INT202-Theories of International Relations
Professor: SEMPIJJA Norman
First assignment :

Historical background :
Gabon experienced a military coup on August 30, 2023, just hours after the election
commission announced that President Ali Bongo Ondimba had been elected to a third
term. A group of Gabonese military officers from the elite presidential guard unit seized
power and placed the president under arrest at his palace. The officers declared General
Brice Oligui Nguema as chairman of the transition. While the election itself had been
marred by reports of irregularities, the officers’ coup marks the latest in a long line of
recent military takeovers across the African continent that have jeopardized regional
stability and security. The situation remains tenuous, but it appears that the officers are
consolidating their control over the country.
Following the military coup in Gabon, the government has shut down the internet and
social media platforms in the country. The military has also imposed a curfew and closed
the country's borders. The situation in Gabon remains tense, and there are reports of
sporadic gunfire in the capital. The international community has called for a peaceful
resolution to the crisis and urged all parties to respect the rule of law and human rights.
The African Union has also called for an immediate return to constitutional order and
the respect of the democratic process. The current whereabouts of President Ali Bongo
are unknown, and it is unclear whether he is still in the country or has fled. The military
has announced the formation of a "National Restoration Council" to govern the country,
but it is not clear who is leading the council or what their plans are for the future of
Gabon.

The reasons of resurgence of coups in Africa using the case of Gabon:
The resurgence of coups in Africa, as observed in countries like Gabon, is a complex
and multifaceted phenomenon with roots in various interconnected factors. Chronic
political instability stands out as a predominant driver, characterized by weak
governance structures, rampant corruption, ethnic tensions, and insufficient institutional
development. In Gabon, the legitimacy of election results and power struggles within
the ruling elite exacerbate this instability, contributing to policy paralysis and a broader
sense of uncertainty.
Another significant factor is the leadership succession dilemma that arises when longserving leaders exit the political scene. This often creates power vacuums or sparks
intense competition for succession, heightening the potential for military intervention.
In cases of dynastic succession or contested elections, the power vacuum becomes a
breeding ground for instability and a catalyst for military interventions to seize power.
Economic factors, including disparities, high unemployment rates, poverty, and
inequality, play a pivotal role in fostering public dissatisfaction. When governments fail
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INT202-Theories of International Relations
Professor: SEMPIJJA Norman
to address these economic issues effectively, citizens become more susceptible to
supporting coups or uprisings as an alternative means of expressing their frustration.
Weak democratic institutions further contribute to the vulnerability to coups.
Compromised electoral processes, a lack of independent judiciary, and a weak rule of
law create an environment prone to political upheavals. In Gabon, allegations of
electoral fraud and a lack of trust in the electoral process have fuelled discontent among
the populace, exacerbating the risk of coups.
The military's role and influence in politics are significant in some African countries.
When civilian institutions weaken or fail to address political crises, the military
perceives itself as a stabilizing force and may intervene to restore order. However, such
interventions can be self-serving, aimed at maintaining the military's power rather than
fostering genuine stability.
External interference, whether geopolitical or economic, further complicates the
situation. Foreign interests and interventions exacerbate internal conflicts and political
tensions. Support for certain factions or leaders by external actors intensifies internal
divisions, potentially leading to coups or unrest.
Historical precedents in certain regions normalize coups as a means of changing
leadership. This normalization perpetuates their recurrence, as observed in various
African nations where coups have become part of the political landscape.
In a nutshell, addressing the resurgence of coups in Africa requires a comprehensive
understanding of the root causes and a commitment to preventive measures.
Additionally, regional institutions such as ECOWAS and the African Union play a
crucial role in addressing coup risks and fostering stability. Finally, breaking the cycle
of coups necessitates a nuanced and collaborative approach, building resilient political
systems across Africa.

Possible intervention measures to mitigate coups in Africa using the English
School of IR and the constructivism:
Addressing the resurgence of coups in Africa requires multifaceted solutions.
Strengthening democratic institutions, promoting good governance, ensuring economic
stability and inclusivity, fostering political dialogue, and upholding the rule of law are
critical steps to prevent coups and maintain political stability in the region. The English
School of International Relations and the theory of Constructivism can provide
complementary perspectives on addressing coups in Africa and potential intervention
measures.
The English School emphasizes the importance of international society and the norms
that guide state behaviour. According to this perspective, intervention measures to
mitigate coups in Africa could involve promoting and reinforcing international norms
that discourage unconstitutional changes of government. This could be achieved through
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INT202-Theories of International Relations
Professor: SEMPIJJA Norman
diplomatic efforts, regional organizations, and international institutions emphasizing the
illegitimacy of coups and upholding democratic principles. A solidarist approach could
advocate for regional and international organizations (like the African Union,
ECOWAS, or the United Nations) to intervene diplomatically, involving sanctions or
diplomatic pressure to condemn coups and emphasize the importance of democracy and
the rule of law.
Encouraging regional cooperation and institutions (like the African Union or ECOWAS
in West Africa) to develop and enforce norms against coups could be effective. Regional
bodies could employ measures such as diplomatic pressure, economic sanctions, or
peacekeeping missions to prevent or resolve political crises leading to coups.
Facilitating dialogues between conflicting parties within African nations could help
address underlying grievances and political tensions that often lead to coups. Mediation
efforts by regional or international organizations could provide platforms for
negotiation, conflict resolution, and power-sharing agreements.
Constructivism highlights the significance of social constructs, norms, and identities in
shaping state behaviour. In the context of interventions to mitigate coups in Africa,
efforts should focus on promoting new norms or reinforcing existing ones that
discourage coups as unacceptable means of political change. Encouraging local and
regional leaders to advocate for democratic norms and peaceful transitions of power
could reshape perceptions and behaviours. Efforts to socialize political elites, military
leaders, and civil society actors into embracing democratic values, respect for the rule
of law, and nonviolent conflict resolution can be instrumental. This could involve
educational programs, exchanges, and institution-building initiatives that promote a
culture of democracy and political stability. International actors, including donor
countries and international organizations, could condition aid and support on adherence
to democratic principles and respect for constitutional processes. Offering incentives for
good governance, transparency, and respect for human rights can encourage leaders to
refrain from unconstitutional power grabs.
By combining the principles of the English School, focusing on international norms and
regional cooperation, with Constructivist approaches that emphasize norm change and
socialization, interventions could aim at preventing and resolving coups in Africa by
addressing the root causes and reshaping perceptions and behaviours towards
democratic governance.
Second assignment :

The examination of the rationale for South-to-South cooperation in the global
south using post-colonial theory:
Post-colonial theory illuminates the enduring impact of colonialism on nations in the
Global South, emphasizing shared histories of oppression and exploitation by European
powers. South-South cooperation emerges as a response to these shared experiences,
fostering a sense of solidarity among nations that have grappled with similar forms of
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INT202-Theories of International Relations
Professor: SEMPIJJA Norman
subjugation. The collaborative efforts aim to address the historical injustices and build
a collective identity rooted in resistance against colonial legacies.
Post-colonial perspectives underscore the persistent economic and political
dependencies that former colonies may confront. South-South cooperation becomes a
strategic move to reduce reliance on former colonial powers and cultivate selfsufficiency. Through collaborative initiatives, countries in the Global South seek to
exchange resources, technology, and expertise, thereby breaking free from historical
patterns of dependence and asserting their autonomy on the global stage.
Post-colonial discourse delves into the ways colonial encounters shape cultural
identities. South-South cooperation provides a platform for nations in the Global South
to celebrate and assert their unique cultural identities. By collaborating with each other,
these nations resist the imposition of Western norms and values, fostering a sense of
agency and pride in their diverse heritage as they navigate a post-colonial world.
Post-colonial theory critiques the economic disparities stemming from historical
colonial exploitation. South-South cooperation is driven by the shared goal of economic
redistribution and development. Through collaborative efforts, countries in the Global
South pool resources and share knowledge, aiming to overcome historical inequalities
and chart a path toward sustainable development that aligns with their own priorities
and aspirations.
Post-colonial scholars argue that neocolonial structures persist in various forms,
including economic imperialism and unequal power relations. South-South cooperation
serves as a mechanism for resisting these influences. Through alternative economic
models, trade agreements, and political alliances, nations in the Global South
collectively challenge neocolonial forces, asserting their independence and shaping their
destinies on their own terms.
Post-colonialism highlights the importance of challenging hegemonic power structures
in global governance. South-South cooperation allows nations in the Global South to
present a united front in international forums. By advocating for their interests
collectively, these nations challenge the historical dominance of former colonial powers,
working towards a more equitable and inclusive global order that reflects the diversity
of perspectives and priorities in the post-colonial era.

The viability of the African continental free trade area (AfCFTA): application of
the epistemologies of the south and the dependency theory
The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) holds significant potential, and its
viability can be examined through the lens of Epistemologies of the South and
Dependency Theory.

Epistemologies of the South :
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INT202-Theories of International Relations
Professor: SEMPIJJA Norman
Epistemologies of the South, as developed by Boaventura de Sousa Santos, emphasize
diverse ways of knowing and understanding the world, challenging Eurocentric
knowledge systems. In the context of AfCFTA, this perspective underscores the
importance of recognizing and valuing the unique knowledge systems and perspectives
of African nations. By embracing diverse epistemologies, AfCFTA has the potential to
foster inclusive economic development that considers local contexts and indigenous
knowledge, moving beyond a one-size-fits-all approach often associated with Western
economic models.
Moreover, Epistemologies of the South highlight the need for participatory and inclusive
decision-making processes. If AfCFTA can incorporate a bottom-up approach that
includes voices from marginalized communities and considers local knowledge, it may
enhance its effectiveness and sustainability. This approach aligns with the spirit of
African agency and self-determination, challenging historical imbalances in global
economic relations.

Dependency theory :
Dependency Theory, which explores the unequal relationships between developed and
developing nations, provides another framework for assessing AfCFTA. Historically,
African nations have faced economic dependencies on former colonial powers and
global economic structures. AfCFTA, by promoting intra-African trade, offers an
avenue for reducing dependence on external markets and fostering economic selfsufficiency.
However, Dependency Theory also raises concerns about the potential for unequal
power dynamics within the African continent. Larger and more economically powerful
nations could dominate trade relations, replicating patterns of dependency internally. To
address this, AfCFTA should incorporate mechanisms that ensure equitable distribution
of benefits and opportunities among member states, mitigating the risk of creating new
dependencies within the continent.
Bibliography:
ACCORD. (2023). From fighting Jihadists to fighting Juntas: Explaining the recent resurgence
of military coups in Africa, and how to prevent recurrence – ACCORD.
https://www.accord.org.za/analysis/from-fighting-jihadists-to-fighting-juntas-explaining-therecent-resurgence-of-military-coups-in-africa-and-how-to-prevent-recurrence/
Jazeera, A. (2023, August 30). A ‘coup’ in Gabon: Who, what and why? Al Jazeera.
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/30/a-coup-in-gabon-who-what-and-why
What is ‘South-South cooperation’ and why does it matter? | UN DESA | United Nations
Department
of
Economic
and
Social
Affairs.
(n.d.).
https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/intergovernmental-coordination/south-southcooperation-2019.html
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