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PAPER • OPEN ACCESS
Morphological diversity of Ganoderma along
different land uses in Central and West Sulawesi
To cite this article: N Edy et al 2022 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 1107 012021
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2nd International Conference on Environmental Ecology of Food Security
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science
1107 (2022) 012021
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1107/1/012021
Morphological diversity of Ganoderma along different land
uses in Central and West Sulawesi
N Edy, A Anshary, I Lakani, Zulfadli and Waldi
Department Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tadulako University. Jl.
Soekarno Hatta, KM.9 Palu, Sulawesi Tengah, Indonesia, 94118.
E-mail: nuredy@untad.ac.id
Abstract. Ganoderma is a saprophytic and phytopathogenic fungus that are distributed
worldwide. Ganoderma is a threat to farmers of hardwood crops such as industrial forests
wood, palm oil plantations, and cocoa plantations. In addition, Ganoderma is also cultivated as
herbal medicine. Ganoderma diversity is not well understood, especially in Indonesia's tropical
rain forests and monospecific plantations. This study aims to identify the diversity of
Ganoderma with a phenotypic approach. Ganoderma basidiocarps were isolated from
hardwood plants in the rainforest, cacao agroforestry, and palm oil plantations in Central and
West Sulawesi. The results showed the morphological differences of the basidiocarps collected
from different land uses. Most Ganoderma was found associated with woody plants in the
rainforest with higher diversity than found in palm oil and cacao agroforestry. Morphological
identification of Ganoderma reveals five different basidiocarps from the rainforest. There were
two different basidiocarps identified from cacao agroforestry, and there was only one
morphothype of Ganoderma was found in palm oil plantations. Ganoderma is more commonly
found in fallen dead trees in forest areas based on the host preferences. Meanwhile, in cacao
agroforestry and palm oil, Ganoderma was found on living trees. This preference indicates the
nature of Ganoderma as saprophyte and plant pathogen.
1. Introduction
Ganoderma, Basidiomycetes fungi, are a group of saprophytic and phytopathogenic species [1,2].
Although most Ganoderma species are reported as the pathogen of woody crops, some were used as
traditional medicines long ago [3–5]. As a plant pathogen, Ganoderma can cause the death of the tree.
Some species act as saprophytes, causing hardwood rot by breaking down their host lignin and
cellulose [6]. This genus is very diverse in the tropics, where Ganoderma can damage forest trees and
plantation crops such as palm oil , coconut, and cocoa [7–9].
In Indonesia, it has been reported that the diversity of Ganoderma associated with woody plants
has been reported. In other tropical countries, Ganoderma is a major problem in woody plants. For
instance, the root-rot disease in Acacia mangium in Central Java was attacked by G. steyartanum [10].
Palm oil plantations in Indonesia have also been reported to be attacked by G. boninense in Sumatra,
Kalimantan and Sulawesi [11–13]. Understanding Ganoderma diversity will lead to a better
comprehension of the pathogen's epidemic spread.
There have been few papers in Indonesian describing Ganoderma on a landscape scale. The
evolution of Indonesian Ganoderma has received less attention, it is intriguing to learn about the
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2nd International Conference on Environmental Ecology of Food Security
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science
1107 (2022) 012021
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1107/1/012021
diversity of Ganoderma. This study aims to identify Ganoderma's morphological diversity in tropical
rain forests, cocoa agroforestry, and palm oil plantations in Central and West Sulawesi.
2. Materials and methods
Ganoderma basidiocarp samples were collected from tropical rain forests (1o6’35”S; 119o59’29”E),
cocoa agroforestry (1o5‘34”S; 120o0‘5”E) in Central Sulawesi, and palm oil plantations (1o20’13”S;
119o25’19”E) in West Sulawesi. Each land use, a location of 1 ha was chosen to observe the presence
of Ganoderma on living, dead, and fallen trees. The basidiocarp was observed for morphological
identification of Ganoderma, including color, size, attachment of stipe to pileus, pileus margin pattern,
and host. The results were compared to the taxonomic classification of Ganoderma based on its
basidiocarp [2,14–16].
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Habitat description
The basidiocarps Ganoderma were collected from the rainforest, agroforestry cocoa, and palm oil
plantation. The rain forest located at 795 m above sea level (asl) with mixed trees and shrubs
vegetation. The agroforestry is located at 600 m asl and planted of cacao trees, Cocos nucifera,
Gliricidia sepium, Aleurites moluccanus, Durio zibethinus, Artocarpus altilis, Persea americana,
Nephelium lappaceum, and Coffea sp. The palm oil plantations is planted monoculture at 22 m asl and
age of palm oil trees were 7-8 years old.
3.2. Morphological characteristics
Morphological identification of Ganoderma reveals five different basidiocarps from the rainforest.
There were two different basidiocarps identified from cacao agroforestry, and there was only one
morphotype of Ganoderma was found in palm oil plantations. The morphology of Ganoderma
collected from this study site is described in Figure 1 and Table 1. The names of the species used in
this study are based on the previous study cited in Table 1.
Different hosts plant and geographic conditions may affect Ganoderma diversity [17,18].
Ganoderma's traditional taxonomy had been developed decades before [15,19]. The identification of
Ganoderma is based on the basidiocarp characteristics [15]. The Ganodermataceae is a polypore
fungus family having double-walled basidiophores. Ganoderma has a characteristic basidiocarp that
looks like a horseshoe and comes in various shapes. Basidiocarp of Ganoderma species have several
phenotypic traits, including sessile, stipitate, imbricate, and nonimbricate [2,15]. The stipe's
attachment to the pileus also differs per species. The pileus is usually linked to the stipe laterally,
although it can also generate eccentric, central, imbricate, and sessile fruit bodies. The basidiocarps
color of Ganoderma is typically bright shining (lactate) or brownish-red to dull black (non-lactate).
The color of the context differs from white to dark brown, and it can alter with the age of the fruit
body or drying due to environmental conditions [2]. However, phenotypic identification based on
basidiocarps was reported as un robust due to the evolution of external structures, for instance, color,
shape, size, and plasticity. In addition, the basidiocarp may be absent at a particular time.
Morphological characters should continue by molecular identification using the DNA approach.
This study found different morphotyping of Ganoderma basidiocarps, closely related to G.
lucidum, G. resinaceum, G. australe, G. boninense, G. adspersum G. mastoporum. Those Ganoderma
are reported as wood decay. In addition, they also used as traditional medicines, for example, G.
lucidum, which is known as Lingzhi or Reishi [20]. Ganoderma resinaceum is also well-known for
many medical effects since it has a higher triterpenoid compound than G. lucidum [21]. Ganoderma
australe also has the potential to produce triterpenoids. The current study reported that G. australe
could produce two new mertoterpenoids [4]. On the other hand, G. adspersum and G. mastoporum
determined to have antioxidant, anticholinesterase activities, and triterpenoids [5,22], while G.
boninense is mostly reported as the pathogen of stem rots of woody plants [8,16].
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2nd International Conference on Environmental Ecology of Food Security
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science
GF1
GF3
GF5
1107 (2022) 012021
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1107/1/012021
GF2
GF4
GA1
GO1
GA2
Figure 1. Morphological differences of basidiocarp Ganoderma collected from the rainforest, cacao
agroforestry, and palm oil plantation.
Sample IDs are described in Table 1.
3
4
GO1
Reddish-brown with light
border
Dark brown at the center,
reddish-brown at the second,
and yellow nearly white at
the border concentric zones
Dark brown with light
border
GA1
10 cm
18 cm
18 cm
20 cm
12 cm
30 cm
14 cm
Sessile
Sessile
Lateral
Lateral
Lateral
Lateral
Sessile
Sessile
Attachment
of stipe to
pleus
Waved
Waved
Smooth
Waved
Waved
Waved
Waved
Waved
Pileus
margin
pattern
Shallow-waved
with 1-3
concentric zones
Shallow-waved
with 1-3
concentric zones
Shallow-waved
with 1-3
concentric zones
Shallow-waved
with 1-3
concentric zones
Shallow-waved
with 1-3
concentric zones
4-7 deep
concentric zones
4-7 deep
concentric zones
Shallow-waved
with 1-3
concentric zones
Pileus surface
pattern
Living palm oil tree
Living trees in
agroforestry cacao
Living, dead, and
fallen forest tree
Living, dead, and
fallen forest tree
Living trees in
agroforestry cacao
Living, dead, and
fallen forest tree
Living, dead, and
fallen forest tree
Living, dead, and
fallen forest tree
Host
G. boninense
G. mastoporum
G. adspersum
G. australe
G. boninense
G. australe
G. resinaceum
G. lucidum
Species name
according to
previous study
[8,24]
[2,3,15]
[2,14]
[2,15,23]
[8,24]
[2,15,23]
[15]
[2,15]
References
1107 (2022) 012021
GA2
Dark brown
Dark brown
GF3
GF5
Dark brown with light
border
GF2
Dark brown
Reddish-brown with light
border
GF1
Pileus
size
collected
in field
7 cm
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science
GF4
Pileus Color
Table 1. Morphological characteristics of Ganoderma.
Sample
code
2nd International Conference on Environmental Ecology of Food Security
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1107/1/012021
IOP Publishing
2nd International Conference on Environmental Ecology of Food Security
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science
1107 (2022) 012021
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1107/1/012021
Conclusion
This study observed the different morphological Ganoderma in different land uses. This study
discovered five different morphological basidiocarps of Ganoderma in the rainforest. Two distinct
basidiocarps have been observed in cocoa agroforestry. In contrast, only one morphotype of
Ganoderma has been discovered in palm oil plantations.
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2nd International Conference on Environmental Ecology of Food Security
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science
1107 (2022) 012021
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1107/1/012021
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