the human condition through meditation — were taken literally by the
outsiders. Yet the depictions of corpses are there to remind the devotees of the untemporality of
everything and of the ineluctable presence of Time, or Kala.
The Kala Bhairava rituals were secret, which led to the most fantastic and even ridiculous
rumors. Among uninformed commoners, the Tantric symbolism often aroused the wrong
interpretations. This lead to legends and accusations of “human sacrifice”, “eating corpses”,
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“sacrificing virgins” and others, which are still propagated by Indonesian Moslem books until
today, and even by certain uninformed Western authors. In the same way, the Tantric sexual
practices that were well-known all around Dvipantara at that time, were basely interpreted by
the sex-shy Moslems as ‘orgies’.
Due to the secrecy surrounding them, the Bhairava rituals were usually totally misunderstood,
such as the Pancamakara puja, or ‘five Ms’ ritual. The five Ma are said to
be matsya (fish), mamsa (meat), madya (drink), madra (dance
to
ecstasy),
and maithuna (sexual tantra), all actions and substances considered ritually or socially impure
by the orthodox Hindu tradition.
The pancha-makara is actually a cleansing of the panca tattva — a worship of deities in order
to eradicate five types of sins — quite the opposite of what it is made up to be. Each
metaphorical substance relates in reality to one of the elemental principles: wine is Fire, Air is
flesh, Water is fish, cereals represent Earth and sexual union, Ether. It is related to the bhuta
shuddhi process.
Kala Bhairava Tantrayana in Bali
The development of Tantrayana in Bali began in the 10th century, around the time of the
marriage of the king of Dharma Udayana Warmadewa with a daughter of the king of East Java
named Mahendradhatta. It is around that time that the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan was
compiled, which outlined the teachings of Indonesian Tantric Buddhism.
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Empress Mahendradhatta worshiped Hyang Bhairawi (or Bhatari Durga). When she died, she
was celebrated in Gianyar in the form of a large statue of Durga Mahisasuramardhini. This
statue reminds us that Mahendradhatta was following a Shakta lineage.
Then around the 13th century in East Java King Kertanegara ruled as the last king of the
Singasari kingdom. Then he occupied Bali in 1280 and the Kala Bhairawa lineage spread there.
In the courtyard of the Kebo Edan temple in Bali are other giant statues that are reminiscent of
the Bhairawa statue found in Singasari temple, East Java. The attribute on the statue’s hand is a
large knife, trident, drum and skull bowl.
Similar statues are also found in Biaro Bahal II Temple, Padang Lawas, Batak and Central
Sumatra, which show an Indonesia-wide distribution of the Kala Bhairawa teachings.
The Shiva Bhairava statue in Pura Kebo Edan in Bali. The shape of the statue is similar to the
Bhairava statue in Singasari. Around the 13th century the Shiva Bhairava Tantrayana started
to develop widely in Bali from East Java.
The Kala Bhairawa’s resistance to islamization in Java
The spread of Islam in Indonesia is officially attributed to a group of nine semi-mythical ‘Wali
Songo’ missionaries. One of these Moslem proselityzers was Sunan Bonang, who reported
having encountered the strongest resistance in Kediri from the followers of Kala Bhairawa.
Of all the Indonesian islands, the Javanese were already the most difficult to accept the foreign
religion because of their powerful Shiva-Buddha tradition. Violent sporadic conflicts lasted for
the next two centuries before the Moslems could take a hold in South and East Java.
Bonang gave up on East Java and emigrated to Demak, where he continued his preaching,
becoming a mosque priest there. This time he focused more on slowly changing the Javanese
culture to make it more porous to Moslem beliefs, instead of confronting the Javanese directly
with his Semitic religion.
His student, Sunan Kalijaga, a former highway robber converted to Islam, continued his task
by, instead of preaching directly, opting for a cultural approach. He chose to progressively
strip Javanese culture — such as batik and wayang — of its most obvious Hindu meanings,
opting for a more creeping approach to islamization.
Kalijaga also attempted to replace the popular Javanese literature of the time with his own
poetic creations, such as the “Wijuk Wijil”, in which he had translated some Persian Sufi
teachings to woo more followers.
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After leaving his position as “imam” (priest) of the Demak Mosque, Bonang was told to go to
Lasem and used there his experience in Islamic proselytism, using the lessons he learned from
the difficult experiences he had received while preaching in Kediri.
There again, Bonang had difficulties with his preaching strategy, and sought, instead of
convincing people to convert directly, to slowly infuse the Javanese customs with Moslem
ideas.
Bonang started by copying Javanese rituals and practice a parallel, islamized version of the
Javanese ritual with his followers, for example replacing mantra japa with the Mohammedan
‘’tahlil’’ and so on.
Then he got the idea to imitate the Hindu custom of forming a circle (cakra) and
eating tumpeng with the local congregation, but with the ceremony being given an Islamic
style instead. This is still known today as the selamatan.
Worship of the fierce form of Lord Ganesha is also part of Kala Bhairava rituals. See the
Human Shulls
After years of failure, Bonang finally stoke a chord in the population with his islamicized
version of the selametan which then spread to almost all parts of Java. The famous Pancamakara-puja ritual was then Islamized into ‘five taboos’ for Javanese people. The “five M”
made up by Bonang were: Thieving (stealing), Madhat (smoking opium), Drinking (drinking
liquor), Gambling) and Madon (prostitution).
Bonang was later also known as Sunan Wahdat Cakrawati, derived from the
word cakra (circle in Sanskrit) because he had taken over the Hindu circular ritual through
the selamatan. This selamatan tradition is now itself under attack by the radical Moslems of
today for being part of Islam Nusantara, because the selamatan’s tumpeng is a symbol of
Mount Meru and of the Javanese Cosmic Mountain.
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Eventually Islam slowly prevailed in Java due to a combination of proselytizing, economic
conversions, opportunistic political rivalries and the financial influence of the Moslem
merchants entrenched along the Northern coast of Java.Yet important pockets of HinduJavanese subsisted in the interior — especially in East Java — well into the 19th and 20th
centuries.
The Sang Dwija Naga Naraswara — the Javanese version of Shiva’s trishula, with Nāga on
the sides. Image source: Aurela Arsyifa
The Bagelen (Purworejo) spiritual center: The city of Bagelen in Central Java (2 hours from
Yogyakarta, 15 minutes from Borobudur) had been a center of the development of the ShivaBuddha religion since the Galuh-Tarumanagara kingdom.
Bagelen used to include parts of Wonosobo (a name derived from the Sanskrit Vanasabha,
which means “gathering place in the forest”), and was known as a place of escape for the
Majapahit elite. The Bagelen countryside is still dotted with Shivalingas from that era.
The regency is crossed by a river called Bagawanta, which comes from the word Begawan,
because it is along this riverbank the monks settled.
The regency is rich in caves that were used for meditation retreats. In the Seplawan Cave, a
gold statue of Shiva and Parvati was found.
In Bagelen were concentrated many powerful Kala Bhairava Tantrayana priests and mystics.
Bagelen had long been a famous place for Buddhist monks to live and meditate. Many were
skilled in martial arts. The region was known to produce many tough soldiers as well.
During the islamization of Java, with such a background, there was no other choice for the
Moslem proselytizers such as Sunan Kalijaga than to first accommodate the Kala Bhairava
values in order to get a foothold in the place.
Even after they were islamized, the Bagelen resistance against the Dutch was stiff, and most
of Prince Diponegoro’s followers came from this region. In order to break the identity of
Bagelen as a strong region, this area was reduced by Dutch authorities to become only a
district within the Kedu Residency. The Dutch built a new settlement in this area and built a
highway dividing it to make it easier to monitor.
That is the origin of today’s Purworejo. Before 1830 the area covered Berangkal (now
Purworejo), Semawung (Kutoarjo), Ngaran (Kebumen), and Karangduwur (southern
Wonosobo), but after 1830 Bagelen remained only in an area of four districts east of
Purworejo.
Today, the area is entirely islamized, but the inhabitants mostly follow Kejawen Islam, which
keeps many of the ancient traditions alive. The peaceful energies of the place are still felt there
today.
Muthappan is a deity commonly worshiped in the Kannur, Kasargod, Kozhikode, Malapuram
region of Kerala and Coorg region of Karnataka in India. Muthappan is considered as the
personification of two Hindu gods — the Thiruvappan or Valiya Muttapan (Vishnu) and the
Vellatom or Cheriya Muttapan (Shiva).The shrine where Muthappan is worshipped is called
Madappura.The Parassinikadavu Madappura is the most important.
Practices in Muthappan temples are quite distinct from those in other Hindu temples of
Kerala.The rituals are related to Shakteyam where Panja-ma-kara are offered, sometimes
including madyam (in this case,Toddy) and mamsam (generally flesh, in this case - fish). The
main liturgy is a ritual enactment of Muthappan, performed daily at the Parassinikadavu
107
temple. Most temples in Kerala do not allow non-Hindus to enter; Muthappan temples are said
to be much more liberal in this regard.[
Muthappan is the principal deity in the ritualistic Theyyam dance (Muthappan Theyyam)
performed in the Parassinikkadavu temple. The ritual performers of Muthappan Theyyam
belong to the Vannan community of Kerala. The puja rituals and rites for Muthappan are
performed by the Thiyyar community.
Thiruvappana performing/Vellaattom performing
Muthappan is believed to be the personification of two divine figures — Thiruvappana and
Vellatom. The dual divine figures Thiruvappana and Vellatom are similar to those of
the Theyyamkaliyattem of the northern Malabar region. Though Sree Muthappan is worshiped
as a single deity, it actually represents an integrated or unified form of two gods: Vishnu (with
a fish-shaped crown) and Shiva (with a crescent-shaped crown).
Sri Muthappan's Theyyams are performed year-round whereas other Theyyams are seasonal
(lasting October to May)
Muthappan stories=Parassinikkadavu Muthappan
The traditional story of Parassinikkadavu Muthappan describes the background of the deity.
The Thiyya King [Mannan] Raja called as Mannanar (ruler) of Eruvessi, in Kannur,
Ancharamanaykkal Vazhunnavar, was unhappy, as he had no child. His wife, Padikutty Amma,
was a devotee of Lord Shiva She made a sacrifice to Shiva for children. One day in her dream
she saw the Lord. The very next day, while she was returning after a bath from a nearby river,
she saw a pretty child lying on a rock nearby. (There is, even today, a rock, believed to be this
one, still visited and venerated.) She took the child home and she and her husband brought Him
up as their own son.
The boy used to visit the jungle near their house (mana) for hunting with His bow and arrows.
He would then take food to the poor and mingle with local communities. As these acts were
against the way of life, His parents earnestly requested Him to stop this practice, but the boy
turned a deaf ear to their warnings. Ancharamanaykkal Vazhunavar became very disappointed.
Ayyankara Vazhunavar decided to take the matters into his hands and admonished him. The
boy revealed His divine form (Visvaroopam, or Viswaroopa, or Cosmic All-Pervading Form)
to His parents. They then realized that the boy was not an ordinary child, but God. They
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prostrated themselves in front of Him, surrendering themselves to him. The moment he got out
of his house, everything that came under Muthappan's vision burned and turned into ashes due
to his sadness in leaving the house. His mother told him that he should not walk all the way
destroying every creation in this world. Muthappan pierced his eyes so that nothing shall be
disintegrated with his vision. Thiruvappana is depicted as blind because of this.
He then started a journey from Ancharamanaykkal. The natural beauty of Kunnathoor detained
Him. He was also attracted by the toddy of palm trees.
Chandan (an illiterate toddy tapper) knew that his toddy was being stolen from his palm trees,
so he decided to guard them. While he was keeping guard at night, he caught an old man
stealing toddy from his palms. He got very angry and tried to shoot the man using his bow and
arrows but fell unconscious before he could let loose even one arrow. Chandan's wife came
searching for him. She cried brokenheartedly when she found him unconscious at the base of
the tree. She saw an old man at the top of the palm tree and called out to Him, saying
"Muthappan" (muthappan means 'grandfather' in the local Malayalam language). She earnestly
prayed to the God to save her husband. Before long, Chandan regained consciousness. She
offered boiled gram (chickpea), slices of coconut, burnt fish and toddy to the Muthappan.
(Even today, in Sree Muthappan temples, the devotees are offered boiled grams and slices of
coconut.) She sought a blessing from Him. Muthappan chose Kunnathoor as His residence at
the request of Chandan. This is the famous Kunnathoor Padi.
After spending some years at Kunnathoor, Sree Muthappan decided to look for a more
favorable residence so that He could achieve His objective of His Avataram. He shot an arrow
upward from Kunnathoor. The shaft reached Parassini where the Parassini Temple stands
today. The arrow, when it was found, was glowing in the Theertha (sacred water) near the
temple. The arrow was placed on the altar. Since then, Lord Sree Muthappan has been believed
to reside at Parassinikkadavu
When Thiruvappan-Muthappan traveled through the jungle, he reached Puralimala
near Peravoor. Here he met another muthappan; Thiruvappan called him cherukkan, meaning
'young boy', in Malayalam, and accompanied him. This second Muthappan is
called Vellattam (or Vellatom). Thus, there is Thiruvappan - Valiya Muttapan (Vishnu) called Muthappan; and a second Muthappan, called Vellattam or Cheriya Muthappan (Shiva).[
The Theyyam for this utilises a round-shaped throne made of hay.[
Sree Muthappan is always accompanied by a dog. Dogs are considered sacred here and one
can see dogs in large numbers in and around the temple.
There are two carved bronze dogs at the entrance of the temple that are believed to symbolize
the bodyguards of the God. When the Prasad is ready, it is first served to a dog that is always
ready inside the temple complex.
Local legends enhance the importance of dogs to Sree Muthappan, such as the story that
follows:
A few years ago, temple authorities decided to reduce the number of dogs inside the temple;
so they took some dogs and puppies away. From that very day, the performer of the Sree
Muthappan Theyyam was unable to perform; it is said that the spirit of Sree Muthappan enters
the performer's body for the duration of the ceremony. But he probably refused to enter the
Theyyam performer's body because the dogs had been removed. Realizing their mistake, the
dogs were brought back to the temple by the temple authorities. From that day onwards,
Theyyam performances returned to normal.
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Tradition requires that the annual Ulsavam festival of the Muthappan Temple
at Parassinikkadavu start by a procession led by a male member of the Thayyil clan
of Thayyil from Thiyya community, Kannur from the family home to the main altar of the
temple, where he offers a 'Pooja' (prayer) to the God.[10]
A family at the Velapattanam River/ Sree Muthappan Kalasam dance
Several Muthappan temples are seen in Kannur and Kasaragod districts in Kerala and Coorg
district in Karnataka and several temples are built by the migrated devotees
in Coimbatore Bangalore, Mumbai, Ahemadabad, Delhi, Chennai, and also in Gulf countries[.
This signifies the popularity of the god in the minds of the people of North Malabar of Kerala
and Coorg. Each Madappura has its own tradition.
One interesting story relating to God Muthappan is about the Nileshwar Muthappan
Madappura. The Sree Muthappan temple near National Highway No 17 in Nileshwar has a rich
heritage. It conveys the philosophical, devotional and educational importance of Nileshwar.
There is an interesting story regarding the construction of this Sree Muthappan Temple. An
elder member of the Koroth family regularly visited the place now known as the Muthappan
temple and drank madhu (toddy), the liquor fermented from coconut sap. He was a famous
scholar and got the title Ezhuthachan for his commendable achievement as a teacher. Before
drinking madhu, he poured a few drops of madhu on the nearby jackfruit tree as an offering for
the God Muthappan. He regularly repeated the practice. Several years after the death of the
scholar, the natives experienced serious problems and called upon an astrologer for assistance
in finding out the cause. The astrologer concluded that as a result of the regular practice of
giving madhu to God Muthappan, the God had started residing there. After the death of the
scholar, he no longer got madhu and, in a fit of pique, began creating disturbances. The natives
erected a Muthappan temple there. The Koroth family then got the right of Koymma [patron]
of the temple.
As a result of the formation of a committee and the work done by the members of the
committee, the temple has developed as a famous centre of pilgrimage and hundreds of people
visited it daily. There is a strong belief that the God will cure all diseases and will bestow
prosperity on His devotees. The devotees get Payakutti from the temple, and it continues to
develop as a great centre of pilgrimage like the Sree Muthappan temple at Parassinikadavu.
Shree Muthappan temple is dedicated to a highly revered deity of northern Kerala - Shree
Muthappan, characterized by Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva.A narrow lane lined by hotels and
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shops selling different kinds of toys amongst other things lead you to the main temple complex.
In the complex, one comes across the gopuram before entering the main temple.
The lane leading to the temple
The temple is one of the most significant ones for the Kannur-ites and attracts many a visitors
like me for more reasons than one; one of the chief features being the existence of dogs. You
find them everywhere - Outside the temple, inside the temple and even near the sanctum - real
as well as artificial!
A glimpse of the main temple, through the door
The temple regards dogs as sacred creatures and this fact is very well highlighted at the entrance
itself. The main temple is neatly defended by two fierce looking statue of dogs installed to keep
a watch at the pilgrims and the visitors. Besides these, one also comes across a large number
of bronze dogs guarding the sanctum. If one were to believe ancient stories, Muthappan used
to have a dog accompany in his journey and that is how dogs have come to enjoy a special
place in the temple today.
The second feature of the temple and probably the most significant one is the aura of a ‘Live’
God. Here, you not only pray but also interact with the deity through a special folk dance that
is held everyday during the morning and evening time. Theyyam as it is called; this folk art
entails an ornately dressed resident priest to perform a special dance representing the Lord
himself. The devotees watching it from the sidelines get a chance to interact with the Lord at
the end of the show.At the other end of the temple, flows the serene and calm Velapattanam
River. It is said that one should purify oneself in its sacred waters before entering the temple.
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The last distinctive feature of the temple is the offering made to the deity. Fish and toddy are
the favorite meals of the Lord but we rather chose to substitute these by our humble prayers.
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Valapattanam River
Pooja and Offerings=Non-Brahmins perform the pooja rituals. Dogs enter the temple and
roam around freely. They are Muthappan’s companions. Offerings to the deity include toddy
and dried fish.
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Entrance to Madappura
People from all sections of the society, irrespective of religion or caste, visit the temple. It
promotes the essence of Vasudaiva Kutumbakam: the whole world is one family. There are no
dress restrictions. But devotees wash their feet in the river before entering the temple. They
keep their footwear outside the temple.
In August 2019, Valappattanam River overflowed due to heavy rains. Flood waters entered the
temple compound and even surrounded the sanctum sanctorum. The temple was open but the
pooja rituals had to be suspended temporarily.
Prasadan
Visitors get a prasadam of boiled Vanpayar (red cow peas), coconut slices and tea. Devotees
can eat free lunch and dinner in the Oottupura (dining hall). Visitors get prasadam from 7:30
AM to 8:00 PM.
A Collage
Theyyam
Theyyam is the the ritualistic enactment of Sree Muthappan (as Thiruvappana and Vellattam).
It is performed daily in the early morning and in the evening. Men wearing colourful masks
and costumes perform this temple art form. It represents the conflict between good and evil,
with good ultimately emerging victorious.
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Vanpayar, coconut slices and tea
Devotees can see Vellattam and Thiruvappana daily, from 5:45 to 8:00 am. Vellattam is also
conducted in the evenings at around 6:30 pm. According to ancient belief, Thiruvappana is
Vishnu and Vellattam is Shiva.
Parassini Madappura Sree Muthappan
After the theyyam acts, devotees line up in front of Muthappan and tell him of their grievances.
He in turn passes some kind remarks which offer solace to the devotees.
A
It is an unwritten rule here that whatever is collected by way of gifts or offerings should be
spent for the benefit of pilgrims. The daily offerings made to Muthappan are also different from
that of other temples. It is customary to offer toddy and dried fish as nivedyam to the deity.
People of all castes and communities, including Muslims and Christians, make liberal
contributions as vazhipadu to Muthappam. The annual festival falls on the first of December.
It is a special occasion for pilgrims to visit Parassinikkadavu temple.
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Muthappan
The path leading to the temple has shops on both sides selling pooja material
Nepal
Akash Bhairav (Nepali: आकाि भैरव) or Aaju (Newar: आजु) is one of the different forms
of Bhairava.
The temple of Akash Bhairav is supposed to have been a palace of the first king of Nepal,
Kiranti King Yalambar around 3100–3500 years back. The surrounding of Akash Bhairav is
known as Yen to symbolize Ne of Nepal. Ne means Midland in Kiranti language. The head of
the Aakash Bhairav was dug up several hundred years ago in Kathmandu. It is taken out once
a year on the occasion of Yenya Festival and blessed by the Kumari, the living goddess who
lives in the nearby Kumarichok. This ceremony is held in the month of August/September.
During the ceremony, large number of worshippers come to visit this temple. They offer Peda
(sweets made from milk), flowers, money and several others things. We could have witnessed
the late dynasty exchanging the swords with that of Akash Bhairav, most recently by the
previous king Gyanendra of Nepal and late King Birendra of Nepal before him. In reality, they
had made the offering and shown deep respect towards the historic icon.
He is also known as King Yalambar in Nepal, as Barbarika in Mahabharata and Āaju meaning
First King in Nepal Bhasa.
History of the Diety
The Akash Bhairab is said to be the Kirati king Yalambar himself. Legend has it that, Yalambar
was the first king to establish this nation and even extended towards Tista in east and Trishuli
in the west. He is believed to have gained the powers through tantric worshipping. During the
famous battle of the Mahabharat, the first king of Kirat dynasty, Yalambar in disguise of
Bhairab, went to the battlefield to help the losing party. When Lord Krishna heard of it, he tried
to test the ability of Bhairab, turned out that if Bhairab was to be allowed to join the losing
side, the war would continue till both parties were to be annihilated, for whichever side Bhairab
will have overwhelming advantage that the arrow, Bhairab (Yalamber is kirat king, and kirats
are known to be great hunters whose primary weapon is bow and arrow) possessed could even
penetrate the body of Krishna who is considered divinity. So Krishna asked Bhairab if Bhairab
could give something as gift, for Bhairav is/was the greatest of all warrior in the gathering of
Mahabharata, as Bhairav agreed, Krishna asked or the head of Bhairab and he promptly
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chopped Yalambar's head, which reached Kathmandu through the sky, hence the name given
to the sky god or the Akash Bhairab.
ICONOGRAPHY
Aakash Bhairav has often been depicted in Buddhist iconography by a large blue head with a
fierce face, huge silver eyes and a crown of skulls and serpents. The deity head resides on a
silver throne that is carried by lions, accompanied by Bhimsen (Bhima) and Bhadrakali on
either side. The idol face is understood to represent the mask that King Yalamber wore on his
way to the Kurukshetra. The Indrachok idol is somewhat milder in demeanor than many of the
Buddhist idols.
Lord Aakash Bhairav, the 'god of the sky', is also regarded by Nepalese as a progenitor of
the Maharjan caste, especially the peasant groups. Pictured on Aakash Bhairav's head is an
image that the Buddhists identify as Buddha, and the Hindus identify as Brahma, thus making
the idol of Yalamber/Barbarika/Aakash Bhairav worshipped by all
The traditional Akash Bhairav Puja is accompanied by Upasana and Anusthan. Sacred water,
sandalwood, flowers, fruits, incense, and naibedya are some of the offerings for this ceremony.
Legend has it that worship of the Bhairav is usually a mark of safety and strength. In the Nepali
imagination, the Akash Bhairav symbolizes protection and goodwill for the nation and its
people.
Religion, nation, people, belief, faith and traditional thanksgiving are all interwoven in this
manifestation of Bhairav worship. The Akash Bhairav is also believed to be the Jeevan-Tatwa.
Culturalism is seen in Bhairav worship and the temple itself. It stands as a grand testament to
a cultural personification of Upasamhar. For eight days during the Indra Jatra, celebrations in
the temple consist of adorning the temple and the deity. This is followed by the Tantrik Puja,
the Sagun Puja, and the Kal Puja. The worshipper and the deity are held together in a uniquely
'reciprocal' dynamic.
In September 2007 Nepal's state-run airline confirmed that it had sacrificed two goats to
appease Akash Bhairab, whose symbol is seen on the company's planes, following technical
problems with one of its aircraft.
Aakash bhairav during Indra Jatra/Preparing Akash Bhairav for Indra Jatra/Bhairav Picture
inside Aakash Bhairav Temple/Akash Bhairav Temple
Bhairava's Dance"
Bhairab Pyankhan. "Bhairava's Dance" is an ancient masked dance performed by Newar
community in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal as part of the Indra Jatra festival and named
after Bhairab Bhairava, an aspect of Shiva.
It was originated in Bhaktapur and brought to Pokhara while migrating. Although it was
performed every 12 years in Bhaktapur, it is performed every 6 years in pokhara valley to better
fulfill its cultural role.
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It was brought more than 236 years ago by Jitaram from Bhaktapur according to the guru Late
Mr. Sarbagyaman Pradhananga . The rag (song)in this dance indicates that it was started at the
time of last Malla King of Bhaktapur, Ranajit Malla.
There are 12 deities in this dance, namely Dagini (Dakini), Kwancha, Bhuccha, Bhairab, Kali
Bhairab (Budi Bhairab), Indrayani, Barah (Varah), Kumari, Bishnuvi (Vaishnavi), Bramhayani
(Brahmani), Maheswori (Gauri) and Ganesh (Ganesha). Bhairab leads and conducts the dance.
Before the dance all performers bathe and wear ceremonial clothes and mask (Khawpa). After
wearing the mask no performer can speak until it is taken out.
The dance is started at the Bhairab Temple in the evening and after a couple of rounds
and puja it is taken to the hosting place where it is performed for around six hours including
puja.
At first all 12 gods dance. After the puja is complete then individual dance starts. First is
Bhairab with Kwancha and Bhuccha which is like a child and adult play. It is called a Jyoti
Naach. After that Bhairab, Kali, Indrayani and Barah come. It lasts almost one hour and called
a Char Bhairab. It is an energetic dance and most people love to watch this part of the dance.
Then come Kumari, Bishnuvi, Bramhayani and Ganga. Then Ganesh dances solo. Then come
Kwancha and Bhuchha, again with their like childlike playing. At the end comes Dagini. In the
closing act all 12 Bhairabs participate. Then the ending puja is performed and they return to
the Bhairab Temple.
Comparable dances include the Mahakali Naach of Bhaktapur; the Devi Naach of Kilaghal
Tole; the Lakhe Naach of Majipat Tole and the Layaku Bhaila (Royal Bhairab) of Madhyapur
Thimi.
Bhairab/Kali (Budi) Bhairab/Indrayani/Barah
Kumari/Bishnuvi/Bramhayani/Kawancha
Bhuccha/Dagini
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Chapter 8
"Tantric Age" in Angkor and India
A. Twelve-Armed Chakrasamvara and His Consort Vajravarahi, ca. 12th century,
India (Bengal) or Bangladesh
B. A stone Kālacakra Mandala at the Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra, a Buddhist temple
in Patan, Nepal built in the 12th century.
From the 8th to the 14th century, Tantric traditions rose to prominence and flourished
throughout India and beyond. By the 10th century, the main elements of tantric practice had
reached maturity and were being practiced in Saiva and Buddhist contexts. This period has
been referred to as the "Tantric Age" by some scholars due to prevalence of Tantra. Also by
the 10th century, numerous tantric texts (variously called Agamas, Samhitas and Tantras) had
been written, particularly in Kashmir, Nepal and Bengal.
By this time, Tantric texts had also been translated into regional languages such as Tamil, and
Tantric practices had spread across South Asia. Tantra also spread into Tibet, Indonesia and
China. Gavin Flood describes this "Tantric age" as follows:
Tantrism has been so pervasive that all of Hinduism after the eleventh century, perhaps with
the exception of the vedic Shruta tradition eeverything is influenced by it. Śrauta is a Sanskrit
word that means "belonging to śruti", that is, anything based on the Vedas of Hinduism. It is
an adjective and prefix for texts, ceremonies or person associated with śruti. The term, for
example, refers to Brahmins who specialise in the śruti corpus of texts, and Śrauta Brahmin
traditions in modern times can be seen in Kerala and Coastal AndhraAll forms
of Saiva, Vaisnava and Smarta religion, even those forms which wanted to distance themselves
from Tantrism, absorbed elements derived from the Tantras.
Though the whole northern and Himalayan part of India was involved in the development of
tantra, Kashmir was a particularly important center, both Saiva and Buddhist and numerous
key tantric texts were written there according to Padoux. According to Alexis Sanderson, the
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Śaiva Tantra traditions of medieval Kashmir were mainly divided between the dualistic Śaiva
Siddhanta and the non-dualist theology found in Śakta lineages like the Trika, Krama
and Kaula. The non-dualists generally accepted and made use of sexual and transgressive
practices, while the dualists mostly rejected them.
In Khmer
Saiva tantra was especially successful because it managed to forge strong ties with South Asian
kings who valued the power (shakti) of fierce deities like the warrior goddess Durga as a way
to increase their own royal power. These kings took part in royal rituals led by Saiva "royal
gurus" in which they were symbolically married to tantric deities and thus became the earthly
representative of male gods like Shiva. Saiva tantra could also employ a variety of protection
and destruction rituals which could be used for the benefit of the kingdom and the king. Tantric
Shaivism was adopted by the kings of Kashmir, as well as by the Somavamshis of Odisha,
the Kalachuris, and the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti (in Bundelkhand). There is also evidence of
state support from the Cambodian Khmer Empire. As noted by Samuel, in spite of the increased
depiction of female goddesses, these tantric traditions all seemed to have been mostly "maledirected and male-controlled."
During the "Tantric Age", Buddhist Tantra was embraced by the Mahayana Buddhist
mainstream and was studied at the great universities such as Nalanda and Vikramashila, from
which it spread to Tibet and to the East Asian states of China, Korea, and Japan. This new
Tantric Buddhism was supported by the Pala Dynasty (8th–12th century) which supported
these centers of learning. The later Khmer kings and the Indonesian Srivijaya kingdom also
supported tantric Buddhism. While the sexual and transgressive practices were mostly
undertaken in symbolic form (or through visualization) in later Tibetan Buddhist monastic
contexts, it seems that in the eighth to tenth century Indian context, they were actually
performed.
Shiva as Tribhuvaneshwar-The Concept of the Sacred Phallus and the Lord of the 3 realms
swarga (heaven), prithvi (earth) and patala (netherworld)
The idea of being the Lord of Patala- the realm of that w hich is below the feet, denotes
the subterranean realms of the universe – which are located under the earthly dimension
pointing towards the underworld or netherworld and opposite of Swarga or Heaven
In Hindu cosmology, the universe is divided into the three worlds: Svarga, Prithvi or Martya
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(earth/mortal plane) and Patala (gross dimensions, the underworld). Patala is composed of
seven realms/dimensions or lokas, the seventh and lowest of them is also called Patala
or Naga-loka, the region of the Nagas. The Danavas (demon sons of Danu), Daityas (demon
sons of Diti), Yakshas and the snake-people Nagas (Serpent-human formed sons of Kadru),
live in the realms of Patala.
In Vajrayana Buddhism, caves inhabited by asuras are entrances to Patala; these asuras,
particularly
female
asuras,
are
often
"tamed"
(converted
to Buddhism)
as dharmapala or dakinis by famous Buddhist figures such as Padmasambhava
Chok Gargyar/Koh Ker: Angkor city dedicated to Lord Shiva as
Tribhuvaneshwara
Lord Shiva as Tribhuvaneshwara: Devotion to Lord Shiva and veneration of the
sacred phallus, the lingam, was the base of establishment of the Civilization of
Khmer–right from its foundation in 802 CE. Phallus worship started when
Jayavarman II, founder of Khmer Kingdoms or the first mighty Lord of the
Khmer tribes consecrated himself king on top of Mahendraparvata, announci ng
his lordship over the country and sovereignty of Cambodia - by a
Rajyabhishekh- or Coronation.
This CORONATION or CONSECRATION was not what normally is coronation in
other civilizations that are non –hindu. In Hinduism it is “taking over the reigns”
and celebratory practices that follow this. To conduct this ceremonyBrahmins or
Hindu priests are invited and Jayavarman II had as per inscriptions called
forward a Priest named Hiranyadama. In this ceremony this Hiranyadama ,
sanctified a royal lingam symbolising the temporal authority of Jayavarman II
as Chakravartin (universal monarch). After his death, Jayavarman II was given
the posthumous title Paramesvara (Supreme Lord), one of the many
manifestations of Lord Shiva.
Over
the
next
century,
every
new
ruler
on
the
occasion
of
his rajyabhiseka would consecrate the royal lingam, thus establishing his divine
authority, and taking on the responsibilities of kingship as the Devaraja (God King). The royal lingam was ceremonially installed in a mountain -temple, which
formed the nucleus of an urban settlement. During the period of Harshavarman
I (r. 910–923) and his successor Ishanavaraman II (r. 923 –928), Angkor was ruled
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from the twin cities Yashodharapura and Hariharalaya. However, mere
installation of a lingam with magical powers neither ensured peace and stability
nor longevity of the ruler. Rulers had to be eternally vigilant and be ready to
thwart rivals and quell rebellions.
In 921 CE, an inscription describes the establishment of a rival power at a remo te
location, 127 km northeast of Yashodharapura. This challenger, Jayavarman IV,
was a maternal uncle to Ishanavarman II. Jayavarman IV named his seat of power
Chok Gargyar and on December 12, 921 CE, conducted a grand consecration
ceremony of the royal lingam as Tribhuvaneshwara.
This specially chosen manifestation of Lord Shiva as the Supreme Lord of Three
Realms, i.e. swarga (heaven), prithvi (earth) and patala (netherworld), was an
appropriate metaphor for the new king’s ambitions. This city of Chok G argyor
was located roughly midway on a highway connecting Yashodharapura to Preah
Vihear. From Preah Vihear, the road split in two directions: one went
towards Phimai in Thailand, and the other to Wat Phu in Laos; both crucial
outposts of the empire. This gave Jayavarman IV strategic edge, allowing him to
boss over Angkor. In 928 CE, Isanavarman II’s chaotic reign ended, and
Jayavarman IV’s moment of glory arrived. He crowned himself Chakravartin.
RELOCATION
Jayavarman IV set about commissioning grand construction projects to
encourage new settlers and establish his writ as absolute monarch. He shifted
the seat of power to Chok Gargyar, and set out planning a new city worthy of its
status as capital of the most powerful empire in Sou theast Asia. Jayavarman IV
was acutely aware of Chok Gargyar’s Achilles’ heel, its disadvantageous location
in a hot, dry region with few natural water resources. To address this problem,
the largest project undertaken at Chok Gargyar was the construction of a
vast baray ( water harvesting tank), called the Rahal. Measuring 1185 m x 548 m,
the Rahal met the daily water requirements of a large population and helped in
irrigation of agricultural fields. According to UNESCO:
Koh Ker: Archeological site of Ancient Lingapura Or Chok Gargyar
“ Koh Ker or Chok Gargyar, as it is known in Old Khmer inscriptions, is a 10th-century temple
complex and former capital of the Khmer Empire, situated in northern Cambodia. The name
of the site, Chok Gargyar, is in itself unique, as it is the only site we know of to be named in
the Old Khmer language (Khmer ancient capital are usually named in Sanskrit) and referring
to a natural feature, namely the tree now known as Koki or iron wood tree (Hopea odorata)
which can reach up to 45 m and is valued for its dense wood quality that is water and termiteresistant. The densely forested site containing a total of 169 archaeological remains, including
76 temples, as well as civil structures, ponds, dykes, and ancient roads, is located centrally
between three other Cambodian World Heritage Sites - Preah Vihear, Angkor, and Sambor
Prei Kuk. It stands at a distance of 102 km to the north-east of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, 126
km to the south of Preah Vihear Temple Site, and north-west to Sambor Prei Kuk Site at a
distance of 171 km. Situated between the slopes of the Dangrek and Kulen mountains, Koh
Ker has a landscape characterized by rolling hills of variable heights ranging from 70 m to
110 m, forming a gentle slope from South to North, and coinciding with the watershed of the
Steung Sen River.
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Koh Ker was the capital of the Khmer Empire for a brief period, between 928-941 C.E. under
its founder King Jayavarman IV. As yet, the only authentic, contemporary information about
the political ideology of Angkor comes from the Koh Ker inscription which establishes a clear
shift of Khmer political ideology from ‘rāja’ or king, to ‘rājya’ or the kingdom and its people.
In support of this new ideology, no war was waged by Jayavarman IV; his reign was the most
peaceful phase of the Khmer Empire, which enabled a cultural resurgence. This time of peace
allowed Jayavarman IV to carry out projects of regional, social, economic and architectural
development, town planning and rural infrastructure, of which the ensemble of monuments
at Koh Ker bear testimony. The art and architecture of Koh Ker was also developed to reflect
and affirm the dominance and uniqueness of Jayavarman IV’s political identity, particularly
with the use of a monumentality of scale in architecture, and dynamism in sculpture, both of
which is unmatched in other Khmer legacies.
Justification of Outstanding Universal Value
Koh Ker represents a unique vision in the arts, architecture and introduces new technologies,
which changed urban planning for the coming centuries. The most important monuments of
the capital are situated close to and in the immediate vicinity of the Prasat Thom complex,
where the seven-tiered pyramid, also known as Prasat Prang, the only one in Southeast Asia,
forms the apotheosis of an eccentric building style known only in Koh Ker. Prasat Thom
complex is also the central axis around which the capital is geometrically formed.
Another exceptional characteristic of Koh Ker is the development of water management
techniques. The water management system at Koh Ker was a hybrid one, combining elements
of a highland system of damming river valleys with elements of the classical lowland system
of huge reservoirs, canals and bunded fields. An earlier form of this system may be observed
at the World Heritage Site of Sambor Prei Kuk (6th-7th centuries C.E.), while a far more
elaborated system was later in use in Angkor. Koh Ker thus served as a huge laboratory for
what was to come, situating itself perfectly between early drainage (Oc-Eo) and catchment
trials (Sambor Prei Kuk) and the far more sophisticated hydrological system can be observed
in the later Angkor period. Along with management of water, the structures of Koh Ker,
particularly the Lingas and the Rahal were planned using the natural terrain in such a way
that the flow of water through the site becomes an act of sacralising.
The Hindu character of the site is best revealed through its monumental art of which the
sculptures are the most prominent, executed in the ronde-bosse technique. Drawing on
earlier styles, its creators soon developed a distinct art, advancing sculpting techniques
while inventing the hybrid figure. The best examples are the Dancing Shiva with a presumed
height of 6 m at Prasat Kraham and the recently discovered ensembles at Prasat Chen
depicting scenes of the Mahabharata (the last fight in the battle of Kurukshetra between
Bhima and Duryodhana) and the Ramayana (the fight between Valin and Sugriva). Scenes
like these may well be found at other temple sites but is the first time and also last that they
have been brought alive through monumental sculpture formations, whether in and outside
the Khmer Empire. Its iconography is unique and is currently referred to as the Koh Ker style.
Koh Ker’s sphere of influence too was secured through a well developed network of cultural
routes that connected it not only to every corner of the Khmer Empire but beyond, to
subcontinental Asia. Cultural sharing enabled by Royal Roads ensured that the buildings,
artwork, inscriptions and landscape design of Koh Ker and surrounding temples constitute
the most significant and comprehensive early expression of a distinct Khmer culture that
drew upon and adapted Indian religious concepts and iconography and their accompanying
artistic and architectural styles. The site is thus an outstanding example of how influences
from Indian architecture and artworks were assimilated and refined in the distinctive Koh
Ker style. The Indian concepts were modified to meet the specific needs of this emergent
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empire and its social, religious and agrarian order, which ultimately evolved into a distinct
Khmer culture that constitutes a milestone in urban planning and the plastic arts in
Southeast Asia.
Criterion (ii): Koh Ker: Archaeological Site of Ancient Lingapura or Chok Gargyar is an
outstanding example of ideas and values expressed through the monumental arts in the early
10th century C.E. in Cambodia. As evidenced by the site, the political structure, religious
practices and material culture marked important advances that had a lasting impact in the
country and region. The buildings, artwork, inscriptions and landscape design of Koh Ker and
other surrounding temples constitute the most significant and complete early expression of
a distinct Khmer culture that drew upon and adapted Indian religious concepts and
iconography and their accompanying artistic and architectural styles. The site is an
outstanding example of how influences from India in terms of architecture and artwork were
assimilated and refined in the distinctive Koh Ker style. The Indian concepts were modified
to meet the specific needs of this emergent empire and its social, religious and agrarian
order, which ultimately evolved into a distinct Khmer culture that constitutes a milestone in
urban planning and the plastic arts in the Southeast Asia region.
Its outstanding architecture, a distinct and original adaptation of Indian influence, introduces
to the Southeast Asia region colossal-sized statues and construction in new aesthetic forms.
This shows a creative idea and concept that originated at Koh Ker, giving rise to the so-called
Koh Ker style. The scenes of Mahabharata and Ramayana were narrated in the form of
individual characters carved in stone rather than carvings in the form of bas-relief. The
extraordinary architecture of the religious shrines is apparent in the stepped-pyramid
temple of Prasat Thom and other temples dedicated to Shiva.
Criterion (iv): Koh Ker: Archaeological Site of Ancient Lingapura or Chok Gargyar embodies
the remains of a very well-organized urban complex, the capital of a unique past civilization.
The ancient capital city is an exceptional testimony of a cultural tradition with centralized
political power, bearing Hindu religious features. Its civilization was deeply influenced by the
Indian subcontinent in terms of social institutions, religion and art which were assimilated
into indigenous customs, ideology and artistic expressions. Koh Ker marks the time when a
distinctive Khmer culture/identity emerged from this cross‐cultural exchange. It is at Koh
Ker that we find the first evidence of the giant-size infrastructure symbolizing powerful
elements in Cambodian and Southeast Asian history. The infrastructure was the biggest not
only in Cambodia, but in Southeast Asia. Jayavarman IV introduced the first artificial giant
structure in his capital, where he established the stepped pyramid of Prasat Thom, as well
as its giant sculptures. The uniqueness of the architecture and sculpture in Koh Ker
represents the technological prowess exhibited in Khmer art.
PRASAT PRANG - City Crowned by the Tribhuvaneshwara Linga,
Jayavarman IV further executed his imperial vision through the temple -mountain
he commissioned, which surpassed all previous temple -mountains in scale and
size. Prasat Prang —as the pyramidal structure is now called — rose to a height
of 120 feet and was crowned by the Tribhuvaneshwara Linga, which, according to
French archaeologist Henri Parmentier, stood 14 -feet tall. This was the largest
lingam ever made in Angkor, and lifting it to the top of the pyramid was a
monumental feat of engineering and manpower, recorded in inscriptions with
great joy and relief on its successful installation.
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Before Koh Ker became capital of the Khmer empire (928 AD), numerous sanctuaries with
Shiva-lingas existed already. Koh Ker was a cult site where Shiva had been worshipped a
long time. Also Jayavarman IV was an ardent worshipper of this Hindu god. As later kings
(whose residence was not in Koh Ker) changed from Hinduism to Buddhism they gave orders
to make the necessary adjustments at their temples. Because of its remoteness, the
sanctuaries at Koh Ker were spared from these interventions. Several inscriptions were
found
which
mention
Koh
Ker
as
capital
of
the
empire
in Siem
Reap, Battambang, Takeo and Kampong Cham (city). From inscriptions discovered at Koh
Ker, it is estimated that more than ten thousand people lived at Koh Ker when it was the
capital (928 – 944 AD). The inscriptions explain how manpower was organised: taxes in form
of rice were raised in the whole country and served to provide for the workers who came
from different provinces. An inscription at Prasat Damrei says that the shrine on the top of
the state temple (Prang) houses a lingam of about 4.5 m (14 ft 9 in) and that the erection of
this Shiva-symbol gave a lot of problems". A Sanskrit inscription at Prasat Thom gives
evidence of the consecration of a Shiva-lingam 921 AD which was worshipped under the
name of Tribhuvaneshvara ("Lord of the Threefold World").
The center of the ancient city was in the north-east corner of the baray (water-tank).
Inscriptions say at least ten thousand inhabitants lived there during the rule of Jayavarman
IV. Past researchers believed a square wall with a side length of 1.2 km (1,312 yd) protected
the town. But new research indicates that the linear structures found in this part of Koh Ker
were dykes of ancient canals. Concerning the wooden buildings of the Khmer time no
artefacts are found.
MATERIALS: Laterite, sandstone and brick were used as construction materials in Koh Ker.
Laterite and sandstone of excellent quality were quarried in great quantities in the region of
Koh Ker, so the transport of the stones to the site was no problem. The bricks produced were
small, regular and very solid. A thin layer of organic mortar of unknown formula was used,
possibly some form of plant sap. After more than a millennium the brick sanctuaries in Koh
Ker are in a much better condition than the laterite ones. The roofs of some temples in Koh
Ker had a wood construction and were covered with tiles. In these monuments, holes for the
wooden girders are found. The main sanctuary (the temple-complex Prasat Thom/Prang)
was not standing in the middle of the ancient city.
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Statue of Brahma, Koh Ker style, 925-950 ca., Musée Guimet, Paris RIGHT PIC . linga (Phallic
Emblem of Shiva) with Architectural Base,Period: Angkor period.Date: ca.
975,Culture: Cambodia,Medium: Stone.
In India and other countries influenced by Hindu theology, including Cambodia, adoration of
the linga is understood to be worship of the great generative principle of the universe,
conceptualized as an aspect of Shiva. Because some of the Khmer kings identified
themselves with Shiva, they placed a linga at the summit of their most important temples as
part of their royal paraphernalia.
Jayavarman IV’s intent to scale up things was also evident in statues produced
during this period. A dancing Shiva (Nataraja SEE BELOW PIC) installed in Prasat
Kraham was 4 meters tall! A giant statue of Garuda —two metres tall— was
recovered from the site, which now welcome visitors at the National Museum at
Phnom Penh. Monolithic lingams were carved in the bedrock, meaning they were
not installed by any person but existed naturally. These in situ lingams are
similar in concept to the 12 sacred Jyotirlingams of India, which are
also swayambhu (self-manifested). Ornamental pediments make their debut at
temple entrances and sculptures anticipate dynamism and fluidity, qualities
which reach their apogee in the later artwork of Banteay Srei.
Tantric Style?
126
The lively and famous carving on this pediment represents Shiva Nataraja, the Dancing Shiva,
his ten arms splayed out in a dance of death and destruction on Mount Kailash in front of several
others gods, including Ganesh, Brahma and Vishnu. Nataraja (literally, The Lord (or King) of
Dance, Sanskrit: नटराज) is a depiction of the Hindu god Shiva as the cosmic dancer who
performs his divine dance to destroy a weary universe and make preparations for god Brahma
to start the process of creation.
None of the immense, expressive and beautiful sculptures are left at the site. Numerous of
them were stolen and are standing now in museums and also in private collections. Some
statues were put away by government organizations to protect them from looters. Many
masterpieces of Koh Ker are now in the collection of the National Museum in Phnom Penh.
The center of the ancient city was in the north-east corner of the baray (water-tank).
Inscriptions say at least ten thousand inhabitants lived there during the rule of Jayavarman
IV. Past researchers believed a square wall with a side length of 1.2 km (1,312 yd) protected
the town. But new research indicates that the linear structures found in this part of Koh Ker
were dykes of ancient canals. Concerning the wooden buildings of the Khmer time no
artefacts are found.
Laterite, sandstone and brick were used as construction materials in Koh Ker. Laterite and
sandstone of excellent quality were quarried in great quantities in the region of Koh Ker, so
the transport of the stones to the site was no problem. The bricks produced were small,
regular and very solid. A thin layer of organic mortar of unknown formula was used, possibly
some form of plant sap. After more than a millennium the brick sanctuaries in Koh Ker are
in a much better condition than the laterite ones. The roofs of some temples in Koh Ker had
a wood construction and were covered with tiles. In these monuments, holes for the wooden
girders are found. The main sanctuary (the temple-complex Prasat Thom/Prang) was not
standing in the middle of the ancient city.
BARAYS- water Tanks
127
Rahal
The huge Baray (water-tank) called Rahal is the largest object at the site of the ancient
capital Koh Ker. Its length is about 1,200 m (1,312 yd) and its breath about 560 m (612 yd). The
water-tank has three dams covered by steps of laterite. The orientation of the Rahal is not
from east to west like the huge water-reservoirs in Angkor; it follows an orientation of North
15° West. Because the most important monuments at Koh Ker have the same orientation it is
thought that the Baray was constructed first and the rest of the structures were laid out
around it. The Rahal was carved out partly of the stone ground but it is not clear if a natural
hollow was the reason for its orientation. These days most parts of the Baray are dried out
and covered by grass. Some puddles can be seen in the corner next to the double-sanctuary.
Trapeang Andong Preng
200 m (219 yd) south of the double-sanctuary Prasat Thom/Prang is a basin dug into the earth
with a length of 40 m (44 yd). It has steps of laterite on all sides. During the rainy season the
water is standing to a depth of 7 m (23 ft 0 in). The Trapeang Andong Preng does not belong
to a temple, but it could have been a royal bath, because near this place was once the wooden
palace of the king.
Trapeang Khnar
Trapeang Khnar is a village that lies in the Nitean Commun
Complex of the double sanctuary Prasat Thom/Prang
Linear plan
The complex of the main monument in Koh Ker has a linear plan and is about 800 metres
(875 yd) long. Its orientation is E15°N, that is parallel to the Baray. The parking area cuts the
complex in two parts. On the east side of the parking are two structures, called palaces. On
the west side are the other monuments. They are standing behind the restaurants and are
from east to west: an immense entrance pavilion, two towers, a red brick entrance-tower
(Prasat Krahom), a surrounding wall with two courts (in the eastern court is the templecomplex Prasat Thom with a moat, in the western court stands the seven tiered pyramid,
named Prang). Behind the enclosure is an artificial hill, the so-called Tomb of the White
Elephant. Except the Prasat Krahom and the Prang (pyramid). This temple-complex is in a
bad condition.
128
Palaces
At the east side of the parking area are two structures the so-called palaces. Each consists
of four rectangular buildings surrounding a court. All eight buildings have three rooms, some
have a patio with pillars. Possibly these palaces served as meditation- or prayer-rooms for
the king or nobles.
Entrance pavilion and laterite towers
Between the palaces and the closest monument is a distance of 185 metres (607 ft). On the
left side of the parking area (behind the restaurants) is the entrance pavilion made of
sandstone. It stands 45 metres (148 ft) away from the double sanctuary and has a cruciform
ground-plan. The crossbar is 60 metres (197 ft) long; the stringer has a length of 30 metres
(98 ft). Parallel to the cross-bar are two halls. Directly behind the entrance-pavilion are the
ruins of two huge laterite towers.
Prasat Krahom once housed a statue of the Dancing Shiva with five heads and ten arms.
The sculpture had a height of 3.50 metres (11 ft 6 in), but is now broken completely. A
fragment of a hand of 0.5 metres (20 in) can be seen in the National Museum in Phnom Penh.
Prasat Khrom lies behind the ruins of the entrance-pavilion and the laterite towersand is a
129
red brick tower, (krahom = red), which gives entrance to the enclosed monuments. It has a
cruciform plan, is in a good condition.
Outer enclosure
The outer enclosure has a length of 328 metres (1,076 ft) and a breadth of 151 metres (495 ft)
An additional wall divides the inner area in two. In the eastern court are a moat and the
temple-complex Prasat Thom; in the western court is the pyramid, called Prang. The eastern
court with a length of 153 metres (502 ft) is nearly square, the western court has a length of
171 metres (561 ft).
Moat
The moat in the eastern court is about 47 metres (154 ft) wide. It borders the Prasat Thom.
Lined by trees it looks very picturesque. Two dams, one at the east side, the other at the west
side are leading to the ground within the moat. The dams are flanked by Naga-balustrades.
On the eastern dam between the Nagas was additionally a colonnade with pillars. Behind
each Naga of the east side was standing a huge Garuda.
Prasat Thom
Probably some parts of the Prasat Thom including the moat and the 1. (inner) enclosure were
built before 921 AD. The sanctuary was expanded under the reign of Jayavarman IV and has
now two surrounding walls inside of the moat. The first wall (inner wall) is made of brick; the
second wall (outer wall) with a length of 66 m (217 ft) and a breath of 55 m (180 ft) is made of
laterite. Two doors are in the east and in the west. The doors of the second wall have a
cruciform plan. The doors of the first wall are smaller and not of cruciform layout. The plane
between the first and second wall is completely overbuilt with rectangular structures,
possibly later additions. In the center court is the sanctuary and opposite it are two so-called
libraries. Behind the sanctuary on a rectangular platform stand nine towers in two rows (one
of five, one four towers). Twelve smaller prasats in groups of three surround the platform.
All 21 towers once housed lingas.[1]: 27–29
Prang
The seven-tiered pyramid called Prang was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV.
Construction of the sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square
building measures 62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform
stood a huge lingam probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons.
Inscriptions say that it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am
probably stood in a shrine which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft)
high. On the north side of the pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. The original
stairs are in a very bad condition as is the bamboo-ladder which was constructed in the 20th
century, so it is forbidden to climb to the top of the pyramid via this route. There is however
a new staircase which can be used to ascend to the top tit of the pyramid. Concerning the
seventh tier some scientists say, this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides
beautiful reliefs of Garudas were made. There is just one Khmer temple which resembles
the temple Baksei Chamkrong in Angkor. But the four-tiered monument there is much
smaller and has a staircase on each of the four sides. On the platform on the top of the Baksei
Chamkrong is a prasat in a good condition.
Tomb of the White Elephant
Behind the court with the seven-tiered pyramid is an artificial hill of exact circle form covered
with trees. It is named Tomb of the White elephant. "The white Elephant" is a very well-known
legend in southeast Asia. There are different theories about the hill. Some say that this
structure could be the foundation of a second pyramid. Others say that it could be the grave
130
of Jayavarman IV. The steep path leading to the top of the hill is closed now because of
security reasons.[1]: 7–8
Sanctuaries along the access road
Prasat Pram
Prasat Pram
The most south sanctuary of this group is the Prasat Pram on the west side of the road. A
small (300 metres (328 yd)) long path leads to the monument. It has five towers or prasats
(pram = five). Three brick towers stand in a row on the same platform. They face east. The
central one is a bit taller than the others. In each of these prasats, once stood a lingam. These
and the beautifully carved lintels were looted. Two prasats (faced west) are standing in front
of the platform. One is built of brick and has diamond-shaped holes in the upper part. This
fact indicates that this tower once served as a fire sanctuary (fire cults were very important
during the era of the Khmer kings). The other building is small, made of laterite and (in
comparison with the brick towers) in bad condition. The bricks of small regular size are held
together with an organic mortar of unknown composition (plant sap?). Originally the towers
were covered by white stucco; remains of it can still be seen. Two of the towers are pictorially
covered by roots. The five towers are surrounded by an enclosure. The collapsed entrance
door (gopuram) is at the east side. Two artefacts of the Prasat Pram can be seen in the
National Museum in Phnom Penh: A damaged lion statue and fragments of a standing fourarmed Vishnu.
Prasat Neang Khmau
Prasat Neang Khmau showing fire-scarred walls
Located 12.5 km (7.8 mi) to the south of the main Koh Ker pyramid and built of sandstone and
brick.[9] An early 10th century temple dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva. The temple's fire
damaged (black) outer surface probably gave it its name (Neang Khmau means the "Black
Lady" in Khmer).
The name of the temple is also said mean "Black Virgin" and legend says it might once have
been heaven to Kali, the Dark Goddess of Destruction.
131
Another legend about the temple says that many years ago a powerful king Preah Bat Sorya
Teyong lived at the Chiso mountain. One day his daughter Neang Khmao, went to Tonle
Protron and met a handsome man, Bandit Srey, who instantly fell in love with her and who
used magic to make her fall in love with him. When the king heard about this he ordered his
daughter be exiled and he built two temples for her to live in. Whilst in exile she fell in love
with a monk who subsequently fell in love with her and gave up being a monk to live with the
princess in the temple since which it has been known as Neang Khmao Temple
Prasat Bak
More north than the Prasat Neang Khmau and on the west side of the road is the Prasat Bak,
a small square sanctuary built of laterite; one side measures only 5 m (16 ft). The temple
which is in a very bad condition today housed till 1960 a colossal statue of Ganesha (Ganesha
is a Hindu god, son of Shiva and Uma. He is depicted with a human body and an elephant's
head). It is known, that the sculpture with the sitting Ganesha now is in a collection outside
of Cambodia.[
Prasat Chen
This sanctuary is the most north of this group and lies too on the west side of the street. It
has two enclosures. The main entrance door (now collapsed) was itself a sanctuary with a
square central room (one side measured 4 m (13 ft)). Three laterite towers (partially
collapsed) stand on the same platform. In front of them are the remains of two brick libraries.
The statue of the two fighting monkey kings Sugriva and Valin (figures of the Hindu epic
Ramayana) was found at this site and is now in the National Museum in Phnom Penh. A
fragment of a multi-armed statue of Vishnu was found in front of the tower in the middle. In
this temple are five inscriptions. They mention the names of all the numerous peoples
connected to the temple site and their function.
Monuments along the ring-road
Ruins of Prasat Krachap
Prasat Balang (Prasat Leung Moi)
The Prasat Balang is the first of three Linga-Shrines standing along the ring-road. It is a
square laterite building standing on a platform and has one doorway and an open roof. In the
sanctuary is an impressive lingam standing on yoni. The phallus-symbol is about 2 m (7 ft)
high, has a diameter of nearly 1 m (39 in) and a weight of several tons. Together with the yoni
it was carved out of the bedrock at this place. The lingam is in a good condition. The yoni is
about 1 m (39 in) high and looks like an altar. On all four sides once were carved reliefs. In
each of the four corners stood a beautiful chiselled Garudu with raised arms giving the
impression these mythical figures would bear the yoni. Unfortunately the reliefs and the
Garudas were looted. Around the Yoni there is just a small space giving room for some
priests to perform the prescribed rituals. The water they put on the lingam became holy by
touching the symbol of Shiva, run down and was collected in a ditch of the yoni. Then via a
132
spout (with is still intact) it flowed to the outside of the shrine where believers could touch
the blessed water.
Sansakrit-writing (ancient) right -forgotten giant
Prasat Thneng (Prasat Leung Pee)
The Prasat Thneng is very similar to the Prasat Balang. Unfortunately looters tried to hack
away the impressive lingam but were not successful. A notch of about a depth of half a meter
(20 in) is left but the Shicva-symbol is still standing unshakeable at its place on the damaged
yoni.
Leung Bye
Prasat Leung Bon
Prasat Andong Kuk (Prasat Sralau)
A Buddhist temple built late 12th century/early 13th century in the reign of Jayavarman VII, it
was one of more than 100 of hospital-sanctuaries he built. The modern name Sralau refers
to a species of tree.
Prasat Krachap
Sometimes written Prasat Kra Chap, today the site has well preserved entrance gate and the
ruins of 5 towers arranged in a quincunx. From inscriptions around the doors it has been
established that the temple was dedicated in 928 to Tribhuvanadeva, a linga representation
of Shiva.[
133
Prasat Bantaey Pee Chean
Banteay Peechean
Prasat Chrap
A temple comprising 3 towers built of laterite. Today all towers are badly damaged; the
interiors with fire damage and the west facades destroyed suggesting damage was
deliberate or due to a common design flaw. There are no surviving inscriptions to date the
temple nor to identify which gods it was dedicated to.
Prasat Damrei
A small path leads from the ring-road to the Prasat Damrei (damrei = elephant). This
sanctuary has an enclosure and stands on a high platform. On each of its four sides is a
staircase with about ten steps. Eight stone lions once flanked the stairs but only one remains
in its original place. A beautiful elephant sculpture once stood at each of the four corners of
the platform but only two remain. The sanctuary is built of brick and is in good condition. A
Sanskrit inscription found at the temple offers evidence that an erstwhile lingam was once
erected on the top of the pyramid (Prang).
Jayavarman IV may have ruled for only 13 years, not enough time to fully realise
his ideas but he was given the posthumous title Paramasivapada (Devoted
servant at the feet of Shiva), further emphasising his loyalty to Lord Shiva.
During his period, many Shiva temples were built at Chok Gargyar, however,
nothing was added by his son and successor Harshavarman II. In 944 CE, when
Rajendravarman I became the new king, he restored the capital to
Yashodharapura, bringing an end to Chok Gargyor’s 16 -year period as capital of
Angkor.
Without patronage and facing debilitating factors, Chok Garg yor’s construction
boom went bust. As feared by Jayavarman IV, the Rahal dried up. The last
recorded building added during the period of Jayavarman VII, in beginning of the
thirteenth century, was one of his 102 hospital -chapels. By the fourteenth
century, when Buddhism established itself as the new official religion of Angkor,
the site was abandoned. Since no Buddhist structures were added, Chok Gargyor
remained a Hindu site, dedicated exclusively to Lord Shiva. In the nineteenth
century, French explorers rediscovered the site and the old name was revived in
a new avatar—Koh Ker.
Covered by thick forests and left unguarded, wanton destruction was unleashed
on Koh Ker. Cambodia in the nineteenth century was a shadow of its glorious
past and was relegated to a rump state dependant on protection by the French.
The French colonialists, taking full advantage of a weak and poor country,
134
plundered Angkor sites, digging up monuments hoping to find hidden treasure.
Precious artworks were smuggled out to fill museum s in France, like the Guimet
Museum in Paris that has in its collection a statue of Jayavarman IV paying
homage to Yama—the Hindu God of Death—taken from Koh Ker.
In the 1970s, Cambodia plunged into a civil war unleashed by the ultra -left Khmer
Rouge regime. After the war ended, Koh Ker was painstakingly de -mined and
more than 180 monuments identified. In comparison to temples at Angkor, little
restoration has happened at Koh Ker. Many ruined monuments are on the verge
of collapse; some are supported by wooden frames while others are tied up with
wire. Although the site has been pillaged of all standing artwork, it continues to
be targeted by gangs of thieves.
Koh Ker needs better protection and conservation. Since 1992, it has been on
the UNESCO tentative world heritage list, but has not been recognised yet. During
its short period as capital of Angkor, Koh Ker ushered in a golden age of Hindu
culture in Cambodia and laid the foundation of a renaissance which followed in
the immediate period. The site ful ly deserves the UNESCO World Heritage Site
status,
which
it
should
hopefully
get
in
the
near
future.
https://www.sahapedia.org/chok-gargyarkoh-ker-angkor-city-dedicated-lordshiva-tribhuvaneshwara
SOFT TRANTRISM
In the 10th and 11th centuries, both Shaiva and Buddhist tantra evolved into more
tame, philosophical, and liberation-oriented religions. This transformation saw a
move from external and transgressive rituals towards a more internalized yogic
practice focused on attaining spiritual insight. This recasting also made tantric
religions much less open to attack by other groups. In Shaivism, this development is
often associated with the Kashmiri master Abhinavagupta (c. 950 – 1016 CE) and his
followers, as well the movements which were influenced by their work, like the Sri
Vidya tradition (which spread as far as South India, and has been referred to as "high"
tantra).
In Buddhism, this taming of tantra is associated with the adoption of tantra by
Buddhist monastics who sought to incorporate it within the Buddhist Mahayana
scholastic framework. Buddhist tantras were written down and scholars
like Abhayakaragupta wrote commentaries on them. Another important figure, the
Bengali teacher Atisha, wrote a treatise which placed tantra as the culmination of a
graduated Mahayana path to awakening, the Bodhipathapradīpa. In his view, one
needed to first begin practicing non-tantric Mahayana, and then later one might be
ready for tantra. This system became the model for tantric practice among some
Tibetan Buddhist schools, like the Gelug. In Tibet, the transgressive and sexual
practices of tantra became much less central and tantric practice was seen as
suitable only for a small elite group. New tantras continued to be composed during
this later period as well, such as the Kalachakra (c. 11th century), which seems to be
concerned with converting Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike, and uniting them
together against Islam.
The Kalachakra teaches sexual yoga, but also warns not to introduce the practice of
ingesting impure substances to beginners, since this is only for advanced yogis. This
135
tantra also seems to want to minimize the impact of the transgressive practices,
since it advises tantrikas to outwardly follow the customs of their country.
HATHA YOGA
Another influential development during this period was the codification of tantric
yogic techniques that would later become the separate movement known as Hatha
Yoga. According to James Mallinson, the original "source text" for Hatha Yoga is the
Vajrayana Buddhist Amṛtasiddhi (11th century CE) attributed to the mahasiddha
Virupa. This text was later adopted by Saiva yogic traditions (such as the Naths) and
is quoted in their texts.
Another tradition of Hindu Tantra developed among the Vaishnavas, this was called
the Pāñcarātra Agama tradition. This tradition avoided the transgressive and sexual
elements that were embraced by the Saivas and the Buddhists. There is also a
smaller tantric tradition associated with Surya, the sun god. Jainism also seems to
have developed a substantial Tantra corpus based on the Saura tradition, with rituals
based on yakshas and yakshinis. However, this Jain tantrism was mainly used for
pragmatic purposes like protection, and was not used to attain liberation. Complete
manuscripts of these Jain tantras have not survived. The Jains also seem to have
adopted some of the subtle body practices of tantra, but not sexual yoga.
The Svetambara thinker Hemacandra (c. 1089–1172) discusses tantric practices
extensively, such as internal meditations on chakras, which betray Kaula and Nath
influences.
The earliest date for the Tantra texts related to Tantric practices is 600 CE, though most of
them were probably composed after the 8th century onwards. Very little is known about who
created the Tantras, nor much is known about the social status of these and medieval era
Tantrikas.
The pioneers of Tantra may have been ascetics who lived at the cremation grounds, possibly
from "above low-caste groups", and were probably non-Brahmanical and possibly part of an
ancient tradition. By the early medieval times, their practices may have included the imitation
of deities such as Kali and Bhairava, with offerings of non-vegetarian food, alcohol and
sexual substances. According to this theory, these practitioners would have invited their
deities to enter them, then reverted the role in order to control that deity and gain its
power.These ascetics would have been supported by low castes living at the cremation
places.
Samuel states that transgressive and antinomian tantric practices developed in both
Buddhist and Brahmanical (mainly Śaiva ascetics like the Kapalikas) contexts and that
"Śaivas and Buddhists borrowed extensively from each other, with varying degrees of
acknowledgement." According to Samuel, these deliberately transgressive practices
included, "night time orgies in charnel grounds, involving the eating of human flesh, the use
of ornaments, bowls and musical instruments made from human bones, sexual relations
while seated on corpses, and the like."[
Another key element of in the development of tantra was "the gradual transformation of local
and regional deity cults through which fierce male and, particularly, female deities came to
take a leading role in the place of the yaksa deities." Samuel states that this took place
between the fifth to eighth centuries CE. According to some, there are two main scholarly
opinions on these terrifying goddesses which became incorporated into Śaiva and Buddhist
Tantra. The first view is that they originate out of a pan-Indian religious substrate that was
136
not Vedic. Another opinion is to see these fierce goddesses as developing out of the Vedic
religion.
There is an argument that tantric practices originally developed in a Śaiva milieu and was
later adopted by Buddhists. He cites numerous elements that are found in the
Śaiva Vidyapitha literature, including whole passages and lists of pithas, that seem to have
been directly borrowed by Vajrayana texts. This has been criticized by Ronald M. Davidson
however, due to the uncertain date of the Vidyapitha texts. Davidson argues that the pithas
seem to have been neither uniquely Buddhist nor Śaiva, but frequented by both groups. He
also states that the Śaiva tradition was also involved in the appropriation of local deities and
that tantra may have been influenced by tribal Indian religions and their deities. Samuel
writes that "the female divinities may well best be understood in terms of a
distinct Śākta milieu from which both Śaivas and Buddhists were borrowing," but that other
elements, like the Kapalika style practices, are more clearly derived from a Śaiva tradition.
Samuel writes that the Saiva Tantra tradition appears to have originated as ritual sorcery
carried out by hereditary caste groups (kulas) and associated with sex, death and fierce
goddesses. The initiation rituals involved the consumption of the mixed sexual secretions
(the clan essence) of a male guru and his consort. These practices were adopted by Kapalika
styled ascetics and influenced the early Nath siddhas. Overtime, the more extreme external
elements were replaced by internalized yogas that make use of the subtle body. Sexual ritual
became a way to reach the liberating wisdom taught in the tradition.
The Buddhists developed their own corpus of Tantras, which also drew on various Mahayana
doctrines and practices, as well as on elements of the fierce goddess tradition and also on
elements from the Śaiva traditions (such as deities like Bhairava, which were seen as having
been subjugated and converted to Buddhism). Some Buddhist tantras (sometimes called
"lower" or "outer" tantras) which are earlier works, do not make use of transgression, sex
and fierce deities. These earlier Buddhist tantras mainly reflect a development of Mahayana
theory and practice (like deity visualization) and a focus on ritual and purity. Between the
eighth and tenth centuries, new tantras emerged which included fierce deities, kula style
sexual initiations, subtle body practices and sexual yoga. The later Buddhist tantras are
known as the "inner" or "unsurpassed yoga" (Anuttarayoga or "Yogini") tantras. According to
Samuel, it seems that these sexual practices were not initially practiced by Buddhist
monastics and instead developed outside of the monastic establishments among traveling
siddhas.
Tantric practices also included secret initiation ceremonies in which individuals would enter
the tantric family (kula) and receive the secret mantras of the tantric deities. These initiations
included the consumption of the sexual substances (semen and female sexual secretions)
produced through ritual sex between the guru and his consort. These substances were seen
as spiritually powerful and were also used as offerings for tantric deities. For both Śaivas
and Buddhists, tantric practices often took place at important sacred sites (pithas)
associated with fierce goddesses. Samuel writes that "we do not have a clear picture of how
this network of pilgrimage sites arose." Whatever the case, it seems that it was in these ritual
spaces visited by both Buddhists and Śaivas that the practice of Kaula and Anuttarayoga
Tantra developed during the eighth and ninth centuries. Besides the practices outlined above,
these sites also saw the practice of animal sacrifice as blood offerings to Śākta goddesses
like Kamakhya. This practice is mentioned in Śākta texts like the Kālikāpurāṇa and
the Yoginītantra. In some of these sites, such as Kamakhya Pitha, animal sacrifice is still
widely practiced by Śāktas.
Another key and innovative feature of medieval tantric systems was the development of
internal yogas based on elements of the subtle body (sūkṣma śarīra). This subtle anatomy
held that there were channels in the body (nadis) through which certain substances or
137
energies (such as vayu, prana, kundalini, and shakti) flowed. These yogas involved moving
these energies through the body to clear out certain knots or blockages (granthi) and to
direct the energies to the central channel (avadhuti, sushumna). These yogic practices are
also closely related to the practice of sexual yoga, since sexual intercourse was seen as
being involved in the stimulation of the flow of these energies. Samuel thinks that these
subtle body practices may have been influenced by Chinese Daoist practices.
One
of
the
earliest
mentions
of
sexual
yoga
practice
is
in
the
Buddhist Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra of Asanga (c. 5th century), which states "Supreme selfcontrol is achieved in the reversal of sexual intercourse in the blissful Buddha-poise and the
untrammelled vision of one's spouse." According to David Snellgrove, the text's mention of a
'reversal of sexual intercourse' might indicate the practice of withholding ejaculation.
Snellgrove states that it is possible that sexual yoga was already being practiced in Buddhist
circles at this time, and that Asanga saw it as a valid practice. Likewise, Samuel thinks that
there is a possibility that sexual yoga existed in the fourth or fifth centuries (though not in
the same transgressive tantric contexts where it was later practiced).
It is only in the seventh and eighth centuries however that we find substantial evidence for
these sexual yogas. Unlike previous Upanishadic sexual rituals however, which seem to have
been associated with Vedic sacrifice and mundane ends like childbirth, these sexual yogas
were associated with the movement of subtle body energies (like Kundalini and Chandali,
which were also seen as goddesses), and also with spiritual ends. These practices seemed
to have developed at around the same time in both Saiva and Buddhist circles, and are
associated
with
figures
such
as Tirumülar, Gorakhnath, Virupa, Naropa.
The
tantric mahasiddhas developed yogic systems with subtle body and sexual elements which
could lead to magical powers (siddhis), immortality, as well as spiritual liberation (moksha,
nirvana). Sexual yoga was seen as one way of producing a blissful expansion of
consciousness that could lead to liberation.
According to Jacob Dalton, ritualized sexual yoga (along with the sexual elements of the
tantric initiation ritual, like the consumption of sexual fluids) first appears in Buddhist works
called Mahayoga tantras (which include the Guhyagarbha and Ghuyasamaja). These texts
"focused on the body's interior, on the anatomical details of the male and female sexual
organs and the pleasure generated through sexual union." In these texts, sexual energy was
also seen as a powerful force that could be harnessed for spiritual practice and according to
Samuel "perhaps create the state of bliss and loss of personal identity which is homologised
with liberating insight." These sexual yogas continued to develop further into more complex
systems which are found in texts dating from about the ninth or tenth century, including the
Saiva Kaulajñānanirṇaya and Kubjikātantra as
well
as
the
Buddhist Hevajra,
and Cakrasamvara tantras which make use of charnel ground symbolism and fierce
goddesses. Samuel writes that these later texts also combine the sexual yoga with a system
of controlling the energies of the subtle body.
Tantricism of the Kbal Spean?
Kbal Spean ("Bridge Head") is an Angkorian era archaeological site on the southwest slopes
of the Kulen Hills to the northeast of Angkor in Banteay srei, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia.
It is situated along a 150m stretch of the Stung Kbal Spean River, 25 kilometres (16 mi) from
the main Angkor group of monuments, which lie downstream.
The site consists of a series of stone rock relief carvings in sandstone formations of the river
bed and banks. It is commonly known as the "Valley of a 1000 Lingas" or "The River of a
Thousand Lingas". The motifs for stone carvings are mainly myriads of lingams (phallic
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symbol of Hindu god Shiva), depicted as neatly arranged bumps that cover the surface of a
sandstone bed rock, and lingam-yoni designs. There are also various Hindu mythological
motifs, including depictions of the gods Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Lakshmi, Rama,
and Hanuman, as well as animals (cows and frogs).
Kbal Spean is described as "a spectacularly carved riverbed, set deep in the jungle to the
northeast of Angkor".The river over which the bridge head exists is also known as Stung Kbal
Spean, a tributary of the Siem Reap River that rises in the Kulein mountains north of Banteay
Srei. The river bed cuts through sandstone formations, and the many architectural sculptures
of Hindu mythology have been carved within the sandstone. The archaeological site occurs
in a stretch of the river starting from 150 metres (490 ft) upstream north of the bridge head
to the falls downstream.[1] The river, being sanctified by flowing over the religious sculptures,
flows downstream, bifurcating into the Siem Reap River and Puok River, which eventually
flows into the Tonlé Sap Lake after passing through the plains and the Angkor temple
complex.
The archaeological site is in the western part of the Kulein mountains within the Phnom
Kulen National Park. Approach is from the Banteay Srei temple by a road which is about 5
kilometres (3.1 mi) from an army camp. Thereafter, it is a 40-minute walk through the forest
for about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) uphill along a path before reaching the first site, a water fall,
where the carved sculptures start appearing in the river bed.
The carving of vestiges began with the reign of King Suryavarman I and ended with the reign
of King Udayadityavarman II; these two kings ruled between the 11th and 12th centuries. The
1,000 lingas, but not other sculptures, are attributed to a minister of Suryavarman I during
the 11th century, and these were carved by hermits who lived in the area. Inscriptions at the
site testify to the fact that most of the sculpting was done during the reign of
Udayadityavarman II. It is also mentioned that King Udayadityavarman II consecrated a
golden ling here in 1059 AD.[1][3] It is believed that the Siem Reap River flowing into Angkor is
blessed by the sacred lingas over which it flows.
The archaeological site was discovered in 1969 by Jean Boulbet, an ethnologist, but further
exploration was cut off due to the Cambodian Civil War. The site regained prominence for
safe visits from 1989.[
Left: Sahasralingas or 1000 lingas in the rocky bed of Kbal Spean River. Right: A grid pattern
layout with the channel flowing out representing Yoni
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The bridge is a natural sandstone arch 50 kilometres (31 mi) northeast of Siem Reap River.
Just after the monsoon season, when the water level in the river starts dropping, the
carvings are visible in a 150 metres (490 ft) stretch upstream of the bridge and from the
bridge downstream up to the falls. The 11th century carvings in this stretch of the river are a
galaxy of gods, the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva or Maheswara and celestial beings;
several carvings of Vishnu with Lakshmi reclining on the serpent Ananta, Shiva with consort
Uma, known as Umamaheswar Brahma on a lotus petal over a plant stem rising from the
navel of Vishnu, Rama and Hanuman are the sculptures seen not only in the river bed but
also on the river banks.
Sequentially, while walking along a path which skirts the eroded channel of the river-formed
natural stone bridge, one can see a pair of Vishnu sculptures with Lakshmi seated at his feet
in a reclining pose. Upstream of the bridge, there is a sculpture of Shiva and Uma mounted
on the bull. Approximately 30 metres (98 ft) downstream of the bridge, there are additional
Vishnu sculptures. Further downstream up to the water fall and till the water pool are
the Sahasra lingas in Sanskrit language with English equivalent name of "Thousand
Lingas".[1] The sculpted lingams in the coarse sandstone river bed outcrops are seen from
about 6 metres (20 ft) downstream of the bridge. According to the journalist Teppo Tukki
of Phnom Penh Post who visited the site in 1995, the lingams, some of which date back to the
9th century, are about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) square and 10 centimetres (3.9 in) deep and
lined in a perfect grid pattern. The river runs over them, covering them with 5 centimetres
(2.0 in) of pristine water. The holy objects are designed to create a "power path for the Khmer
Kings".
After the carvings, the river falls by 15 centimetres (5.9 in) to a clear water pool. As it flows
over the holy lingams, the river attains a sanctified status and passes through the temples
that are downstream.[5] The visible lingams are in a rectangular enclosure with a channel
flowing out, which is interpreted to represent the yoni as the "female principle". Beyond
these lingams, the river stretch of about 40–50 metres (130–160 ft) includes a small rocky
island and ends over a fall into a pool. In this stretch of the river, there are bas reliefs on the
rock faces. It has been inferred that one of the bas reliefs in this stretch, the central figure,
unrecognizably damaged, could be that of Shiva as an ascetic, similar to the bas relief seen
in Angkor Wat temple. The meaning of the crocodile carving seen here has not been
ascertained. Near to this location, a boulder has been carved as a frog. The pond, in a
rectangular shape, filled with water at all times, has many "Reclining Vishnu" carvings on the
walls, and here again, a pair of crocodiles are carved but with their tail held by women. The
small island formed in this stretch of the river has carvings of Shiva and Uma mounted on
a bull.
Lord Vishnu in a reclining repose lying on the serpent god Ananta, with Goddess Lakshmi at
his feet and Lord Brahma on a lotus petal, in Kbal Spean River bank
The sculptures carved in the river bed and banks depict many Hindu mythological scenes and
symbols. There are also inscriptions which get exposed as the water level in the river
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decreases. The common theme of these sculptures emphasizes creation as defined in Hindu
mythology in the form of Lord Vishnu lying on a serpent in a reclining repose on the ocean
of milk in meditation, the lotus flower emerging from Vishnu’s navel which bears god
Brahma, the creator. Following these sculptures seen carved on the banks of the river, the
river flows through several sculpted reliefs of Shiva the destroyer shown in the universal
symbol of the Linga; 1000 such lingas have been carved in the bed of the river which gives
the name to the river valley formed by the river as "valley of 1000 lingas". Vishnu is also
carved to match the contours of the river bed and banks. A carving of Shiva with his
consort Uma is also visible.
Though the sculptures have been vandalized and damaged, the carved idols still retain their
original grandeur. Under the supervision of archaeologists, the graduates of Artisans
d'Angkor have been able to reproduce some portions of Kbal Spean's missing bas-relief
carvings.
Preah Kahn
Preah Khan, one of the temples in Cambodia, was built by King Jayavarman VII in the
twelfth century and attracts followers of both Hinduism and Buddhism. The name Preah
Khan translates to Holy Sword. The temple was dedicated to about a hundred gods and
served as a venue for eighteen grand festivals.
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Apart from being a holy place, this place was also a university teaching element of
Buddhist, Vaishnava, and Shiva worship which can be glimpsed while visiting the galleries
and the two libraries inside the large complex. Visitors feel awed while exploring the
Prasat Preah Stung, a central tower with 4 ornate Bayon-like carvings.
Pre Rup is one of the Cambodia temples which was built in the 9th century to serve as the
king’s state temple. This Hindu temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is entirely made of brick
and
grey.sandstone.
The temple is also associated with funerary rituals. Though a major part of the temple has
been ruined over the years, its extrinsic carvings can still be viewed on some of the towers,
especially on the South-west side. The temple attracts visitors especially during the
sunrise or the sunset for its spectacular view.
The final squared pyramid, measuring 50 m at its base, rises in three steep tiers a dozen
metres in height to a 35 m square platform at the summit. The lowest tier is
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symmetrically surrounded by 12 small shrines. At the top, five towers are arranged in
a quincunx, one at each corner of the square and one in the center. Deities carved as
bas-reliefs stand guard at either side of the central tower's eastern door; its other
doors are false doors. The southwest tower once contained a statue of Lakshmi, the
northwest tower a statue of Uma, the southeast tower a statue of Vishnu and the
northeast tower a statue of Shiva. The last one has an inscription on doorjambs that
dates from Jayavarman VI and is the only proof of his reign at Angkor.
Internal corridors of famous Pre Rup temple viewed through an ancient stone doorway and dark
mysterious corridor Angkor Cambodia
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Chapter 9
Ganesh as a Buddhist Demigod
Vajrayana (Buddhism)
Vajrayana, (Sanskrit: “Thunderbolt Vehicle” or “Diamond Vehicle”) form of Tantric
Buddhism that developed in India and neighbouring countries, notably Tibet. Vajrayana,
in the history of Buddhism, marks the transition from Mahayana speculative thought to
the enactment of Buddhist ideas in ...
Kālacakra-tantra (Buddhist literature)
Kalacakra-tantra, (Sanskrit: Wheel of Time Tantra) chief text of a divergent, syncretistic,
and astrologically oriented school of Tantric Buddhism, or Vajrayana, that arose in India
...
Amoghasiddhi (Buddha)
Amoghasiddhi, (Sanskrit: Unfailing Success) in Mahayana and Vajrayana (Tantric)
Buddhism, one of the five self-born Buddhas. See Dhyani-Buddha. .
.
Tantric traditions and Shaktism
Toward the end of the 5th century, the cult of the mother goddess assumed a significant place
in Indian religious life. Shaktism, the worship of Shakti, the active power of the godhead
conceived in feminine terms, should be distinguished from Tantrism, the search for spiritual
power and ultimate release by means of the repetition of sacred syllables and phrases (mantras),
symbolic drawings (mandalas), and other secret rites elaborated in the texts known as Tantras
(“Looms”).
In many respects the Tantras are similar to the Puranas. Theoretically, the Tantras deal with
knowledge, or philosophy, Yoga, or concentration techniques, ritual, which includes the
construction of icons and temples, and conduct in religious worship and social practice. In
general, the last two subjects are the most numerous, while Yoga tends to centre on the
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mystique of certain sound-symbols (mantras) that sum up esoteric doctrines. The philosophy
tends to be a syncretistic mixture of Sankhya and Vedanta thought, with special and at
times exclusive emphasis on the god’s power, or shakti. The Tantric texts can be divided into
three classes:
(1) Shaiva Agamas (traditions of the followers of Shiva),
(2) Vaishnava Samhitas (“Collections of the Vaishnavas,” a name borrowed from the Vedic
Samhitas), and
(3) Shakta Tantras (“Looms of the Followers of the Goddess Shakti”). However, they all have
the common bond of venerating the Goddess.The surviving Hindu Tantras were written much
later than many of those of Tantric Buddhism, hich may have heavily influenced the Hindu
texts. Although there is early evidence of Tantrism and Shaktism in other parts of India, the
chief centres of both were in Bengal, Bihar, and Assam. hakta Tantras.
Shaktism in one form or another has been known since Bana (c. 650) wrote his Hundred
Couplets to Chandi (Chandi-shataka) and Bhavabhuti his play Malati Madhava (early 8th
century), about the adventures of the hero Madhava and his beloved Malati; both of these works
refer to Tantric practices. There is no traditional authoritative list of Tantric texts, but many
are extant.
Shaktism is an amalgam of Shaivism and mother goddess traditions. The Shaiva notion that
Shiva’s shakti, not Shiva himself, is active is taken to the extreme—without Shakti, Shiva is a
corpse, and Shakti is the creator as well as creation. Another important notion (partly derived
from Yoga philosophy) is that throughout the body there are subtle canals that carry esoteric
powers connected with the spinal cord, at the bottom of which the Goddess is coiled around
the lingam as kundalini (“coil”); she can be made to rise through the body to the top, whereupon
release from samsara takes place. Important among the Shakta Tantras are the Kularnavatantra (“Ocean of Tantrism”), which gives details on the “left-handed” cult forms of ritual
copulation (i.e., those that are not part of traditional Hindu practice);
the Kulachudamani (“Crown Jewel of Tantrism”), which discusses ritual; and
the Sharadatilaka (“Beauty Mark of the Goddess Sharada”) of Lakshmanadeshika (11th
century), which focuses almost exclusively on magic. The goddess cults eventually centred
around Durga, the consort of Shiva, in her fiercer aspect.
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Nature of Tantric tradition
Tantrism, which appears in both Buddhism and Hinduism, influenced many religious trends
and movements from the 5th century CE, but some of it was meant for esoteric circles.
Claiming to show in times of religious decadence a new way to the highest goal, Tantrism
bases itself upon mystic speculations concerning divine creative energy (shakti). Tantrism is
thought to be a method of conquering transcendent powers and realizing oneness with the
highest principle by Yogic and ritual means—in part magical and orgiastic—which are also
supposed to achieve other supranormal goals.
Proto-Tantric elements in Shaktism and Shaivism
The Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Devi Mahatmya in the Markandeya Purana all
mention the fierce, demon-killing manifestations of the Great Goddess, Mahishamardini,
identified with Durga-Parvati. These suggest that Shaktism, reverence and worship for the
Goddess in Indian culture, was an established tradition by the early centuries of the 1st
millennium.] Padoux mentions an inscription from 423 to 424 CE which mentions the founding
of a temple to terrifying deities called "the mothers".However, this does not mean Tantric
rituals and practices were as yet a part of either Hindu or Buddhist traditions. "Apart from the
somewhat dubious reference to Tantra in the Gangadhar inscription of 423 CE", states David
Lorenzen, it is only 7th-century Banabhatta's Kadambari which provide convincing proof of
Tantra and Tantric texts.
Shaivite ascetics seem to have been involved in the initial development of Tantra, particularly
the transgressive elements dealing with the charnel ground. According to Samuel, one group
of Shaiva ascetics, the Pasupatas, practiced a form of spirituality that made use of shocking and
disreputable behavior later found in a tantric context, such as dancing, singing, and smearing
themselves with ashes.
Early Tantric practices are sometimes attributed to Shaiva ascetics associated with Bhairava,
the Kapalikas ("skull men", also called Somasiddhatins or Mahavartins). Besides the shocking
fact that they frequented cremation grounds and carried human skulls, little is known about
them, and there is a paucity of primary sources on the Kapalikas. Samuel also states that the
sources depict them as using alcohol and sex freely, that they were associated with terrfying
female spirit-deities called yoginis and dakinis, and that they were believed to possess magical
powers, such as flight.
146
.
Kushan sculpture of a yakṣiṇī (2nd century), Mathura region/ Dancing Bhairava in the Indian Museum,
Kolkata
Kapalikas are depicted in fictional works and also widely disparaged in Buddhist, Hindu and
Jain texts of the 1st millennium CE. In Hāla's Gatha-saptasati (composed by the 5th century
AD), for example, the story calls a female character Kapalika, whose lover dies, he is cremated,
she takes his cremation ashes and smears her body with it. The 6thcentury Varāhamihira mentions Kapalikas in his literary works. Some of the Kāpālika practices
mentioned in these texts are those found in Shaiva Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism, and
scholars disagree on who influenced whom.
These early historical mentions are in passing and appear to be Tantra-like practices, they are
not detailed nor comprehensive presentation of Tantric beliefs and practices. Epigraphic
references to the Kaulas Tantric practices are rare. Reference is made in the early 9th century
to vama (left-hand) Tantras of the Kaulas. Literary evidence suggests Tantric Buddhism was
probably flourishing by the 7th century. Matrikas, or fierce mother goddesses that later are
closely linked to Tantra practices, appear both in Buddhist and Hindu arts and literature
between the 7th and 10th centuries.
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the
traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th
century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by
pilgrims and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like
the Sailendras and the Srivijaya. This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes
with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and
Japan, to the extent that it is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a
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complex of "Esoteric Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia." Many key Indian port cities saw
the growth of Esoteric Buddhism, a tradition which coexisted alongside Shaivism.
Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with monumental
architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist empire of
Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.
The decline of Buddhist states and the rise of Islamic states in the region during the 13th–16th
centuries saw the steep decline of this tradition.
13th century Javanese statue of Prajnaparamita, from the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple
/To the right an erotic sculpture from Candi Sukuh
The diffusion of Esoteric Buddhism in the region began with the arrival of Indian Buddhist
monks in the 7th century. These include the central Indian Atikuta (fl. 650s), the Chinese
Punyodaya (fl 650s), Yijing (635-713), the South Indian Dharmaruci/Bodhiruci (d. 727),
Nagabodhi, Vajrabodhi and Bianhong (the 8th century teacher of Kukai). The Chinese
Buddhist monk Yijing reports that in the 7th century there was a Buddhist center in Java named
Kalinga (Heling) to which Chinese monks traveled in order to study.
Another source of this Indonesian Tantric tradition was from Sri Lanka's Abhayagiri vihāra, a
well known center of Vajrayana study and practice, which even established a branch monastery
in Central Java in the 8th century with Sailendra patronage.
A stronghold of Esoteric Buddhism, the empire of Srivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) patronized
Buddhist monks and institutions and thus attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of
Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on
his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the Bengali Buddhist
scholar Atisha (982-1054 CE) who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana
Buddhism in Tibet. Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya and
advised Chinese monks to study there prior to making the journey to the great institution of
learning, Nalanda Vihara, India. He wrote:
In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are bent
on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just as in
India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to the
West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two years
and practice the proper rules.
Yijing was also responsible for the translation of a large numbers of Buddhist scriptures from
Sanskrit into Chinese. He translated more than 60 sutras into Chinese such as the Golden Light
Sutra. The Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas & Buddhist Monks Pilgrimage of
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Tang Dynasty are two of Yi Jing's best travel diaries, describing his adventurous journey to
Srivijaya and India, the society of India and the lifestyles of various local peoples.
In Java, the 8th century Shailendra dynasty promoted large scale Buddhist building projects
such as Borobudur. Later central Javanese bronze and silver Buddhist images show Tantric
themes such as mandalas and the Five Tathagatas.
In the 13th century Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, the Singhasari kingdom of
King Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized Vajrayana. Buddhism continued to thrive under the
Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1527). Their capital Trowulan had many annual
festivities for Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism. Some of their kings were Vajrayana
practitioners, such as King Adityawarman (1347–79) whose inscriptions state he was "always
concentrated on Hevajra".A feature of Javanese Buddhism was the deification and worship of
kings as Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. Important Buddhist deities included Prajnaparamita, Tara,
Bhairava and Lokesvara.
The fall of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim states such as the Sultanate of Malacca saw the
decline of Buddhism in the region. Many escaped to the island of Bali after the end of
Majapahit rule fleeing persecution, where Buddhism was merged into Balinese Hinduism. This
process of merging Buddhism and Hinduism predated the fall of the Majapahit however, and
many textual sources from the later Hindu-Buddhist kingdom state that Hinduism and
Buddhism are both two paths to the same reality and also equate the five Buddhas with five
forms of Shiva. Likewise, some Majapahit temples depict both Buddhist and Shaiva elements.
The oldest extant esoteric Buddhist Mantrayana literature in Old Javanese, a language
significantly influenced by Sanskrit, is enshrined in the San Hyan Kamahayanikan (possibly
8th century). The San Hyan Kamahayanikan claims that its teachings come from Dignaga.
The Tibetan Buddhist canon includes translations of texts written by Javanese masters, such as
the Durbodhaloka (a
commentary
on
the Abhisamayalamkara)
of Suvarnadvipa
Dharmakīrti.[15]
Another work by an Indonesian Tantric Buddhist is Bianhong's Ritual Manual for Initiation
into the Great Mandala of the Usnisa-Cakravartin which survives in the Chinese Taisho
Tripitaka (T. 959). The Japanese master Kukai wrote a biography of Bianhong.
Bahal temple I, in Padang Lawas, North Sumatra. One of the remnants of Pannai Kingdom.
Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most
common of which is the stone Candi which shows Indic influences as has been interpreted as
a symbol of Mount Meru.
The Sailendras built many Buddhist structures in Java, including the
massive stupa of Borobodur, as well as Candi Sukuh, Candi Mendut, Candi Kalasan and Candi
Sewu. The Srivijayans also built Buddhist temple complexes in Sumatra, such as Muara
Takus and Bahal temple and also in the Malay Peninsula, such as in their regional capital
at Chaiya. Majapahit also built Candis, such as Jabung, and Penataran. Other architecture
types include punden, small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains and pertapaan, hermitages
built on mountain slopes.
Around the 7th to the 13th centuries, the reliefs, carvings and statues in the temple complex,
especially those of the Tantric sect, such as the Sukuh and Cetho temples, were very ‘vulgar’.
The body is a representation of the self, a symbol of creation and fertility. The very bottom of
Borobudur temple, which is called kamadathu, also displays erotic and ‘vulgar’ things as
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symbols of lust.
Much later to the 3 temples and the 4 th less known temple that lie in a straight line in
Yogakarta Kingdom and far from it in distance of 128 K, though not in concept lies the
Candi Sukuh - a fifteenth-century Javanese-Hindu-Buddhist temple that demonstrates
strong tantric influence.
Tibetan Ganesh?
The distinctive Dancing Ganesha relief in Candi Sukuh has a similarity with the Tantric ritual
found in the history of Buddhism in Tibet written by Taranatha. The Tantric ritual is associated
with several figures, one of whom is described as the "King of Dogs" (Sanskrit: Kukuraja),
the mahasiddha who taught his disciples by day, and by night performed Ganacakra in a burial
ground or charnel ground. Importantly, Ganesha also appears in Buddhism, not only in the
form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also portrayed as a Hindu demon form also
called Vināyaka. Ganesha's image may be found on Buddhist sculptures of the late Gupta
period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, Ganesha is often shown dancing, a form called Nṛtta
Ganapati that was popular in North India and adopted in Nepal and then into Tibet. Sukuh
temple has a distinctive thematic reliefs from other candi where life before birth and sexual
education are its main theme. Its main monument is a simple pyramid structure with reliefs and
statues in front of it, including three tortoises with flattened shells and a male figure grasping
his penis. A giant 1.82 m (6 ft) high of lingga (phallus) with four balls, representing penile
incisions, was one of the statues that has been relocated to the National Museum of Indonesia.
The Mudgalpurana has described Lord Ganesha, in his eight chief incarnations. Each one
brings forth a certain quality and aspect of that particular purpose, for which he incarnated, at
various periods in mythology. The peoples of this Earth are very dear to Him, and each time
the existence of the human was threatened with a mighty show of negative powers, he came
forth, in all His glory, to save them. Each of these demons symbolizes a particular negative
quality ever present in the human mind and heart. So this is also a symbolic mastery over all
these negative aspects of the personality, to qualify as a Perfect Master.
This Beloved Being, a human with an elephant head, is much loved in India, and I was surprised
to note, that even in Western countries His name is revered, and little statues of His likeness
are kept in their altars. Even those who do not know of the religious powers of Lord Ganesha
find themselves inevitably attracted to His likenesses, and end up having Him in their homes.
1.Vakratunda: When the demon Matsarasur threatened to annihilate humankind, Lord
Ganesha came riding a Lion, in His incarnation as Vakratunda, forcing Matsarasur to surrender
before Him.
2. Ekdanta: The second time around Lord Ganesha incarnated as Ekdanta, using the mouse as
his vehicle of transportation, to overcome the force of the demon Madasur, and capture him.
3. Mahodara: As Mahodara, Lord Ganesha overcame the combined forces of the three
demons, Mohasur, Durbuddhi, and his son Jnanaari, capturing the first, and slaying the other
two.
4. Gajanana: In his forth incarnation, he was known as Gajanana, where he overcame the
forces of Lobhasur, son of Kuber, while riding along on a mouse.
5. Lambodara: The great angry demon Krodhasur was made to surrender before Him, as he
incarnated as Lambodara, using the mouse again to ride into the battle. He also killed the demon
Mayakar in this fierce battle.
6. Vikata: The demon Kamasur surrendered when Lord Ganesha appeared to him in this
incarnation, riding a resplendent peacock.
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7. Vighnaraja: This is His most popular incarnation, known as The Remover of Obstacles.
Riding his vehicle called Sheshnag, a serpent, he strode into battle with Mamtasur, and
overcame him.
8. Dhoomravarna: Lord Ganesha's eighth incarnation was as Dhoomravarna, when he went
forward on his little mouse, to conquer the last of the demons controlling the human
personality, Ahamtasur.
The word "Aham" signifies the human ego, and this is the demonic force which never lets go
of the human till the very end. This is so entrenched in the psyche, so that the human thinks
that this is all that he can identify with. This demon has also been called Ahamkarasur, or
Abhimanasur, both words again pointing to the inextricable control of the ego on the human.
The Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and
difficulties in Hindu mythology, but who were easily propitiated. One theory of the origin
of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the Vināyakas.
In Puranic literature of a much later period the group of four Vināyakas was merged into one
definite god named Vināyaka whom Rudra appointed as the "Leader of the Ganas"
(Ganapati). This Vināyaka-Ganapati is associated with another god called Dantin, "the one
with the tusk," who is said to possess a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and who holds a corn-sheaf,
a sugar cane, and a club. This description of Dantin is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati
that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin." The
name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.
In the Smrti of Yājñavalkya, written in the 6th century, Vināyaka is definitely mentioned as a
demon who had been exalted to the rank of a deva. He is clearly described as elephant-headed
by the 8th century.
Mānava-Gṛhyasūtras
The Vināyakas in their original demonic role are mentioned only in a limited number of
Brahmanical texts that are essentially within only one school of the Vedas, the Kṛṣṇa Yajur
Veda.
The Vināyakas are first mentioned in the where they appear as four demonic creatures. Dating
for the Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra is only tentative, but P. V. Kane assigns it to a period prior to 600300 BCE and considers that they had attained a position of authority in the 2nd century BCE.
S. Bhattachrji dates them between 600-200 BCE. Macdonell dates them between 500-200 BCE.
Thapan concludes that the period reflected in the Vināyaka section of the MānavaGṛhyasūtra must have been between the end of the 3rd and early 2nd century BCE. She based
this conclusion in part on the fact that in the Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra the Vināyakas are associated
with various other beings, including three of the four Buddhist lokpālas (guardians of the
quarters), as well as the deities Mahādeva and Mahāsena. Mahādeva and Mahāsena were
popular gods during the Aśokan period, a time when the spread of Buddhism must have posed
a challenge to adherents of the Vedic tradition. Thapan says that this association implies that
"not only was Buddhism viewed inimically by the brāmaņa authors of this text..., but so were
Mahādeva and Mahāsena."
The Vināyakas are also mentioned in the Mahābhārata where their role shows a distinct
change in two different age strata of that epic.[
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•
•
In the Śānti Parva they are depicted as evil beings and are mentioned along
with bhūtas and piśācas. These passages may date shortly after the composition of
the Mānava Gṛhya Sūtras.
In the Anuśāsana Parva they lose their evil characterization and are worshipped as
the Gaṇeśvara-Vināyakas, part of the Rudragaṇa contingent. These passages are certainly
dated as belonging to the first one or two centuries CE. A passage in the Sabhā Parva which
mentions a being named Danti belongs to the same period. Danti appears to be synonymous
with the Mahākāya (One having a huge body) who is named along with the GaṇeśvaraVināyakas as part of Śiva's entourage in the Anuśāsana Parva.
Thapan notes that almost all of the references to the Vināyakas, Danti, and their related beings
do not appear in the main body of the critical edition of the Mahābhārata, but are only
mentioned in the Appendices. This means that the traditions associated with these figures were
limited to only a few versions which must have been found in only specific regions.
Ganesha in Thervada and Mahayana Buddhism
Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god
Vināyaka but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name. His image has recurred in
Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often
shown dancing.
Rihanna & Ganesh pendant
Many people are unaware that although a renowned Hindu deity, Ganesh is
also worshiped by Buddhists.
It is said that during the 10 th century, merchants traveling from Asia began to worship
Lord Ganesh. As their devotion and teachings spread among the trading community,
many other traders began to worship Ganesh as well. His role as Remover of
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Obstacles was very much important to their journeys in trade as the hoped for safe
voyages and safety from harm while at sea. Lord Ganesh therefore became the
primary deity associated with traders. They would invoke his image before any other
god whenever hardship would arise.
When Hindus began to spread across to the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia they
took with them not only their culture but their particular fondness
for Ganesh. Statues were erected throughout the region in his honor. Hindus
migration further into Southeast Asia such as in Indochina, brought the practice of
worship of Hindu deity’s right alongside Buddhists. It is here that Buddhists alike
began to adopt their fondness for Ganesh as Remover of Obstacles. Within Mahayana
Buddhism Ganesh is appears in the form of the Buddhist god Vinayaka. His image
often appears in Buddhist scriptures shown dancing. Vinayaka, the Buddhist equivalent
to Ganesha, is known in Japanese as Shōten (聖天, lit. "sacred deva" or "noble deva";
alternatively Shōden) or Kangiten (歓喜天, "deva of bliss") and is worshiped mainly in the
Shingon and Tendai schools.
Can Buddhists worship Hindu gods?-He did not subscribe to the traditional religious views of
his day, and Buddhists only ever worship Hindu deities in an instrumental way. Note that some
Hindus see the Buddha as an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu, who took rebirth in order to teach
religion to demons and other opponents of Hinduism. Gautama Buddha, the founder of
Buddhism, is also venerated as a manifestation of God in Hinduism and the Baháʼí Faith. Some
Hindu texts regard Buddha as an avatar of the god Vishnu, who came to Earth to delude beings
away from the Vedic religion. Despite the very small number of Hindus here, elements of
Hinduism permeate Thailand’s socio-cultural life. Even as the group is a minority, various
Hindu elements remain deeply embedded in the traditional culture and social life of the Thai
people.
Hinduism arrived in Thailand partly along the land route from India via Burma, but also
traversed the Bay of Bengal to Indonesia and was instrumental in the establishment of the
maritime Sri Vijaya Empire. It is from Java that Hinduism also spread to Cambodia, and what
is now Vietnam and northwards to Thailand – absorbing local cultural elements along the
way.
Waves of invasions, and especially the Khmer rule, left the residue of Hinduism in the Thai
culture. And as is often the case with external influences, the elements have been absorbed
and overlaid with Buddhist rituals seamlessly, giving them Thai characteristics. Alongside
their Buddhist beliefs, many Thais worship Hindu deities. One of them is the Brahma (Phra
Phrom) at the famous Erawan Shrine in Bangkok. People in deep anguish are known to go
to this shrine, and when a wish has been granted, devotees hire dancers to perform Ram Kae
Bon, to thank the god.
Statues of Ganesh, Indra (Phra In), and Shiva (Phra Isuan) can be found across
Thailand. Ganesh is known as Phra Phikanet in Thai and is worshipped as the remover of
obstacles. He is the deity Thai Buddhists often pray to before they start an important venture
— just as Hindus in Nepal and India do at Ganesh temples. Buddhist Ganesha’s appeal is
wide-reaching, not just amongst the spiritual. Ganesh tatoos and t-shirts are very popular
worldwide. There is, a “life-affirming” quality about his image, even for the non-religious.
Ganesha has star power. He even appears in brands, marketing, pop culture and fashion.And,
of course, “Ganesha, also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is one of the best-known and
most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon… Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and
extends to Jains and Buddhists.To many Mahayana Buddhists, Ganesha is an important
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practice. He can be a Yidam, a friendly “bringer of prosperity,” a Dharma protector deity —
and he takes on many other roles. Shakyamuni Buddha suggested his mantras prior to practice.
He appears in two Buddhist sutras, and various tantras — in different roles. His mantra may be
chanted by all. None of these roles are mutually exclusive.
Many Forms of Ganapati
In both Mahayana Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism, Ganesha (Sanskrit: गणेि, IAST: Gaṇeśa)
is the protector of prosperity and the remover of hindrances. In the Sakya and Gelug traditions,
Ganesha — together with Vajrayogini and Kurukulla — are the three “red deities” in the
Thirteen Golden Dharmas of the Sakyapa tradition. [See the large museum thangka of
Hayagriva with Ganesha below.] In other traditions, he is a directional Protector known as
Vinayaka. In one of the Tantra stories, Avalokiteshvara convinces Ganesha to become a
Dharma Protector. In Hindu tradition, there are at least 32 aspects of Ganesha.
In all of his aspects, he is easily identified by his symbolic “elephant head.”//Maharakta 12 Armed Red
Ganapati, the great remover of obstacles.
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One of Ganesha’s forms in Tibetan Buddhism as a wealth deity associated with Jambhala./ 12
armed
In one sutra Buddha Shakyamuni advises his bikhus to make offerings and recite the essence
mantra of Ganesha Ganapati seven times — after first taking refuge in Buddha, Dharma and
Sangha. [More on these sutras in the section Origins of Ganesha below.] The reason is to
ensure our practice obstacles are removed, so that our meditations result in realizations. The
essence mantra of Ganapati is:
Om Ah Ga Hum Svaha
OM AH GA HUM PAT SVAHA
The seed syllable of Ganesha is GAM. GAM is often worn as a symbol for luck.In the Hindu
tradition, the mantra is slightly different:
Oṃ Gaṃ Gaṇapataye Namaḥ.
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A magnificent 1800-1899 Tangkha (Sakya lineage) of Hayagriva Sangdrup in the Rubin Museum of Art. On his crown is
Amitayus, the long-life aspect of Amitabha. To his top left is Maharaklta Ganapti (Wrathful Gasesha), dancing atop a
rat. On the right is the power goddess Kurukulla, red (see below), with one face and four hands holding a bow and arrow,
hook and lasso. At the bottom center is Begtse Chen (Red Mahakala: see below), red in colour. On the left is Legden
Mahakala (left, see below), blue in colour and right is Shri Devi Magzor Gyalmo (Palden Lhamo, the protector of the
Dalai Lama)RIGHT PIC.A very old Tibetan Buddhist Ganesha Tangkha. This is “Twelve-armed” Red Ganesha
Wishfulfilling Jewel.
I collected a variety of references in a Buddhist context. Ganesha appears popularly in various
Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions. In some Buddhist traditions Ganesh is worldly — but still
and important remover of obstacles. In some Mahayana traditions he is viewed as a god. In
others a Enlightened Protector. In yet others, as a Bodhisattva. There is no universality. In one
tradition it is Avalokiteshvara who asks Ganesha to be a Dharma Protector. Ganesha later
promised again to protect the Dharma before the great Padmasambhava — who composed
108 Sadhanas of Ganesha.
In this feature we’re highlighting all the various aspects. In other words — even where there
appear to be contradictions — there is no right, or wrong, in these various views, and
ultimately, for practice, one should only be guided by your own tradition and teacher, and your
own preferences.
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In Buddhism, there are two sutras that mention Ganapati, and one with his “Dharani” (mantra)
which can be chanted by anyone. In the sutra, Buddha says:
“Any son or daughter of high birth, whether monk or nun, lay brother or sister who
undertakes any matter [such as] accomplishing the [rites to call a sacred being by means
of] mantras, worshipping the Three Jewels, travelling to another country, going to the
royal court or concealing [from view] should upon worshipping the Blessed Buddha,
practice seven times the Arya Ganapati Hrdaya [mantras]: for him all tasks will be
accomplished; no doubt about this!
Two sutras on Ganapati contain the Dharani of Ganapati; one is the Dharani Sutra of the
Golden Ganapati, found in the T. XXI 1269, which was delivered by the Buddha to his disciple
Shariputra when the Buddha was residing at Shravasti. The Dharani, as presented in this Sutra,
is somewhat a variant of the Dharani, in the Ganapati Heart Sutra. At the end of the Sutra,
Ganapati himself appears and assures that he will protect and bestow wishes of those who
uphold this Dharani. The other text, the one that is presented here is the “Arya Maha Ganapati
Hridaya Dharani” [Heart Dharani of Maha Ganapati] — in full at the bottom of this features.In
Buddhism, sometimes Ganesha is seen as a worldly deity dedicated to protecting Buddhism,
but in some Mahayana stories he is a Bodhisattva and in origin stories, he is an emanation of
Avalokiteshvara (in the Chakrasamvara Cycle of Tantras).
In most Buddhist tantric traditions, Ganesha appears as a protector sworn to protect the Dharma
by either Shakyamuni Buddha or Padmasambhava. However, Ganapati, Maha Rakta (Tibetan:
ཚོགས་བདག tsog gi dag po, mar chen. English: The Great Red Lord of Hosts or Ganas) is a Tantric
Buddhist form of Ganapati (Ganesha) related to the Chakrasamvara Cycle of Tantras. This
form of Ganapati is regarded as an emanation of Avalokiteshvara.
“…beside a lapis lazuli rock mountain is a red lotus with eight petals, in the middle a blue rat
expelling various jewels, [above] Shri Ganapati with a body red in colour, having an elephant
face with sharp white tusks and possessing three eyes, black hair tied in a topknot with a
wishing-gem and a red silk ribbon [all] in a bundle on the crown of the head. With twelve
hands, the six right hold an axe, arrow, hook, vajra, sword and spear. The six left [hold] a pestle,
bow, khatvanga, skullcup filled with blood, skullcup filled with human flesh and a shield
together with a spear and banner. The peaceful right and left hands are signified by the vajra
and skullcup filled with blood held to the heart. The remaining hands are displayed in a
threatening manner. Wearing various silks as a lower garment and adorned with a variety of
jewel ornaments, the left foot is extended in a dancing manner, standing in the middle of the
bright rays of red flickering light.” (Ngorchen Konchog Lhundrup, 1497–1557).
This form of Ganapati belongs to a set of three powerful deities known as the ‘mar chen kor
sum’ or the Three Great Red Deities included in a larger set called ‘The Thirteen Golden
Dharmas’ of Sakya. The other two deities are Kurukulle and Takkiraja. (See 18th century
Thangka of Hayagriva Sangrup below with Ganapati and Kurukulle both featured below.)
Buddhist Vinayaka Ganesha
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In one tantric description of Ganesha’s Divine Lila (Lila means “dramatic play”,)
Avalokiteshvara, determined to convince Ganesha to be a Dharma protector, transforms his
appearance to an image of Ganesha and enters his palace, sitting on his throne. The entire
palace, including Ganesha’s consort, are convinced this is the real Ganesha. When Ganesha
returns, he is astonished by Avalokiteshvara’s majesty and becomes an Protector of the
Dharma.
In the “divine Lila” (Play), Avalokiteshvara transforms himself into Ganesha. An astonished
Ganesha, upon seeing himself on his own throne, decides to become a Dharma Protector. (One
version of the Divine Lila of Buddhist Ganesha.)
It depends on the tradition and teacher. In yet another tradition, Mahanirvana Tantra, he was
converted by the protector Mahakala — Mahakala being a fierce form of Avalokiteshvara —
and symbolically appears under his feet, representing the King of Protectors
Less worship, more practice
From the Buddhist perspective on deities, there is less “worship” of deities and more “practice”
of deities as a path. In Tantric Buddhism, for example, we visualize ourselves as the perfect
forms of Enlightenment — as the deities — this, as practice for our mindstreams.That doesn’t
mean we don’t make offerings or honor deities. Offerings and prostrations help us develop
positive karmic imprints — merits, as they are often called.Most Ganesha practices — the ones
not requiring extensive initiations or permissions — are conducted to “ask for the removal of
obstacles to our practice.” Normally, in tantric practice, we would visualize ourselves as our
own Yidam — not as Ganesha — then make offerings to Ganesha (in whatever form is taught
to us.)
His long Dharani, according to the Blessed Shakyamuni Buddha, will “obtain and propagate
… the accomplishments of his [Ganesha’s] tasks.” The sutra-based Dharani, requiring no
permission (see the full Sutra at end of this feature) is:
oṃ namo ‘stu te mahāgaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ |
oṃ namo gaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇādhipataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇeśvarāya svāhā |
oṃ gaṇapatipūjitāya svāhā |
oṃ kaṭa kaṭa maṭa maṭa dara dara vidara vidara hana hana gṛhṇa gṛhṇa dhāva dhāva
bhañja bhañja jambha jambha tambha tambha stambha stambha moha moha deha
deha dadāpaya dadāpaya dhanasiddhi me prayaccha |
oṃ rudrāvatārāya svāhā |
oṃ adbhutavindukṣubhitacittamahāhāsam āgacchati |
mahābhayamahābalaparākramāya mahāhastidakṣiṇāya dadāpaya svāhā |
oṃ namo ‘stu te mahāgaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ |
oṃ namo gaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇeśvarāya svāhā |
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oṃ gaṇādhipataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇapatipūjitāya svāhā |
oṃ suru suru svāhā | oṃ turu turu svāhā | oṃ muru muru svāhā |
Very old Mongolian tangkha of Ganesha.
Ganesha comes first
Ganesha is normally the first deity practiced or honored in some Buddhist (and Hindu)
traditions. Why? Because he is known as the “remover of obstacles.” It is symbolically
important to remove obstacles before, for example, moving on to your main practices.Many
deities are known as “obstacle removers” in Tantric Buddhism, and often these are practiced
first in daily sadhanas — although it varies by tradition. It is for this reason, too, that Ganesha
is often at the door of temples, or homes. He removes obstacles and is, by this definition, a
guardian.
Obstruction-remover
Importantly, in Buddhism, Ganapati (Ganesha) is a “remover of obstacles.” Many Buddhist
deities are, removers or obstacles, but Ganesha is particularly venerated for this role.
Since poverty is a major obstacle — if we are fighting to survive, we have no time to practice
Dharma — Ganesha also takes on a “wealth deity” role.Some of his depictions overlap with
Jambhala (another wealth deity, and also another Hindu deity), complete with depictions of
gold and jewels falling from the mouth of his rat. (In the case of Jambhala the animal is a
mongoose). Red Jambala, especially, is usually thought of as none other than Ganesha, Red
Ganapati, with the head of an elephant (see thangka below.)
Many forms of Ganesha
Importantly, Red Ganapati in common with many “red” deities belongs to the Padma family
in Tibetan Buddhism — the family of Avalokiteshvara, Hayagriva, and Amitabha. In one
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traditional lineage of Chinese Buddhism, where Guanyin (Kuan Yin, Avalokiteshvara) is
female, Ganesh is her consort.
Ganesha’s Buddhist enlightened forms are many: overcoming obstacles and bringing success
(similar to Hinduism); fierce protector at the gate of many mandala palaces; high-form tantric
deity; and, even, in Chinese Buddhism, a legendary consort to Guan Yin.
In Shingon, he is popular as Kankiten. In Japan there are 250 stand-alone Ganesh temples,
where he is the god of prosperity and happiness. As Nrtta Ganapti, the dancing Ganesha, he is
the destroyer of obstacles in Tibet and Nepal. In Thailand he is called Phra Phikanet, a deity
of fortune and success. In Indonesia he is associated with wisdom. He is also the Buddhist
deity Vinayaka, popular in Tibet.
He is worshiped widely in India (by both Buddhists and Hindus) and by Buddhists in China,
Thailand — where Ganesh amulets are very popular — Tibet, Mongolia, Nepal (basically all
of Japan, China, Central Asia, and southeast Asia) — and around the world. In India, he is in
every temple, regardless of the main deity, and he is in nearly every home. In Chinese
Buddhism, he is extremely popular. He is even a “fix” for homes with bad “feng shui.”
Aspects of Buddhist Ganesha
There are, as with all deities in Buddhism, many symbolic forms in Tantric practices. Each
pose, arm, implement, and gesture triggers recognition as archetypes by our minds.
Ganesha, in Buddhism, can be elephant-faced, dancing, with matted locks of hair and many
arms and implements. He can be red and fierce, as with Maha Rakta Ganapati (Great Red
Lord of the Ganas). He can look very nearly like Hindu Ganesha. He can have three eyes —
symbolic of wisdom and Enlightenment. He can carry a kapala filled with blood, symbolic of
bliss and emptiness. In most forms, the “mouse” mount is carried over from Hinduism
symbolism.
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Some of his forms:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lord Ganesh, pale of complexion with a mouse mount (similar to Hindu form).
Maha Rakta Ganapati: red and fierce tantric form with many arms, an emanation of
Avalokiteshvara (related to the Chakrasamvara tantras)
Nrtta Ganapati, the dancing god.
He is one of the Three Great Red Deities (Mar Chen Kor Sum), which is part of the
Thirteen Golden Dharmas of the Sakyas.
He can be Vinayaka (which is both the name of an enlightened deity and a demon)
— and in this form he is sometimes seen being stepped on by Mahakala.
Kangiten in Japan, a wealth and success god.
Ragavajra: Three-faced, six hands (Atisha tradition)
One-face- four hands (white, red or blue)
Maharakta Red, one-face-twelve hands
One face, two hands (white)
Nyingma forms of Ganapati, such as Maha Ganesha or Vajra Ganesha
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Maharakti Ganesha.RIGHT Maharakta Ganesh
Maharakta Ganapati — emanation of Avalokiteshvara
Perhaps the most exotic of the Ganapati forms is Maharakta, instantly recognizable by his red
form, surrounded by red tantric flames on a red lotus. This form is related to the
Chakrasamvara tantras. The description from Ngorchen Konchog Lhundrub (1497-1557):
“…beside a lapis lazuli rock mountain is a red lotus with eight petals, in the middle a blue rat
expelling various jewels, [above] Shri Ganapati with a body red in colour, having an elephant
face with sharp white tusks and possessing three eyes, black hair tied in a topknot with a
wishing-gem and a red silk ribbon [all] in a bundle on the crown of the head. With twelve
hands, the six right hold an axe, arrow, hook, vajra, sword and spear. The six left [hold] a
pestle, bow, katvanga, skullcup filled with blood, skullcup filled with human flesh and a
shield together with a spear and banner. The peaceful right and left hands are signified by the
vajra and skullcup filled with blood held to the heart. The remaining hands are displayed in a
threatening manner. Wearing various silks as a lower garment and adorned with a variety of
jewel ornaments, the left foot is extended in a dancing manner, standing in the middle of the
bright rays of red flickering light.”
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Maharakta blongs to the “Three Great Red Deities” (mar chen kor sum), along with red
Kurukulla and Takkiraja.
One of many forms of Buddhist Ganesha.
Offerings to Ganesha
There isn’t much difference between offering recommendations for Buddhist Ganesh or
Hindu Ganesh. Relatively, they may seem like distinct deities, but at the ultimately level they
are One. Typically, in Buddhism, water bowls are always a perfect offering for any deity.But,
symbolically, Ganesh prefers “sweet treats” and “sweet smells” and “sweet flowers.” Why?
Because Ganesh is just plain “sweet.” In formal retreat or practice, usually the “three white”
offerings are made: yogurt, rock sugar, milk.
Ganesh loves flower garlands. (Because he’s sweet!). The best offering of all is his mantras.
(Depending on the form you are honoring, the mantra may vary.)Normally, the offerings are
placed before a picture or statue of Ganesh, but in Tantric Buddhism, this can be just
projected mentally through visualization (as always, with Tantric Buddhist deities.)Pujas or
sadhanas of Ganesh will differ in a significant ways between Buddhist and Hindu. The key to
any Buddhist sadhana or ritual is:
•
Taking refuge in Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, the Three Jewels
•
Making the Bodhisattva vow (with each practice)
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•
Dedicating the merit of the practice to the cause for Enlightenment for the benefit of
all beings.
Ārya Mahā Gaṇapati Hṛdaya
namo bhagavate āryamahāgaṇapatihṛdayāya |
namo ratnatrayāya ||
Thus I have heard. Upon a time, the Blessed One was staying at Rajagriha, on the Vulture
Peak, together with a great assembly of monks: forty-five hundreds of monks and numerous
great Bodhisattvas. On that occasion the Blessed One told the Venerable Ananda:
“Ananda, whoever, son or daughter of high birth, would keep [in mind], recite, obtain and
propagate these “heart” [mantras] of Ganapati, his will be the accomplishments of all his
tasks”
oṃ namo ‘stu te mahāgaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ |
oṃ namo gaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇādhipataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇeśvarāya svāhā |
oṃ gaṇapatipūjitāya svāhā |
oṃ kaṭa kaṭa maṭa maṭa dara dara vidara vidara hana hana gṛhṇa gṛhṇa dhāva dhāva
bhañja bhañja jambha jambha tambha tambha stambha stambha moha moha deha deha
dadāpaya dadāpaya dhanasiddhi me prayaccha |
oṃ rudrāvatārāya svāhā |
oṃ adbhutavindukṣubhitacittamahāhāsam āgacchati |
mahābhayamahābalaparākramāya mahāhastidakṣiṇāya dadāpaya svāhā |
oṃ namo ‘stu te mahāgaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ |
oṃ namo gaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇeśvarāya svāhā |
oṃ gaṇādhipataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇapatipūjitāya svāhā |
oṃ suru suru svāhā | oṃ turu turu svāhā | oṃ muru muru svāhā |
“These Ananda, are the “hearts” of Ganapati”
“Any son or daughter of high birth, whether monk or nun, lay brother or sister who
undertakes any matter [such as] accomplishing the [rites to call a sacred being by means of]
mantra, worshipping the Three Jewels, travelling to another country, going to the royal court
or concealing [from view] should upon worshipping the Blessed Buddha, practice seven
times the Arya Ganapati Hrdaya [spells]: for him all tasks will be accomplished; no doubt
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about this!. He should forever put an end to all strifes and quarrels , violence and envy, and
become entirely calm. Day upon day abiding the rules and practicing a full seven times: it
will come out into the fortune of this great one! Upon his coming to the royal court there will
be great kindness (prasada). He will become “Keeper of hearing [1]” (Shruti-Dhara). There
wil be no major illness to his body. Never will he assume the descent as a tara-praksina or the
descent as a humble bee: nothing ellse will occur to him that the Mind of Awakening. In
every birth he will be remembering [his previous] births.”
Thus spoke the Blessed One, and upon receiving [his teaching] these monks, these great
Bodhisattvas and whole attendance, the world with the gods, the humans, the asuras, the
garudas and the gandarvas rejoiced at the words of the Blessed One.
Why is Maha Rakta Ganapati recommended by Buddhist Teachers as the remover of obstacles
— the protector of prosperity? What makes Ganapati a spiritual superstar? Why is Ganesha so
loved around the world? In Buddhism, what makes his practice unique and powerful
Venerable Zasep Rinpoche, explained his versatile popularity:
“Ganesha is honoured as a Yidam deity as well as a Dharma Protector in both the Hindu
tradition and the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. Ganesha is a protector of Dharma practice and
prosperity; he also removes hindrances and obstacles.
Ganesha, Vajrayogini, and Kurukulla are the three red deities, part of the thirteen golden
Dharmas of the Sakypa tradition of Tibetan Buddhism.
Ganesha is one of the fifteen directional protectors – in that group he is known as a Vinayaka.”
Red 12-armed Ganapati is the remover of obstacles in Tibetan Buddhist practice.( See Pic
Below)
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Ganapati in Most Schools of Buddhism
Ganapati practice is pervasive and popular in most schools of Buddhism, including Mahayana
and Vajrayana. Zasep Rinpoche illustrated with this example:
“Ganesha also promised to protect the Dharma in front of Guru Padmasambhava at the great
stupa, Gomasala Ganda, in India. Guru Padmasambhava composed 108 Sadhanas of Ganesha
and gave them to Tibet’s second great king Trisong Detsen.”
Rinpoche also explained that there are 32 aspects of Ganesha in Hinduism and several in
Buddhism, including as an aspect of Avalokiteshvara [See the charming story below.]
12-Armed Maha Rakta Ganapati.
The Story of Avalokiteshvara and Ganesha
From the chapter of Ganesha-Ganapati in Zasep Rinpoche’s book Source of All Buddhist
Protectors, he synopsized the charming story of how Avalokiteshvara “convinced” Ganesha to
protect the Buddha Dharma:
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“Avalokiteshvara knew Ganesha was a powerful god and wanted him to become a Dharma
protector. Avalokiteshvara decided the only way to do this was to manifest as an even more
powerful Ganesha. One day Ganesha and his attendants went on an outing… While they were
gone Avalokiteshvara manifested himself as Ganesha and entered the royal palace. The consort
of Ganesha and her entourage greeted him and offered flowers and music….when the real
Ganesha returned to the royal palace, the consort and entourage were very confused and told
him the great Maha Deva Ganapati was already sitting on the golden throne! … Then Ganesha
was overwhelmed by the power of Avalokiteshvara; right away he took refuge and the
Bodhisattva vows from him, to protect and maintain the holy Dharma.”
Maharakta 12 Armed Red Ganapati. On October 1, the great remover of obstacles. Venerable
Zasep Rinpoche will offer precious empowerment on Oct 1, 2021 via Zoom (details below.)
Heart Dharani of Ganesha
Ganapati’s Heart Dharani is a Sutra proclaimed by Shakyamuni Buddha in the Arya Ganapati
Hridaya. [1 ] [See the full quoted Sutra below.] In the sutra, Buddha suggested Ganapati’s
dharani be practiced first, before other practices and meditations, to help remove obstacles to
practice. Buddha said to Venerable Ananda:
“Retain this, the Heart of Ganapati. The people who read this will accomplish all their
endeavors. All the aspirations they hold in their minds will be accomplished as well. They will
accomplish all the secret mantras, too. All their wealth and resources will become abundant.”
Venerable Zasep Rinpoche said:
“At the time of Buddha Shakyamuni, Buddha advised his chief disciple Maha Ananda, that the
monks, nuns and lay devotees should first take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, then
make offerings to Ganesha. They should recite his Mantras seven times, twenty-one times or
108 times, then they could achieve their wishes and remove obstacles to Dharma practice.”
The shortest version of the mantra would be:
OM AH GA HUM SVAHA
In simple terms: Om Ah and Hum respectively represent Buddha’s Body, Speech and Mind
and GA is the seed-syllable of Ganapati Ganesha.
The full Dharani Shakyamuni Buddha referred to, is:
TADYATHĀ/ NAMO TUDDHE/ GANAPATI/ KATA KATA/ KITI KITI/ KUTA KUTA/
MATRA MATRA/ DARA DARA/ DHAHA DHAHA/ GHRINA GHRINA/ DABĀ DABĀ/
JAMBHA JAMBHA/ SAMAYA MANUSMARANA TUDDE TUDTRA/ BACHANAYE
SVĀHĀ/ ABUTE BHIDUKSHA BANCHA TANA/ BASAMA GARACHHA/ THAMAHA
BHAYA/ MAHĀBAYĀ/ MAHETETA KSHINIYA/ PRAKOMPAYASI/ TADYATHĀ/ OM
KURU KURU/ MURU MURU/ CHURU CHURU/ NAMA NAMA SVĀHĀ
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A very old image of 12-armed Ganapati.
Prayer to 12-armed Ganapati
Traditionally, devotees would make a daily offering of flowers, carrots, and other sweet
offerings with a simple prayer such as:
Lord Ganapati, you are the embodiment of
Vajra Body, Speech and Mind of the Buddhas
Arising from non-dual wisdom,
I offer fragrant flowers, carrots and other substances,
To you, the Lord who removes obstructors,
I pray to you and your entourage,
Please send your blessings and siddhas upon us!
Siddhas can be loosely translated as “wish-granting” although depending on context has many
meanings, including the greatest of Siddhis — Enlightenment.
The Wish-Granting Ganapati with 12 Arms
Ngorchen Konchog Lhundrup (1497 – 1557) described Ganapati (Great Red Ganehsa) as
“…beside a lapis lazuli rock mountain is a red lotus with eight petals, [standing on] …a blue
rat expelling various jewels; Shri Ganapati with a body red in colour, having an elephant face
with sharp white tusks and possessing three eyes, black hair tied in a topknot with a wishinggem and a red silk ribbon [all] in a bundle on the crown of the head. With twelve hands, the
six right [hands] hold an axe, arrow, hook, vajra, sword and spear. The six left [hold] a pestle,
bow, khatvanga, skullcup filled with blood, skullcup filled with human flesh and a shield
together with a spear and banner. The peaceful right and left hands are signified by the vajra
and skullcup filled with blood held to the heart. The remaining hands are displayed in a
threatening manner. Wearing various silks as a lower garment and adorned with a variety of
jewel ornaments, the left foot is extended in a dancing manner, standing in the middle of the
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bright rays of red flickering light.” [Antique thangka of 12 Armed Maha Rakta in the Rubin
Museum collection.
2]
Ganapati — Clears Away Obstacles
As the clearer of obstacles, he often appears prominently in many mandalas and Thangkas, or
at the door of the temple or home. (For example, see 12-Armed Maha Rakta Ganapati top left
of the Hayagriva Sangdrup thangka below.) As a remover of obstacles, he is a vital symbol and
Enlightened Deity.
Ganesha under foot?
As the clearer obstacles, he appears symbolically under the feet of Mahakala — not because
his brother Mahakala is subduing him or trampling on him, but because this symbolizes
Ganesha supporting Mahakala’s work. This is why Ganesh does not appear in distress under
the feet of Mahakala of Vinayaka [See thangka of Vignantaka standing on Ganesha below];
both are emanations of Avalokiteshvara.
Ganapati clears away obstacles, obscurations — and supports our practice. Ganesha practice is
foundational and supportive — symbolized by under our feet — or, where he is our key
“clearing” practice he appears at the doorway, protecting us.
Ārya Mahā Gaṇapati Hṛdaya
namo bhagavate āryamahāgaṇapatihṛdayāya |
namo ratnatrayāya ||
Thus I have heard. Upon a time, the Blessed One was staying at Rajagriha, on the Vulture Peak,
together with a great assembly of monks: forty-five hundreds of monks and numerous great
Bodhisattvas. On that occasion the Blessed One told the Venerable Ananda:
“Ananda, whoever, son or daughter of high birth, would keep [in mind], recite, obtain and
propagate these “heart” [mantras] of Ganapati, his will be the accomplishments of all his
tasks”
oṃ namo ‘stu te mahāgaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ |
oṃ namo gaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇādhipataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇeśvarāya svāhā |
oṃ gaṇapatipūjitāya svāhā |
oṃ kaṭa kaṭa maṭa maṭa dara dara vidara vidara hana hana gṛhṇa gṛhṇa dhāva dhāva
bhañja bhañja jambha jambha tambha tambha stambha stambha moha moha deha
deha dadāpaya dadāpaya dhanasiddhi me prayaccha |
oṃ rudrāvatārāya svāhā |
oṃ adbhutavindukṣubhitacittamahāhāsam āgacchati |
mahābhayamahābalaparākramāya mahāhastidakṣiṇāya dadāpaya svāhā |
oṃ namo ‘stu te mahāgaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ gaḥ |
oṃ namo gaṇapataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇeśvarāya svāhā |
oṃ gaṇādhipataye svāhā |
oṃ gaṇapatipūjitāya svāhā |
oṃ suru suru svāhā | oṃ turu turu svāhā | oṃ muru muru svāhā |
“These Ananda, are the “hearts” of Ganapati”
“Any son or daughter of high birth, whether monk or nun, lay brother or sister who undertakes
any matter [such as] accomplishing the [rites to call a sacred being by means of] mantra,
worshipping the Three Jewels, travelling to another country, going to the royal court or
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concealing [from view] should upon worshipping the Blessed Buddha, practice seven times the
Arya Ganapati Hrdaya [spells]: for him all tasks will be accomplished; no doubt about this!.
He should forever put an end to all strifes and quarrels , violence and envy, and become entirely
calm. Day upon day abiding the rules and practicing a full seven times: it will come out into
the fortune of this great one! Upon his coming to the royal court there will be great kindness
(prasada). He will become “Keeper of hearing [1]” (Shruti-Dhara). There wil be no major
illness to his body. Never will he assume the descent as a tara-praksina or the descent as a
humble bee: nothing ellse will occur to him that the Mind of Awakening. In every birth he will
be remembering [his previous] births.”
Thus spoke the Blessed One, and upon receiving [his teaching] these monks, these great
Bodhisattvas and whole attendance, the world with the gods, the humans, the asuras, the
garudas and the gandarvas rejoiced at the words of the Blessed One.
Red Ganapati in Tibetan Buddhism.
Practicing Ganapati
Although it is best to have empowerment, any with faith and good heart can practice this
sadhana and mantra with one proviso — you must not self-generate as Ganapati. If you have
a Yidam, you would self-generate as your own Yidam, then visualize/imagine Ganapati in
front of you.
Sadhana of Twelve-armed Red Ganesha Wishfulfilling Jewel
Compiled by Gyal Khenpo Drakpa Gyaltsen
Translated, modified with the addition of refuge, Bodhicitta, offerings, dedication and
auspicious prayers by Zasep Tulku Losang Tenzin Gyaltsen.
NAMO GURU VAJRA VARNAYE
Maha Deva, Tsog Dagpo Ganesha is the protector for yogis and yoginis who have honored
Samaya and who practice the Sadhana.
Ganesha is the source of virtue and prosperity. He is the provider of glory and good fortune of
the three realms, so I make supplications to him to protect life and Dharma practice.
First set up the altar for Ganesha, place a statue or painting on the altar, arrange a jewel shaped
red Torma decorated with butter ornaments of Sun, Moon and Nanda. Also set up the special
three white offerings— milk, yogurt, and rock sugar with carrot. Set up two sets of offering
bowls starting from right to left on the altar.
If you have the initiation of Heruka, Vajrayogini, Yamantaka Hayagriva, or Six-Armed
Mahakala, do the short Sadhana of that deity (or at the very least, do the mantras). Sit on a
comfortable cushion, place the Bell, Vajra, Damaru and inner nectar cup on the table in front
of you, and begin with the Yidam deity Sadhana, then front- generated Puja of Ganesha.
Taking Refuge
For myself and all sentient beings throughout space I go for refuge until I am enlightened
To my Gurus, the Buddhas, the Dharma and the Supreme Sangha. (x3)
Cultivating Bodhicitta
For the benefit of all sentient beings I must achieve full Enlightenment.
For this purpose, I shall practice the Guru Yoga for the Wisdom and prosperity deity, Maha
Deva Ganapati. (x3)
Consecrate the Torma offerings in advance
OM RURU PURU ZWALA TISHTA SIDDHA LOTSANI SARVA ARTA SADHANAYE
SVAHA
(x3)
(While saying the above mantra do the Sky Treasure mudra) OM VAJRA AMRITA
KUNDALI HANA HANA HUNG PHET
OM SVABHAVA SHUDDHA SARVA DHARMA SVABHAVA SHUDDHO HUNG
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From
the
state
of
emptiness
I
visualize
—as Heruka, Vajrayogini, Yamantaka (or whichever deity I practice).
myself
arising
I invite Great Maha Deva Ganesha to this marvelous mountain of lapis lazuli light, decorated
by the red lotus flowers and the great fabled blue mongoose vomiting all kinds of jewels. He
has the red syllable GAM on his back, then the red GAM transforms into glorious Red
Ganesha with elephant face, three eyes and long white tusks. His hair is tied up on his crown
and decorated with red jewels on the top and silk strips hanging on the side. He has twelve
arms; the first right arm holds an axe, the second a great arrow, the third an iron hook, the
fourth a Vajra, the fifth a sword, the sixth a Phangdu (spear). His first left hand holds a
wooden pestle, the second a bow, the third a Khatvanga, the fourth a skullcup filled with
blood, the fifth a skullcup filled with meat, the sixth holds a shield with a silk strip banner.
He is also holding a Vajra and bell at his heart. He wears a Dhoti (lower garment) with
marvelous jewels. His left foot stands on a great fabled blue mouse and his right foot is in the
dancing posture. On his crown there is an OM, at his throat an AH, and at his heart a HUM.
At the center of his heart, there is a GAM, the seed syllable of Ganesha.
Light shines forth from my heart as an invocation of Maha Deva Ganesha from one of the 33
realms of Devas known as Do Amo Linka; the glorious Maha Deva Ganesha and his
unimaginable entourage descend and dissolve into the front- generated Ganesha. (Ring bell)
OM GA GA SIDDHI SIDDHI SARVA ARTHA METRA SADA YA HUM HUM ZA ZA
SOHA (x100 or recite as much as you can)
DZA HUM BAM HO
The commitment beings and wisdom beings become one.
PADMA KAMALA YE TAM
SAMAYA HO
Absorbing the Wisdom Beings and Receiving the Empowerment
From the blue HUM at my heart light-rays emanate bringing forth
From their natural abodes the wisdom beings and the empowering deities.
The wisdom-beings dissolve into me. We become non-dual. The empowering deities confer
the empowerment on me, the surplus nectar remains
Above me as Amitabha Buddha on the crown of my head. Making offerings that have been
blessed from above, Consecrated water, purified water, flowers and powder incense,
Bright flame, excellent aromas, high quality delicious food, All kinds of beautiful musical
instruments I offer to Opponents of Mara and the great Maha Deva Ganesha. Whatever I have
obtained, as well as imagined offerings,
I consecrate them by the power of my mantra recitation, Concentration and fine mudras. I
also bless them,
I offer them with great care and honor to the deities
I request and make supplications to Maha Deva,
Please provide long life, virtues, power and energy,
Glory, prosperity and all kinds of marvels,
All my wishes fulfilled without any hindrance.
Offerings to Ganapati
( Here make Kriya Tantra offering mudras, or visualize making the offerings.)
OM GANAPATI ARGHAM, PADYAM, PUSHPE, DHUPE, ALOKE, GANDHE,
NAIVIDYA, SHABDA, HUM SVAHA OM GANAPATI OM AH HUM !
Praise to Maha Deva Ganesha
The embodiment of Buddha’s body, speech and mind,
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Arise from the non-dual wisdom.
The Lord of accumulation, the power of accumulation and owner of accumulation,
I prostrate to the great owner of the Geg obstacles.
Translator’s note: Ganesha is known as Geg Kyi Gyalpo, the king of obstacles, owner of
obstacles. This term sometimes causes a bit of confusion and concern. Lord Ganesha is a god
of peace, love, prosperity and remover of hindrances. He never causes harm or obstacles. But
from a divine Lila point of view he has a subtle influence, inspiring living beings to be joyful
and playful. He generates long life, good health and lots of fun in life. There is nothing else
quite like him; he is unusual. With his elephant face, he looks majestic and very beautiful.
Playful, powerful, kind, generous and somewhat child-like, he is not serious like other
Protectors, and enjoys wealth and the good life. For some Dharma practitioners, who have
little sense of humour, they doubt that Ganesha is serious enough. While he inspires people
with worldly happiness, sometimes this can be an obstacle and a distraction for their minds.
However, I think in this degeneration age we need gods like him when we are facing
suffering, sadness, depression, dangers of pandemics and illness. We need joyful cheerful
happy Dharma Protectors like Lord Ganesha.
Mantra recitation of Ganesha-Ganapati
From the heart of myself, visualized as the Yidam mantra, light rays emanate and strike at the
GAM syllable at the heart of the front-generated deity, requesting a rain of food, wealth and
all kinds of siddhis.
Mantra of glorious Ganesha.
OM AH GA HUNG SOHA (x100)
(When you do Lerung retreat do 100,000 mantras, or you could recite until you receive good
signs of realization.)
OM GAM GANA SIDDHI SODHA METRI YAZA HUNG SOHA (x 21)
Make Mandala offering, concentrating on the object of offerings.
I offer mind-capturing flowers, ornaments and jewels, Sweet Ladoo made with rice, honey,
sugar and turmeric, Fresh carrots and fruit with hundreds of flavours, Cloud-like offerings of
the ten directions;
Please accept these offerings with delight.
Mandala-like beautiful food, lamp light, and water offerings, Rice wine, raisin wine and
sweet drinks,
Naturally pure or fermented drinks,
Accept these uncontaminated offerings.
Blessed by Samadhi, Mantras and Mudras,
Accept these desirable good quality offerings,
Which I set up with a pure mind and my imagination, Ver
Very old thangka of 12-armed Ganapati.
Great Maha Deva Ganesha, enjoy my offerings.
OM GANAPATI, ARGHAM, PADYAM, PUSHPE, DHUPE, ALOKE, GHANDE,
NAIVIDYA, SHABDA OM GANAPATI OM AH HUM
When you wish to make Torma offerings, here is the method
OM HUNG HA HO HRI (x 3)
The front-generated deity drinks the essence of the Torma, drawing it up with his tongue in
the form of a Vajra straw.
OM GANAPATI SAPARIVARA IDAM BALINGTA KHA KHA KAHI KAHI (x3)
OM GANAPATI AKARO MUKAM SARVA DHARMA NAM ADYA
NUPANA NATWATI NAMA SARVA TATHAGATA AVALOKETISHVARA OM
SAMBARA SAMBARA HUM (x3)
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OM GANAPATI, ARGHAM, PADYAM, PUSHPE, DHUPE, ALOKE, GHANDE,
NAIVIDYA, SHABDA
OM GANAPATI OM AH HUM
Say the 100 syllable mantra of Vajrasattva
OM VAJRA SATTVA SAMAYA MANU PALAYA
VAJRA SATTVA TENO PATISHTA DRIDHO ME BHAVA
SUTO KAYO ME BHAVA SUPO KAYO ME BHAVA ANURAKTO ME BHAVA SARVA
SIDDHI ME PRAYACCHA SARVA KARMA SUCHA ME
CHITTAM SHRIYAM KURU HUM HA HA HA HA HO
BHAGAVAN SARVA TATHAGATA VAJRA MA ME MUNCHA
VAJRA BHAVA MAHA SAMAYA SATTVA AH HUM PHAT
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Chapter 10
Chamundi Dervi- The Tantric Versionof Hindu
Goddesses
Tantra by itself is a complex subject and to trace its migration to S.E. Asia is a task by itself.
Therefore I have tried to arrange my thoughts in quick explaination of Tantra and its
migration to Java to start with.
There has been a lot of misunderstanding surrounding tantra and the tantric practices of
Buddhism and Hinduism over the years. There are diverse attitudes towards the traditions and
a lot of misconception, ranging from their classic impression as the pathway to liberation to the
general relations to libertine sexuality and sorcery. To understand tantra in all its traditions and
doctrines, it is essential to trace its origins to where it all started.
There have been various attempts to determine the origin of tantra and the tantric traditions.
Many have tried to trace the tradition to the early time of the ancient Hindu or Buddha sages.
There have also been indications that showed that tantra can be traced to the Indus Valley
civilization era. With the different efforts that have been put in gear to date the tantra traditions,
it seems that the earliest tantric practice was first discovered in the Hindu framework around
the first millennium CE.
The tantric traditions and practices originated during the first millennium CE within Hinduism.
During this period, the Hindu tradition went through a significant cycle of transition and
transformations from ancient Vedic to the classic traditions of the Hindus. This is the era that
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heralded the growth of the Bhakti and tantric movements. While the Bhakti devotional
movement grew from the predisposition to monotheism as seen in the late Vedic literature, the
tantric tradition grew from the Vedic ritual, meditative, and yogic traditions which developed
within the ancient Hinduism and the rival Jain and Buddhist traditions. The Hinduism being
practiced today is the result of the fusion of tantric and the devotional inclinations to practice
which grew around the first millennium CE.
Tantra, as practiced in Buddhism and Hinduism, has been poorly perceived because of the
strong connection of the tantric traditions with violent ritual practices, sexuality, and magical
practices. This has made the practice to be associated with black magic over the past centuries
in India. However, the practice of tantra is manifold which spans many cultural and religious
traditions. Tantra primarily focuses on meditative and ritual practices which use tantras, the
genre of scripture that acts as the canonical foundation for the many tantric traditions, as its
basis.
One very important force in the history of the propagation of tantra is lineage. This is the
transmission of the teachings across an uninterrupted lineage from the master to the disciple.
This lineage focus is found across the tantric world which originated from India and was
transmitted to East Asia and Tibet.
Based on the development of this tradition, it can be categorically stated that Tantra originated
from India around the 300-400 CE when the Buddhist and Hindu tantric content was first
documented as poetic metaphors indicating Divine love and oneness. These texts were
intentionally kept obscured so that only the initiates would be able to understand them. During
this period, tantra teachings were well guarded and conveyed from masters to disciples orally.
This is done after a specified period of purification and preparation.
Between the 11th and 12th centuries, the practice of tantra has reached its peak and was being
practiced openly and widely in India. Tantric yogis believed that the suffering of human
emanates from the negative notion of separation. The practice, therefore, promotes the
celebration of the sensual which transcend the physical.
Tantra ( तन्त्र,
'loom,
weave,
warp')
are
the esoteric traditions
of Hinduism and Buddhism that developed on the Indian subcontinent from the middle of the
1st millennium CE onwards The term tantra, in the Indian traditions, also means any
systematic broadly applicable "text, theory, system, method, instrument, technique or
practice". A key feature of these traditions is the use of mantras, and thus they are commonly
referred to as Mantramārga ("Path of Mantra") in Hinduism or Mantrayāna ("Mantra Vehicle")
and Guhyamantra ("Secret Mantra") in Buddhism.
Starting in the early centuries of the common era, newly revealed Tantras centering
on Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti emergedThere are tantric lineages in all main forms of modern
Hinduism, such as the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition, the Shakta sect of Sri-Vidya, the Kaula,
and Kashmir Shaivism.
In Buddhism, the Vajrayana traditions are known for tantric ideas and practices, which are
based on Indian Buddhist Tantras. They include Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Esoteric
Buddhism, Japanese Shingon Buddhism and Nepalese Newar Buddhism. Although Southern
Esoteric Buddhism does not directly reference the tantras, its practices and ideas parallel them.
Tantric Hindu and Buddhist traditions have also influenced other Eastern religious
traditions such
as Jainism,
the
Tibetan Bön tradition, Daoism,
and
the
Japanese Shintō tradition.
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Certain modes of non-Vedic worship such as Puja are considered tantric in their conception
and rituals. Hindu temple building also generally conforms to the iconography of tantra. Hindu
texts describing these topics are called Tantras, Āgamas or Samhitās. In Buddhism, tantra has
influenced the art and iconography of Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism, as well as historic
cave temples of India and the art of Southeast Asia.
Chamunda (Sanskrit:
र्ामुण्डा)
also
known
as Chamundeshwari, Chamundi or Charchika, is a fearsome form of Chandi, the
Hindu Divine Mother Shakti and is one of the seven Matrikas (mother goddesses).She is also
one of the chief Yoginis, a group of sixty-four or eighty-one Tantric goddesses, who are
attendants of the warrior goddess Parvati. The name is a combination of Chanda and Munda,
two monsters whom Chamunda killed. She is closely associated with Kali, another fierce aspect
of Parvati. She is identified with goddesses Parvati, Kali or Durga.
The goddess is often portrayed as residing in cremation grounds or around holy fig trees. The
goddess is worshipped by ritual animal sacrifices along with offerings of wine. The practice of
animal sacrifices has become less common with Shaivite and Vaishnavite influences.
Chamunda was originally a tribal goddess, worshipped by the tribals of the Vindhya mountains
in central India. These tribes were known to offer goddesses animal as well as human
sacrifices along with rituals offering liquor. These methods of worship were retained in Tantric
worship of Chamunda, after assimilation into Hinduism. He proposes the fierce nature of this
goddess is due to her association with Rudra (Shiva), identified with fire god Agni at
times. Wangu also backs the theory of the tribal origins of the goddess.
Chamunda, 11th-12th century, National Museum, Delhi. The ten-armed Chamunda is seated
on a corpse, wearing a necklace of severed heads.
The black or red coloured Chamunda is described as wearing a garland of severed heads or
skulls (Mundamala). She is described as having four, eight, ten or twelve arms, holding
a Damaru (drum), trishula (trident), sword, a snake, skull-mace (khatvanga), thunderbolt, a
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severed head and panapatra (drinking vessel, wine cup) or skull-cup (kapala), filled with
blood. Standing on a corpse of a man (shava or preta) or seated on a defeated demon or corpse
(pretasana). Chamunda is depicted adorned by ornaments of bones, skulls, and serpents. She
also wears a Yajnopavita (a sacred thread worn by mostly Hindu priests) of skulls. She wears
a jata mukuta, that is, headdress formed of piled, matted hair tied with snakes or skull
ornaments. Sometimes, a crescent moon is seen on her head. Her eye sockets are described as
burning the world with flames. She is accompanied by evil spirits. She is also shown to be
surrounded by skeletons or ghosts and beasts like jackals, who are shown eating the flesh of
the corpse which the goddess sits or stands on. The jackals and her fearsome companions are
sometimes depicted as drinking blood from the skull-cup or blood dripping from the severed
head, implying that Chamunda drinks the blood of the defeated enemies. This quality of
drinking blood is a usual characteristic of all Matrikas, and Chamunda in particular. At times,
she is depicted seated on an owl, her vahana (mount or vehicle) or buffalo and or Dhole. Her
banner figures an eagle.These characteristics, a contrast to usual Hindu goddess depiction with
full breasts and a beautiful face, are symbols of old age, death, decay and
destruction. Chamunda is often said as a form of Kali, representing old age and death. She
appears as a frightening old woman, projecting fear and horror.
The Goddess Ambika (here identified with: Durga or Chandi) leading the Eight Matrikas in Battle Against the
Demon Raktabīja, Folio from a Devi Mahatmya - (top row, from the left) Narasimhi, Vaishnavi, Kumari,
Maheshvari, Brahmi. (bottom row, from left) Varahi, Aindri and Chamunda, drinking the blood of demons (on
right) arising from Raktabīja's blood and Ambika.
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n Hindu scripture Devi Mahatmya, Chamunda emerged as Chandika Jayasundara from an
eyebrow of goddess Kaushiki, a goddess created from "sheath" of Durga and was assigned the
task of eliminating the demons Chanda and Munda, generals of demon kings ShumbhaNishumbha. She fought a fierce battle with the demons, ultimately killing them.
According to a later episode of the Devi Mahatmya, Durga created Matrikas from herself and
with their help slaughtered the demon army of Shumbha-Nishumbha. In this version, Kali is
described as a Matrika who sucked all the blood of the demon Raktabīja, from whose blood
drop rose another demon. Kali is given the epithet Chamunda in the text. Thus, the Devi
Mahatmya identifies Chamunda with Kali
In the Varaha Purana, the story of Raktabija is retold, but here each of Matrikas appears from
the body of another Matrika. Chamunda appears from the foot of the lion-headed
goddess Narasimhi. Here, Chamunda is considered a representation of the vice of tale-telling
(pasunya). The Varaha Purana text clearly mentions two separate goddesses Chamunda and
Kali, unlike Devi Mahatmya. According to another legend, Chamunda appeared from the frown
of the benign goddess Parvati to kill demons Chanda and Munda. Here, Chamunda is viewed
as a form of Parvati.[20]
The Matsya Purana tells a different story of Chamunda's origins. She with other matrikas was
created by Shiva to help him kill the demon Andhakasura, who has an ability - like Raktabīja
- to generate from his dripping blood. Chamunda with the other matrikas drinks the blood of
the demon ultimately helping Shiva kill him.[9] Ratnakara, in his text Haravijaya, also
describes this feat of Chamunda, but solely credits Chamunda, not the other matrikas of sipping
the blood of Andhaka. Having drunk the blood, Chamunda's complexion changed to bloodred.[21] The text further says that Chamunda does a dance of destruction, playing a musical
instrument whose shaft is Mount Meru, the string is the cosmic snake Shesha and gourd is the
crescent moon. She plays the instrument during the deluge that drowns the world.
Chamunda, LACMA, Bengal, 11th century AD India.
Chamunda is one of the saptamatrikas or Seven Mothers. The Matrikas are fearsome
mother goddesses, abductors and eaters of children; that is, they were emblematic of childhood
pestilence, fever, starvation, and disease. They were propitiated in order to avoid those ills, that
carried off so many children before they reached adulthood. Chamunda is included in
the Saptamatrika (seven Matrikas or mothers) lists in the Hindu texts like
the Mahabharata (Chapter 'Vana-parva'), the Devi Purana and the Vishnudharmottara
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Purana. She is often depicted in the Saptamatrika group in sculptures, examples of which
are Ellora and Elephanta caves. Though she is always portrayed last (rightmost) in the group,
she is sometimes referred to as the leader of the group. While other Matrikas are considered
as Shaktis (powers) of male divinities and resemble them in their appearance, Chamunda is the
only Matrika who is a Shakti of the great Goddess Devi rather than a male god. She is also the
only Matrika who enjoys independent worship of her own; all other Matrikas are always
worshipped together.
The Devi Purana describe a pentad of Matrikas who help Ganesha to kill demons.[24] Further,
sage Mandavya is described as worshipping the Māṭrpaňcaka (the five mothers), Chamunda
being one of them. The mothers are described as established by the creator god Brahma for
saving king Harishchandra from calamities. Apart from usual meaning of Chamunda as slayer
of demons Chanda and Munda, the Devi Purana gives a different explanation: Chanda means
terrible while Munda stands for Brahma's head or lord or husband.
In the Vishnudharmottara Purana - where the Matrikas are compared to vices - Chamunda is
considered as a manifestation of depravity. Every matrika is considered guardian of a direction.
Chamunda is assigned the direction of south-west.
Chamunda, being a Matrika, is considered one of the chief Yoginis, who are considered to be
daughters or manifestations of the Matrikas. In the context of a group of sixty-four yoginis,
Chamunda is believed to have created seven other yoginis, together forming a group of eight.
In the context of eighty-one yoginis, Chamunda heads a group of nine yoginis.
A South Indian inscription describes ritual sacrifices of sheep to Chamunda. In Bhavabhuti's
eighth century Sanskrit play, Malatimadhva describes a devotee of the goddess trying to
sacrifice the heroine to Chamunda's temple, near a cremation ground, where the goddess temple
is. A stone inscription at Gangadhar, Rajasthan, deals with a construction to a shrine to
Chamunda and the other Matrikas, "who are attended by Dakinis" (female demons) and rituals
of daily Tantric worship (Tantrobhuta) like the ritual of Bali (offering of grain).
The Chapa dynasty worshiped her as their Kuladevi. The Kutch Gurjar Kshatriyas worship her
as Kuladevi and temples are in Sinugra and Chandiya. Alungal family, a lineage
of Mukkuva caste — (Hindu caste of seafarer origin) in Kerala — worship Chamundi in
Chandika form, as Kuladevta and temple is in Thalikulam village of Thrissur, Kerala. This is
an example of Chamunda worship across caste sects.
Temples
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8th-century Baitala Deula in Bhubaneswar, Odisha dedicated to Chamunda/Chamundeshwari
Temple in Mysuru, Karnataka
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•
•
•
•
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In the Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, around 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) west
of Palampur, is the renowned Chamunda Devi Temple which depicts scenes from the Devi
Mahatmya, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The goddess's image is flanked by the
images of Hanuman and Bhairava. Another temple, Chamunda Nandikeshwar Dham, also
found in Kangra, is dedicated to Shiva and Chamunda. According to a legend, Chamunda
was enshrined as chief deity "Rudra Chamunda", in the battle between the
demon Jalandhara and Shiva.
In Gujarat, two Chamunda shrines are on the hills of Chotila and Parnera.
There are multiple Chamunda temples in Odisha. The 8th-century Baitala Deula is the most
prominent of them, also being one of the earliest temples in Bhubaneswar. The Mohini
temple and Chitrakarini temple in Bhubaneswar are also dedicated to
Chamunda. Kichakeshwari Temple, near the Baripada and Charchika Temple,
near Banki enshrine forms of Chamunda.
Another temple is Chamundeshwari Temple on Chamundi Hill, Mysore. Here, the goddess
is identified with Durga, who killed the buffalo demon, Mahishasura. Chamundeshwari or
Durga, the fierce form of Shakti, a tutelary deity held in reverence for centuries by
the Maharaja of Mysore.
The Chamunda Mataji temple in Mehrangarh Fort, Jodhpur, was established in 1460 after
the idol of the goddess Chamunda — the Kuladevi and iṣṭa-devatā (tutelary deity) of
the Parihar rulers — was moved from the old capital of Mandore by the then-ruler Jodha
of Mandore. The goddess is still worshiped by the royal family of Jodhpur and other
citizens of the city. The temple witnesses festivities in Dussehra: the festival of the
goddess.
Another temple, Sri Chamundeshwari Kshetram is near Jogipet, in Medak District
in Telangana State.
Sree Shakthan Kulangara temple is one of Chamundeshwari temples. It is located
in Koyilandy, Kozhikode District in Kerala.
One Chamunda Mata temple is situated in Dewas, Madhya Pradesh, It is situated on a hill
top named Tekri above 300 feet. Chamunda Mata in Dewas is also called Choti Mata (the
younger sister of Tulja mata, situated at the same hill top)
In Vajrayana Buddhism, Chamunda is associated with Palden Lhamo. She is seen as a wrathful
form of Kali and is a consort of Mahakala and protectress of the Dalai Lama and Panchen
Lama of the Gelug school. Early Jains were dismissive of Chamunda, the goddess who
demands blood sacrifice - which is against the primary principle of Ahimsa of Jainism. Some
Jain legends portray Chamunda as a goddess defeated by Jain monks like Jinadatta and
Jinaprabhasuri.
Another Jain legend tells the story of conversion of Chamunda into a Jain goddess. According
to this story, Chamunda sculpted the Mahavir image for the temple in Osian and was happy
with the conversions of Hindu Oswal clan to Jainism. At the time of Navaratri, a festival that
celebrates the Hindu Divine Mother, Chamunda expected animal sacrifices from the converted
Jains. The vegetarian Jains, however, were unable to meet her demand. Jain monk
Ratnaprabhasuri intervened, and as a result, Chamunda accepted vegetarian offerings, forgoing
her demand for meat and liquor. Ratnaprabhasuri further named her Sacciya, one who had told
the truth, as Chamunda had told him the truth that a rainy season stay in Osian was beneficial
for him. She also became the protective goddess of the temple and remained the clan goddess
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of the Osvals. The Sachiya Mata Temple in Osian was built in her honour by Jains. Some Jain
scriptures warn of dire consequences of worship of Chamunda by the Hindu rites and rituals.
Many Kshatriyas and even the Jain community worship her as her Kuladevi or family/clan
deity.
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Chapter 11
The Incipient Tantrism of Borobudur
We as human have struggled to find ways to conceptualize the relation between textuality and
forms of the built environment.
Ever since its discovery by Raffles in 1814, Borobudur has been an object of mystery. Its
imposing size and the magnificence of its conception and carving aside, the uniqueness both
of its structural design and its iconography among religious monuments, not only in its
temporal and spatial proximity, but anywhere in the Indic world, has heightened its aspect of
enigma, inviting conjecture on its intention.
1. Who made Borobudur ?
2. what was it used for?
3. why was it made the way it was made?
these and similar questions arise immediately in connection with the monument. Though
more than 150 years have passed since its discovery, none of these questions have been
definitively answered, though some important preliminary headway has been made, in
establishing the period of its construction and in conclusively identifying the textual sources
of the carving.Borobudur, begun around 825, is the quite simply the largest Buddhist temple
in the world. It is decorated with around 500 statues of Lord Buddha, arranged in terraces of
decreasing size, as if on the sacred slopes of Mount Meru. It was built possibly by the
Sangramadha Nanjaya Sailendra dynasty of Mataram, Central Java, or maybe “charismatic
religious leaders rather than kings.” For surprisingly there is no great temple or palace
complex associated with it. The only inscription associated with Borobudur dates from 842
and is from a woman who gave land to sustain it. For all the mystery, this is the climax of the
ninth century golden age of Java, when so many remarkable monuments were built here, both
Hindu and Buddhist. Like many other monuments of this period Indic ideas have been taken
and dramatic new forms created with and from them.
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C. Twelve-Armed Chakrasamvara and His Consort Vajravarahi, ca. 12th century,
India (Bengal) or Bangladesh
D. A stone Kālacakra Mandala at the Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra, a Buddhist temple
in Patan, Nepal built in the 12th century.
Max Nihom in a 1994 monograph Studies in Indian and Indo-Indonesian Tantrism: The
Kuñjarakarṇadharmakathana and the Yogatantra accounted for some anomalies in the
evidence from insular Southeast Asia on the history of esoteric Buddhism, moving between
sources in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Old Javanese.
From the 8th to the 14th century, Tantric traditions rose to prominence and flourished
throughout India and beyond. By the 10th century, the main elements of tantric practice had
reached maturity and were being practiced in Saiva and Buddhist contexts. This period has
been referred to as the "Tantric Age" by some scholars due to prevalence of Tantra. Also by
the 10th century, numerous tantric texts (variously called Agamas, Samhitas and Tantras) had
been written, particularly in Kashmir, Nepal and Bengal.
By this time, Tantric texts had also been translated into regional languages such as Tamil, and
Tantric practices had spread across South Asia. Tantra also spread into Tibet, Indonesia and
China. Gavin Flood describes this "Tantric age" as follows:
Tantrism has been so pervasive that all of Hinduism after the eleventh century, perhaps with
the exception of the vedic Shruta tradition eeverything is influenced by it. Śrauta is a Sanskrit
word that means "belonging to śruti", that is, anything based on the Vedas of Hinduism. It is
an adjective and prefix for texts, ceremonies or person associated with śruti. The term, for
example, refers to Brahmins who specialise in the śruti corpus of texts, and Śrauta Brahmin
traditions in modern times can be seen in Kerala and Coastal AndhraAll forms
of Saiva, Vaisnava and Smarta religion, even those forms which wanted to distance themselves
from Tantrism, absorbed elements derived from the Tantras.
Though the whole northern and Himalayan part of India was involved in the development of
tantra, Kashmir was a particularly important center, both Saiva and Buddhist and numerous
key tantric texts were written there according to Padoux. According to Alexis Sanderson, the
Śaiva Tantra traditions of medieval Kashmir were mainly divided between the dualistic Śaiva
Siddhanta and the non-dualist theology found in Śakta lineages like the Trika, Krama
and Kaula. The non-dualists generally accepted and made use of sexual and transgressive
practices, while the dualists mostly rejected them.
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In Khmer
Saiva tantra was especially successful because it managed to forge strong ties with South Asian
kings who valued the power (shakti) of fierce deities like the warrior goddess Durga as a way
to increase their own royal power. These kings took part in royal rituals led by Saiva "royal
gurus" in which they were symbolically married to tantric deities and thus became the earthly
representative of male gods like Shiva. Saiva tantra could also employ a variety of protection
and destruction rituals which could be used for the benefit of the kingdom and the king. Tantric
Shaivism was adopted by the kings of Kashmir, as well as by the Somavamshis of Odisha,
the Kalachuris, and the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti (in Bundelkhand). There is also evidence of
state support from the Cambodian Khmer Empire. As noted by Samuel, in spite of the increased
depiction of female goddesses, these tantric traditions all seemed to have been mostly "maledirected and male-controlled."
During the "Tantric Age", Buddhist Tantra was embraced by the Mahayana Buddhist
mainstream and was studied at the great universities such as Nalanda and Vikramashila, from
which it spread to Tibet and to the East Asian states of China, Korea, and Japan. This new
Tantric Buddhism was supported by the Pala Dynasty (8th–12th century) which supported
these centers of learning. The later Khmer kings and the Indonesian Srivijaya kingdom also
supported tantric Buddhism. While the sexual and transgressive practices were mostly
undertaken in symbolic form (or through visualization) in later Tibetan Buddhist monastic
contexts, it seems that in the eighth to tenth century Indian context, they were actually
performed.
In Java
The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number
of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival
of Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st
century, by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. Although the majority
of Indonesian Buddhists are of the Chinese Mahayana school, more often than not the
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representative of Buddhism as selected by the Government would happen to be a Theravada
monk. The Buddha died in the early 5th century B.C. His teachings, called the dharma, spread
over Asia and developed into three basic traditions: Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana.
Buddhists call them "vehicles," meaning they are ways to carry pilgrims from suffering to
enlightenment.
That being said, very rarely one reads about the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan when
discussing the architecture of the incredible Borobudur stupa monument. Borobudur's popular
terms of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang
Kamahayanikan. In other words the design frescos of the Borubudur are directly influenced by
the contents of the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan.
This document is part of the prose literature of Javanese people. This Tantric Buddhist treatise
describes Javanese Buddhism, architecture and iconography. The back side of this literature
contain a name of Javanese king, i.e. Mpu Sindok, who ruled East Java from 929 to 947 CE.
The structure of Borobudur actually shows the developmental stages of a yogi’s experiences to
achieve Buddhahood where feelings and thoughts stop. Borobudur's popular term
of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.
It was written about 929-947 CE by Mpu Shri Sambhara Surya Warama from East Java, the
successor of the Mataram Kingdom which was shifted to East Java. However the development
of Esoteric Buddhism has a long history connected to the original birthplace of Buddha and the
trails and tribulations of the dogma of that time
Containing Mahayana (especially Vajrayana) Buddhism teachings, mostly about the list of
deities in found Mahayana Buddhism- which is often matched with the placement of
the Buddhist kings in the Borobudur temple. The literature also contains the procedures
in meditation.It teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first
practice Pāramitā, then described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. As an addition, it also
explained the philosophy of Adwaya that overcoming the dualism "existence" and "nonexistence”.
The text is restricted for the teachings in the Mahayana school, with focus on the tantric
path of the Yogacara School using Mantranaya or the Mantra method. The text has been divided
into two parts, each of which can be read independently.
1. The first section entitled Sang Hyang Kamahayanan Mantranaya, consists of 42
Sanskrit verses, each with a related commentary in elaborate old Javanese and
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regrouped under 11 subtopics and a conclusion.
2. The second section consists of instructions in 86 verses, written mainly in old Javanese,
with a few middle level Sanskrit references. Both texts belong to the same school and
are connected. The text is in a question and answer form.
The Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan consists of two parts, each of which forms a separate track.
The fi rst part consists of a connected series of Sanskrit strophes with a more or less elaborate
Old-Javanese commentary attached; at the end, the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya is
given as the title. It bears the same meaning as what is called mantracaryānaya in the verses
and generally known as the Mantrayāna.
The second part is a doctrine written in Old-Javanese, punctuated with a few Sanskrit
quotations of less high form, belonging to the same school as the first part, as per the
examination of the content. The practical teachings in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan are set
out in four steps. The first, Mahāmārga (the great path); second, Paramabodhimārga or
Paramamārga (the supreme path) has already been dealt with in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan
Mantranaya and at the beginning of the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Advaya Sadhana.
3. Third, Mahāguhya (the great secret) and fourth,
4. Paramaguhya (the supreme secret) is the subject of this part of the text. The above
practices are entry level meditations for tantric practices.
Sanghyang Kamahayanikan teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first
practice Pāramitā, then the described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. Additionally, it also
explains the philosophy of Adwaya; overcoming the dualism of “existence” and “nonexistence”. In the book, there is a very detailed description of how a tantric yogi prepares
himself for the spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of multilevel worship. It
is said that the Vajrayana doctrines are meditation towards the Five Tathagatas. By
worshipping them, a yogi can attain purity of mind.
Esoteric Buddhism is the mystical interpretation and practice of the belief system
founded by the Buddha (known as Sakyamuni Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE). It is known
by several names and is characterized by a personal relationship with a spirit guide or deity
who leads one to enlightenment.
An initiate must first study with a master who shares writings, teachings, and knowledge not
widely known and often referred to as "secret". The student masters various meditation
techniques and studies the tantra, generally understood to mean "the continuum" as expressed
in Tantric texts. This continuum is the pattern of universal love and compassion shown
throughout time by the supernatural entities of buddhas, of which Sakyamuni Buddha was only
one, to humanity.
An adherent of Esoteric Buddhism forms a relationship with one of these buddhas and is
then spiritually led by the entity (or deity) on the path toward enlightenment as a bodhisattva.
Vajrayana Buddhism (also known as Tibetan Buddhism) is regarded as a form of
both Mahayana Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism as it combines elements of both, and most
schools, like Zen Buddhism, follow this same pattern in taking what works best from other
schools to supplement the foundational teachings.
The beliefs and practices of Esoteric Buddhism are not as well known or widely recognized
as those of the popular Mahayana Buddhism because they are not supposed to be. The belief
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system is open only to those who feel called to follow it and are willing to submit themselves
to instruction by a master. The belief system may have developed as a reaction to
the Hindu Revival of the 8th century CE inspired by the work of the philosopher Shankara
(though this claim is challenged), which emphasized many of the same aspects of faith and
knowledge later espoused by Esoteric Buddhism, including foundational knowledge,
submission to a master’s teaching, and the importance of personal revelation.
Early Religious Reform
During the Vedic Period (c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE) in India, the belief system known as Sanatan
Dharma ("Eternal Order"), better known as Hinduism, developed from earlier beliefs through
the written works known as the Vedas which preserved a much older oral tradition. Hinduism
was highly ritualized at this time. The Vedas ("knowledge") were composed in Sanskrit which
most people could not understand, and the priests needed to interpret the texts, which were
thought to explain the universe, human life, and how one should best live it.
The Vedas maintained that there was a divine being, Brahman, who both created and was the
universe. A spark of the divine (the atman) was within each person, and the purpose of life was
to awaken this spark and live virtuously so that, after death, one’s own divine light would
merge with Brahman in eternal unity, and one would be freed from the cycle of rebirth and
death (known as samsara), which was associated with suffering.
Buddha Sculpture in Ajanta/ The Vedas (Rig-veda)
Around 600 BCE, a religious reform movement swept across India that questioned
orthodox Hinduism. Different schools of thought developed at this time known
as astika ("there exists"), which supported the Hindu claim regarding the existence of
the atman, and nastika ("there does not exist"), which rejected that claim as well as almost all
of the Hindu vision.
Nastika: The most famous nastika schools of the time were Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism.
The first was entirely materialistic and denied the existence of the soul. The second two, while
also denying the Hindu atman, recognized a self undifferentiated from the universe which
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suffered under the illusion it was a separate self distanced both from its source and from other
selves in the world.
Buddhism: Establishment & Development
Buddha, according to tradition, was a Hindu prince named Siddhartha Gautama who renounced
his position and wealth to seek spiritual enlightenment. He realized that suffering comes from
attachment to transitory aspects of life and life itself, which was in a constant state of change
and so could not be held, kept, or controlled, but which people insisted should be lasting. One
suffered by continually insisting on an impossible permanence. By recognizing this, and
following a path of non-attachment, one could attain nirvana ("liberation") at one’s death,
freeing the self from samsara and attendant suffering.
Buddha founded his system on acceptance of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path and
taught his disciples a spiritual discipline whereby they could attain individual enlightenment
just as he had. On his deathbed, he requested that no spiritual leader be chosen to replace him
and each of his disciples should continue on his own path. After his death, however, a leader
was chosen, and rules were written, and Buddha’s teachings were institutionalized.
The new faith splintered in 383 BCE over doctrinal differences, and many Buddhist schools
developed including Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika, which would encourage still more.
Buddhism at this time was vying with the more firmly established religions of Hinduism and
Jainism for adherents and made little headway until it was embraced by Ashoka the Great (r.
268-232 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire who not only helped establish the system in India but
spread it to Sri Lanka, Korea, Thailand, China, and Japan.
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Shankara & Hindu Revival
Buddhism was enthusiastically received in these other lands but continued to struggle to gain
and hold followers in India. Hinduism offered a greater variety of ritual and pageantry while
also advancing the concept that everyone held a spark of the divine, was in fact a divine being
and part of the universe, which contrasted sharply with the Buddhist doctrine of emptiness-ofself and simplicity of observance.
Buddhist efforts at conversion were hampered further by the Hindu Revival of the 8th and 9th
centuries CE encouraged (according to tradition, at least) by the sage Shankara who advocated
the doctrine of Advaita Vedānta ("non-duality") emphasizing the ultimate reality of Brahman,
the existence of the atman, and the illusory nature of all else. Only Brahman existed and human
beings existed, through the atman, as parts of Brahman. Shankara attacked Buddhist thought
for its denial of the atman, but his understanding of liberation through oneness of
the atman with Brahman is similar to the Buddhist concept of attaining nirvana through nonattachment.
Shankara’s doctrine relied on an adherent accepting a program based on revelation of ultimate
reality. The program had four aspects of equal importance:
• Śāstra – scriptures
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•
•
•
Yukti – reason
Anubhava – knowledge through experience
Karma – spiritually relevant actions
A student submitted to a teacher who helped them understand scripture, apply reason and
experience to interpretation of scripture, and act correctly on that interpretation. According to
some scholars, this paradigm directly influenced Esoteric Buddhism. According to other views,
the fundamentals of Esoteric Buddhism, especially a personal relationship with a spirit or deity,
were already centuries old by the time Shankara appeared. In this view, Shankara may have
influenced the 8th century CE form of Esoteric Buddhism, but his doctrine did not inspire or
inform the fundamental beliefs and practices.
Undeniably the text [of these works] exhibits some of the trappings of an Indian Buddhist text,
including many Sanskrit technical terms and doctrines of Indian origin. In an age when Chinese
Buddhists were looking to India for the authentic Buddhism, giving a Chinese composition a
Sanskrit veneer would make its presentation of a belief in the Absolute more credible. (435)
The belief system traveled from China to Japan where it was famously encouraged by Prince
Shotoku (r. 594-622 CE) who helped to establish it throughout the country. Esoteric Buddhism
was refined, systematized, and spread further by Kukai (also known as Kobo Daishi, l. 774835 CE), a scholar-monk and poet who founded Shingon Buddhism in Japan. Shingon ("True
Word") Buddhism adhered to the cosmic vision of Buddhism as an eternal set of strictures
which had been articulated clearly by the Buddha but not conceived of by him, nor had he been
the first buddha and certainly not the last. Shingon, like Vajrayana Buddhism, claimed one
could attain complete enlightenment in one’s lifetime and only by submitting to the discipline
of a virtuous teacher.
Copy of the Heart Sutra/ Chinese Diamond Sutra
Mainstream Buddhism emphasized adherence to the Eightfold Path after a recognition
of the Four Noble Truths which led one to enlightenment and freedom, at death, from the
cycle of rebirth. Esoteric Buddhism offers the same basic platform but claims one can attain
results more quickly by embracing and then letting go of the attachments of life as one becomes
more spiritually mature. One should not, then, renounce the world of illusion but recognize its
value since one could not accrue spiritual merit without it and, without the spiritual merit one
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earned through the discipline of distancing oneself from that world, one could not advance
toward enlightenment.
Buswell and Lopez note how one of the names for Esoteric Buddhism is Mantrayana and the
importance of reciting a personal mantra in staying the course toward higher values.
In the book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan there is a very detailed description of how a
tantric yogi prepare himself for spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of
multilevel worships. It is said that the Vajrayana doctrines is meditation towards Five
Tathagata. By worshipping them, a yogi can attain the purity of mind.
The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number
of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival
of Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st
century, by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. The oldest Buddhist
archaeological site in Indonesia is arguably the Batujaya stupas complex in Karawang, West
Java. The oldest relic in Batujaya was estimated to originate from the 2nd century, while the
latest dated from the 12th century. Subsequently, significant numbers of Buddhist sites were
found in Jambi, Palembang, and Riau provinces in Sumatra, as well as in Central and East
Java. The Indonesian archipelago has, over the centuries, witnessed the rise and fall of powerful
Buddhist empires, such as the Sailendra dynasty, the Mataram, and Srivijaya empires.
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Borobudur Temple Compounds, located in Central Java, Indonesia
According to some Chinese source, a Chinese Buddhist monk I-tsing on his pilgrim journey to
India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based on Sumatra in the 7th
century. The empire served as a Buddhist learning center in the region. A notable Srivijayan
revered Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti, a Srivijayan prince of the Sailendra dynasty, born
around the turn of the 7th century in Sumatra.[7] He became a revered scholar-monk in Srivijaya
and moved to India to become a teacher at the famed Nalanda University, as well as a poet. He
built on and reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic, and was very
influential among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative
in Tibet and are studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum. Other Buddhist
monks that visited Indonesia were Atisha, Dharmapala, a professor of Nalanda, and the South
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Indian Buddhist Vajrabodhi. Srivijaya was the largest Buddhist empire ever formed in
Indonesian history.
A number of Buddhist historical heritages can be found in Indonesia, including the 8th
century Borobudur mandala monument and Sewu temple in Central Java, Batujaya in West
Java, Muaro Jambi, Muara Takus and Bahal temple in Sumatra, and numerous of statues or
inscriptions from the earlier history of Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. During the era
of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit empire, buddhism — identified as Dharma ri Kasogatanwas acknowledged as one of kingdom's official religions along with Hinduism. Although some
of kings might favour Hinduism over another, nevertheless the harmony, toleration, and even
syncretism were promoted as manifested in Bhinneka Tunggal Ika national motto, coined
from Kakawin Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular to promotes tolerance
between Hindus (Shivaites) and Buddhists.[8] The classical era of ancient Java also had
produces some of the exquisite examples of Buddhist arts, such as the statue
of Prajnaparamita and the statue of Buddha Vairochana and Boddhisttva Padmapani and
Vajrapani in Mendut temple.
Shailendra dynasty,a dynasty that flourished in Java from about 750 to 850 after the fall of
the Funan kingdom of mainland Southeast Asia. The dynasty was marked by a great cultural
renaissance associated with the introduction of Mahāyāna Buddhism, and it attained a high
level of artistic expression in the many temples and monuments built under its rule. During the
reign of one of its kings, the famous stupa of Borobuḍur (q.v.) was built. The Social Context
of Politics and Culture Borobudur was built at the peak of the Shailendra dynasty’s reign during
a period when the system of government was highly feudalistic and rulers were selected
through conquest and lineage. At that time, there were two competing forces in the region,
namely the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty and the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty. The only written
evidence of the existence of the Sanjaya dynasty in Central Java is the Canggal inscription,
which is dated to 732. After that, the Sanjaya dynasty was suppressed by the Shailendra
dynasty, and the area was dominated by inscriptions from the Shailendra family.
Except for its legacy of monuments, little is known of the dynasty. It apparently emanated from
the agricultural lowlands of interior Java but extended its real power to the northwestern coasts
of the island, from which its emissaries traded with and raided the Malay peninsula and
Indochina. There is a Khmer tradition of Shailendra overlordship in the latter part of the 8th
century. The Shailendra dynasty was driven to Sumatra (Palembang) in the mid-9th century.
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bas-relief from the Shailendra dynasty-King and queen with subjects, bas relief from the
Shailendra dynasty, 8th century; in Borobudur, central Java, Indonesia.
The Buddhist temples that the Shailendra dynasty built were also magnificent and luxurious
in the southern region of Central Java, with Borobudur being the largest temple there.
Construction of the temple began around 750 AD and ended in the early decades of the 9th
century. By the mid-9 th century, relations had deteriorated severely between the Shailendra
and Sanjaya dynasties. The ending of the Shailendra dynasty in Java is generally dated to
around 852, when the Sanjaya ruler Pikatan defeated Shailendra’s ruler Balaputra.
This sequence of events indicates that far from strengthening the Shailendra dynasty, the
construction of the temple might have imposed an untenable burden on the population, possibly
weakening their support for their ruler and increasing their vulnerability to invasion and defeat.
The phenomenon of monumental buildings in the development of human civilisation is very
important and interesting to study for several reasons.
1. Firstly, the phenomenon shows the dynamics of the transformation of the metaphysical
dimension in the form of material culture, which provides an overview of the dynamics
of the economic development, power, technology and ideology of the civilisation
concerned .
2. Secondly, the establishment of monumental buildings in principle involves the
allocation of scarce resources, which has consequences on the development of social
welfare.
3. It is important to evaluate the financial and economic feasibility of allocating these
resources as the misallocation of resources has a great potential to reduce the level of
social welfare.1
One of the most remarkable monumental buildings representing ancient Javanese culture is
the Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia, built by the Shailendra dynasty during the
HinduBuddhist period of the 9th century AD . It is the largest Buddhist site in the world and
it remains in use today
A major attraction of Borobudur lies in the mystery that surrounds it –
1. There are no records that enable people living in the world today to know exactly who
constructed it and
2. why it was constructed.
3. how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits
were derived by people living at that time.
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4. how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits
were derived by the Royalty who commissioned it.
structure and spirit of Borobudur can only be understood from the perspective of Buddhism,
which originates in the Sutras and Tantras. It can be said that the reliefs carved on the walls
of the Borobudur indicate the existence of distinctive Buddhist teachings, which were a subtle
integration between Mahayana and Tantric teachings of Buddhism, particularly from the
Sanskrit and Ancient Javanese book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan. (See my paper of the same
name)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Ambiguous Feasibility of Borobudur Temple Irmawati Marwoto1 , Mandala Manurung2
1Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia, 2Department
of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia International Journal of
Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net Volume 14, Issue 8, 2020 749
This distinctive blend of indigenous Javanese and Indian Buddhism is also evidenced by the
selection of sutras and tantrasthat can be practisedin harmony, with no apparent cosmological
conflict. This implies that the monasteries in Java already had comprehensive religious
libraries, thus allowing the integration of religious teachings in a unified and holistic manner.
The predominance of these two Buddhist schools affecting the Borobudur temple does not
mean that the other streams did not have any influence on its form and uses.
Archaeologists have identified many Buddhist streams in the Borobudur reliefs. The
similarity among the various schools of Buddhism is evinced in their agreement that life is
suffering, that the cause of suffering can be eliminated, and that there are ways to eliminate it.
Thus, the way (yana) of eliminating the cause of suffering was developed by the various
schools of Buddhism.
Borobudur and Kedu Plain
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Mount Merapi, colour lithograph, Junghuhn and Mieling, 1853–1854
Borobudur
The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west of Gunung Merapi and south
west of Magelang, in Central Java. Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the
fertile volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to
the west, and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to presentday Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to the
9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its
reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya,
and Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta.
Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram.
Mount Merapi, Gunung Merapi (literally Fire Mountain in Indonesian and Javanese), is
an active stratovolcano located on the border between the province of Central Java and
the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia adjoining the Kedu Plains. It is the most active
volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. It is located approximately 28
kilometres (17 mi) north of Yogyakarta city which has a population of 2.4 million, and
thousands of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as 1,700 metres
(5,577 ft) above sea level.
Smoke can often be seen emerging from the mountaintop, and several eruptions have caused
fatalities. A pyroclastic flow from a large explosion killed 27 people on 22 November 1994,
mostly in the town of Muntilan, west of the volcano.[3] Another large eruption occurred in
2006, shortly before the Yogyakarta earthquake. In light of the hazards that Merapi poses to
populated areas, it was designated as one of the Decade Volcanoes.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Borobudur. 9th-century Buddhist monument, reportedly the world's largest. Seven terraces
to the top represent the steps from the earthly realm to Nirvana. Reliefs of the birth,
enlightenment and death of the Buddha. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple.
Mendut. 8th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple.
Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century
Buddhist temple located east from Mendut temple. The name linked to Venuvana, "the
temple of bamboo forest".
Banon. 8th-century Hindu temple located north from Pawon temple. The few remains make
it impossible to reconstruct the temple. The Hindu god statue from this temple is now
located at the National Museum in Jakarta.
Umbul, a 9th-century bathing complex in Grabag, Magelang
Gunung Sari. Ruins of three secondary temples and the foot of the main temple remain.
Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest inscriptions on Java, written in 732 CE, found here. Only
the bases remain of the main sanctuary and three secondary temples.
In anticipation of Mount Merapi’s possible
eruption, the Borobudur Conservation
Agency covers many stupas in the eighth
level of the Borobudur temple in
Magelang, Central Java. The agency may
cover the remaining stupas if volcanic
activity increases. Back in 2010, the ninth
century temple was affected by a major
eruption. At the time, acidic volcanic ash
from Mt. Merapi covered 72 stupas.
The part of present-day Central Java then known as the Mataram kingdom was the
geographical area of the kingdom contested by the Shailendra Buddhist dynastie and Sanjaya
Hindu. That is why temples in southern Central Java are mainly Buddhist, whereas those in
northern Central Java are Hindu,
The Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between
the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java. Established by
King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty.During the intervening period
of late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical
Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples
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dotted the landscape of its heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed
in Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to present-day city
of Yogyakarta.
Later the dynasty divided into two kingdoms identified by religious patronage—
the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war followed. The outcome was that the Mataram
kingdom was divided into two powerful kingdoms; the Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom
in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led
by Balaputradewa. Hostility between them did not end until 1016 when the Sailendra clan
based in Srivijaya incited a rebellion by Wurawari, a vassal of the Mataram kingdom, and
sacked the capital of Watugaluh in East Java. Srivijaya rose to become the undisputed
hegemonic empire in the region. The Shivaist dynasty survived, reclaimed east Java in 1019,
and then established the Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga, son of Udayana of Bali.
In the middle of the 9th century however, the two dynasties were united through the marriage
bonds between a prince of Sanjaya, Rakai Pikatan and Pramodawhardani, a daughter of the
Shailendra dynasty. Nonetheless, the two dynasties appeared to have competed with each other
to build temples. The Sanjaya dynasty constructed Hindu temples, the largest of which was the
Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta. Tthe Shailendra dynasty constructed Buddhist temples, of
which the largest was Borobudur, also known as Kamulan.1
The financial infeasibility of the construction of the Borobudur temple is evaluated based on
the rationality of resource use. Table 1 above shows that the net flow of funds would have
always been negative from the beginning to year 100. This means that additional financial costs
for construction and maintenance would have been greater than any financial benefits. The
flow pattern shows that the construction of Borobudur temple was financially irrational or
unfeasible. This raises the question of whether the funds allocated to construct the Borobudur
temple were the cause of the collapse of the Shailendra dynasty. The need for funds to complete
the construction of the Borobudur temple was IDR 28 trillion, which in the present context is
still a very large amount of money. If the Shailendra dynasty currently still had control over
the area of Central Java, then building Borobudur would require additional tax revenues greater
than IDR 28 trillion. The target additional tax revenue would not be possible to achieve, as the
current total tax revenue of Central Java province is only IDR 10 trillion per year
A house of worship that should represent divine presence, a place where truth, freedom, peace
and prosperity flourished turned into a place rampant with the struggle for power and influence.
The house of worship became a representation of conflict rooted in the thirst for power.
The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements
in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows
the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body
(center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each
Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is identical.
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Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of
three zones.
Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,
animals also demons. Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of
life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm
of bhurloka.
• Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics,
and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the
body of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.
• Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known
as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized the realm
of svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel)
or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube structure. While stupa or dagoba
cylindrical structure served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones.
Style
•
Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main groups:
a central Java style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern Java style,
which date from after 1,000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern
Java style.
Structure elements
Bima temple, one of Dieng temples. It was one of the earliest temples in Java. Central
Java style(Bubrah temple)/Eastern Java style-Bajang Ratu gate/Bubrah temple
near Prambanan, an example of Central Javanese style, while Bajang Ratu gate in Trowulan is
an example of Eastern Javanese style.
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Parts
of the
temple
Central Java Style
Eastern Java Style
Shape of
the
Tends to be bulky
structure
Tends to be slender and tall
Roof
The multiple parts of stepped
Clearly shows stepped roof sections,
sections formed a combined roof
usually consist of 3 parts
structure smoothly
Pinnacle
Cube (mostly Hindu temples),
Stupa (Buddhist temples), Ratna or
sometimes Dagoba cylindrical
Vajra (Hindu temples)
structures (Buddhist temples)
Kala-Makara style; Kala head without
Portal and
lower jaw opening its mouth located on
niches
top of the portal, connected with double
adornment
Makara on each side of the portal
Relief
Only Kala head sneering with the
mouth complete with lower jaw
located on top of the portal,
Makara is absent
Projected rather flat from the
Projected rather high from the
background, the images was done
background, the images was done in
in stylized style similar to
naturalistic style
Balinese wayang image
Layout
and
location of
the main
temple
Concentric mandala, symmetric, formal;
with main temple located in the center of
the
complex
surrounded
by
smaller perwara temples in regular rows
Linear, asymmetric, followed
topography of the site; with main
temple located in the back or
furthermost from the entrance,
often located in the highest
ground
of
the
complex, perwara temples
is
located in front of the main
temple
Direction
Mostly faced east
Mostly faced west
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Parts
of the
temple
Central Java Style
Eastern Java Style
Materials
Mostly andesite stone
Mostly red brick
There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While
the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern
Java group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins
in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple
is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style.
The location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is
located in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central
Javanese style.
The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain
only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such
as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the
temple complex.
The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such
stepped pyramids (punden berundak). These design cues are seen in
the Sukuh and Cetho temples in Mount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary
structures on the Mount Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped
pyramids.
MATERIALS
Most of well-preserved candi in Indonesia
are made from andesite stone. This is mainly
owed to the stone's durability, compared to
bricks, against tropical weathers and
torrential rains. Nevertheless, certain
periods, especially the Majapahit era, saw
the extensive use of red brick as temple and
building materials.
Interlocking andesite stone blocks forming
a corbeling arch in Borobudur. LEFT PIC
. The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia are:
•
Andesite is an extrusive igneous volcanic rock, of intermediate composition,
with aphanitic to porphyritic texture. Its colour ranges from light to dark grey. Andesite is
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especially abundant in the volcanic island of Java, mined from a certain cliffs or stone
quarry with andesite deposit formed from compressed ancient magma chamber or cooled
down lava spill. Each andesite stone is custom made into blocks with interlocking
technique, to construct temple walls, floors and building. Andesite stones are easily formed
and carved with iron chisel, making it a suitable material for temple walls and decorations
carved as bas-reliefs. The walls of andesite was then carved with exquisite narrative basreliefs, which can be observed in many temples, especially in Borobudur and Prambanan.
Andesite rocks are also used as the material for carved statues: the images of deities and
Buddha.
Red brick Jabung temple, dated from Majapahit period.
Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple structure is the Batujaya temple
compound in Karawang, West Java, dated from 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had
been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and
15th centuries who mastered it.[15] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their
temples had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple
in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo. Temples of Sumatra, such as Bahal
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temple, Muaro Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However, compared to lava
andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable, especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical
elements and torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures were crumbling
down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts require recasting and replacing the damaged
structure with new bricks.
•
•
Tuff is a volcanic rock that is quite abundant near Javanese volcanoes or limestone
formations. In Indonesian and Javanese languages, tuff is called batu putih (white stone),
which corresponds to its light color. The chalky characteristic of this stone, however, has
made it unsuitable to be carved into bas-reliefs of building ornaments. Compared to
andesite, tuff is considered as an inferior quality building material. In Javanese temples,
tuff usually are used as stone fillings — forming the inner structure of the temple — while
the outer layer employed andesite that is more suitable to be carved. The tuff quarries can
be found in Sewu limestone ranges near Ratu Boko hill. The tuff fillings in the temple can
be examined in Ratu Boko crematorium temple. Tuff was used as building material of outer
walls of temple compound, such as te walls found buried around Sewu and Sambisari
temple.
Stucco is materials similar to modern concrete, made from the mixture of sand, stone,
water, and sometimes ground clamshell. The stucco as temple building material is
observable in the Batujaya temple compound in West Java.
Traces of worn off vajralepa plaster on Sari's relief.
•
•
Plaster called vajralepa (Sanskrit: diamond plaster) is used to coat the temple walls. The
white-yellowish plaster is made from the mixture of ground limestone, tuff or white earth
(kaolin), with plant substances such as gums or resins as binder. The varjalepa white
plaster was applied upon the andesite walls, and then painted with bright colors, serving
perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist teaching.[16] The traces of worn-off vajralepa plaster can
be observed in Borobudur, Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temple walls.
Wood is believed to be used in some of candi construction or at least as parts of temple
building material. Sari and Plaosan temples, for example, are known to have traces of stone
indentions to support wooden beams and floors in its second floor, as well as traces of
wooden stairs. Ratu Boko compound has building bases and stone umpak column base,
which suggests that the wooden capitals once stood there to support wooden roof structure
made of organic materials. Traces of holes to install wooden window railings and wooden
doors are observable in many of the perwara (complementary smaller) temples. Of course,
wooden materials are easily decayed in a humid tropical climate, leaving no traces after
centuries.
MOTIFS
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Kala-Makara
Kala-makara on the portal of Borobudur gates, Kala's head on top of the portal and makaras
flanking either sides.
The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative
and symbolic elements of the temple architecture. Kala is the giant symbolizing time, by
making kala's head as temple portals element, it symbolizes that time consumes everything.
Kala is also a protective figure, with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent
spirits. Makara is a mythical sea monster, the vahana of sea-god Varuna. It has been depicted
typically as half mammal and half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of half
fish or seal with the head of an elephant. It is also shown with head and jaws of a crocodile, an
elephant trunk, the tusks and ears of a wild boar, the darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and
the flexible body of a fish, and the swirling tailing feathers of a peacock. Both kala and makara
are applied as the protective figures of the temple's entrance.
Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either
sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kalamakara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the
mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras
flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than
makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stairdecorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes
as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf
figures or animals such as lions or parrots.
Linga-Yoni
Central Javanese linga-yoni with spout decorated and supported by nāga serpent, Yogyakarta
9th century.
In ancient Javanese candi, the linga-yoni symbolism was only found in Hindu temples, more
precisely those of Shivaist faith. Therefore, they are absent in Buddhist temples. The linga is
a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. Some lingas are
segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal middle section
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symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva. The lingas that survive from the
Javanese classical period are generally made of polished stone of this shape.
Lingas are implanted in a flat square base with a hole in it, called a yoni, symbolic of the womb
and also represents Parvati, Shiva's consort. A yoni usually has a kind of spout, usually
decorated with nāga, to help channeled and collects the liquids poured upon linga-yoni during
Hindu ritual. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and
ritual. Oldest remains of linga-yoni can be found in Dieng temples from earlier period circa 7th
century. Originally each temples might have a complete pair of linga-yoni unity. However,
most of the times, the linga is missing.
In the tradition of Javanese kingship, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself
or his dynasty, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality
with Shiva. The example is the linga-yoni of Gunung Wukir temple, according to Canggal
inscription is connected to King Sanjaya from the Mataram Kingdom, in 654 Saka (732
CE).[17] Other temples that contains complete linga-yoni include Sambisari and Ijo temples.
Eastern Javanese temples that contains linga-yoni are Panataran and Jawi temple, although the
linga is missing.
Bas-reliefs
The most exquisite of the temple bas-reliefs can be found in Borobudur and Prambanan
temples. The first four terrace of Borobudur walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures.
These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist
world. The Buddhist scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such
as Karmavibhangga (the
law
of
karma), Lalitavistara (the
birth
of
Buddha), Jataka, Avadana and Gandavyuha. While in Prambanan the Hindu scriptures is
describes in its bas-relief panels; the Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana (popularly known
as Krishnayana).
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java,
from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also
depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture.
People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier,
servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in
Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The
images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain
subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of
transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8thcentury Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.
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Hanuman battling enemy, bas-relief of Ramayana on Penataran temple, East Java style.
There are significant distinction of bas-reliefs' style and aesthetics between the Central
Javanese period (prior of 1000 CE) and East Javanese period (after 1000 CE). The earlier
Central Javanese style, as observable in Borobudur and Prambanan, are more exquisite and
naturalistic in style. The reliefs is projected rather high from the background, the images was
done in naturalistic style with proper ideal body proportion. On the other hand, the bas-reliefs
of Eastern Javanese style is projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in
stiffer pose and stylized style, similar to currently Balinese wayang images. The East Javanese
style is currently preserved in Balinese art, style and aesthetics in temple bas-reliefs,
also wayang shadow puppet imagery, as well as the Kamasan painting.
Deities
Kalpataru and Kinnaras
Kinnara (male), Kinnari (female), Apsara, and Devata guarding Kalpataru, the divine tree of
life. 8th century Pawon temple, Java, Indonesia.
The images of coupled Kinnara and Kinnari can be found in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon,
Sewu, Sari, and Prambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human heads, or
humans with lower limbs of birds. The pair of Kinnara and Kinnari usually is depicted
guarding Kalpataru (Kalpavriksha), the tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure.
There are bas-relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famous kinnari, Manohara.
The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing
image of simha (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree.
These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side
by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The
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pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound,
thus it is called as "Prambanan panel".
Boddhisattva and Tara
A Bodhisattva flanked by two Taras in Sewu temple.
In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male
figure of Bodhisattvas and female figure of Taras, along with Gandarvas heavenly musicians,
and sometimes the flock of Gana dwarfs. These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist
beliefs, which resides in the Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology.
Bodhisattvas are usually depicted as handsome man with peaceful and serene facial expression,
adorned with luxurious jewelry akin to a king or a deity. While the Taras are his female
counterparts, figures of beautiful celestial maidens. Both figures are depicted gracefully,
usually holding various kinds of lotus (red padma, blue utpala, or white kumuda), monk staff
(khakkhara) or fly whisk (chamara), and standing in tribhanga pose. The notable images
of boddhisattvas could be found adorning the outer walls of Plaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Sewu,
Pawon and of course Borobudur temple.
Devata and Apsara
A Devata flanked by two apsaras in Prambanan temple.
In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male Devatas and female Apsaras are usually found
adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist BodhisattvaTara celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along
the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure
of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin
sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures
of a male deities devatas flanked by two apsaras. The depiction of celestial beings of lesser
gods and goddesses- devatas and apsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm
of Svargaloka. This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome
of Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.
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Guardians-Dvarapala
One of dvarapala statues guarding Sewu temple.
Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala statues,
as gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple,
or in four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off
evil and malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese
art, dvarapala is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring
round goggle eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The
giant usually depicted as holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon.
In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather wellbuilt and muscular, with a fine example taken from Adan-adan site near Kediri.[19] The
exception is a gigantic dvarapala of Singhasari near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres
tall. The most notable dvarapala statues are those of candi Sewu, each pair guarding four
cardinal points of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala statues
in perfect condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype
of Gupolo guardian in later Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanese keratons of
Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another fine example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin
temples of Plaosan.
Lion
Lion guardian of Borobudur.
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The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese: Singa) flanking the
portal, are often placed as the guardians of candi entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast
Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art,
especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek
or Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination.
The cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast
Asia was influenced by Indian culture especially through Buddhist symbolism.
Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians.
In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia, andesite stone statues of lions
guard four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found
in Kalasan and Mendut Buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions,
and makara. The statue of winged lion also found in Penataran temple East Java.
Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles
Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.
The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from
its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof,
while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bellshaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika)[20] sits on top of the dome
serves as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or
rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism.
A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.
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Prambanan vajra pinnacle.
Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams
(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle
is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist
stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the
multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a
familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture,
the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on
top of Buddhist counterparts.
Java
Cangkuang, Garut West Java
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•
Batujaya, a compound of Buddhist Stupa made from red brick and mortar located at Batu
Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably dated back to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th
century AD.
• Cibuaya, a compound of Vishnuite Hindu temples made from red brick and mortar also
located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably linked to Tarumanagara kingdom in
the 6th century AD.
• Bojongmenje, ruins of Hindu temple in Rancaekek, Bandung Regency.
• Candi Cangkuang, the only one of the few surviving West Java's Hindu temple estimated
dated from the 8th century, located at Leles, Garut, West Java. Located on an island in the
middle of a lake covered by water lilies. Unlike other Javanese temple characteristics by
grand architecture, Cangkuang temple is more modest with only one structure still
standing. Shiva statue faces east toward the sunrise. Date uncertain.
Central Java-Dieng Plateau
Arjuna group of Dieng temples
The Hindu temple compound located in Dieng Plateau, near Wonosobo, Central Java. Eight
small Hindu temples from the 7th and 8th centuries, the oldest in Central Java. Surrounded by
craters of boiling mud, colored lakes, caves, sulphur outlets, hot water sources and underground
channels. The temples are:
•
Arjuna temple
• Semar temple
• Srikandi temple
• Puntadewa temple
• Sembadra temple
• Dwarawati temple
• Gatotkaca temple
• Bima temple
Gedong Songo
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Gedong Songo III
South-west of Semarang, Central Java. Five temples constructed in 8th and 9th centuries. The
site highlights how, in Hinduism, location of temples was as important as the structures
themselves. The site has panoramas of three volcanoes and Dieng Plateau.
Slopes of Merapi
As we know, the rulers of Sanjaya built many magnificent and luxurious Hindu temples
in the northern region of Central Java, the largest of which is the Prambanan temple. This
temple compounds date from the 8th to 9th century CE, linked with historic Mataram
Kingdom that ruled Central Java during that period. Shailendras, the ruling family of the
kingdom were known as the avid temple builders. Indeed, some temples in the area,
including Kalasan, Sari, and Sewu are credited to their second monarch King Panangkaran.
Among these temple compounds, Sewu is the oldest, completed in 792 according
to Manjusrigrha inscription. Lumbung and Bubrah also dated from around the same period or
slightly later. Prambanan however, was the latest addition in the complex, finished and
inaugurated in 856 during the reign of King Pikatan according to Shivagrha inscription.
The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman
Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the
historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area)
and Kewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization.
Other sites with notable temple compounds. includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas
in East Java. West Java also contains a small number of temples such as Batujaya and
Cangkuang. Outside of Java, the candi type of temple can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and
Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In Sumatra, two exceptional sites are
notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds in Jambi and Padang
Lawas or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.
The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for
example, are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong
Songo and Ijo are built on hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on
the other hand is built upon a bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of
the temples within the landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by
socio-cultural, religious and economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built
and support them.
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Map showing the location of the main sites of the so-called "Indonesian classical period" or
Hindu-Buddhist period. Black dots represent Hindu sites and red dots Buddhist sites.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken
by earthquakes. The temple collapsed in about 1600s due to a massive earthquake.
Prambanan is a Hindu temple compound dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in
Hinduism, while Sewu, Lumbung and Bubrah temples are Mahayana Buddhist. Both
Prambanan and Sewu are actually temple compounds arranged in the mandala layout,
surrounded with hundreds of pervara (guardian complementary) temples. Originally,
Prambanan consists of 240 structures, Sewu consists of 249 structures, while Lumbung temple
consists of 17 structures. With combined numbers of over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple
Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also an example of
religious harmony and peaceful cohabitation between faiths in Indonesia's past.
Prambanan
Prambanan temple or locally known in Javanese as Rara Jonggrang, is a grand Hindu temple
complex dating from the 9th century, it is notable for its shrines and statues of Hindu patheon
and Ramayana bas relief. Murtis or Hindu deity statues venerated in Prambanan complex
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including the main deity Shiva Mahadeva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga Mahisasuramardini,
Ganesha, Agastya, and Nandi bull.
Sewu
Sewu or originally known as Manjusrigrha complex, with its four pairs of Dvarapala giant
statues, is the largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia, and the second largest Buddhist
temple after Borobudur. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple compound
to be Manjusrigrha, which means "the house of Manjusri", one of the
main boddhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism belief.
Bubrah
Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located between Lumbung in the south and Sewu in
the north. Experts believe that the temple was designed as a part of the greater Sewu temple
compound mandala.
Lumbung
Candi Lumbung a 9th-century Buddhist temple compound located within the complex
of Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, Central Java, Indonesia. The original name of this temple
is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple "candi lumbung", which means
"rice barn temple" in Javanese language.
Sewu temple compound/Lumbung temple/Bubrah
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Plaosan. Buddhist temple located a few kilometres east from Sewu temple compound. The
temple probably dated from 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for
his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Boddhisatva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone enclosure,
all located on top of the hill.
Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables from the Jatakas.
Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the slope
of the hill.
Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
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•
•
•
•
Kalasan. This 8th-century Buddhist temple is the oldest in the area. Built to house the
image of Boddhisattvadevi Tara by King Panangkaran, ornamented with finely carved
reliefs.
Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist monks. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two
rooms beneath, each believed to be places for monks to meditate.
Sambisari. 9th-century Hindu temple discovered in 1966, once buried 6.5 metres under
volcanic ash. The main temple houses a linga and yoni, and the wall surround it displayed
the images of Agastya, Durga, and Ganesha.
Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4 metres deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated.
• The Shiva temple Candi Prambanan consist of three ascending realms, temple's base
(Bhurloka), body (Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka).
• The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the
less holy to the holiest realms.
The Universal Mandala: Borobudur
Built in the 8th century by the ruling Shailendra dynasty of central Java, Borobudur is a unique
cultural universe combining the features of a mountain, a stupa, and a pyramid of the megalithic
period, showing how Indian themes were grafted onto a pre-existing Javanese genius. Its vast
reliefs depict two major Buddhist narratives: the Lalitavistara, which narrates the life of
Buddha, and Gandavyuha, which portrays the pilgrimage of the youth Sudhana in his search
for knowledge. While the life of Buddha is sketched in many Buddhist monuments around
Asia, the reliefs of Borobudur contain important variations. One example is the “Great
Departure” of Prince Siddhartha from the royal palace as he embarks on his quest for
enlightenment. The feet of his horse are lifted by Hindu gods Indra and Brahma to stop any
noise that could wake up the guards assigned to prevent his departure; a perfect blending of
Buddhist and Hindu narratives of Nirvana.
As a Buddhist text, Gandavyuha was circulated widely around Asia, sometimes as a gift among
rulers. For example, the Chinese emperor received a Sanskrit language text of the book as a
gift from the king of Odisha in the 8th century.
Gandavyuha gives Borobudur a special meaning as a universal mandala. Its message, as leading
Borobudur scholar John Miksic notes, is “that one should not expect to find enlightenment only
in one place, or in one source. Sudhana’s Good Friends [spiritual instructors] are women, men
and children from all levels of society, as well as supernatural beings. Anyone is eligible for
enlightenment and there is no suggestion that wisdom is something to be jealously hoarded and
imparted only to the elite.”
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Relief in Borobudur showing the “Great Departure” (Siddhartha leaving the palace). Sunrise
to RIGHT
Borobudur thus represents the essence of the Nirvana Route. Its Buddhist-Hindu conception of
enlightenment beckoned all people, irrespective of age, sex, wealth, or place of origin. What a
far cry from the European Enlightenment, with its parochial Eurocentric worldview that
contributed much to racism, elitism, and imperialism!
R E F E R E N C E
Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan: Translation and Analytical Study Ven. Budi Utomo Ph.D.
(Bhikkhu Ditthisampanno) Lecture and Principal of Smaratungga Buddhist College,
Indonesia. Ph.D. Candidate in Buddhist Studies, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya
University. ditthisampanno@gmail.com
225
This famous Buddhist temple, dating from the 8th and 9th centuries, is located in central
Java.
226
These Compounds form one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world, and were built
in the 8th and 9th centuries AD during the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. It was built in
three tiers:
1. a pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces,
2. the trunk of a cone with three circular platforms and, at the top,
3. a monumental stupa.
The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of
2,500 m2. Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of
the Buddha. The monument was restored with UNESCO's help in the 1970s.
The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly
accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology. It is believed that the
universe is divided into three superimposing spheres, kamadhatu, rupadhatu,
and arupadhatu, representing respectively the sphere of desires where we are bound to our
desires, the sphere of forms where we abandon our desires but are still bound to name and
form, and the sphere of formlessness where there is no longer either name or form. At
Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five
square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa.
The whole structure shows a unique blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship,
related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining
Nirvana.
The Temple should also be seen as an outstanding dynastic monument of the Syailendra
Dynasty that ruled Java for around five centuries until the 10th century.
The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely
1. the Borobudur Temple and two smaller temples situatued to the east on a straight axis
to Borobudur.
2. The two temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a
formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and
3. Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might
have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the
attainment of Nirvana.
Borobudur Temple Compounds with its stepped, unroofed pyramid consisting of ten
superimposing terraces, crowned by a large bell-shaped dome is a harmonious marriage of
stupas, temple and mountain that is a masterpiece of Buddhist architecture and monumental
arts.It also represents an outstanding example of Indonesia’s art and architecture from
between the early 8th and late 9th centuries that exerted considerable influence on an
architectural revival between the mid-13th and early 16th centuries.
The design is laid out in the form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha, Borobudur Temple
Compounds is an exceptional reflection of a blending of the very central idea of indigenous
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ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The ten mounting terraces of
the entire structure correspond to the successive stages that the Bodhisattva has to achieve
before attaining to Buddhahood.
Phasewise Construction
In my article TEMPLE TRIAD-Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut
Temples (https://www.academia.edu/42703156/Temple_Triad) I have explained additions or
extensions at Borabudur and Mendut by successive Shailendra rulers, possibly without
exception, which have come to light during restoration activities at those temples, one needs to
understand that religious merit of the royal zealot did increase to a great extent from the
building of a stupa. Indeed for every spectator the sacred construction work would be an
incentive to join the creed while it would help the initiate in his meditations aiming at the
attainment of the Bodhi. Furthermore, the “accumulation of religious merit” which the monarch
earned through the construction of a magnificent temple would also benefit his realm — “the
thriving State of the Shailendras” as it is designated in the inscriptions of the period. This
topographical relationship looks hardly casual, as probably a processional way ran along the
line in ancient times (the path is still partly mimicked by the modern road from Borobodur to
Pawon up to the river Pogo).
Borobudur Temple (Biggest Buddha’s temple in the world)
Borobudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist Temple in Magelang, Central Java,
Indonesia. The monument consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular,
topped by a central dome. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha
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statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated
stupa. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist
monuments in the world.
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed in
Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor
worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple also demonstrates the
influences of Gupta art that reflects India’s influence on the region, yet there are enough
indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The
monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The
journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the
monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology:
Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world
of formlessness). The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways
and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur
has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world.
Chandi MENDUT and Chandi PAVON supplement the temple complex. They were built
during the reign of King Indra (782–812 AD) of the Shailendra dynasty. The whole temple
complex symbolizes the way of a spiritual seeker from the mundane life to the Divine life, to
the state of Buddha. In old times a big road led from Borobudur eastern entrance to Chandi
Mendut, passing through Chandi Pavon. Along the entire road there were walls with
numerous towers, niches, and sculptures.
• Chandi Mendut,
• Chandi Pavon,
• the famous Borobudur temple complex.
Pawon Temple
Pawon temple (known locally as Candi Pawon) is a Buddhist temple located between two
other Buddhist temples, approximately 1,150 metres away from Mendut and 1,750 metres
away from Borobudur.
, Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were built during the Sailendra
dynasty (8th–9th centuries). Examines the detail and style of its carving this temple is slightly
older than Borobudur.
The three temples were located on a straight line, suggesting there was a symbolic meaning
that binds these temples.
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“Between Mendut and Borobudur stands Pawon temple, a jewel of Javanese temple
architecture. Most probably, this temple served to purify the mind prior to ascending
Borobudur.”1
The original name of this Buddhist shrine is uncertain. Pawon literally means “kitchen” in
Javanese language, which is derived from the root word awu or dust. The connection to the
word “dust” also suggests that this temple was probably built as a tomb or mortuary temple for
a king. Pawon from the word Per-awu-an (place that contains dust), a temple that houses the
dust of cremated king. However who was the personage that entombed here is still unknown.
Local people name this temple as “Bajranalan” based on the name of the village. Bajranalan is
derived from the sanskrit word Vajra (thunder or also a Buddhist ceremonial tool) and Anala
(fire, flame). Due to its small size, Pavon resembles a memorial monument. When the temple
was found, it was in a very poor condition. Themes of decorative reliefs in Pavon include the
“heavenly tree”, vessels with gifts, bearded dwarfs spilling necklaces, rings and jewels from
boxes. Such themes are explained by the fact that Chandi Pavon is dedicated to the deity of
wealth Kubera, who was usually depicted at entrances to temples.
Inner premises of the temple are trimmed with dark volcanic stone. Although no statues have
been preserved in Chandi Pavon, it is possible to ascertain by outer wall reliefs that the temple
once was dedicated to Kubera – the generous lord of luck and wealth. There are also extant
images of Kalpataru – the mythical tree of desires in Hindu and Buddhist traditions. The desires
ingrained in righteous thoughts and true faith will be fulfilled.
In the contemporary era during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe
Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut passing through Pawon and ends at Borobudur.
As it has been mentioned above, between Chandi Mendut and Borobudur there is the small
Chandi Pavon,
Mendut Temple
Mendut temple is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid subdistrict, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about three
kilometres east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist
temples, are located in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the
three temples, although the exact ritual process is unknown.
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Borobodur was once the center of religious rituals of Mahayana Buddhism, which was
corroborated by the existence of other temples with Mahayana Buddhism around it. Studies
conducted on the location of Borobudur and the other temples surrounding it shows that the
three temples are positioned along a single straight line, which was organized during the
construction of Mendut Temple. It is also shown that the imaginary line connecting the three
temples is linked to Mount Merapi.Studies on the temples surrounding Borobudur show a
similarity with regard to the period of construction, which is the era of Mataram Kuno (Ancient
Mataram), as well as their religious affiliation, that is, Mahayana Buddhism, which excludes
Banon Temple as it is filled with statues of Hindu Gods . These studies led to an interpretation
that Borobudur Temple is highly associated with Pawon and Mendut Temples located in the
east. The association between Borobudur and the two surrounding temples also identifies that
the three temples were the centers for religious rituals in the past. Geographically, Ngawen
Temple is located in the east of Borobudur Temple. However, no study has been conducted
revealing the association between Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples in the
past. To further observe the association between the four temples, this study will focus on their
location, religion, ornaments, and statues. The author believes that this research would provide
a new interpretation of Borobudur and the surrounding Buddhist temples as monuments for
sacred procession in the past and as a world heritage in the future.Field observation of the four
temples, namely Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen was conducted.
The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover,
in the past, Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it . Within
a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana
Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900
m). Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen
is, in fact, located in the east side of the river,which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur
.According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a
straight line and they form a triadic of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism.
However the imaginary axis connecting the three temples is not a straight line, and it is
interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and processions in the past.
Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely associated with Mount Merapi.
Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an addition temple called Ngawen Temple,
from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be drawn, connecting it to the other three temples.
Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the
religious rituals might begin in Ngawen Temple and end in Borobudur.
The layout of Chandi Mendut is traditional. It is a temple with a deity figure placed on a
pedestal, intended for ritual processions. The walls contain thematic reliefs with scenes from
Buddhist parables. The reliefs contain well-preserved images of Bodhisattvas. Inside Chandi
Mendut itself there are three statues: Gautama Buddha in the middle, Bodhisattva
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Avalokiteśvara on the left, and a non-identified Bodhisattva on the right (there is an
assumption that it is a statue of Vajrapani).
The most unusual thing is that Shakyamuni Buddha is sitting in a “European” or “royal” pose
with his both feet put on the lotus pedestal and his knees widely parted, without any traces of
clothes. Bodhisattvas are sitting in traditional poses with one foot under their body and the
other foot lowered.In traditional Buddhist iconography the image of the body part relating to
genitals is always hidden by either a pose (asana) or pleats on the clothes (when Buddha is
standing or lying). Hence, for adherents of canonical Buddhism the aforesaid depiction of
Buddha is probably somewhat shocking.
Religious associations of Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples: Two major
schools, namely Mahayana and Hinayana (Theravada), are found in Buddhism.Mahayana
Buddhism is described as the “great vehicle”, in which a holy man stays on the Earth, rather
than going to heaven, in order to be able to help. Moreover, in Mahayana Buddhism, it is
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believed that a savior visits the Earth in the future, whereas Hinayana Buddhism or
Theravada is described as a “small vehicle”, in which the Buddha is merely the Buddha
himself, without the presence of Bodhisattva. Discussions on structures built during the
Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with religious context. Revealing the religious
background of a structure requires an observation of the components of the building.
According to Soekmono (2005), temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major groups,
namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the main features of Buddhist temples is the
existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique
feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a
specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of
structures.
The most important argument for the coherence of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon in my view
is the fact — which Van Erp discovered by chance — that the three of them had been lain out
along one straight line: 15Pawon on the right shore of the Progo River, 1750 m East of
Barabudur, and Mendut 1150 m further East, on the left shore of the Elo River, just upstream
from its junction with the Progo.16
Van Erp considered this fact and, as it were, the logically deducible.
a. for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Barabudur;
b. for the Suryaloka, the bhavagra ― the top level of the Akanistha Heaven;
c. for the east, Candi Mendut; and
d. for the zenith, Candi Pawon.
TRIAD
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Borobudur stands in the geographical center of the island of Java, fifteen miles from
Yogyakarta, on a plateau that is the caldera of an ancient volcano ringed by the Menoreh
mountains. Two sets of twin volcanoes – Merapi and Merbabu to the northeast, Sumbing and
Sindoro to the northwest – stand sentinel across the plains. Merapi, the "fire mountain," is
active. A legend is told of a heavenly architect who built Borobudur in a single day and laid a
curse on anyone who dared ascend his holy shrine. According to Asian art historian, Jan
Fontein: "There is a mountain south of Borobudur that when viewed from the monument
looks very much like the profile of a man; the nose, lips and chin are clearly delineated. The
story goes that the ridge depicts Gunadharma, the architect of Borobudur, who is believed to
keep watch over his creation through the ages."
There were only two fleeting references to Borobudur in historical reports of the 18th century.
The first recorded visitor to Borobudur was a rebel who fled to the mountain called Bara-Budur
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in 1709 after leading an attempt to usurp the throne from the Sultan of Matara. The Sultan sent
troops who surrounded the mountain, captured him and sent him to be executed.
The next documented visitor to the monument was the heir apparent of Yogyakarta, a defiant
young prince who had a reputation for rebellious and depraved behavior. In 1758, he set out to
visit the "mountain of a thousand statues" against the advice of a prophecy that royalty who
climbed the mountain would die. When he did not return to court, the king sent his men to
bring back the wayward son. He was found vomiting blood and soon after died.
But records revealed no consensus on the meaning of the name "Borobudur." Two alternatives
were proposed based on Javanese manuscripts from 842 AD: "the mountain of the
accumulation of virtue on the ten stages of the Bodhisattva," or "the mountain which is terraced
in successive stages." Sir Thomas Raffles, the British governor of Indonesia responsible for the
excavation of Borobudur in 1814, thought that "boro" might mean "great" and "budur" might
correspond to the more modern Javanese word "buda," interpreted as "The Great Buddha." One
Javanese expert indicated that "boro" is related to the word for "monastery," and "budur" is a
place name. This would suggest that Borobudur means "Monastery of Budur."Fortunately,
because of the native tolerance of religious diversity, many of the monuments of Java were
simply abandoned rather than destroyed or defaced, and a cloud of mystery and superstition
descended on Borobudur.
The first study on Borobudur was conducted during the Dutch East Indies era by Van Erp and
N. J. Kroom,2 which coincided with the temple’s restoration project. Based on the similarities
with regard to the architectural style and ornamentation of the three temples it indicated an
association between Borobudur Temple and two other temples located nearby, namely Pawon
Temple and Mendut Temple. They seem to have been built in the same period, that is, the
Sailendra dynasty era. The next study was conducted by J. L. Moens in the 1950s 3 connected
the three temples with Banon Temple, a Hindu temple located near Pawon Temple.
Furthermore, it shows that Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples were all ritual centers of
Mahayana Buddhism, whereas Banon Temple was a place for the followers of Siwa-Siddhanta.
Another study conducted by IGN Anom imaginarily connected Borobudur, Pawon, and
Mendut Temples,showing that the three temples were built along a straight line
Association of the positioning of Borobudur Temple with the four nearby temples
Borobudur Temple is located in the west of Elo River. The temple possesses several meanings
related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had served as
the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it.. Within a distance of 5 km around the
temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are
Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m) . Borobudur, Pawon and
Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the
east side of the river, which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur . According to previous
studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they
form a triadic (a group of three) of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism.
However, according to Totok Roesmanto , the imaginary axis connecting the three temples is
not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and
processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely
associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an addition
temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be drawn,
connecting it to the other three temples.Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be interpreted that,
235
in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen Temple and end in
Borobudur.
Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with
religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an observation of
the components of the building. Temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major groups,
namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the mainfeatures of Buddhist temples is the
existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique feature
of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a specific
structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of structures.
Bodobodur and Merapi Volcano: Borobudur was mysteriously abandoned by the 1500s,
when the center of Javan life shifted to the East and Islam arrived on the island in the 13th and
14th centuries. Perhaps Mount Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands with layers of
volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to East Java in a mass exodus, and
Borobudur was left behind, its meaning lost in time. Some scholars believe that famine caused
by an eruption of Mount Merapi forced the inhabitants of Central Java to leave their lands
behind in search of a new place to live. When people once again inhabited this area, the glory
of Borobudur was buried by ash from Mount Merapi.
Mountain peaks, according to Buddhist thought, are the place where contact with divine
truth may take place. There are 129 volcanoes in Indonesia and smoke can be seen emerging
from the mountaintop at least 300 days a year. Mount Merapi, which stands at about 9,551
feet (2,911 meters) tall, lies in one of the world's most densely populated areas and
dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta, on the island of
Java.It is a stratovolcano being the youngest and southernmost of a volcanic chain
extending north and northwest, to the Mount Ungaran volcano. The name Merapi could be
loosely translated as "Mountain of Fire" from the Javanese combined words "Meru,"
meaning "mountain," and "api," meaning "fire."Tectonically, Merapi is situated at the
subduction zone where the Indo-Australian Plate is sliding beneath the Eurasian Plate. It is
part of the Pacific Ring of Fire – a section of fault lines and volcanoes stretching from the
western coast of South America, Alaska through Japan and Southeast Asia.
Merapi has been active for about 10,000 years. The volcano's biggest and most devastating
eruptions occurred in 1006 and 1930. The eruption of 1006 was so bad that many believe the
existing Hindu kingdom in the area was destroyed, as it spread ash over all of central Java.
During the 1930 eruption more than 1,300 people were killed."The material has to travel 30
miles [48 km] to get to the surface; there has to be enough propellant force to push them all
that way and out.Merapi is the poster child for unstable lava domes," Wunderman said. "The
dome on Merapi rests on a steep, unstable environment, and it is easy for pieces to break off
and do damage; for example, hot gases can be released and form a superheated, high speed
cloud that rolls down the mountain. The volcano is considered sacred by some local people
who believe a supernatural kingdom exists atop Merapi, according to Indhanesia.com, an
informational website about Indonesia. Every year a priest climbs to the top to make an
offering.
Creation
Merapi is very important to Javanese, especially those living around its crater. As such, there
are many myths and beliefs attached to Merapi. Although most nearby villages have their own
myths about the creation of Mount Merapi, they have numerous commonalities. It is believed
that when the gods had just created the Earth, Java was unbalanced because of the placement
of Mount Jamurdipo on the west end of the island. In order to assure balance, the gods
(generally represented by Batara Guru) ordered the mountain to be moved to the centre of Java.
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However, two armourers, Empu Rama and Empu Permadi, were already forging a
sacred keris at the site where Mount Jamurdipo was to be moved. The gods warned them that
they would be moving a mountain there, and that they should leave; Empu Rama and Empu
Permadi ignored that warning. In anger, the gods buried Empu Rama and Empu Permadi under
Mount Jamurdipo; their spirits later became the rulers of all mystical beings in the area. In
memory of them, Mount Jamurdipo was later renamed Mount Merapi, which means "fire of
Rama and Permadi."
Spirit Kraton of Merapi
The Javanese believe that the Earth is not only populated by human beings, but also by spirits
(makhluk halus). Villages near Merapi believe that one of the palaces (in Javanese kraton) used
by the rulers of the spirit kingdom lies inside Merapi, ruled by Empu Rama and Empu Permadi.
This palace is said to be a spiritual counterpart to the Yogyakarta Sultanate, complete with
roads, soldiers, princes, vehicles, and domesticated animals. Besides the rulers, the palace is
said to also be populated by the spirits of ancestors who died as righteous people. The spirits
of these ancestors are said to live in the palace as royal servants (abdi dalem), occasionally
visiting their descendants in dreams to give prophecies or warnings.
Spirits of Merapi
To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese regularly
bring offerings on the anniversary of the sultan of Yogyakarta's coronation. For Yogyakarta
Sultanate, Merapi holds a significant cosmological symbolism, because it forms a sacred northsouth axis line between Merapi peak and Southern Ocean (Indian Ocean). The sacred axis is
signified by Merapi peak in the north, the Tugu Yogyakarta monument near Yogyakarta main
train station, the axis runs along Malioboro street to Northern Alun-alun (square)
across Keraton Yogyakarta (sultan palace), Southern Alun-alun, all the way to Bantul and
finally reach Samas and Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and Southern Ocean.
This sacred axis connected the hyangs or spirits of mountain revered since ancient times—
often identified as "Mbah Petruk" by Javanese people—The Sultan of Yogyakarta as the leader
of the Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul as the queen of the Southern Ocean, the female
ocean deity revered by Javanese people and also mythical consort of Javanese kings.
Abandonment Borobodur lies 28 KM away from the mountain. No one knows what happened
to the culture that built the monument. Perhaps Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands with
layers of volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to East Java in a mass exodus,
and Borobudur was left behind, its meaning lost in time. Borobudur lay hidden for centuries
under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a
mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased.
Sometime between 928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang
Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether
this influenced the abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of
abandonment. The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as c. 1365, in Mpu
Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, written during the Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in
Budur".Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded
when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.
The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its
past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old
Javanese chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with
the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument
was a fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king
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of Mataram in 1709. It was mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the
insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or
the History of the Mataram Kingdom)4 , the monument was associated with the misfortune of
Prince Monconagoro, the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a taboo
against visiting the monument, "he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a
cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died
one day later.
During the Britiash administration from 1811 to 1816, Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas
Stamford Raffles was appointed governor who took great interest in the history of Java. On an
inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle
near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not able to see the site himself, but sent Hermann
Cornelius , a Dutch engineer who, among other antiquity explorations had uncovered
the Sewu complex in 1806–07, to investigate. In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut
down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to
the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles,
including various drawings. Although Raffles mentioned the discovery and hard work by
Cornelius and his men in only a few sentences, he has been credited with the monument's
rediscovery, as the one who had brought it to the world's attention.
Christiaan Lodewijk Hartmann, the Resident of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius's work,
and in 1835, the whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more
personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities, in particular, the
alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa. In 1842,
Hartmann investigated the main dome, although what he discovered is unknown and the main
stupa remains empty.
The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned Frans Carel Wilsen, a Dutch
engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. Jan
Frederik Gerrit Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which
was completed in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on Brumund's
study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The government
then commissioned another scholar, Conradus Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on
Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of
Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year later. The first photograph
of the monument was taken in 1872 by the Dutch-Flemish engraver Isidore van Kinsbergen.
Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source of
souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural
artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation of reliefs
into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument. As a result, the government
appointed Willem Pieter Groeneveldt, curator of the archaeological collection of the Batavian
Society of Arts and Sciences,[38] to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess
the actual condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and
recommended it be left intact.
Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs, and parts of its sculptures were looted,
some even with colonial-government consent. It is said that in 1896 King
Chulalongkorn of Siam visited Java and requested and was allowed to take home eight
cartloads of sculptures taken from Borobudur. These include thirty pieces taken from a number
of relief panels, five buddha images, two lions, one gargoyle, several kala motifs from the stairs
and gateways, and a guardian statue (dvarapala). Several of these artifacts, most notably the
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lions, dvarapala, kala, makara and giant waterspouts are now on display in the Java Art room
in The National Museum in Bangkok.
The three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. The details of the cults
practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the
proclaimed divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection, a
possible, symbolic relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by
Moens. In this controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were
connected by a “magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as
the Buddha and as King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in
the sky in one day, and thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To
these steps corresponded for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur;
for the east, Mendut; and for the zenith, Pawon.
Role of the moon: It is worth mentioning that the role of the moon is quite relevant in
Buddhism, since festivals and recurrences associated with Buddha's life are timed by the full
moon. As is well known, in the course of a 18,6 years cycle the maximal declination of the
Moon in her monthly cycle undergoes a slow variation from a minimum to a maximum, equal
to the obliquity of the ecliptic
minus/plus the obliquity of the earth-moon plane ( =5° 9')
with respect to the ecliptic. This leads to a minor standstill at declination
and a
maximal standstill at declination
. In 800 AD the obliquity of the ecliptic was about 9'
greater than today so =23° 39' and the two standstills correspond to declinations 28° 48' and
to 18° 30' respectively. The last matches impressively well the orientation of Pawon, while
the first is not far (less than two degrees in declination, corresponding to less than 2 degrees
also in azimuth) from that of Mendut (parallax corrections are negligible at these latitudes).
Since the minor standstill of the Moon is always mimicked by the sun two times a
year, it is impossible to distinguish it from a solar orientation in the case of a single
building. However, the coincidence of two buildings possibly related to the two
standstills is, to say the last, impressive. In this respect it is important to remember that
precise azimuths for the major standstills of the Moon are very difficult to individuate, and
major standstills lunar orientations should always be understood as aimed to the full moon
closest to the solstice, which always attains a declination close to the extremal one in the
years of the standstills. The choice of orientation to the extrema of the moon might thus have
arisen from calendrical reasons.6
Moens: Confirmed that the temple triad of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon dates from the
period of the Shailendra dynasty, 1,3 which in close cooperation with the kings of the Sanjaya
dynasty dominated Central Java for nearly two centuries, is no longer liable to doubt since the
explorations of Van Erp and Krom. In his extensive Barabudur-monograph, Van Erp called the
three temples “...a triad that according to (their) architecture and ornamentation derive from
the same time period.” 7This observation of course concerns the style of the temples as we are
familiar with today, that is to say following the renovations and extensions which must have
been executed by the end of the ninth century when Shailendra hegemony in Java came to an
end.
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REFERENCES
1. and 3. .J. L. Moens (1951). "Barabudur, Mendut en Pawon en hun onderlinge samenhang
(Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon and their mutual relationship)" (PDF). Tijdschrift voor de
Indische Taai-, Land- en Volkenkunde. Het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en
Wetenschappen: 326–386. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 10, 2007. trans. by
Mark Long
2. 1.Beschrijving van Barabudur,Krom (N.J.) & Van Erp (T.),Martinus Nijhoff, 1920-31., 1920
4."Mataram, Historical kingdom, Indonesia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1
January 2015.
See also The Role of Dutch Colonialism in the Political Life of Mataram Dynasty: A Case
Study of the Manuscript of Babad, Tanah Jawi, Asian Social Science 10(15) · July 2014
5. Art of Indonesia: Pusaka, Haryati Soebadio, Bambang Sumadio, et al. | 1 March 1998
6.Archaeoastronomy of the “Sun path” at Borobudur,Giulio Magli,School of Architecture,
Urban Planning and Construction Engineering,Politecnico di Milano, Italy
7. BESCHRIJVING VAN BARABUDUR. EERSTE DEEL.
BESCHRIJVING DOOR,
Krom, N.J.; Erp, T. van.,Published by 's-Gravenhage, 1920. (1920)
ARCHAEOLOGISCHE
Phasewise Restoration
Restoration
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when the Dutch engineer Jan Willem
IJzerman Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the
hidden foot. Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–1891. The
discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument. In
1900, the government set up a commission consisting of three officials to assess the monument:
Jan Lourens Andries Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp [nl], a Dutch army engineer
officer, and Benjamin Willem van de Kamer, a construction engineer from the Department of
Public Works.
In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the
immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that
endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches,
archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, after fencing off the courtyards, proper
maintenance should be provided and drainage should be improved by restoring floors and
spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first
balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored. The total cost was
estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders.
The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles
of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp. The first seven months of restoration were occupied
with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel
stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the
way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the monument; he submitted
another proposal, which was approved with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At first
glance, Borobudur had been restored to its old glory. Van Erp went further by carefully
reconstructing the chattra (three-tiered parasol) pinnacle on top of the main stupa. However,
he later dismantled the chattra, citing that there were not enough original stones used in
reconstructing the pinnacle, which means that the original design of Borobudur's pinnacle is
actually unknown. The dismantled chattra now is stored in Karmawibhangga Museum, a few
hundred meters north from Borobudur.
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Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the
sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery
walls were sagging, and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration. Van Erp used
concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the
rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was
urgently needed.
...nature takes a toll
But during the 19th century, as Borobudur's past became more clear, its future grew
much less certain. The climate of Java is particularly ruthless to man-made structures. In the
words of Professor Soekmono, former head of the Archeological Service of Indonesia: "For
over a thousand years, the rigours of the tropical climate have probed the latent weaknesses
of the edifice. Sudden changes of heat and cold between day and night, where temperatures
may vary by 40 degrees Fahrenheit in twenty-four hours, cause stones to crack. But the worst
havoc has been caused by the heavy rains, over eighty inches a year on average, with
torrential downpours of up to half an inch in five minutes. They overwhelmed the inadequate
drainage system, percolating down into the central core where they washed away the earth
and weakened the foundations."
"Moisture on the stones had also corroded many of the beautifully carved reliefs and favored
the growth of disfiguring patches of mosses and lichens. The terrace walls sagged and tilted
at crazy angles and the floors sloped inwards. Had the lower terrace walls collapsed, the
whole colossal structure would have come tumbling down in a great slithering avalanche of
earth and masonry."
Nature itself was destroying the monument, literally tearing Borobudur apart. Despite
repeated efforts at restoration throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, major decay and
structural disintegration plainly threatened Borobudur with inevitable and irreparable
collapse. Several interesting suggestions for protection of the monument were made during
that time. One of the preservationists suggested that Borobudur be covered by a giant
umbrella to keep the rain off. Another proposal was to demolish the entire edifice and
deposit the reliefs in a museum.
In 1907, Theodore Van Erp, a Dutch engineering officer, led a major restoration project. He
rebuilt the crumbling stupas and heaving floors of the upper terraces, cleaning the sculptures
of moss and lichen. But after four years, the limited funds were exhausted before work could
begin on the lower galleries, and the basic problem of drainage had not been solved.
Carvings were rapidly disintegrating; walls were crumbling. By 1948, when the Republic of
Indonesia came into existence, Borobudur was on the brink of ruin. According to Soekmono,
5
"Deterioration was so widespread all over the monument that no partial restoration could
effectively ensure its safeguard. Since the Indonesian people were determined to pass on the
best of their cultural heritage to forthcoming generations, drastic but deliberate action was
called for in the form of a gigantic project." But it would be several decades before attention
would again turn to Borobudur.
Little is known about the early history of Borobudur except that it was built some time
between AD 750 and 850, during the Sailendra Dynasty. A huge workforce must have been
required to hew, transport and carve the 60,000 cubic metres of stone in constructing the
temple, but the details remain as vague as the monument's name, which possibly derives from
the Sanskrit words ‘Vihara Buddha Uhr’, meaning Monastery on the Hill’.
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The original materials were used to reconstruct the temple in two phases in the 20th century:
after the turn of the century and more recently (1973-1983). Mostly original materials were
used with some additions to consolidate the monument and ensure proper drainage which has
not had any significant adverse impact on the value of the property. Though the present state
of Borobudur Temple is the result of restorations, it retained more than enough original
material when re-discovered to make a reconstruction possible.
Borobudur as a Temple for the Sanghyang Adi Buddha
Very few people know that the Indonesian Government Regulation Number 21/1975 about the
vow of the civil bureaucrat, arranges the vow for the Buddhist bureaucrat by mentions "Demi
Sanghyang Adi Buddha" ("by Sanghyang Adi Buddha") in the beginning of the vow.Or that
the Borobudur is built to salute the Sanghyang Adi Buddha
Sanghyang Adi Buddha is a concept of God in Indonesian Buddhism. Since the time
of Sailendra and Medang Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same belief in the existence
of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern schools. Nepalese uses
the term:
1. Adinata, which means "main protector" and
2. Swayambhulokanatta, which means "the unborn protector of the universe."other
Tibetan terms such as
3. Vajradhara (Tibet= Dorjechang; lit. "ruler of all the mysteries").
1. This term was used by Ashin Jinarakkhita at the time of Buddhist revival in Indonesia
in the mid-20th century to reconcile the first principle of the official philosophical
foundation of Indonesia (Pancasila), i.e. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa (lit. "Recognition
of the Divine Omnipotence") that requires the belief in a supreme God, which
Buddhism, strictly speaking, does not believe in. This concept is used by the Indonesian
Buddhist Council, an organization that seeks to represent all Buddhist traditions in
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Indonesia such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.The formulation of Pancasila
took place in the mid-20th century immediately after the end of the Second World War.
Thus, the ideology reflects the socio-political conditions of the late colonial period in
Indonesia and the ensuing war. Its concept derived and synthesized from the ideas and
ideals of Indonesia's founding fathers, most prominently Sukarno's. The historical
period that most influenced Indonesia's founding fathers was the socio-political
conditions of the Dutch East Indies in the early and mid 20th century.By the first half
of the 20th century, some ideologies that had been established or made their way to the
Dutch East Indies included imperialism and its antithesis anti-colonial nationalism,
traditional Javanese statecraft, Islamism, democracy, socialism, and communism.
Proponents of these ideologies had formed political organizations or parties to forward
their respective causes. The Islamist party Sarekat Islam was established in 1905
followed by Masyumi in 1943. The Communist Party was established in 1914, while
Sukarno's nationalist Indonesian National Party was established in 1927. Favoring one
ideology over another would not satisfy the whole spectrum of Indonesian people, thus
it was decided that the new republic need to synthesize a new ideology derived from
indigenous Indonesian values as well as common shared values derived from various
ideologies
Namasangiti Text of Candrakīrti (a monk who was staying in Indonesia), and the symbolism
of Borobudur's mandala stupa, provided evidence that the Buddhism embraced by Indonesian
people since the days of Srivijaya, Ancient Mataram, Sailendra, and Majapahit is
the Buddhism which honors the Primordial Buddha.
Indonesian sacred texts which contains the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha are
I.
Guna Karanda Vyuha text
In the time of nothingness, Shambu was already exist, this is what is called Svayambhu (selfmanifested), and preceded all things, this is why he is called the Adi Buddha.
II.
Sanghyang Kamahayanikan text
All praises for Sanghyang Adi Buddha, this is the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan that I have been
wanted to teach you, to the sons of Buddha (whom also) the family of Tathagata, the grandeur
of 'Sanghyang Mahayana' practices is what i have to teach you.
Herman S. Hendro (1968) in his paper mentioned-The closed uppermost large stupa [of
Borobudur] is the epitome of a man who has reached the Absolute Freedom (Nirvana) and
united with Adi Buddha. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha
statue which is depicting the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by human. 1
Adi-Buddha is a term used in Tantric Buddhism to refer to the Primordial Buddha. The
term Sanghyang Adi Buddha is agreed upon and used by the Indonesian Supreme Sangha and
the Indonesian Buddhist Council as the designation for God Almighty. This term is not found
in Pāli Canon, but used in some old Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as Sanghyang
Kamahayanikan.
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Sang Hyang Adi Buddha refers to "the seed of Buddhahood" inside every being. In Mahayana
Buddhism, Adi Buddha refers to the primordial Buddha that outlines the same
Universal Dhamma.[3] The Adi-buddha is not a monotheistic deity as in the Abrahamic
traditions, but is rather the primordial nature of mind, the part of the mind that never enters
samsara, and is thus the "primordial Buddha." As the Primordial Buddha never entertains
conceptual ignorance or proliferation, all that arises is referred to as "self-liberated." Sogyal
Rinpoche writes:
"[Kuntuzangpo] represents the absolute, naked, sky-like primordial purity of the nature of our
mind.”
For the purposes of official recognition as a religion by the state, Mahabhiksu Ashin
Jinarakkhita encouraged Indonesian Buddhists to present the Adi-Buddha as:
a concept of “supreme divinity” in the Dharma that would be most readily recognizable and
acceptable to predominantly Muslim authorities.
Adi-Buddha is the Primordial Buddha, or Paramadi Buddha (The first and incomparable
Buddha). He has some other names in other Buddhist traditions such as Adau‐
Buddha (Primordial Buddha), Anadi‐Buddha (Uncreated Buddha), Uru‐Buddha (Buddha of
the Buddhas). He also called Adinatha (The first Protector), Svayambhulokanatha (selforiginating World Protector), Vajradhara (Vajra Holder), Vajrasattva (Vajra
Being), Svayambhu (the Self-Originating One), or Sanghyang Adwaya (Unequalled).
In Chinese language, Adi‐Buddha is Pen‐chu‐fu, while aramadi‐Buddha is translated
as Sheng‐chu‐fu. In Tibet Dan‐pohi‐sans‐rgyas, Mchog‐gi‐dan‐pohi‐sans‐rgyas,
or Thogmahi‐sans‐rgyas are all refers to "Buddha of the Buddhas", that existed since the
beginning, as the first: Paramadi‐buddhoddhrta‐sri‐kalacakra‐nama‐
tantraraja and Jnanasattva‐manjusryadi‐buddha‐nama‐sadhana
Mahayana Buddhism believes that Buddha has three bodies (Trikaya), i.e.: "The Created
Body" (Nirmanakaya) to teach common human being; "Body of Mutual Enjoyment"
(Sambhogakāya) or the body of bliss or clear light; and "Truth Body" (Dharmakāya) which is
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eternal, omnipresent, non-individual, almighty, non-dual, and self-originating (svabhava‐
kaya). There may be many Buddhas, but only one Dharmakaya. This Dharmakaya is identical
with Adi‐Buddha. The sources of this Trikaya doctrine are Avatamsaka Sutra and Mahayana‐
sraddhotpada‐shastra. The last one was the work of Asvagosha, a monk who lived around the
first century AD. Vetulyaka Lokottaravada School says that Sakyamuni originally was the
manifestation of Adi‐Buddha in this world. Herman S. Hendro (1968) wrote:
"Dalam Kitab Sutji Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan, pupuh ke-19 didjelaskan bahwa Sang
Buddha Gautama telah menunggal dengan Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha atau dengan kata
lain bahwa Sang Buddha Gautama adalah pengedjawantahan dari Sang Adhi Buddha.
Karena itu bila kita menjebut Sang Adhi Buddha maka itu adalah Sang Buddha jang
tidak berkarya (saguna)."
"In the Sacred Book of Sanghyang Kamahayanikan, 19th stanza, is explained that the
Buddha Gautama was merged with Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha, or in other words the
Buddha Gautama was the manifestation of the Adhi Buddha. Therefore if we refers the
Adhi Buddha then He is the Buddha who is inactive (saguna)."
With his power, he emanates into five Dhyani Buddhas. The Pure Land of the Adi
Buddha is called Ogamin in Tibetan or Akanistha in Sanskrit (lit. "not down" or
"without (back) to the bottom").
Buddhist concept
In Udana Nikaya (viii: 3), Sakyamuni gave his teaching:
There is, O monks, an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. Were there not,
O monks, this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, there would be no escape
from the world of the born, originated, created, formed. Since, O monks, there is an
Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, therefore is there an escape from the
born, originated, created, formed. What is dependent, that also moves; what is
independent does not move. Where there is no movement, there is rest; where rest is,
there is no desire; where there is no desire, there is neither coming nor going, no
ceasing-to-be, no further coming to be. Where there is no ceasing-to-be, no further
coming-to-be, there is neither this shore [this world] nor the other shore [Nirvana], nor
anything between them.
From the Pali language: Athi Ajatam Adbhutam Akatam Samkhatamor "the Unborn,
Unoriginated, Uncreated, and Absolute One". The Primordial Buddha is something without
ego (anatta), unpersonified, and indescribable in any form. But for there is the Absolute, the
unconditioned (Asamkhatam), one can attain the freedom from the wheel of life (samsara) by
meditating.
Sanghyang Adi Buddha is the origin of everything in the universe, but he himself is without
beginning or end, self-originating, infinite, omnipotent, unconditioned, absolute, omnipresent,
almighty, incomparable, and immortal. However, those words are unable to describe the true
self of Sanghyang Adi Buddha. The existence of Adi Buddha demonstrates that this life is not
the product of chaos, but the product of spiritual hierarchy. By the presence of Adi Buddha,
this life becomes useful and be possible to attain enlightenment and Buddhahood.
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The Indonesian Supreme Sangha describes God in Buddhism and (for the purposes of state
recognition as a religion) defines God as "the source of everything that exists": Almighty,
eternal, everything in the universe are His exposition, intangible and doesn't manifest Himself.
Indonesian National Encyclopedia
Indonesian National Encyclopedia (1988) describes Adi Buddha and the traditions that are used
this term thus:
Adi-Buddha is a term for the Almighty God in Buddhism. This title came from the Aisvarika
tradition of Mahayana in Nepal, which is spread through Bengal, and became also known in
Java. Aisvarika is the term for the disciples of theist view in Buddhism. This word came from
'Isvara' which means 'God' or 'Great Buddha' or 'the Almighty', and 'ika' which means 'follower'
or 'disciple'. This term is used by the Svabhavavak Buddhism in Nepal. This school is one of
the branch of Tantrayana school of Mahayana. The term for God Almighty in this school is
Adi-Buddha. Later, this view also spread to Java in the time of Srivijaya and Majapahit. The
present scholars knows this term from the paper of B.H. Hodgson, a researcher who studied
the religious in Nepal. According to this view, one can coalesce (moksha) with Adi-Buddha or
Isvara through his efforts with the ascetic path (tapa) and meditating (Dhyana).
The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhism
The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhism gives the following definition for Adi Buddha:
Term used in Mahayana Buddhism, especially in Nepal and Tibet, for the 'primordial Buddha',
the Buddha without beginning." (Ling: 8)
The primordial Buddha. Although the concept itself can be traced to early Buddhism, it is
widely acknowledge that the notion of the Adi-Buddha was fully developed in esoteric
Buddhism. In [traditional Mahayana] Buddhism, the Adi-Buddha is represented by
Mahavairocana Buddha". (Preb: 38)
Since the time of Sailendra and Medang Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same belief
in the existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern schools.
Pancasila as the basic foundation of the state and nationhood
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The unfinished buddha statue
at Karmawibhangga Museum.
of
the
main
stupa
of
Borobudur
Temple
Since Indonesian independence in 1945, the founders of this new state had agreed on a
proposed ideology as a national foundation for uniting all ethnicities, religions, and
races, i.e. Pancasila as the basic foundation of the state and nationhood. The first precept
of Pancasila is "Belief in the Almighty Godliness" ("Recognition of the Divine
Omnipotence"). The majority of Indonesian people mistranslated the sanskrit "Esa" -Almighty
(absolute in virtues)- as "Eka" -One. This misconceptions makes some factions questioning the
doctrine of Buddhism whether it acknowledges the Belief in God Almighty or not.
Following the attempted coup of Communist Party of Indonesia's (PKI) in 1965, Indonesian
Government rejects and prohibits the development of all views that correspond
to communism or atheism.
Consequently, there was some doubt within the Indonesian Government at the time
whether Buddhism can be accepted as an official religion. The Buddhist Prist Ashin
Jinarakkhita proposed the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as the God of Buddhist teachings.
He sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese
texts, and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at Borobudur in Jawa Tengah
Province. It was submitted to the Minister of Religious Affairs, and the government eventually
accepted Buddhism as a state religion in 1978, as stated in GBHN (Outlines of Indonesian State
Policy) of 1978, Presidential Decree No. 30 of 1978, and the Form Letter of Indonesian
Department of the Interior No.477/74054/1978 (November 18, 1978).
COMPROMISE resulting in the Almighty God (First precept of Pancasila)
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The use of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a name for a supreme God is controversial
among Indonesian Buddhists to the present day. The reason is that the concept of Sanghyang
Adi Buddha, which only exists in Tantrayana/ Vajrayana traditions, is not a god in the sense of
a personal god of the monotheistic religions. The use of the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha
as a personal god, is the product of a compromise with political reality, and is contrary to the
teachings of Buddhism. Because of this political compromise, Indonesian Buddhism differs
from mainstream Buddhism. This controversy also extends to Very Venerable Ashin
Jinarakkhita as the originator of the term Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a god in Buddhism.
While the State seemed to be easily satisfied with Ashin Jinarakkhita's assurance, questions
came from their fellow Buddhists and, later, also his primary disciples who were on the same
boat with him in the beginning. Since then, debates, disintegration, and splits could not be
avoided within Buddhist organizations. The strongest opposition was coming from
the Theravādin members, and it seemed to happen partly because of the influence of
the Thai Buddhist’s purification movement started in the nineteenth century by King
Mongkut as later on many Thai Bhikkhus coming to Indonesia. Though there were also
Buddhist monks coming from Sri Lanka and Myanmar, such as Narada Mahathera, Mahasi
Sayadaw and other Sangha members, they only came a few times during these early years.
In the same year when the controversy was erupting (1974), the Indonesian Directorate General
Guidance of Hindu-Buddhism (Gde Puja, MA.) issued a resolution on all schools/ traditions of
Buddhism that they should believe in the presence of an Almighty God (First precept of
Pancasila), and while each of this sects may give different names to Him, He is essentially the
same entity. This resolution became indirectly a government imposition of the doctrine of
Oneness of God on all schools/ traditions of Buddhism. Any schools/ traditions that do not
believe in the existence of One God would be dissolved. This happened to
the Mahayana school/ tradition of the monk Sun Karma Chandra which was dissolved on July
21, 1978.
Nowadays, the term of Sanghyang Adi Buddha only used mostly by Indonesian Buddhayana
Council and Indonesian Supreme Sangha. Some schools treat the concept indifferently, while
the others simply refuse and consider the idea as heresy (especially the Indonesian Theravada
Sangha), and only a fraction supports it fully or partially.
Religious usage-Salutation
Sanghyang Adi Buddha is used in greeting especially by Indonesian Buddhayana Council,
i.e. Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. This salutation was popularized by the late Venerable
Mahawiku Dharma-aji Uggadhammo, one of the five first disciples of Ashin Jinarakkhita,
whose ordained as the first Indonesian Buddhist monks after the independence of Indonesia.
The complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books'
preface, letters, or meeting is:
Namo
Sanghyang
Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya.
Adi
Buddhaya.
Vandana
The tribute to Sanghyang Adi Buddha is often included in
the vandana (devotion) section of ritual books.
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1.VANDANA
Terpujilah Sanghyang Adi Buddha Tuhan Yang Maha Esa
("Homage to Sanghyang Adi Buddha the Almighty God")
Terpujilah Bhagavā, Yang Maha Suci, Yang telah mencapai Penerangan Sempurna
("Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One")
Terpujilah Para Bodhisattva-Mahasattva
("Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings")
2.VANDANA
Namo Sanghyang Ādi Buddhaya (3x)
"Homage to the Almighty God, shout the whole world"
Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammā-sambuddhassa (3x)
"Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One"
Namo Sarve Bodhisattvāya-Mahāsattvāya (3x)
"Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings"
WAS THE BOROBUDUR BUILT FOR THE SANGHYANA ADI BUDDHA ?
A temple to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha
In Buddhist temples throughout in the world, Gautama Buddha is the central figure. Borobudur
transcends this. Inside the topmost, central stupa originally stood an incomplete and rough
Buddha statue representing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, or God Almighty, as described in esoteric
Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.
That is why all small stupas are eventually culminating into the Great Stupa, dedicated
to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha on top of the temple.
Borobudur therefore is an absolutely unique symbol of Ultimate Truth.
Borobudur consists of two million blocks of lava rock, 2,700 carved story panels and 504
Buddha statues. Borobudur is actually a giant textbook of Buddhism, as its base reliefs tell the
story of the life of Buddha and the principles of his teachings. A universe in small scale
Bhumisambara (Borobudur’s original name) was built as a stepped pyramid. At the base of
the massive temple, reliefs of Karmawibhangga — depiction of human life in the endless cycle
of death and rebirth (Saṃsāra) as well as the law of cause and effect (karmic law) — were
carved on all sides.
All Buddhas sit in small bell-like stupa structures covering them, corresponding with what
the Prajnaparamita sūtra calls “the Womb of the Buddhas”, symbolizing their Enlightened
State.
Viewed from above, Borobudur takes the form of a giant mandala, symbolically depicting
the path of the bodhisattva from samsara to nirvana, through the story of Sudhana described in
the Gandavyuha sūtra, a part of the Avatamsaka sūtra. The monument guides pilgrims through
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an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls
and the balustrades.
The temple is oriented to the four directions and is expanded vertically in accordance with
Buddhist cosmology to construct the Universe in a small scale. There are all total four entrances
and four complete steps for ascending the highest point from the lowest point from the four
directions of East, South, West and North respectively to enter the monument.
Once a year, Buddhists from the whole world celebrate Vesak at the temple.
Built in 800 CE by the Shailendra dynasty, Borobodur is a Mahayana Buddhist complex of
stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a total of 504 stupas
in its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The hundreds
of stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved and built ( and all laid
without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of the natural hills, the
builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect symmetry and total
harmony.
Borobudur perfectly reflects Buddhist cosmology, which divides the universe into three
superimposing levels. The three levels are Kamadhatu (world of desire), Rupadhatu (world of
forms), and Arupadhatu (world of formlessness).
1. Kamadhatu (Bhurloka) — The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of the temple
represents the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals and also demons.
Where humans are still binded by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The
Kamadhatu level pictures the world of passion and the inevitable laws of karma —
Karmavibhangga. The first 117 panels show various actions leading to one and the same
result, while the other remaining 43 panels demonstrate the many results that follow one
single effect.
2. Rupadhatu (Bhuvarloka) — The middle courtyard and the body of the temple
represents life on earth in which the soul has been purged of all desires. The middle
realm of holy people, rishis and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth.
The reliefs of the Rupadhatu level show the stories based on the manuscripts
of Lalitavistara, Jataka-Avadana and Gandavyuha.
3. Arupadhatu (Svargaloka) — The inner courtyard and the roof of the temple represents
the soul’s departure from the body and uniting with the gods in Nirvana. This is the
highest and holiest realm of gods, or Svarga loka. On the last three circular uppermost
terraces, 72 stupas circle the huge main stupa that crowns the top of the temple. The
circular form represents the eternity without beginning and without end, a superlative,
tranquil, and pure state of the formless world. There are no reliefs on the three circular
terraces. Arupadhatu takes the shape of a circle, representing the formless world.
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The kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces, and
the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole structure
shows a uniquely Javanese blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship, related to the
idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana:
• Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire.
• Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and live
in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them.
• Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form, and experience reality at its purest, most
fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The liberation from the cycle
of saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form is corresponds
to the concept of Śūnyatā, or the nonexistence of the self.
A series of five square bases is succeeded by three circular terraces ringed by those 72 stupas,
representing the spiritual journey from the life of desire, through meditation to Nirvana. While
viewed from above the whole resembles the sacred lotus flower.
On these circular platforms, the famous 72 bell-shaped stupas are situated, inside of each a statue
of a Buddha is placed. The top and centre of the entire structure is a large and empty stupa. All
terraces and platforms can be reached by means of stairways which are situated at the four sides
of the structure.
The entire structure is formed in the shape of a giant twirling staircase, a style of
architecture from prehistoric Indonesia. At the 10th and highest level of the temple, is the
largest and tallest stupa in Borobudur. Within this stupa was found the ‘Unfinished Buddha’
symbolizing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, which is now in the Karmawibhangga Museum.
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The Jātaka level — Bhikkhuṇī Candraprabhā and Advisors warn the king.
An extremely well-balanced structure
Borobudur‘s 10 levels are designed to correspond with the path to enlightenment. The base
is stacked with 5 concentric square terraces connected by staircases in each direction, which are
then topped by 3 circular terraces and ultimately by a monumental stupa.
The temple is designed so that visitors can walk clockwise down the open-air paths along the
terraces as they move upward while meditating upon the path to enlightenment.
The Buddhas are placed in three circles of 16, 24 and 32 and each looking at a specific spot
on three corresponding circles which are situated outside of the perimeter of the
structure. Esoterists from all over the world are still trying to find out the meanings contained
in the structure of the temple.
There are in these four galleries 432 larger statues of the Lord Buddha ranged at regular intervals
along the upper part of the walls, each sitting in its own niche or recessed shrine.
All the 108 images on each side are seated with mūdra. On the North, the mūdra is Abhaya
mūdra — Have no fear; on the East, the mūdra is Bhūmisparsha — Touching the earth; on the
South, Dāna — Giving; on the West, Dhyāna — Meditation.
Upon either wall of the four galleries we find a continuous series of bas-reliefs illustrating the
religious phenomena in ascending gradation.
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• the first gallery, that is to say, displays a selection of scenes from the historical life of Buddha
• the second shows us the minor deities of the Brahmanic worship adopted into the Buddhist
Pantheon
• the third contains the higher deities, at the plane in which the shrine rather than the deity itself
is worshipped
• in the fourth we find only groups of Dhyāni-Buddhas.
In the middle of each of the four sides of the square a steep stairway ascends, the gateway to
each stairway being guarded by sitting lions, and spanned by ornate arches of the highest
architectural perfection. The main entrance is on the eastern side. The reliefs also depicted
mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas
and apsaras.
The reliefs of noblemen, and noble women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and
boddhisattvas usually portrayed in tribhanga pose. The three bent pose on neck, hips, and knee
with one leg resting and one uphold the body weight. This position is considered as the most
graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus.
The square lower part of the structure shows us, through hundreds of carved stone panels, all
aspects of social or communal life. It is only after this ‘school of human development’ is passed,
that the circular platforms with the 72 Stupas are reached. Where the lower part of the structure
concerns itself with earthly matters, the upper part seems to be directed towards the cosmos and
as such rises far above the lower levels in more than one sense.
Scheltema, in his book Monumental Java, describes it as “the most consummate achievement
of Buddhist architecture in the whole world”.
A variety of Javanese motifs and entities are also found in theses compositions, such as the
structure of Javanese cottage houses, the birds on its roof or the motifs of trees and leaves.
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A scripture set in stone- Borobudur is constructed from 2 million volcanic rocks, and
assembled using a complex interlocking technique without the use of cement or mortar.
The monument has 2,672 relief panels that if aligned in a row, would stretch a length of over 6
kilometers.
The reliefs are intended to impress lessons of wisdom on the believer’s mind as he ascended the
stūpa, and so to prepare him for the attainment of the highest insights of Buddhism.
Reading the panels on the temple walls requires a specific technique. The panels on the wall
read from left to right, while those on the balustrade read from right to left, conforming with
the pradaksina.
The story begins and ends at the eastern side of the gate at every level. Stairs connect each
level to the next from each direction of the compass, but the idea is to always ascend from the
stairs at the eastern corner. The ten levels of Borobudur are representations of the Mahayana
philosophy which describe the ten levels of Bodhisattva that must be passed to attain the
Buddhist perfection.
Jatakas or Buddha´s previous life
Seen from the sky, Borobudur is built in the form of Mount Meru, and is a vertical
representation of the Sri Yantra. Borobudur teaches all the steps of Buddhist theology to
reach the supreme Buddha state.
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When ascending from lower levels to the upper levels, the density of the numbers of human
figures gradually becomes very much diluted and also their physical gestures become highly
controlled and less suggestive.
In the final upper galleries the compositions contain only the extremely calm, isolated rather
static figures in few numbers in compositional space. It is a clear symbolization of the
transformation from the earthly sinful life of action and reaction towards the spacious and
peaceful state of isolation, meditation and transcendental mind.
In the center and on top of the Borobudur mandala-temple, is located the Main Stupa,
symbolizing something much bigger than individual Enlightenment. This Universal Stupa
corresponds with “Emptiness beyond Emptines” or Absolute Emptiness in which Relative
Emptiness (Enlightenment) disappears, also called Nirvana or Absolute Bottomlessness of the
Cosmos.
The Pawon-Mendut alignment--RIGHT
An astronomical temple
The 4:6:9 ratio has a calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as in Angkor
Wat. The gates are adorned with Kala’s head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting
from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples.
The positioning of the 72 ‘occupied’ Stupas in three circles of 32, 24 and 16 might give us an
indication as to what specific aspects of the cosmos these bell-shaped structures point. The
circular platforms on which the Stupas are situated seem to concern themselves with the stars.
The ship reliefs on the East depict a ship underneath celestial objects, commemorating a voyage
to Africa. This shows the Indonesians crossed the ocean without a compass, depending solely
on the stars for navigation. In 2003–2004, a wooden replica of the Borobudur ship was made
and sailed the Cinnamon Route from Jakarta to Accra in Ghana to demonstrate the trans-Indian
Ocean trading links of medieval Indonesians and Africans.
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A temple to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha
In Buddhist temples throughout in the world, Gautama Buddha is the central figure. Borobudur
transcends this. Inside the topmost, central stupa originally stood an incomplete and rough
Buddha statue representing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, or God Almighty, as described in esoteric
Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.
That is why all small stupas are eventually culminating into the Great Stupa, dedicated
to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha on top of the temple.
Borobudur therefore is an absolutely unique symbol of Ultimate Truth.
The Krakatau eruption
But in the year 915 A.D. there occurred a terrible volcanic outburst. The great volcano
of Krakatau (then called the Rahata or Cancer-volcano) broke out into an eruption so
tremendous that it split the whole island into two parts — now called Java and
Sumatra respectively — and brought into existence the Straits of Sunda.
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At the same time, the volcano Merapi threw out an incredible amount of sand and ashes,
destroying almost the whole of Airlanggha’s kingdom, and entirely burying Borobudur, Mendut
and Prambanan temples.
This catastrophe is mentioned in the inscriptions of King Airlanggga — sometimes called Jalalanggha (“he who walks over the waters”, apparently because he escaped from the floods
caused by the eruption, and retired on Mount Lawu in Surakarta, where be met some Brahmans
who were living in the woods there as ascetics.
After some time, however, he came out of his seclusion and made his way into East Java, where
he married the daughter of the King of Kediri, and inherited his throne. Under his
auspices, Sanskrit learning made great advances in the Kediri and Janggala regions, Buddhism
and Hinduism flourished equally under his rule, and started to blend into the ShivaBuddha religion.
The present royal families of Bali and Lombok are descended from Airlangga.
The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur
Temple and two smaller temples situated to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur:
•
Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith
accompanied by two Bodhisattvas
• Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might
have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the
attainment of Nirvana.
During the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe the Vesak annual ritual
by walking from Mendut temple, past Pawon and then to Borobudur. The ritual takes the form
of Buddhist prayer and pradakshina.
For local Javanese who follow Kejawen or Buddhism, praying in Mendut temple is believed to
help to heal diseases.
ndonesian Buddhism in the early 1990s was the unstable product of complex
accommodations among religious ideology, Chinese ethnic identification, and political policy.
Traditionally, Chinese Daoism (or Taoism), Confucianism, (agama Konghucu in Indonesian)
and Buddhism, as well as the more nativist Buddhist Perbuddhi, all had adherents in the ethnic
Chinese community. Following the attempted coup of 1965, any hint of deviation from the
monotheistic tenets of the Pancasila was regarded as treason, and the founder of Perbuddhi,
Bhikku Ashin Jinarakkhita, proposed that there was a single supreme deity, Sang Hyang Adi
Buddha. He sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient
Javanese texts, and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at Borobudur in Jawa
Tengah Province. In the years following the 1965 abortive coup, when all citizens were
required to register with a specific religious denomination or be suspected of communist
sympathies, the number of Buddhists swelled; some ninety new monasteries were built. In 1987
there were seven schools of Buddhism affiliated with the Perwalian Umat Buddha Indonesia
(Walubi): Theravada, Buddhayana, Mahayana, Tridharma, Kasogatan, Maitreya, and Nichiren.
According to a 1987 estimate, there were roughly 2.5 million followers of Buddhism, with 1
million of these affiliated with Theravada Buddhism and roughly 0.5 million belonging to the
Buddhayana sect founded by Jinarakkhita. Other estimates placed Buddhists at around only 1
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percent of the population, or less than 2 million. Buddhism was gaining in numbers because of
the uncertain status of Confucianism. Confucianism was officially tolerated by the government,
but since it was regarded as a system of ethical relations rather than a religion per se, it was not
represented in the Department of Religious Affairs.
Although various sects approach Buddhist doctrine in different ways, a central feature of the
religion is acknowledgment of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble
Truths involve the recognition that all existence is full of suffering; the origin of suffering is
the craving for worldly objects; suffering ceases when craving ceases; and the Eightfold Path
leads to enlightenment. The Eightfold Path invokes perfect views, resolve, speech, conduct,
livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
Buddhism originally was an intellectual creed, and only marginally concerned with the
supernatural. However, political necessity, and the personal emotional desire to be shielded
from the terrors of the world by a powerful deity, have led to modifications. In many ways,
Buddhism is highly individualistic, with each man and woman held responsible for his or her
own self. Anyone can meditate alone; no temple is required, and no clergy is needed to act as
intermediary. The community provides pagodas and temples to inspire the proper frame of
mind to assist the worshippers in their devotion and self-awareness.(...)
Later, Dumarçay (1973) characterised scholarly debates on Borobudur as particularly spirited
because the sanctuary underwent five phases of construction that involved major shifts in
religious doctrines and the builders’ intentions. This likely explains why scholars have been
unable to agree on an organising principle for Borobudur (Brown 1986), including the
concept of the mandala.
In Hindu-Buddhist traditions, a mandala is a cosmogonic diagram that represents the
organisation of the universe as well as the spiritual progression of the worshiper towards
enlightenment. Sanctuaries and urban configurations such as the ancient Khmer capitals of
Angkor were designed in the shape of the mandala to provide a physical manifestation of the
celestial order on Earth.
In Indonesia, the concept of the mandala has its roots in pre-Islamic religious syncretism.
Some scholars have argued that the plan of Borobudur represented a mandala, in line with the
Tantric Buddhist tradition. By contras:
Brown (1986) questioned whether the sanctuary’s physical shape represented the tantric
mandala.
Klokke (1995) argued that the Saliendra dynasty practised Mahayana Buddhism, not Tantric
Buddhism, and that the form of the temple is inconsistent with the constitutive elements and
organisation of the tantric mandala. Nonetheless, the mandala hypothesis has not been
rejected entirely.
Snellgrove (1996: 480) suggested that Borobudur conforms to a more general idea of the
mandala, which has no direct connection with tantrism:
The Buddha statues on the terraces symbolise the invisible petals of the lotus, and, walking
towards the central figure, the worshipper gradually enters a magic world. In contrast with
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Zimmer, Mus (1932) himself argued that the metaphor of the mandala is too simplistic to
illustrate the complexity of meanings and symbols tied up with the design of Borobudur.
The JICA experts nonetheless drew on the concept of the mandala in their 1979 management
plan. In their view, Borobudur represents a stupa as well as Mount Meru, the mythical
mountain regarded in Hindu and Buddhist mythologies as the axis of the world. The
sacralised territory extended as far the five mountains—Sumbing, Telomoyo, Andong,
Merbabu and Merapi—that encircle the temple. The JICA experts argued that the Saliendra
dynasty built their capital based on the pattern of a specific type of mandala, the Pursha
Mandala. This mandala was formed when various parts of the crushed body of a primitive
man called Pursha were inhabited by the gods to prevent him from causing a commotion on
Earth (see fig. 2) (JICA 1979: 6).
Fig. 2. The Pursha Mandala according to JICA
40The JICA management plan aimed to render this sacred Buddhist cosmography visible by
linking the three inner zones of protection with the three spiritual steps of the worshipper,
who moves along the path from desire (zone 3, the “scenic conservation zone”) to meditation
(zone 2, park development area) and, finally, to formlessness (zone 1, the sanctuary itself)
(see fig. 3).
Fig. 3. View from the top of Borobudur towards the mountains that encircle the cultural
landscape
41BPPI activists acknowledge the debate among Western scholars, but in their own analyses
draw more heavily on vernacular knowledge which imbues local practices. References to this
embodied, spiritual knowledge enable them to emancipate themselves from the longstanding
colonial influence of the West in the production of local histories and conceptions of heritage.
The BPPI—and local academics and activists who support the organisation—refer to a
conception of the mandala that they see as a constitutive component of the Indonesian cultural
landscape as saujana budaya. In this view, the mandala is not only the legacy of a past religious
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tradition documented by Western scholars, but also a sacred conception of space that is deeply
embedded in the practices and values of the contemporary local population (Tanudirjo 2013).
According to Priyana (2015), the Borobudur mandala reflects the Javanese concept of
the mancapat (or mancalima), a sacred, compass-shaped diagram with a dot at its centre. The
sanctuary itself represents the centre, “a small universe, showing the journey of purifying the
human soul” (Priyana 2015: 108). The mancapat merges an Islamic symbolic pattern
called kiblat panipat with the Hindu-Javanese pattern of the mandala. Vertically,
the mancapat relates to the macroscopic relationships between humans and God; horizontally,
it governs the relationships between humans and their environment. Villages can be organised
according to this sacred scheme, with the central village surrounded by four other villages like
the points of a compass (Ciptandi & Sachari 2018). The local market rotates between the five
locations, giving each village the opportunity to sell its own products and meet its own needs
(pancawarna). In this way, the sacred layout ensures the vitality of the entire village system
(Maulidi & Rukmi 2019). In the Borobudur region, the temple at the centre spreads its energy
towards the five surrounding mountains. For this reason, the perimeter of the cultural landscape
to be protected should extend as far as the mountains that border the Magelang Regency,
covering 372 villages and amounting to a total surface area of 1,085.73 km2.
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Chapter 12
The STRUCTURE of the Borobudur as a large base Stupa
The evidence for a belief in Adi-Buddha is also evidenced by the symbolism of
Borobudur’s final stupa. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue
which is depicting the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by humans. This is seen as proof
that theistic Buddhism was present in Java since at least the 8th century.
Indonesian Buddhayana followers use the greeting Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. The
complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books’ preface, letters, or
meetings is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya
Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya
Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most
common of which is the stone Candi which are built as a symbol of Mount Meru. Others were
built in punden berundak (step pyramids) style — small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains
— and pertapaan, (‘places of austerities’ or hermitages) built on mountain slopes.
Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an
elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two
rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a
Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural
fertility. Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including
the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered
that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one
straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with
a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut
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with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar
architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual
relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have
existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown
Suroloyo Peak is the highest summit at the picturesque Menoreh Hills, which share the
neighbourhood with the renowned eco-tourism destination Kulon Progo. This peak is one of
the most popular spots to catch Yogyakarta’s most glorious sunrise that cast rays of light upon
the Borobudur Temple and Java’s big four mountains: Merapi, Merbabu, Sumbing, and
Sindoro. Other than the breathtaking view, this peak also holds some religious artefacts,
including ascetic pavilions and statues.
Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill,
265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. The
lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth
century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake.
In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J.
Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially
represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every
Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture
of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur
symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism
widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought
to resent a lotus leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists
because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.
Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found
near the site. A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports
the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur, which tends to confirm
Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that
Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows
and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most
active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has
been very active since the Pleistocene.
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The overall structure of Borobudur is made up of a square foundation along with a total
of nine platforms. Of those nine platforms six of them are squared while the remaining three are
circular. The structure can be further divided into three main levels: a base, a body, and the top.
The architecture of Borobudur would also signify a gradual process as it starts off square in the
lower terraces, transitions to elliptical with the first two upper terraces and finally becomes
circular in the third upper terrace.
Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles
Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.
The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from
its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof,
while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bellshaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika) sits on top of the dome serves
as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or
rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
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a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism.
A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.
Prambanan vajra pinnacle.
Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams
(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle
is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist
stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the
multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a
familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture,
the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on
top of Buddhist counterparts.
By virtue of their spatial connection to the terrain and the necessity for secure foundations,
works of architecture differ from objects that can be inverted or carried away. The bottom edge,
where a building rests on the ground, requires a different treatment than all other edges and
surfaces (> tectonics). The base reveals the relationship between a building and the ground: it
pushes into the earth, rests on the ground, or is detached from it. Whether a building makes the
impression of standing upright, reclining or floating depends upon whether it has a base, and if
so on its formation. The connection between the building and the ground also determines the
way in which the building relates to the terrain of the exterior space and how the two join
together to form a spatial unity.
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Depending upon its design, the base shows us how a building rests upon the ground. Solidity
and robustness produce a tectonic expression of load-bearing capacity. Particularly in historic
buildings, these qualities are achieved by means of rough rusticated masonry or the use of
natural stone in the pedestal zone, or by squat proportions and apertures smaller than those in
upper storeys. Bases also ensure that individual architectural elements, such as > columns and
pillars, neither sink into the earth optically nor seem detached from it. Although the base
belongs to the building, and not to the earth, it fulfils the task of creating a connection to the
terrain, broadening out by means of transitions, steps, pedestals or terraces. In ways comparable
to the shoes we wear on our feet, materials also convey distinctions between the fineness of the
interior and the coarseness of the exterior.
Along with the building, the base also brings its occupants down to earth, shaping direct contact
with the passersby and vehicles that move around the building. Through its palpable presence
and tactile qualities, the base constitutes the first zone of contact for approaching a building
within its immediate surroundings, and is its first distinctive identifying symbol. Essentially, it
is reminiscent of the role of the pedestal, which provided stability to ancient temples as the first
islands of civilization within inaccessible terrain. Under certain circumstances, the task of the
base, namely to provide stability and an optical foundation, may be extended by its use as a
basement storey. With reduced apertures, the rooms contained in the base are partially inserted
into the ground. The unfortunately widespread bad habit, however, of digging out the base in
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order to provide living space with improved illumination deprives a building of stable
grounding. The mental state of the inhabitant of a massive basement storey that serves a
building as a base, on the other hand, is shaped by a sense of the apartment’s anchoring into
the ground.
Right from the 2 nd Century onwards, Kushans in order to house relics of the Buddha, which
may have been sourced from earlier monuments, and originally buried at the site around 78
CE. Buddhist texts mention that frankincense was used during religious services at
Dharmarajika, while the complex was paved with colourful glass tiles. Though not
Buddhists,he Kushans in general were great patrons of Buddhism, and, starting with Emperor
Kanishka, they also employed elements of Zoroastrianism in their pantheon. They played an
important role in the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China.These have a Large square
or circular plinth and several diminishing terraces as mentioned before.
“Prambanan,” explains archeologist Manggar Sarl Ayuati, “is one of the largest Hindu temple
complexes in Asia with an enclosed area 390 meters on a side. It was built in 856 by King
Rakai Pikatan of the Sanjaya dynasty, which ruled the Mataram Kingdom, and was expanded
by later kings. It is dedicated to Siva.”
Prambanan has three concentric courtyards. The innermost contains 16 temples, including the
156-foot-high main temple to Siva and 108-foot temples to Vishnu and Brahma. Each is faced
by a smaller temple for the God’s vahana (mount): Nandi the bull for Siva, Hamsa the swan
for Brahma and Garuda the eagle (Indonesia’s national symbol) for Vishnu. Scenes from
the Ramayana and the life of Krishna are carved on the outer walls of the temples. The Siva
temple has multiple chambers - Siva in the center, Durga in the north, Rishi Agastya in the
south and Ganesha in the west.
The second courtyard originally contained 240 small temples; only 129 have undergone any
degree of restoration. The rest are just piles of rocks. No structures remain in the third
courtyard, and the historical use of that area is unknown. The complex also contains four
Buddhist temples, built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist wife.
Prambanan was abandoned in the 10th century, likely when the Mataram kingdom moved to
East Java following a huge eruption of nearby Mount Merapi that covered the entire area in
volcanic ash. A major earthquake in the 16th century collapsed the upper parts of the main
structures. The temple sustained additional damage in the 6.5-magnitude earthquake of 2006.
Repairs were still underway during our 2014 visit.
I was saddened to hear this spectacular place referred to as a dead monument and to see it
reduced to a picnic spot for tourists. Puja is performed here only once a year, but that brings
thousands of people from all over Indonesia to worship Siva, Brahma and Vishnu. With some
difficulty, puja can be arranged at other times of the year. Our guide, Pak Dewa Suratnaya, a
journalist with Media Hindu magazine, said strongly that these great temples should be brought
to life again through regular worship. I agreed with him wholeheartedly.
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Diagram of the main Siva temple; repairs underway shortly after the 2006 earthquake; (inset)
the partially collapsed central Siva temple around 1895, after its rediscovery by the British.
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taxila an illustrated account of archaeological excavations,By Marshall John, google
books
One prime example of the large base and conical top design id the Dharmarajika Stupa also
referred to as the Great Stupa of Taxila which is a Buddhist stupa near Taxila, Pakistan.
It dates from as early as the 2nd century CE, and was built by the Kushans to house small bone
fragments of the Buddha. It has been claimed that that Dharmarajika Stupa was built over the
remains of an even older stupa that had been built by the Mauryan emperor King Ashoka in the
3rd century BCE, though other archeologists alternatively suggest that this is unlikely. IndoGreek coins found at the site date from the 2nd century BCE, suggesting earliest possible
establishment of a religious monument at the site.
The stupa, along with the large monastic complex that later developed around it, forms part of
the Ruins of Taxila - which were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.
The Kushans were most probably one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation, an IndoEuropean nomadic people of possible Tocharian origin, who migrated from northwestern
China (Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria. The founder of the dynasty, Kujula
Kadphises, followed Greek religious ideas and iconography after the Greco-Bactrian tradition,
and also followed traditions of Hinduism, being a devotee of the Hindu God Shiva. Small
stupas that predate the main stupa are found throughout the Dharmarajika site, and surrounded
an earlier core stupa in an irregular layout. It is known that the earlier core stupa contained a
pathway for circumambulation that was made of plaster, and decorated with shell bangles in
geometric patterns. The earlier stupa likely had four gates in axial directions.
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The site came under control of Persian Sassanid rule, and suffered a period of
stagnation. Large-scale developments took place during the late Kushan and Kidarite era
which added numerous monasteries and stupas to the site.
Plan of the Dharmarajika Stupa.
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The site was devastated by the White Huns in the 5th century CE, and then abandoned.
The location of the stupa and its monastic community about 1 kilometre outside
of Sirkap aligns with ancient Gandharan beliefs that the Buddha recommended monasteries
should be neither "too far" nor "too close" to adjacent towns. Three distinctive types of masonry
in the buildings around the main stupa suggest the contributions of different periods to the
building activity.
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Core stupa
The passageway between the main stupa and several smaller stupas was used for the
practice of pradakshina.
Dharmarajika Stupa is the largest of all stupas in the Taxila region, Surrounding the main
mound is a passageway for pradakshina — the ancient practice of walking around a holy site.
The stupa's large anda, or hemispherical mound, is damaged − though the plinth of the mound,
known as the medhi, is still largely intact. The anda mound was made of ashlar stone. The
stupa's harmika, or fence like structure built atop the anda mound, has been lost.
The stupa's southern gateway was initially considered the most important, though the
construction of four smaller stupas (termed G7, G8, S7, Q1) to the west of the stupa indicate
that this then likely became the preferred entrance for those performing circambulation. Later
constructions around the "Eastern Avenue" then shifted the preferred route for circambulation
to the eastern side of the stupa.
Before entering the main sacred areas, visitors to the shrine from Sirkap would pass through a
large building, now termed building H, that would openly display relics. Visitors likely
venerated the relics at building H before entering the main stupa area.
It is both a temple and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and
completed as it was designed, with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a
pattern for Hindu temple mountains at Angkor and in its own day it must have been one of the
wonders of the Asian world.
Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated
and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth (the
processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The plans of
the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace stands a series
of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the centre of the summit
by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face is a long staircase; all
four are given equal importance.
SOLID STRUCTURE
There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist
stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions
and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into
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any of the other levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches
contain Buddha figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser
bell-shaped stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone
Buddha figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground,
flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major
afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story
of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have
been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story,
which began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone
accumulated above.
The Borobodur complex is an open monument; there are no chambers ; it has no roof and no
vaults, (like Candi Sewu). The complex is built in the form of a giant pyramid shaped mandala
with 10 ascending layers: the 10 Buddhist worlds represented by the 10 layers. Ascending from
the base, there are six square terraces and a courtyard and then, at the top 3 round terraces and
at the top, a central main stupa measuring 35 meters from the base or 42 meters tall.
A complex of stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a total
of 504 stupas in its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world.
The hundreds of stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved and built
( and all laid without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of the natural
hills, the builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect symmetry and
total harmony.
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A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in yellow)
during the reign of Kanishka. Most historians consider the empire to have variously
extended as far east as the middle Ganges plain, to Varanasi on the confluence of the Ganges
and the Jumna, or probably even Pataliputra.
The mandala is a diagram representing a spiritual practice of attainment in the Tibetan school
of Vajrayana and also in the Sri Vijayan school as well. What type of mandala is Borobodur ?
This is difficult to say. There are as many as 3,500 types of mandalas and we cannot precisely
fix Borobodur as a particular type of mandala.
Each side of the Borobodur complex is 120 feet long and decreases as it goes up. If we were to
circumambulate each level, it would encompass a total of 5 km.The entrance to Borobodur
is at the east and the Buddhas face east.
Borobodur took about 70 years to be built by the architect Gunadharma .There is a small hill
directly facing Borobodur and folklore says that this hill is said to represent the sleeping body
profile of Gunadvara.
There are a total of 504 stupas in the entire complex, each stupa enclosing a life size stone
Buddha. However, many are now empty due to pillage. Remarkably, no Buddha image is the
same, each Buddha image faces all various directions and with various hand mudras with all
the 6 types of mudras all represented. The 3 upper terraces have 72 Buddhas; the lower terraces
have 432 with total of 504. All the numbers add up to the number 9 ( the largest single digit
indiger ). All the stupas have the stocky bulbous Central Java shape. Each stupa consists of the
top or harmuca which holds holy relics relic holding top and the main body or anda sitting on
a lotus base. But, not all stupas in Borobodur look the same. The stupas in the upper and lower
terraces are differentiated by the harmuca and the anda. The stupas of the lower terraces have
octogonal shaped harmuca and the anda enclosing the Buddha have many tiny square shaped
openings or holes. However, the stupas of the upper terraces have a square shaped harmuca
and diamond shaped openings in the anda.
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PERFECT SYMMETRY
The base of each stupa equals the height of the stupa. Absolutely perfect symmetry! In fact, all
measurements from every corner and the height of all stupas of Borobodur are governed by
this perfect symmetry.
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The main central stupa at the top which measures 42 meters is still in the process of restoration
– the top has not yet been restored – and is missing the 3 layers of the parasol or ‘chatra’ as can
be seen at the Sarnath temple in India.Mahayana bas relief panels cover each of the 10 layers
of terraced carvings. Each gallery is a masterpieces of Sri Vijayan or Gandaran art. No one
panel is the same, each gallery in each layer representing different Jataka stories and as one
goes further up the galleries, the Jataka stories brought to life by the panels get from the
ordinary to the more conceptual.and.spiritual. As the Borobodur complex was being built from
830 CE to 938CE, it was archaeologists discovered that it could have been revised by as much
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as three times from the original plan. In any event, there were no blueprints then and restorers
can only surmise by taking apart the stones and putting them back again. It was abandoned in
938 CE. No one quite knows why except that, the champions of Buddhism, the Shailendra
dynasty were chased out of Java in 825 CE and this meant that for the next 30 to 40 years
thereafter, the royal patronage for Buddhist temples in java was lost. After the Shailendras were
removed, the Sanjayan family which was a Hindu princely family still continued to support
Buddhism but it began to wane.
The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of reality
at the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the ultimate
condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. The unity of the monument effectively
proclaims the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth. The visitor was meant to be
transformed while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering illustrations of
progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The topmost terrace, whose main
stupa contained an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the spectator’s view,
symbolized the indefinable ultimate spiritual state. The 72 openwork stupas on the circular
terraces, with their barely visible internal Buddhas, symbolize incomplete states of
enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The usual way for a pilgrim to pay reverence
to a Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it on his right hand. The vast series of reliefs
about three feet (one metre) high on the exterior walls of the terraces would thus be read by the
visitor in series from right to left. Between the reliefs are decorative scroll panels, and a hundred
monster-head waterspouts carry off the tropical rainwater. The gates on the stairways between
terraces are of the standard Indonesian type, with the face of the Kala monster at the apex
spouting his scrolls.
IMPACT OF THE TRADITIONAL INDONESIAN STEP PYRAMID DESIGN
Punden terraces or terraces are a building layout structure in the form of multiple terraces or
traps that lead to one point with each terrace getting higher in position. This structure is often
found on archaeological sites in the archipelago , so it is considered one of the characteristics
of the original culture of the archipelago.
Ceto Temple, a Hindu-style temple with a staircase punden structure.
The basic structure of the terraced punden is found in archaeological sites from the pre-HinduBuddhist Megalithic - Neolithic culture of the Austronesian people , although it was also used
in buildings from the later period, even until the Islamic period entered the archipelago. Its
distribution is recorded in the archipelago to Polynesia , [1] although in the Polynesian region
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it is not always in the form of steps, in a structure known as marae by the Maori. The entry of
religions from outside could fade manufacturing practices punden at several places in the
archipelago, but there is a hint of the adoption of the original elements of this in the buildings
of the next period of history, as seen in Borobudur , Candi Ceto , and Complex Funeral Kings
Mataram in Imogiri .
The word "pundèn" (or pundian ) comes from the Javanese language . Said pepund è n which
means "cult objects" similar understanding with the concept kabuyutan the Sundanese
people. In punden terraces, the basic concept held is that the ancestors or those who are
worshiped are in high places (usually mountain peaks ). The term punden terraces emphasizes
the function of worshiping/respecting ancestors, not just the basic structure of the spatial layout.
Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple site Cambodia
The archaeological site of Koh Ker in northern Cambodia contains a seven-tiered pyramid
called Prang which was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV. Construction of the
sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square building measures
62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform stood a huge lingam
probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons. Inscriptions say that
it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am probably stood in a shrine
which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On the north side of the
pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. Concerning the seventh tier some scientists say,
this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of Garudas were made.
The main pyramid of Sukuh temple
As well as menhirs, stone tables, and stone statues Austronesian megalithic culture
in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structure, referred to as punden
berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok[n and in Cipari near Kuningan. The
construction of stone pyramids is based on the native beliefs that mountains and high places
are the abode for the spirit of the ancestors.
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The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument
in Central Java. However the later temples built in Java were influenced by Indian Hindu
architecture, as displayed by the towering spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century Java
during the late Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as
displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat resembles a Mesoamerican pyramid, and also
stepped pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.Borobudur carries with it elements of both the
Pundan terraces and Te Gupta architecture of the sanchi Type.
Post-Borobudur candis
Impact on Post-Borobudur candis
illustrate the Buddhist doctrine in different
ways. Kalasan, for example, built in the second half of the 8th century, was a large square
shrine on a plinth, with projecting porticoes at the centre of each face. The roof was surmounted
by a high circular stupa mounted on an octagonal drum, the faces of which bear reliefs of
divinities. Topping each portico was a group of five small stupas, and another large stupa stood
at each disengaged corner of the main shrine. The moldings were restrained and elegantly
profiled. Each section of the exterior wall contains a niche meant for a figure sculpture. The
decorative scroll carving is especially fine.
Another shrine from this period, Candi Sewu, consisted of a large cruciform shrine
surrounded by smaller temples, only one of which has been restored. All of the temples seem
to have had roofs in the form of tiered stupas, compressing the overall Borobudur scheme into
the scope of a storied shrine tower. From Candi Plaosan came many beautiful sculptures, donor
figures, and iconic images of bodhisattvasPerhaps the most interesting of the postBorobudur Buddhist shrines of the 9th century is Candi Sari. It is an outstanding architectural
invention. From the outside it appears as a large rectangular three-storied block, with the main
entrance piercing the centre of one of the longer sides. The third story stands above a substantial
architrave with horizontal moldings and antefixes. Two windows on each short side, three on
each long, open into each story, though at the rear they are blind. The windows are crowned
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by large antefix-like cartouches of ornamental carving based on curvilinear pavilions hung with
strings of gems. The uppermost windows are hooded with the Kala-monster motif. The roof
bears rows of small stupas, and perhaps there was once a large central stupa. Inside, Candi Sari
contains a processional corridor around three interior shrines that were possibly intended for
images of the garbha-dhatu deities, as at Candi Mendut.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is
an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each
of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been
better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the
complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration
expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples, while
two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples located in
the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different statues and
orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the current site are
not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues of Borobudur and
were likely made of bronze.
Candi Sewu Layout
Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between the
second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple on
each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after the
main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
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row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located around
300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins discovered
around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too scarce for
reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound was
completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which is
corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground
plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal points
of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own stairs,
entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the structures
are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms in
each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a central
roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways were
added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden doors.
Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples together into
one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger than
other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty. However
the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once contained
a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably reaching a
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height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over the centuries.
However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably constructed from several
stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.
Sewu
Layout
According to literary tradition, Nalanda, 10 kilometres north of Rajgir and a suburb of the
ancient city, was visited by Buddha and Mahavira. Ashoka is said to have worshipped at the
chaitya-niches of Sariputra, Buddha's disciple, and erected a temple. By the time of
Harsha A.D. 606-648, Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a
famed University town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars from
far and near. The Chinese Pilgrims Huien Tsang and Fa-hien studied at Nalanda and have left
account of the settlement and its life.
Temple 3 was more than 31 m. high and consisted of seven successive accumulations of which
the two latest belonged to the 11th and 12th centuries and the fifth one, dating from circa 6th
century, was notable for its sculptural wealth. The monasteries were imposing rectangular
buildings, each with an open courtyard, enclosed by a covered verandah which leads into cells,
arranged on the four sides. The cell facing the entrance served as a shrine. Nalanda was an
important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also yielded seals and sealings of great
historical significance.
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Nalanda University; Conjectural Reconstruction from Excavated Remains of Temple no. 3 or
5th Stupa (Sariputra Stupa), c. 6th century CE
Temple no. 3 (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda's structures with its
multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small
structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence
shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of
construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved
with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of
the stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta-era art depicting a variety of stucco
figures including Buddha and the Bodhisattvas, scenes from the Jataka tales. The temple is
surrounded by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed
with passages from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine chamber
which now only contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha must have
once rested. According to Win Maung, the stupa was influenced by Gupta architecture, which
itself had Kushana era influences. In a shrine near the bottom of the staircase, a large image of
Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the Museum.
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Map of Nalanda by Alexander Cunningham, 1861-62
When a building is tapered, the exterior surface area where the wind load is applied is
reduced at higher levels, and increased at lower levels. The convex contour of the whole
monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth,
the processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed
up against the original bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series
of reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to
hold together the bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the immense
weight of earth and stone accumulated above.
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The stupa complex at Borobudur in Java, Indonesia.
Robert Harding Picture Li
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Sanchi
Stupa
Kalasan also known as Candi Kalibening, is an 8th-century Buddhist temple
in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on the way
to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main road Jalan Solo between Yogyakarta
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and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the Kalasan District (kapanewon) of Sleman
Regency.
According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari script,
the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel
of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in
another part of the inscription also called Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam,
a holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara.
In addition, a vihara (monastery) was built for buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's
realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to sangha (buddhist monastic
community). According to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the
temples built in the Prambanan Plain.
Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt during the Dutch colonial era, the temple currently
is in poor condition. Compared to other temples nearby such as Prambanan, Sewu,
and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained.
The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped,
and designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates
adorned with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3,5 square meters. No statue is to be found in
the smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the rooms
once contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist figures
such as the Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been
photographed and used by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the
artistry in stone by Central Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues would
have been placed are found inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer wall
intricately carved with Kala, gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the celestial
palace of the gods, apsaras, and gandharvas.
The giant Kala's head on the southern door/ One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan
temple adorned with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka
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The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the
polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisatvas seated on
lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is
in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue
of a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisatvas. The top part of the roof is almost
circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the
structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some
interpretations of the early Borobudur structure.
The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room. In
the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and elephant
figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According to the
Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall) statue
of the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of the
goddess was in seated position and made from bronze. Now the statue is missing, probably the
same fate as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal over centuries.
On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond
plaster). The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster
was applied to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.
The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters
north east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the
monastery mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu
temple, and Plaosan temple.
Jordaan, R. E. (1998). The Tārā temple of Kalasan in Central Java. Bulletin de l’École Française
d’Extrême-Orient, 85, 163–183. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43733871
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3 pre-Angkorean architectural styles :
1. Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals
that include a bulb.
2. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings
were more heavily decorated but had general decline in standards.
3. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Having decorative rings on colonettes which remain
cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued.
The following periods and styles may be distinguished
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Kulen style (825–875): Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as
brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal
colonettes begin to appear.
Preah Ko style (877–886): small brick towers and for the great beauty and
delicacy of their lintels.
Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed
in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap.
Koh Ker Style (921–944): Scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick
still main material but sandstone also used.
Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer
built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common
style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian
temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small
scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several
famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology.
Khleang Style (968–1010): First to use galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal
colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this
style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II
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Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175: come to be known as the classical
style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay
Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand.
10. Bayon Style (1181–1243) exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts
with the perfection of Angkor Wat.
11. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction
under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline.
9.
1. In the past, the ancestors of the Indonesian people learned that carving techniques
indeed originated from India. This can be compared to the results of the two places that
show similarities, although on the other hand in Indonesia there has been a Megalithic
era which is closely related to stone processing and an older era namely Neolithic that
is closely related to metal processing.
2. Without the knowledge of metal processing, it is certain that it will be difficult to create
metal chisels to process hard stones like andesite.
3. Indonesia has a different technique from South India, especially in forming roof
cavities, with the technique of stacking rooms, while in India a flat ceiling was used as
a consequence of the post-and-lintel technique.
4. It was only in the 10th century that new cavity stacking techniques were used in South
India, which is identical to Java.
5. In Java itself this technique had already been known since the early 7th century or even
before that, in the Old Classical era. This technique then developed rapidly in the
Middle Classical era and reached its peak when Prambanan was built. Prambanan is the
first tallest building in Southeast Asia.
6. In addition, in the era of the Prambanan and Borobudur Temples, the construction
technique of the connection between the stone and certain keys that support the building
to be made larger and taller was known.
7. In South India there were no large and tall temples in this particular era, as it was not
until the 10th century that high buildings were recognized in the remains of the Chola.
8. By looking at the phenomena above it can be estimated that the architecture of large
temples in India cannot be ruled out to have been influenced by Javanese tradition,
especially starting in the 10th century considering that on the island of Java many large
temple buildings had been built at the end of the 8th-9th century.
9. This can indicate the existence of backflow from Indonesia to India. On the other hand,
relations with India were actually quite close, as demonstrated in the 9th century by
Balaputradewa, King of Sriwijaya in the Ancient Mataram Era.
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A Reinterpretation of the Relationship between the Architecture of Ancient Mataram
Era Temples in Indonesia and of 7th-10th century Temples in South India,Rahadhian
Prajudi Herwindo',Basuki Dwisusanto,Indri A-International Journal of Engineering
Research and Technology. ISSN 0974-3154, Volume 13, Number 2 (2020), p
The Borobudur temple: the Buddhist architecture in Indonesia ,the author Katarzyna Kowal
presents the genesis of the temple, the facts concerning its rediscovery after centuries of
oblivion, and Buddhist cosmology embodied in the form of a three-dimensional mandala on
which the architectural form of Borobudur is based. The author studies Buddhist symbolism of
the architectural form, reliefs and sculptures created on the basis of regional patterns and local
Javanese culture of everyday life. This temple is one of the most perfect examples of translation
of Buddhist cosmology and symbolism into an architectural form. Being the oldest temple in
Indonesia, Borobudur Temple has survived over 1200 years of volcanic eruptions, terrorist
bombs and earthquakes. The Borobudur Temple has a base of 1200 square metre terrace topped
with 6 tiers and has the majority of this monument walls adorned with numerous Buddha
statues. Its’ foundation hints to hold more indigenous Javanese traits than Hindu or Buddhist.
The monument is large and given if one were to place the galleries end to end, it spans at least
5 kilometres. The monument also took the form of a step pyramid and followed a mandala
plan.
In 1885, a group of buddha reliefs was found hidden at the back of the line stones at the base.
Words inscribed in ancient Javanese script were also found there describing how the earthly
world is dominated and led by greed. The real base is hidden by an encasement base which till
today no one knows why.
However, a theory stands to say that it was built because the original footing goes against the
Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.
Buddhist Cosmology
After much research on the Borobudur Temple, there is no found evidence as to the purpose of
the construction of the temple. However, given a theory, it states that the monument represents
Buddhist cosmology and symbolises some sort of Buddhist mandala. Borobudur Temple
pushes to represent the 3 realms of Buddhist cosmology. The base represents the world of
desire followed by the world of form and lastly the world of formlessness which is the highest
level of enlightenment and located at the top of the temple.
The experience walking through the gallery and entering the world of form shows engraved
people that seem to be trying to achieve excellence over worldly desires. There is evidence of
women trying to seduce buddha where he is seen to be meditating and ignoring the seduction
of the women.
COMPOSITION
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Borobudur Temple is made with andesite stones taken from neighbouring stone quarries. The
stones were all cut to size and then brought over and stacked onto one another. Instead of using
mortar, knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to join the stones. As for the roof of stupas,
niches and arched gateways, they were all built with the corbelling method.
The reliefs of the monument are all done on-site. The drainage system was also in mind when
the monument was built. Borobudur temple catered to its region’s high stormwater run-off by
installing 100 spouts each with a unique carved gargoyle that looks like a Makara. The spouts
are all installed at the corners of the monument.
As for the Borobudur Temple foundation, it was built on a natural hill and due to its pyramid
shape, it was first thought to be a stupa that was intended as a Buddha shrine, not a temple.
Stupas are typically constructed as a sign of devotion towards Buddhism whereas a temple is
made to be a place of worship towards a religion. After much study and excavation, Borobudur
is settled to be a temple due to its meticulous details and structure.
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Interestingly, in the past, they did not use the metric or imperial system. Instead, they used tala,
a basic unit of measurement used during that time. Tala is the length of a human face, starting
from the forehead’s hairline to the tip of the chin or the length of the tip of the thumb to the tip
of the middle finger when the hand is fully stretched out. Tala is relative from one individual
to another.
Furthermore, the Borobudur Temple also holds a 4:6:9 ratio around the monument.
Gunadharma, the architect, used the 4:6:9 ratio to layout the accurate and precise dimensions
of the fractal and self-similar geometry that the Borobudur Temple holds. This same ratio can
also be found in neighbouring Buddhist temples.
To add on, the ratio also possesses calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance
which seems appropriate in the design of the Borobudur Temple.
All in all, the Borobudur Temple has attracted many tourists alike to visit and further indulge
in this 9th century-built temple. As much as research goes, the true meaning as to why it was
built is unknown, but this structure still stands to fascinate and allow anyone who visits to feel
calm and captivated by this form of architecture.
Reference
Borobudur: Golden Tales of Buddhas by John N. Miksic and Marcello Tranchini.
292
293
294
295
Buddhist Stupa Monograph
296
297
Architecture
Borobudur ground plan took form of a Mandala
Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a
giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the
nature of mind. The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each side. It
has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper
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platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is
bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the
pierced enclosures.
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken from neighbouring
rivers to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid
without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between
stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed. The monument is
equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To avoid
inundation, 100 spouts are provided at each corner with a unique carved gargoyles in the shape
of giants or makaras.
Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively.
Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for this purpose.
Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique
is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other temples and its
general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have
served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Lord Buddha.
Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other
hand, is used as a house of deity and has inner spaces for worship. The complexity of the
monument's meticulous design suggests Borobudur is in fact a temple. Congregational worship
in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were guided by the system of
staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage
of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed with the symbolism of sacred
knowledge according to the Buddhist cosmology.
A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall.
Lion gate guardian.
Little is known about the architect Gunadharma. His name is actually recounted from Javanese
legendary folk tales rather than written in old inscriptions. The basic unit measurement he used
during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a human face from the
forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of
the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.] The unit metrics
is then obviously relative between persons, but the monument has exact measurements. A
survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument.
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The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur. The
identical ratio formula was further found in the nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and
Mendhut. Archeologists conjectured the purpose of the ratio formula and the tala dimension
has calendrical, astronomical and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Hindu and
Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
A carved gargoyle-shaped water spout for water drainage.
The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base (or foot), body, and top,
which resembles the three major division of a human body. The base is a 123x123 m
(403.5x403.5 ft) square in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls. The body is composed of
five square platforms each with diminishing heights. The first terrace is set back 7 meters
(23 ft) from the edge of the base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a
narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage
supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome
at the center; the top of which is the highest point of the monument (35 meters (115 ft) above
ground level). Access to the upper part is through stairways at the centre of each 4 sides with
a number of arched gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues. The gates is adorned with Kala's
head carved on top center of each portals with Makaras projecting from each sides. This KalaMakara style is commonly found in Javanese temples portal. The main entrance is at the eastern
side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways
linking the monument to the low-lying plain.
The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental preparation towards the
ultimate goal according to the Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of
desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless
world).] Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the
body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The
architectural features between three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square
and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in
the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with forms
and names – changes into the world of the formless.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden foot"
contains reliefs, 160 of which are narrative describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining
reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently describe instruction for the sculptors,
illustrating the scene to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose
of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent
a disastrous subsidence of the monument through the hill. There is another theory that the
encasement base was added because the original hidden foot was incorrectly designed,
according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town
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planning. Regardless of its intention, the encasement base was built with detailed and
meticulous
design
with aesthetics and
religious
compensation.Reliefs
Borobudur
contains Narrative Panels Distribution
approximately
2,670
individual bas
reliefs (1,460
narrative and 1,212 decorative section
location
story
#panels
panels),
which
cover
the façades and balustrades. The
hidden foot
wall
Karmavibhangga 160
total relief surface is 2,500 square
meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they
Lalitavistara
120
are distributed at the hidden foot
main wall
(Kāmadhātu) and the five square
Jataka/Avadana 120
platforms (Rupadhatu).
first gallery
The narrative panels, which tell
Jataka/Avadana 372
the
story
of Sudhana and
balustrade
Manohara. are grouped into 11
Jataka/Avadana 128
series encircled the monument
with the total length of
balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100
3,000 meters (9,843 ft). The second gallery
hidden foot contains the first
main wall Gandavyuha
128
series with 160 narrative panels
and the remaining 10 series are
main wall Gandavyuha
88
distributed throughout walls and third gallery
balustrades in four galleries
balustrade Gandavyuha
88
starting from the eastern entrance
stairway to the left. Narrative
main wall Gandavyuha
84
panels on the wall read from right fourth gallery
to left, while on the balustrade
balustrade Gandavyuha
72
read from left to right. This
conforms with pradaksina, the Total
1,460
ritual
of
circumambulation
performed by pilgrims who move
in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts
the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first
and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are
devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of
the Perfect Wisdom.
The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)
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The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete
illustration of cause and effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to
murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that
include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell
and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the
full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death).
The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)
Queen Maya riding horse
Prince Siddhartha Gautama.
carriage
retreating
to Lumbini to
give
birth
to
The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and
ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[48] The relief shows the birth of the
Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in
present-day Nepal).
The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to
welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[48] Before descending from Tushita heaven,
the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He
descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's
right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would
become either a sovereign or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside
the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand and
she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince
becomes the Buddha.
Prince Siddhartha Gautama become an ascetic hermit.
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Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana)
Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. Avadanas are
similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in
avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and
the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or
the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades
are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[50] The remaining 237 panels depict stories
from other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas
stories are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).
Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha)
Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's
tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and
fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal
figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th
panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during
Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.
During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none of them had satisfied him
completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given
the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order)
Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk
Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa,
the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called
Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva
Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has
given Sudhana a specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the
third gallery.
After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth
gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with
Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.
Buddha statues
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A headless Buddha statue inside a stupa./ A Buddha statue with the hand position
of dharmachakra mudra (turning the Wheels of the Law).
Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of
various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the
five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).
The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides
of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the
upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72
and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that
add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly
headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as
collector's items, mostly by Western museums).
At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them
in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South,
West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana.
The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which
the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha
statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the
same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own
symbolism.
They
are Abhaya
mudra for Amoghasiddhi (north), Vara
mudra for Ratnasambhava (south), Dhyana
mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa
mudra for Aksobhya (east) and Dharmachakra mudra for Vairochana (zenith).
BIOMIMICRY as a Inspiration for the Borobudur
304
Architects and painters of Borobudur before starting that new project, must have had an have
an empty canvas in front of them. The cleanness of the canvas or white parchment opened
infinite possibilities of design ideas for a future project.
But how should an architect start his/her projects? How do architects get inspired? Some
architects find inspiration by the historical context of the site, others prefer to retake materials’
qualities, and finally, some architects prefer to observe their surroundings and the
environmental typologies.
The latter design approach is what characterizes some projects that are the result of forms
inspired by nature. Architects have long been inspired by nature. ... New technologies are now
helping architects recreate complex structures found in the nature by using modern construction
methods and materials. Biomimetic architecture draws its influence from the Earth.
Nature has been one of the most evident influences in architecture and in various forms over
the years. The humbleness and the beauty of nature have been one of the most inspirational
idea for the humans. Small dwellings and the pattern of their arrangement have been inspired
by nature.
What is architecture inspired by nature called?
Organic architecture uses nature-inspired geometrical forms in design and seeks to reconnect
the human with his or her surroundings. These strategies, which are introduced in this paper as
'nature-inspired design strategies', provide pathways and principles aimed at developing
designs that are in natural balance with their environment. Common principles include the use
of materials in closed loops and using solar driven energy systems.
Why is nature important in design?
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Nature has an endless palette to call on for inspiration, a library of textures, patterns, and
motifs. Nature informs the moods of interior spaces; their qualities of light, their warmth, their
tactility and their familiarity to human hands
Why are we inspired by nature?
Nature has a way of removing distractions, of commanding our deepest attention. ...
Following this kind of thinking, nature is full of lessons we can draw from, lessons which can
inform and inspire our daily lives.
Ancient as well as modern buildings have been inspired by nature. So, why not the Borobudur?
It is quiet possible that apart from the many design influences upon it due to Buddhism and/or
its predecessors in Stupa building, nature too may have had an effect.
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307
308
Antoni Gaudí | Info-graphic - Design by nature | Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada
Família:
Detail of the roof in the nave. Gaudí designed the columns to mirror trees and branches.
SBA73 from Sabadell, Catalunya - Tot conflueix / All's conected
La Sagrada Família per fí té un interior acabat: és una meravella, el fruit del geni únic
d'Antoni Gaudí. Falten les paraules per descriure- This is the crossing and dome of the
Sagrada Família basilica, Barcelona, Catalonia. The catalan basilica of La Sagrada
Família (The Holy Family) is a major icon of Barcelona. After more than a century of
construction, in 2011 the interior was finished and consecrated by the pope Benedict
XVI. Work began in 1882 and is scheduled to be completed in 2026.
309
TITOBOWL is a
vessel specially designed for tasting different varieties and dressings olives with pit,
although it has been adapted for tasting pitted olives and other snacks because turning
the top cap of the container, it becomes a toothpick holder
310
BOROBUDUR resembles the structural concept and entity of Petronas Twin Towers
Petronas Twin Towers, pair of skyscraper office buildings in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, that
are among the world’s tallest buildings. What type of structure are the Petronas Towers?
The plan for each tower is identical: an eight-lobed circular structure that contains 88 stories
of occupiable space and a pyramid-shaped pinnacle surmounted by a slender steel spire. Both
rise to a height of 1,483 feet (451.9 metres), which includes 242 feet (73.6 metres) for pinnacle
and spire – much like the borobudur.It is the The 7th Tallest Building In The World Today.
When it was built in 1998, the 88-storey Petronas Towers held the top record for the tallest
building in the world at a staggering height of 1,483 feet! ... As such, the Petronas Towers still
stands today as the tallest twin towers in the world.Just like the Borobudur, the Petronas twin
towers built to represent Malaysia's increasing wealth and the nation's desire to feature more
prominently on the international stage, it was decided to build a pair of landmark 88-storey
towers to house the offices of the national oil and gas company, Petronas.
The Twin Towers, built to house the headquarters of Petronas, the national petroleum
company of Malaysia, were designed by the Argentine-born American architect Cesar Pelli;
they were completed in 1998. The plan for each tower is identical: an eight-lobed circular
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structure that contains 88 stories of occupiable space and a pyramidshaped pinnacle surmounted by a slender steel spire. Both rise to a height of 1,483 feet (451.9
metres), which includes 242 feet (73.6 metres) for pinnacle and spire. Each building is
supported by 16 large columns around its perimeter, which, along with the rest of the frame,
are made of high-strength, steel-reinforced concrete rather than of structural steel; the exterior
sheathing consists of stainless steel and glass. A skybridge two stories tall links the two towers
between the 41st and 42nd stories.1
In 1996, after the spires had been attached to the buildings (and each had thus reached its full
height), the Petronas Twin Towers were declared the world’s tallest buildings, eclipsing the
former record holder, the 110-story Sears (now Willis) Tower in Chicago. The roof of the Sears
Tower was actually more than 200 feet (60 metres) higher than those of the Twin Towers, but
the spires on the towers’ pinnacles were regarded as integral parts of the overall architectural
structure. The Twin Towers, in turn, lost their preeminent status in 2003 after a spire was put
in place atop the Taipei 101 (Taipei Financial Center) building, in Taipei, Taiwan, and that
structure reached a height of 1,667 feet (508 metres).
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313
Development of the Petronas Towers Tower 1 level 43 floor plan from a Rub el Hizb symbol.
314
The cross section of the Petronas Towers is based on a Rub el Hizb, albeit with circular
sectors similar to the bottom part of the Qutub Minar.
Base of the Christ steeple under construction (2009)Etan J. Tal - Own work-Rebars
of Sagrada Familia roof in construction Note rust and corrosion of rebar and different
materials used for the rebar in different areas
Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, designed by Cesar Pelli & Associates.
J. Apicella/Cesar Pelli & Associates
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Seashell Architectures,Kamon Jirapong,Robert J.
Krawczykhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/239537510_Seashell_Architectures/
stats
Chapter 13
The STRUCTURE of the Borobudur as a Tantric Stupa
The mandala represents an imaginary palace that is contemplated during meditation. Each
object in the palace has significance, representing an aspect of wisdom or reminding the
meditator of a guiding principle. The mandala's purpose is to help transform ordinary minds
into enlightened ones and to assist with healing.The evidence for a belief in Adi-Buddha is also
evidenced by the symbolism of Borobudur’s final stupa. Inside that stupa once was an
incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable
by humans. This is seen as proof that theistic Buddhism was present in Java since at least the
8th century. In Buddhism mandalas are used in the rituals of tantric initiation. They are
constructed at the beginning of the initiation, out of grains of colored sand carefully placed on
a specially prepared platform. Thus mandalas, like Vedic altars, are temporary structures built
of impermanent materials.In my papers:
1. https://www.academia.edu/96314496/Ancient_Indonesia_and_Indian_Tantra
I have pointed out how Tantric science came over to Indonesia by boats of traders.
2. In https://www.academia.edu/96334414/The_5_of_Borobudur_LONG_VERSION I
have underlined the B|Uddhist need for education leading to enlightenment and how
Borobudur fulfilled that function.
3. In my very recent paper- BOROBUDUR---The Buddha SUTRAS and the Journey of
Sudhana,
https://www.academia.edu/96479340/BOROBUDUR_The_Buddha_SUTRAS_and_t
he_Journey_of_Sudhana Borobudur design takes us on a journey just as the disciple of
Gautama Buddha did to understand the life of |Gautama and also learn about our life
and buddhism
Indonesian Buddhayana followers use the greeting Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. The
complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books’ preface, letters, or
meetings is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya
Since the time of Sailendra and Mataram Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same
belief in the existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern
schools. Nepalese uses the term Adinata, which means "main protector"
and Swayambhulokanatta, which means "the unborn protector of the universe". The Tibetan
familiar with terms such as Vajradhara (Tibet= Dorjechang; lit. "ruler of all the mysteries").
Namasangiti Text of Candrakīrti (a monk who was staying in Indonesia), and the symbolism
of Borobudur's mandala stupa, provided evidence that the Buddhism embraced by Indonesian
people since the days of Srivijaya, Ancient Mataram, Sailendra, and Majapahit is
the Buddhism which honors the Primordial Buddha.
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Some Indonesian sacred texts which contains the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha are:
Guna Karanda Vyuha text
In the time of nothingness, Shambu was already exist, this is what is called Svayambhu (selfmanifested), and preceded all things, this is why he is called the Adi Buddha.
Sanghyang Kamahayanikan text
All praises for Sanghyang Adi Buddha, this is the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan that I have
been wanted to teach you, to the sons of Buddha (whom also) the family of Tathagata, the
grandeur of 'Sanghyang Mahayana' practices is what i have to teach you.
Herman S. Hendro (1968) in his paper mentioned:
Adi-Buddha is a term used in Tantric Buddhism to refer to the Primordial Buddha. The
term Sanghyang Adi Buddha is agreed upon and used by the Indonesian Supreme Sangha and
the Indonesian Buddhist Council as the designation for God Almighty. This term is not found
in Pāli Canon, but used in some old Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as Sanghyang
Kamahayanikan. Sanghyang Adi Buddha is a concept of God in Indonesian Buddhism. This
term was used by Ashin Jinarakkhita at the time of Buddhist revival in Indonesia in the mid20th century to reconcile the first principle of the official philosophical foundation of Indonesia
(Pancasila), i.e. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa (lit. "Recognition of the Divine Omnipotence")
that requires the belief in a supreme God, which Buddhism, strictly speaking, does not believe
in. This concept is used by the Indonesian Buddhist Council, an organization that seeks to
represent all Buddhist traditions in Indonesia such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.
The closed uppermost large stupa [of Borobudur] is the epitome of a man who has reached the
Absolute Freedom (Nibbana/ Nirvana) and united with Adi Buddha. Inside that stupa once was
an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting the Adi Buddha which is
unimaginable by human.
Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most common of which is
the stone Candi which are built as a symbol of Mount Meru. Others were built in punden berundak (step pyramids)
style — small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains — and pertapaan, (‘places of austerities’ or hermitages)
built on mountain slopes.
Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an
elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two
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rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a
Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural
fertility. Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including
the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered
that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one
straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with
a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut
with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar
architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual
relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have
existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown
Suroloyo Peak is the highest summit at the picturesque Menoreh Hills, which share the
neighbourhood with the renowned eco-tourism destination Kulon Progo. This peak is one of
the most popular spots to catch Yogyakarta’s most glorious sunrise that cast rays of light upon
the Borobudur Temple and Java’s big four mountains: Merapi, Merbabu, Sumbing, and
Sindoro. Other than the breathtaking view, this peak also holds some religious artefacts,
including ascetic pavilions and statues.
Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles
Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.
The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from
its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof,
while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
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of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bellshaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika) sits on top of the dome serves
as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or
rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism.
A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.
Prambanan vajra pinnacle.
Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams
(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle
is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist
stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the
multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a
familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture,
the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on
top of Buddhist counterparts.
By virtue of their spatial connection to the terrain and the necessity for secure foundations,
works of architecture differ from objects that can be inverted or carried away. The bottom edge,
where a building rests on the ground, requires a different treatment than all other edges and
surfaces (> tectonics). The base reveals the relationship between a building and the ground: it
pushes into the earth, rests on the ground, or is detached from it. Whether a building makes the
impression of standing upright, reclining or floating depends upon whether it has a base, and if
so on its formation. The connection between the building and the ground also determines the
way in which the building relates to the terrain of the exterior space and how the two join
together to form a spatial unity.
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Depending upon its design, the base shows us how a building rests upon the ground. Solidity
and robustness produce a tectonic expression of load-bearing capacity. Particularly in historic
buildings, these qualities are achieved by means of rough rusticated masonry or the use of
natural stone in the pedestal zone, or by squat proportions and apertures smaller than those in
upper storeys. Bases also ensure that individual architectural elements, such as > columns and
pillars, neither sink into the earth optically nor seem detached from it. Although the base
belongs to the building, and not to the earth, it fulfils the task of creating a connection to the
terrain, broadening out by means of transitions, steps, pedestals or terraces. In ways comparable
to the shoes we wear on our feet, materials also convey distinctions between the fineness of the
interior and the coarseness of the exterior.
Along with the building, the base also brings its occupants down to earth, shaping direct contact
with the passersby and vehicles that move around the building. Through its palpable presence
and tactile qualities, the base constitutes the first zone of contact for approaching a building
within its immediate surroundings, and is its first distinctive identifying symbol. Essentially, it
is reminiscent of the role of the pedestal, which provided stability to ancient temples as the first
islands of civilization within inaccessible terrain. Under certain circumstances, the task of the
base, namely to provide stability and an optical foundation, may be extended by its use as a
basement storey. With reduced apertures, the rooms contained in the base are partially inserted
into the ground. The unfortunately widespread bad habit, however, of digging out the base in
order to provide living space with improved illumination deprives a building of stable
grounding. The mental state of the inhabitant of a massive basement storey that serves a
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building as a base, on the other hand, is shaped by a sense of the apartment’s anchoring into
the ground.
Right from the 2 nd Century onwards, Kushans in order to house relics of the Buddha, which
may have been sourced from earlier monuments, and originally buried at the site around 78
CE. Buddhist texts mention that frankincense was used during religious services at
Dharmarajika, while the complex was paved with colourful glass tiles. Though not
Buddhists,he Kushans in general were great patrons of Buddhism, and, starting with Emperor
Kanishka, they also employed elements of Zoroastrianism in their pantheon. They played an
important role in the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China.These have a Large square
or circular plinth and several diminishing terraces as mentioned before.
Construction
Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill,
265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. The
lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth
century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake.
In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J.
Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially
represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every
Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture
of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur
symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism
widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought
to resent a lotus leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists
because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.
Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found
near the site. A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports
the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur, which tends to confirm
Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that
Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows
and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most
active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has
been very active since the Pleistocene.
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The overall structure of Borobudur is made up of a square foundation along with a total
of nine platforms. Of those nine platforms six of them are squared while the remaining three are
circular. The structure can be further divided into three main levels: a base, a body, and the top.
The architecture of Borobudur would also signify a gradual process as it starts off square in the
lower terraces, transitions to elliptical with the first two upper terraces and finally becomes
circular in the third upper terrace.
PRAMBANAN COMPARISONS
“Prambanan,” explains archeologist Manggar Sarl Ayuati, “is one of the largest Hindu temple
complexes in Asia with an enclosed area 390 meters on a side. It was built in 856 by King
Rakai Pikatan of the Sanjaya dynasty, which ruled the Mataram Kingdom, and was expanded
by later kings. It is dedicated to Siva.”
Prambanan has three concentric courtyards. The innermost contains 16 temples, including the
156-foot-high main temple to Siva and 108-foot temples to Vishnu and Brahma. Each is faced
by a smaller temple for the God’s vahana (mount): Nandi the bull for Siva, Hamsa the swan
for Brahma and Garuda the eagle (Indonesia’s national symbol) for Vishnu. Scenes from
the Ramayana and the life of Krishna are carved on the outer walls of the temples. The Siva
temple has multiple chambers - Siva in the center, Durga in the north, Rishi Agastya in the
south and Ganesha in the west.
The second courtyard originally contained 240 small temples; only 129 have undergone any
degree of restoration. The rest are just piles of rocks. No structures remain in the third
courtyard, and the historical use of that area is unknown. The complex also contains four
Buddhist temples, built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist wife.
Prambanan was abandoned in the 10th century, likely when the Mataram kingdom moved to
East Java following a huge eruption of nearby Mount Merapi that covered the entire area in
volcanic ash. A major earthquake in the 16th century collapsed the upper parts of the main
structures. The temple sustained additional damage in the 6.5-magnitude earthquake of 2006.
Repairs were still underway during our 2014 visit.
I was saddened to hear this spectacular place referred to as a dead monument and to see it
reduced to a picnic spot for tourists. Puja is performed here only once a year, but that brings
thousands of people from all over Indonesia to worship Siva, Brahma and Vishnu. With some
difficulty, puja can be arranged at other times of the year. Our guide, Pak Dewa Suratnaya, a
journalist with Media Hindu magazine, said strongly that these great temples should be
brought to life again through regular worship. I agreed with him wholeheartedly.
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Diagram of the main Siva temple; repairs underway shortly after the 2006 earthquake; (inset)
the partially collapsed central Siva temple around 1895, after its rediscovery by the British.
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taxila an illustrated account of archaeological excavations,By Marshall John, google
books
One prime example of the large base and conical top design id the Dharmarajika Stupa also
referred to as the Great Stupa of Taxila which is a Buddhist stupa near Taxila, Pakistan.
It dates from as early as the 2nd century CE, and was built by the Kushans to house small bone
fragments of the Buddha. It has been claimed that that Dharmarajika Stupa was built over the
remains of an even older stupa that had been built by the Mauryan emperor King Ashoka in the
3rd century BCE, though other archeologists alternatively suggest that this is unlikely. IndoGreek coins found at the site date from the 2nd century BCE, suggesting earliest possible
establishment of a religious monument at the site.
The stupa, along with the large monastic complex that later developed around it, forms part of
the Ruins of Taxila - which were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.
The Kushans were most probably one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation, an IndoEuropean nomadic people of possible Tocharian origin, who migrated from northwestern
China (Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria. The founder of the dynasty, Kujula
Kadphises, followed Greek religious ideas and iconography after the Greco-Bactrian tradition,
and also followed traditions of Hinduism, being a devotee of the Hindu God Shiva. Small
stupas that predate the main stupa are found throughout the Dharmarajika site, and surrounded
an earlier core stupa in an irregular layout. It is known that the earlier core stupa contained a
pathway for circumambulation that was made of plaster, and decorated with shell bangles in
geometric patterns. The earlier stupa likely had four gates in axial directions.
The site came under control of Persian Sassanid rule, and suffered a period of
stagnation. Large-scale developments took place during the late Kushan and Kidarite era
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which added numerous monasteries and stupas to the site.
Plan of the Dharmarajika Stupa.
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The site was devastated by the White Huns in the 5th century CE, and then abandoned.
The location of the stupa and its monastic community about 1 kilometre outside
of Sirkap aligns with ancient Gandharan beliefs that the Buddha recommended monasteries
should be neither "too far" nor "too close" to adjacent towns. Three distinctive types of masonry
in the buildings around the main stupa suggest the contributions of different periods to the
building activity.
Core stupa
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The passageway between the main stupa and several smaller stupas was used for the practice
of pradakshina.
Dharmarajika Stupa is the largest of all stupas in the Taxila region, Surrounding the main
mound is a passageway for pradakshina — the ancient practice of walking around a holy site.
The stupa's large anda, or hemispherical mound, is damaged − though the plinth of the mound,
known as the medhi, is still largely intact. The anda mound was made of ashlar stone. The
stupa's harmika, or fence like structure built atop the anda mound, has been lost.
The stupa's southern gateway was initially considered the most important, though the
construction of four smaller stupas (termed G7, G8, S7, Q1) to the west of the stupa indicate
that this then likely became the preferred entrance for those performing circambulation. Later
constructions around the "Eastern Avenue" then shifted the preferred route for circambulation
to the eastern side of the stupa.
Before entering the main sacred areas, visitors to the shrine from Sirkap would pass through a
large building, now termed building H, that would openly display relics. Visitors likely
venerated the relics at building H before entering the main stupa area.
It is both a temple and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and
completed as it was designed, with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a
pattern for Hindu temple mountains at Angkor and in its own day it must have been one of the
wonders of the Asian world.
Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated
and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth (the
processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The plans of
the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace stands a series
of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the centre of the summit
by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face is a long staircase; all
four are given equal importance.
SOLID STRUCTURE
There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist
stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions
and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into
any of the other levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches
contain Buddha figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser
bell-shaped stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone
Buddha figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground,
flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major
afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story
of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have
been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story,
which began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone
accumulated above.
The Borobodur complex is an open monument; there are no chambers ; it has no roof and no
vaults, (like Candi Sewu). The complex is built in the form of a giant pyramid shaped mandala
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with 10 ascending layers: the 10 Buddhist worlds represented by the 10 layers. Ascending from
the base, there are six square terraces and a courtyard and then, at the top 3 round terraces and
at the top, a central main stupa measuring 35 meters from the base or 42 meters tall.
A complex of stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a total
of 504 stupas in its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world.
The hundreds of stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved and built
( and all laid without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of the natural
hills, the builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect symmetry and
total harmony.
A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in yellow) during the reign
of Kanishka. Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges
plain, to Varanasi on the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna, or probably even Pataliputra.
The mandala is a diagram representing a spiritual practice of attainment in the Tibetan school
of Vajrayana and also in the Sri Vijayan school as well. What type of mandala is Borobodur ?
This is difficult to say. There are as many as 3,500 types of mandalas and we cannot precisely
fix Borobodur as a particular type of mandala.
Each side of the Borobodur complex is 120 feet long and decreases as it goes up. If we were to
circumambulate each level, it would encompass a total of 5 km.The entrance to Borobodur
is at the east and the Buddhas face east.
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Borobodur took about 70 years to be built by the architect Gunadharma .There is a small hill
directly facing Borobodur and folklore says that this hill is said to represent the sleeping body
profile of Gunadvara.
There are a total of 504 stupas in the entire complex, each stupa enclosing a life size stone
Buddha. However, many are now empty due to pillage. Remarkably, no Buddha image is the
same, each Buddha image faces all various directions and with various hand mudras with all
the 6 types of mudras all represented. The 3 upper terraces have 72 Buddhas; the lower terraces
have 432 with total of 504. All the numbers add up to the number 9 ( the largest single digit
indiger ). All the stupas have the stocky bulbous Central Java shape. Each stupa consists of the
top or harmuca which holds holy relics relic holding top and the main body or anda sitting on
a lotus base. But, not all stupas in Borobodur look the same. The stupas in the upper and lower
terraces are differentiated by the harmuca and the anda. The stupas of the lower terraces have
octogonal shaped harmuca and the anda enclosing the Buddha have many tiny square shaped
openings or holes. However, the stupas of the upper terraces have a square shaped harmuca
and diamond shaped openings in the anda.
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PERFECT SYMMETRY
The base of each stupa equals the height of the stupa. Absolutely perfect symmetry! In fact, all
measurements from every corner and the height of all stupas of Borobodur are governed by
this perfect symmetry.
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The main central stupa at the top which measures 42 meters is still in the process of restoration
– the top has not yet been restored – and is missing the 3 layers of the parasol or ‘chatra’ as can
be seen at the Sarnath temple in India.Mahayana bas relief panels cover each of the 10 layers
of terraced carvings. Each gallery is a masterpieces of Sri Vijayan or Gandaran art. No one
panel is the same, each gallery in each layer representing different Jataka stories and as one
goes further up the galleries, the Jataka stories brought to life by the panels get from the
ordinary to the more conceptual.and.spiritual. As the Borobodur complex was being built from
830 CE to 938CE, it was archaeologists discovered that it could have been revised by as much
as three times from the original plan. In any event, there were no blueprints then and restorers
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can only surmise by taking apart the stones and putting them back again. It was abandoned in
938 CE. No one quite knows why except that, the champions of Buddhism, the Shailendra
dynasty were chased out of Java in 825 CE and this meant that for the next 30 to 40 years
thereafter, the royal patronage for Buddhist temples in java was lost. After the Shailendras were
removed, the Sanjayan family which was a Hindu princely family still continued to support
Buddhism but it began to wane.
The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of reality
at the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the ultimate
condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. The unity of the monument effectively
proclaims the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth. The visitor was meant to be
transformed while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering illustrations of
progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The topmost terrace, whose main
stupa contained an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the spectator’s view,
symbolized the indefinable ultimate spiritual state. The 72 openwork stupas on the circular
terraces, with their barely visible internal Buddhas, symbolize incomplete states of
enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The usual way for a pilgrim to pay reverence
to a Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it on his right hand. The vast series of reliefs
about three feet (one metre) high on the exterior walls of the terraces would thus be read by the
visitor in series from right to left. Between the reliefs are decorative scroll panels, and a hundred
monster-head waterspouts carry off the tropical rainwater. The gates on the stairways between
terraces are of the standard Indonesian type, with the face of the Kala monster at the apex
spouting his scrolls.
IMPACT OF THE TRADITIONAL INDONESIAN STEP
PYRAMID DESIGN
Punden terraces or terraces are a building layout structure in the form of multiple terraces or
traps that lead to one point with each terrace getting higher in position. This structure is often
found on archaeological sites in the archipelago , so it is considered one of the characteristics
of the original culture of the archipelago.
Ceto Temple, a Hindu-style temple with a staircase punden structure.
The basic structure of the terraced punden is found in archaeological sites from the pre-HinduBuddhist Megalithic - Neolithic culture of the Austronesian people , although it was also used
in buildings from the later period, even until the Islamic period entered the archipelago. Its
distribution is recorded in the archipelago to Polynesia , although in the Polynesian region it
is not always in the form of steps, in a structure known as marae by the Maori. The entry of
religions from outside could fade manufacturing practices punden at several places in the
archipelago, but there is a hint of the adoption of the original elements of this in the buildings
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of the next period of history, as seen in Borobudur , Candi Ceto , and Complex Funeral Kings
Mataram in Imogiri .
The word "pundèn" (or pundian ) comes from the Javanese language . Said pepund è n which
means "cult objects" similar understanding with the concept kabuyutan the Sundanese
people. In punden terraces, the basic concept held is that the ancestors or those who are
worshiped are in high places (usually mountain peaks ). The term punden terraces emphasizes
the function of worshiping/respecting ancestors, not just the basic structure of the spatial layout.
Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple site Cambodia
The archaeological site of Koh Ker in northern Cambodia contains a seven-tiered pyramid
called Prang which was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV. Construction of the
sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square building measures
62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform stood a huge lingam
probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons. Inscriptions say that
it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am probably stood in a shrine
which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On the north side of the
pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. Concerning the seventh tier some scientists say,
this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of Garudas were made.
The main pyramid of Sukuh temple
As well as menhirs, stone tables, and stone statues Austronesian megalithic culture
in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structure, referred to as punden
berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok[n and in Cipari near Kuningan. The
construction of stone pyramids is based on the native beliefs that mountains and high places
are the abode for the spirit of the ancestors.
The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument
in Central Java. However the later temples built in Java were influenced by Indian Hindu
architecture, as displayed by the towering spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century Java
during the late Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as
displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat resembles a Mesoamerican pyramid, and also
stepped pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.Borobudur carries with it elements of both the
Pundan terraces and Te Gupta architecture of the sanchi Type.
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Post-Borobudur candis
Impact on Post-Borobudur candis
illustrate the Buddhist doctrine in different
ways. Kalasan, for example, built in the second half of the 8th century, was a large square
shrine on a plinth, with projecting porticoes at the centre of each face. The roof was surmounted
by a high circular stupa mounted on an octagonal drum, the faces of which bear reliefs of
divinities. Topping each portico was a group of five small stupas, and another large stupa stood
at each disengaged corner of the main shrine. The moldings were restrained and elegantly
profiled. Each section of the exterior wall contains a niche meant for a figure sculpture. The
decorative scroll carving is especially fine.
Another shrine from this period, Candi Sewu, consisted of a large cruciform shrine
surrounded by smaller temples, only one of which has been restored. All of the temples seem
to have had roofs in the form of tiered stupas, compressing the overall Borobudur scheme into
the scope of a storied shrine tower. From Candi Plaosan came many beautiful sculptures, donor
figures, and iconic images of bodhisattvasPerhaps the most interesting of the postBorobudur Buddhist shrines of the 9th century is Candi Sari. It is an outstanding architectural
invention. From the outside it appears as a large rectangular three-storied block, with the main
entrance piercing the centre of one of the longer sides. The third story stands above a substantial
architrave with horizontal moldings and antefixes. Two windows on each short side, three on
each long, open into each story, though at the rear they are blind. The windows are crowned
by large antefix-like cartouches of ornamental carving based on curvilinear pavilions hung with
strings of gems. The uppermost windows are hooded with the Kala-monster motif. The roof
bears rows of small stupas, and perhaps there was once a large central stupa. Inside, Candi Sari
contains a processional corridor around three interior shrines that were possibly intended for
images of the garbha-dhatu deities, as at Candi Mendut.
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The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is
an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each
of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been
better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the
complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration
expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples, while
two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples located in
the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different statues and
orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the current site are
not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues of Borobudur and
were likely made of bronze.
Candi Sewu Layout
Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between the
second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple on
each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after the
main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located around
300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins discovered
around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too scarce for
reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound was
completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which is
corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
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The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground
plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal points
of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own stairs,
entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the structures
are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms in
each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a central
roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways were
added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden doors.
Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples together into
one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger than
other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty. However
the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once contained
a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably reaching a
height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over the centuries.
However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably constructed from several
stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.
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Sewu
Layout
According to literary tradition, Nalanda, 10 kilometres north of Rajgir and a suburb of the
ancient city, was visited by Buddha and Mahavira. Ashoka is said to have worshipped at the
chaitya-niches of Sariputra, Buddha's disciple, and erected a temple. By the time of
Harsha A.D. 606-648, Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a
famed University town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars from
far and near. The Chinese Pilgrims Huien Tsang and Fa-hien studied at Nalanda and have left
account of the settlement and its life.
Temple 3 was more than 31 m. high and consisted of seven successive accumulations of which
the two latest belonged to the 11th and 12th centuries and the fifth one, dating from circa 6th
century, was notable for its sculptural wealth. The monasteries were imposing rectangular
buildings, each with an open courtyard, enclosed by a covered verandah which leads into cells,
arranged on the four sides. The cell facing the entrance served as a shrine. Nalanda was an
important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also yielded seals and sealings of great
historical significance.
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Nalanda University; Conjectural Reconstruction from Excavated Remains of Temple no. 3 or
5th Stupa (Sariputra Stupa), c. 6th century CE
Temple no. 3 (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda's structures with its
multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small
structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence
shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of
construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved
with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of
the stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta-era art depicting a variety of stucco
figures including Buddha and the Bodhisattvas, scenes from the Jataka tales. The temple is
surrounded by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed
with passages from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine chamber
which now only contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha must have
once rested. According to Win Maung, the stupa was influenced by Gupta architecture, which
itself had Kushana era influences. In a shrine near the bottom of the staircase, a large image of
Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the Museum.
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Map of Nalanda by Alexander Cunningham, 1861-62
When a building is tapered, the exterior surface area where the wind load is applied is
reduced at higher levels, and increased at lower levels. The convex contour of the whole
monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth,
the processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed
up against the original bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series
of reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to
hold together the bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the immense
weight of earth and stone accumulated above.
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The stupa complex at Borobudur in Java, Indonesia.
Robert Harding Picture Li
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Sanchi
Stupa
Kalasan also known as Candi Kalibening, is an 8th-century Buddhist temple
in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on the way
to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main road Jalan Solo between Yogyakarta
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and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the Kalasan District (kapanewon) of Sleman
Regency.
According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari script,
the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel
of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in
another part of the inscription also called Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam,
a holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara.
In addition, a vihara (monastery) was built for buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's
realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to sangha (buddhist monastic
community). According to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the
temples built in the Prambanan Plain.
Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt during the Dutch colonial era, the temple currently
is in poor condition. Compared to other temples nearby such as Prambanan, Sewu,
and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained.
The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped,
and designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates
adorned with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3,5 square meters. No statue is to be found in
the smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the rooms
once contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist figures
such as the Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been
photographed and used by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the
artistry in stone by Central Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues would
have been placed are found inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer wall
intricately carved with Kala, gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the celestial
palace of the gods, apsaras, and gandharvas.
One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan temple
adorned with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka
The giant Kala's head on the southern door/
The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the
polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisatvas seated on
lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is
in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue
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of a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisatvas. The top part of the roof is almost
circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the
structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some
interpretations of the early Borobudur structure.
The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room. In
the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and elephant
figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According to the
Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall) statue
of the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of the
goddess was in seated position and made from bronze. Now the statue is missing, probably the
same fate as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal over centuries.
On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond
plaster). The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster
was applied to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.
The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters
north east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the
monastery mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu
temple, and Plaosan temple.
Jordaan, R. E. (1998). The Tārā temple of Kalasan in Central Java. Bulletin de l’École Française
d’Extrême-Orient, 85, 163–183. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43733871
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3 pre-Angkorean architectural styles :
4. Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals
that include a bulb.
5. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings
were more heavily decorated but had general decline in standards.
6. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Having decorative rings on colonettes which remain
cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued.
The following periods and styles may be distinguished
12. Kulen style (825–875): Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as
brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal
colonettes begin to appear.
13. Preah Ko style (877–886): small brick towers and for the great beauty and
delicacy of their lintels.
14. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed
in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap.
15. Koh Ker Style (921–944): Scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick
still main material but sandstone also used.
16. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer
built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common
style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
17. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian
temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small
scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several
famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology.
18. Khleang Style (968–1010): First to use galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal
colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this
style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
19. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II
20. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175: come to be known as the classical
style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay
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Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand.
21. Bayon Style (1181–1243) exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts
with the perfection of Angkor Wat.
22. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction
under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline.
10. In the past, the ancestors of the Indonesian people learned that carving techniques
indeed originated from India. This can be compared to the results of the two places
that show similarities, although on the other hand in Indonesia there has been a
Megalithic era which is closely related to stone processing and an older era namely
Neolithic that is closely related to metal processing.
11. Without the knowledge of metal processing, it is certain that it will be difficult to create
metal chisels to process hard stones like andesite.
12. Indonesia has a different technique from South India, especially in forming roof
cavities, with the technique of stacking rooms, while in India a flat ceiling was used as
a consequence of the post-and-lintel technique.
13. It was only in the 10th century that new cavity stacking techniques were used in South
India, which is identical to Java.
14. In Java itself this technique had already been known since the early 7th century or even
before that, in the Old Classical era. This technique then developed rapidly in the
Middle Classical era and reached its peak when Prambanan was built. Prambanan is
the first tallest building in Southeast Asia.
15. In addition, in the era of the Prambanan and Borobudur Temples, the construction
technique of the connection between the stone and certain keys that support the
building to be made larger and taller was known.
16. In South India there were no large and tall temples in this particular era, as it was not
until the 10th century that high buildings were recognized in the remains of the Chola.
17. By looking at the phenomena above it can be estimated that the architecture of large
temples in India cannot be ruled out to have been influenced by Javanese tradition,
especially starting in the 10th century considering that on the island of Java many large
temple buildings had been built at the end of the 8th-9th century.
18. This can indicate the existence of backflow from Indonesia to India. On the other hand,
relations with India were actually quite close, as demonstrated in the 9th century by
Balaputradewa, King of Sriwijaya in the Ancient Mataram Era.
A Reinterpretation of the Relationship between the Architecture of Ancient Mataram Era Temples in Indonesia and
of 7th-10th century Temples in South India,Rahadhian Prajudi Herwindo',Basuki Dwisusanto,Indri A-International
Journal of Engineering Research and Technology. ISSN 0974-3154, Volume 13, Number 2 (2020), p
The Borobudur temple: the Buddhist architecture in Indonesia ,the author Katarzyna Kowal
presents the genesis of the temple, the facts concerning its rediscovery after centuries of
oblivion, and Buddhist cosmology embodied in the form of a three-dimensional mandala on
which the architectural form of Borobudur is based. The author studies Buddhist symbolism of
the architectural form, reliefs and sculptures created on the basis of regional patterns and local
Javanese culture of everyday life. This temple is one of the most perfect examples of translation
of Buddhist cosmology and symbolism into an architectural form. Being the oldest temple in
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Indonesia, Borobudur Temple has survived over 1200 years of volcanic eruptions, terrorist
bombs and earthquakes. The Borobudur Temple has a base of 1200 square metre terrace topped
with 6 tiers and has the majority of this monument walls adorned with numerous Buddha
statues. Its’ foundation hints to hold more indigenous Javanese traits than Hindu or Buddhist.
The monument is large and given if one were to place the galleries end to end, it spans at least
5 kilometres. The monument also took the form of a step pyramid and followed a mandala
plan.
In 1885, a group of buddha reliefs was found hidden at the back of the line stones at the base.
Words inscribed in ancient Javanese script were also found there describing how the earthly
world is dominated and led by greed. The real base is hidden by an encasement base which till
today no one knows why.
However, a theory stands to say that it was built because the original footing goes against the
Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.
Buddhist Cosmology
After much research on the Borobudur Temple, there is no found evidence as to the purpose of
the construction of the temple. However, given a theory, it states that the monument represents
Buddhist cosmology and symbolises some sort of Buddhist mandala. Borobudur Temple
pushes to represent the 3 realms of Buddhist cosmology. The base represents the world of
desire followed by the world of form and lastly the world of formlessness which is the highest
level of enlightenment and located at the top of the temple.
The experience walking through the gallery and entering the world of form shows engraved
people that seem to be trying to achieve excellence over worldly desires. There is evidence of
women trying to seduce buddha where he is seen to be meditating and ignoring the seduction
of the women.
COMPOSITION
Borobudur Temple is made with andesite stones taken from neighbouring stone quarries. The
stones were all cut to size and then brought over and stacked onto one another. Instead of using
mortar, knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to join the stones. As for the roof of stupas,
niches and arched gateways, they were all built with the corbelling method.
The reliefs of the monument are all done on-site. The drainage system was also in mind when
the monument was built. Borobudur temple catered to its region’s high stormwater run-off by
installing 100 spouts each with a unique carved gargoyle that looks like a Makara. The spouts
are all installed at the corners of the monument.
As for the Borobudur Temple foundation, it was built on a natural hill and due to its pyramid
shape, it was first thought to be a stupa that was intended as a Buddha shrine, not a temple.
Stupas are typically constructed as a sign of devotion towards Buddhism whereas a temple is
made to be a place of worship towards a religion. After much study and excavation, Borobudur
is settled to be a temple due to its meticulous details and structure.
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Interestingly, in the past, they did not use the metric or imperial system. Instead, they used tala,
a basic unit of measurement used during that time. Tala is the length of a human face, starting
from the forehead’s hairline to the tip of the chin or the length of the tip of the thumb to the tip
of the middle finger when the hand is fully stretched out. Tala is relative from one individual
to another.
Furthermore, the Borobudur Temple also holds a 4:6:9 ratio around the monument.
Gunadharma, the architect, used the 4:6:9 ratio to layout the accurate and precise dimensions
of the fractal and self-similar geometry that the Borobudur Temple holds. This same ratio can
also be found in neighbouring Buddhist temples.
To add on, the ratio also possesses calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance
which seems appropriate in the design of the Borobudur Temple.
All in all, the Borobudur Temple has attracted many tourists alike to visit and further indulge
in this 9th century-built temple. As much as research goes, the true meaning as to why it was
built is unknown, but this structure still stands to fascinate and allow anyone who visits to feel
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calm and captivated by this form of architecture.
Reference
Borobudur: Golden Tales of Buddhas by John N. Miksic and Marcello Tranchini.
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350
351
352
Buddhist Stupa Monograph
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Architecture
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355
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Borobudur ground plan took form of a Tantric Mandala
Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a
giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the
nature of mind. The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each side. It
has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper
platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is
bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the
pierced enclosures.
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken from neighbouring
rivers to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid
without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between
stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed. The monument is
equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To avoid
inundation, 100 spouts are provided at each corner with a unique carved gargoyles in the shape
of giants or makaras.
Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively.
Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for this purpose.
Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique
is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other temples and its
general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have
served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Lord Buddha.
Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other
hand, is used as a house of deity and has inner spaces for worship. The complexity of the
monument's meticulous design suggests Borobudur is in fact a temple. Congregational worship
in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were guided by the system of
staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage
of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed with the symbolism of sacred
knowledge according to the Buddhist cosmology.
A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall.
Lion gate guardian.
Little is known about the architect Gunadharma. His name is actually recounted from Javanese
legendary folk tales rather than written in old inscriptions. The basic unit measurement he used
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during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a human face from the
forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of
the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.] The unit metrics
is then obviously relative between persons, but the monument has exact measurements. A
survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument.
The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur. The
identical ratio formula was further found in the nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and
Mendhut. Archeologists conjectured the purpose of the ratio formula and the tala dimension
has calendrical, astronomical and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Hindu and
Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
A carved gargoyle-shaped water spout for water drainage.
The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base (or foot), body, and top,
which resembles the three major division of a human body. The base is a 123x123 m
(403.5x403.5 ft) square in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls. The body is composed of
five square platforms each with diminishing heights. The first terrace is set back 7 meters
(23 ft) from the edge of the base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a
narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage
supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome
at the center; the top of which is the highest point of the monument (35 meters (115 ft) above
ground level). Access to the upper part is through stairways at the centre of each 4 sides with
a number of arched gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues. The gates is adorned with Kala's
head carved on top center of each portals with Makaras projecting from each sides. This KalaMakara style is commonly found in Javanese temples portal. The main entrance is at the eastern
side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways
linking the monument to the low-lying plain.
The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental preparation towards the
ultimate goal according to the Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of
desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless
world).] Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the
body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The
architectural features between three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square
and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in
the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with forms
and names – changes into the world of the formless.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden foot"
contains reliefs, 160 of which are narrative describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining
reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently describe instruction for the sculptors,
illustrating the scene to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose
of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent
a disastrous subsidence of the monument through the hill. There is another theory that the
encasement base was added because the original hidden foot was incorrectly designed,
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according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town
planning. Regardless of its intention, the encasement base was built with detailed and
meticulous design with aesthetics and
religious compensation.Reliefs
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 Narrative Panels Distribution
individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and
1,212 decorative panels), which cover
section
location
story
#panels
the façades and balustrades. The total relief
surface
is
2,500 square
meters hidden foot wall
Karmavibhangga 160
(26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at
Lalitavistara
120
the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five
main wall
Jataka/Avadana 120
square platforms (Rupadhatu).
first gallery
The narrative panels, which tell the story
Jataka/Avadana 372
balustrade
of Sudhana and Manohara. are grouped
Jataka/Avadana 128
into 11 series encircled the monument with
balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100
the total length of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft).
second gallery
The hidden foot contains the first series
main wall Gandavyuha
128
with 160 narrative panels and the
main wall Gandavyuha
88
remaining 10 series are distributed third gallery
balustrade Gandavyuha
88
throughout walls and balustrades in four
main wall Gandavyuha
84
galleries starting from the eastern entrance
fourth
gallery
stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the
balustrade Gandavyuha
72
wall read from right to left, while on the
1,460
balustrade read from left to right. This Total
conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of
circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping
the sanctuary to their right.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts
the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first
and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are
devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of
the Perfect Wisdom.
The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)
The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete
illustration of cause and effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to
murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that
include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell
and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the
full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death).
The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)
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Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama.
The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and
ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[48] The relief shows the birth of the
Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in
present-day Nepal).
The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to
welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[48] Before descending from Tushita heaven,
the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He
descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's
right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would
become either a sovereign or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside
the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand and
she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince
becomes the Buddha.
Prince Siddhartha Gautama become an ascetic hermit.
Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana)
Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. Avadanas are
similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in
avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and
the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or
the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades
are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[50] The remaining 237 panels depict stories
from other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas
stories are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).
Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha)
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Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's
tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and
fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal
figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th
panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during
Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.
During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none of them had satisfied him
completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given
the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order)
Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk
Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa,
the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called
Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva
Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has
given Sudhana a specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the
third gallery.
After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth
gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with
Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.
Buddha statues
A headless Buddha statue inside a stupa./ A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra
mudra (turning the Wheels of the Law).
Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of
various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the
five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).
The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides
of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the
upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72
and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that
add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly
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headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as
collector's items, mostly by Western museums).
At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them
in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South,
West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana.
The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which
the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha
statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the
same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own
symbolism.
They
are Abhaya
mudra for Amoghasiddhi (north), Vara
mudra for Ratnasambhava (south), Dhyana
mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa
mudra for Aksobhya (east) and Dharmachakra mudra for Vairochana (zenith).
Lord Ganesha, the powerful God of Prosperity and
Intelligence
Ganesha is the son of Shiva and Parvati. He is also known as Vinayaka (‘one who removes
obstacles’) or Ganapati. Ganesha removes fear from the minds of his worshipers and helps
them to surmount every difficulty. Ganesha is associated with general abundance, which
explains a lot his popularity.
The tiny mouse at his feet called Mushika represents our worldly desires that need to be
overcome. It is the symbol of mankind’s ignorance, its insecurities and his deep attachment to
worldly objects. By riding on the mouse, Ganesha shows that one must overcome all petty
feelings and desires.Ganesha offers prosperity and success to all who invoke him. As Lord of
Beginnings and the Remover of Obstacles, he’s the first to call on before the undertaking of a
new task or business.
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His large head personifies knowledge and intelligence. Ganesha’s small eyes represent keen,
precise observation. He reminds us to focus our attention on the workings of our own mind,
watch how it runs here and there, never immobile, a continuous flow of unceasing thoughts.
Ganesha
worship
can
bestow
both siddhi (success), buddhi (intellect)
and riddhi (wealth). Because of his power of buddhi (intelligence), he is also revered in
Buddhism and Jainism.
Ganesha pratima at Luhur Poten Temple, Mount Bromo, Java
A popular deity
From India to Bali, his image is everywhere. All over Asia and beyond, Ganesha is worshiped
by Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Chinese, Japanese and others alike.
• In India and Southeast Asia, he is not only worshiped by Hindus, but people of all faiths.
Ganesha icons are almost always found in places of potential danger, such as steep
slopes, river and road crossings.
• In Japan, Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the God of Fortune and Prosperity. There are
250 temples consecrated to Kangiten. The Shingon ritual practice also centers on
Ganesha.
• In Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Laos and Vietnam, where Buddhism and
Hinduism are intertwined, Lord Ganesha appearing predominantly as a protector,
guardian and deity of success. As lord of business, his shrine standson a high pedestal
outside Bangkok’s World Trade Centre. The world’s tallest Ganesha statue (made of
bronze) is in Khlong Khuean, Chachoengsao Province, Thailand.
• In the Tibetan Buddhism, Ganesha is associated as a Buddhist Tantric deity. The Tibetan
Ganesha appears, besides bronzes, in the resplendent Thangka paintings alongside the
Buddha.
• In Jainism Ganesha occasionally found a place alongside Mahabir.
• In Bali, you’ll often see his lower-right hand turned toward his audience in abhaya
mudra (gesture of protection and fearlessness). Ganesha’s role as a protector is also
more pronounced in Indonesia, where he can be seen sitting at the gates of temples.
European scholars call him the ‘Indonesian god of wisdom’.
The Indonesian representations of Ganesha often present a very rich esoteric iconography,
which meanings are obscure and only known by the initiates. The Javanese
scripture Smaradahana narrates Ganesha’s mythological origin.
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In India, Ganesha is usually paired with Maa Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth and Prosperity.
In Indonesia, he is more often paired with Devi Saraswati, the Goddess of Learning.
He is first mentioned as Ganapati in the Rig Veda (hymn 2.23.1 and
10.112.9). The Mahabharata mentions him as Ganesvaras and Vinayakas. The Ganapati
Upanishad asserts that Ganesha is same as the ultimate reality, Brahman. This is put in practice
by the Ganapatya sect.
Traces of Ganesha worship have been mentioned all over the ancient world, way beyond Greater
India and the Indosphere. Inscriptions mention him in Azerbaijan, a golden Ganesha idol was
found in Kuwait, etc. He was worshiped as Janus by the Romans. A Ganesha murti was once
unearthed in a village in Bulgaria.
Ganesha murtis are increasingly used as good luck charms in the Western world, both at home
and at work.
Lord Ganesha worship at Loyang Tua Pek Kong Temple, Singapore
Purification of the Mind
Ganesha worship leads to self-purification as Ganesha removes the obstacles of ignorance,
delusion, attachments and egoism from his devotees. The real obstacles are those that clog our
minds and prevent us from seeing and discerning truth or reality. Lord Ganesha helps us see the
truth which is hidden in all.
Fear is the most formidable obstacle in our lives. Ganesha frees our minds from fear and also
strengthens our resolve and courage. With Ganesha worship, devotees can overcome fear and
gain strength and courage to realize their goals.
Ganesha reigns over muladhara chakra. He is the ruler of both the instinctive mind and of the
intellectual mind. He clears the mind so that awareness can flow into it.
To worship Ganesha, hold his form steady in your mind with eyes closed. Talk to him and put
all your problems at his feet. Ganesha answers you by influencing events slowly and in unseen
ways. Situations will change for you and doors will open through your prayers.
Ganesha enjoys worship through constant repetition of his name (japa). It was
Rishi Bhrigu who recommended the worship of Ganesha in the Tattriya Upanishad.
Attributes of Ganesha murtis
Every body part of Ganesha’s representation teaches us something of deep spiritual significance:
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• Small Eyes symbolize concentration. Ganesha’s eyes teach us to concentrate our mind, as only
a person who has controlled his mind can achieve any success in life.
• Big Head — symbolizes Ganesha as the god of Wisdom. His elephant head indicates
intelligence and discrimination.
• Big Ears — that means ‘listen more’. Ganesha’s wide ears denote the ability to listen to people
who seek his help. Ears are also used to gain knowledge.
• Small Mouth — that means ‘talk less’ and value our words.
• Big Belly — Digest all good and bad in life, and you will attain the virtue of calmness.
Ganesha’s belly contains infinite universes; this signifies the ability of Ganesha to swallow the
sorrows of the universe and protect the world.
• Blessing Hand — The third hand, turned towards the devotee, is in a pose of blessing. Ganesha
offers protection and guidance to the spiritual seeker. We must also offer that same grace and
blessings to those we meet on the path of life.
• Four Arms — represent the four cardinal directions and his mastery over the physical world
(similar to how Lord Brahma has four heads).
• Mark on the Forehead — Ganesha’s urdha mark signifies being a Master of Time. On
Ganesha’s forehead is located the trishula, symbolizing Time (past, present, and future) and
Ganesha’s mastery over it.
• Axe — represents the severing of all bonds, attachments and desires, and therefore of pain and
suffering.
• Sweets — The fourth hand holds modaka (sweets), which symbolizes the reward
of sadhana (devotion).
The Ashtavinayaka: Eight Manifestations of Lord Ganesha
The Ashtavinayaka, or Eight Forms of Lord Ganesha are mentioned in the Mudgala Purana,
which is consecrated exclusively to Him. In each form, he defeats each of the eight human
weaknesses:
• Vakratunda (defeats Matsaryasura, the demon of jealousy and envy)
• Ekadanta (defeats Madasura, the demon of arrogance)
• Mahodara (defeats Mohasura, the demon of confusion and delusion)
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• Gajanana (or Gajavaktra) (defeats Lobhasura, the demon of greed)
• Lambodara (defeats Krodhasura, the demon of anger)
• Vikata (defeats Kamasura, the demon of lust)
• Vighnaraja (defeats Mamasura, the demon of ego and possessiveness)
• Dhumravarna (defeats Abhimanasura, the demon of self-infatuation, pride and attachment)
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