Seascape฀and฀Sailing฀Ships฀of฀the
Swahili฀Shores
Seascape and Sailing Ships of the Swahili Shores
Doctoraalscriptie Prehistorische Archeologie / MA Thesis
University of Leiden
the Netherlands
R. de Leeuwe
Gouda 2004
St.nr. 9819924
Krugerlaan 18
2806 EA Gouda
+31-182549844
Begeleiders:
Dr. Th. Maarleveld
Dr. P. van de Velde
Leiden, 2 juli 2004
In memory of my brother
Daniël
Contents
Acknowledgements
Introduction
1
Chapter฀1:฀฀Swahili฀Shores฀and฀Ships
3
1.1฀
฀
A฀mercantile฀society฀on฀East฀African฀shores
฀
1.1.1฀฀ Considerations฀on฀the฀Swahili฀as฀a฀maritime฀culture
3
8
1.2฀
฀
฀
฀
Means฀of฀a฀merchant
฀
1.2.1฀฀ Double-ended฀African฀ship฀types:฀the฀mtepe฀and฀the฀dau฀
฀
1.2.2฀ The฀mtepe฀replica฀of฀Stone฀Town
฀
1.2.3฀฀ Transom฀stern฀African฀ship฀types:฀the฀jahazi฀and฀the฀mashua
9
10
17
18
Chapter฀2:฀Ethnographic฀Fieldwork
23
2.1฀
Introduction
24
2.2฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
The฀building฀of฀a฀mashua฀ishing฀vessel
฀
2.2.1฀฀ On฀the฀builder฀and฀the฀commisioner
฀
2.2.2฀฀ Wood
฀
2.2.3฀฀ The฀beginning
฀
2.2.4฀฀ The฀irst฀strakes
฀
2.2.5฀฀ The฀frames
฀
2.2.6฀฀ Hull,฀transom฀and฀more฀frames
฀
2.2.7฀฀ Stringers
฀
2.2.8฀฀ Deck฀and฀beams
฀
2.2.9฀฀ Fittings,฀inishing฀and฀accessories
฀
2.2.10฀฀ Caulking฀method฀
฀
2.2.11฀ The฀launching
25
25
27
29
31
37
41
45
47
47
51
53
2.3฀
The฀jahazi
55
2.4฀
The฀Tumbatu฀dau
57
Chapter฀3:฀Sailing฀Ships฀in฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean
61
3.1฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
62
62
63
63
65
66
68
71
76
84
Arab฀ships,฀contacts฀and฀sightings
฀
3.1.1฀ Descriptions฀dating฀from฀Roman฀and฀Greek฀times
฀
3.1.2฀ A฀Greek฀shipwreck
฀
3.1.3฀ Pre-Islamic฀times฀and฀early฀medieval฀wrecks
฀
3.1.4฀ Early฀centuries฀of฀the฀Islam฀(7th฀to฀9th฀century)
฀
3.1.5฀ Islamic฀prosperity฀(10th฀to฀15th฀century)
฀
3.1.6฀ European฀interference
฀
3.1.7฀ Arab฀ships฀seen฀by฀European฀eyes฀in฀the฀19th฀century
฀
3.1.8฀ Arab฀ships฀in฀the฀20th฀century
฀
3.1.9฀฀ Arab฀shipbuilding฀reviewed
3.2฀
฀
฀
฀
฀
3.3฀
฀
฀
India,฀Sri฀Lanka฀and฀the฀Maldives
฀
3.2.1฀ Maritime฀pictorial฀art
฀
3.2.2฀ Widely dispersed maritime technology
฀
3.2.3฀ Contemporary฀ethnographical฀research฀in฀and฀around฀India
฀
European฀inluences฀closer฀examined
฀
3.3.1฀฀ European฀construction฀traditions
฀
3.3.2฀฀ A฀two฀century฀transition฀gap
Conclusions
Literature
Appendix฀A:฀฀ Linesplan฀of฀a฀mashua
Appendix฀B:฀฀ Stability฀calculations฀of฀a฀mashua
Appendix฀C:฀ Construction฀process฀of฀a฀mashua
Appendix฀D:฀฀ Stability฀calculation฀of฀a฀sewn฀dau
Appendix฀E:฀ Letter฀by฀James฀Hornell
Appendix฀F:฀฀ List฀of฀Swahili฀words฀used฀in฀the฀text
85
85
87
88
90
90
95
97
100
Acknowledgements
This฀thesis฀and฀the฀preceding฀ieldwork฀would฀not฀have฀been฀possible฀without฀the฀help฀of฀a฀few฀฀people.฀
First฀of฀all฀a฀word฀of฀thanks฀to฀Dr.฀Paul฀Lane฀of฀the฀British฀Institute฀in฀Eastern฀Africa฀for฀providing฀the฀
means฀and฀the฀opportunity฀to฀conduct฀the฀ieldwork฀in฀Zanzibar.฀Further฀special฀thanks฀to฀Peter฀FitzGerald฀of฀the฀London฀Science฀Museum฀for฀his฀kind฀help฀with฀the฀ship฀models฀and฀their฀iles,฀which฀provided฀
insightful฀information฀in฀addition฀to฀the฀Zanzibar฀ieldwork.฀
Thanks฀to฀Dr.฀Th.฀Maarleveld฀and฀Dr.฀P.฀van฀de฀Velde฀for฀their฀comments฀and฀cunning฀remarks฀on฀the฀
contents฀of฀this฀thesis.
In฀Africa฀I’d฀like฀to฀thank฀Prof.฀Abdul฀Sherrif,฀curator฀of฀the฀Zanzibar฀Museums฀for฀his฀discussions฀on฀
the฀mtepe,฀Iddi฀Mussa฀for฀his฀interpretation฀assistance,฀master฀shipbuilders฀Makame฀and฀Ali฀Kikoti฀Hayi฀
of฀Tubareki฀Shipyard฀for฀their฀explanations฀and฀the฀answers฀to฀my฀never฀seizing฀annoying฀questions,฀Peter฀
Minchin฀of฀Sensation฀Divers฀for฀providing฀a฀room฀in฀his฀‘Sensation฀house’฀and฀a฀home฀away฀from฀home฀
and฀Dr.฀Andrew฀Burton฀for฀organising฀a฀place฀to฀stay฀in฀Nairobi.
Special฀thanks฀to฀Harm฀van฀Keimpema฀and฀the฀Technical฀University฀Delft฀for฀the฀use฀of฀the฀PIAS฀computer฀program฀for฀stability฀calculations.
And฀last,฀I฀thank฀Arjen฀Runsink฀for฀his฀companionship,฀his฀patience฀with฀six฀years฀of฀study฀and฀his฀
photographing฀and฀computer-problem-solving฀skills.
Introduction
The฀study฀of฀a฀ship฀at฀any฀point฀in฀time฀is฀a฀snapshot.฀Whether฀it฀involves฀an฀old฀shipwreck฀or฀a฀
newly฀build฀ship,฀the฀technology฀used฀is฀all฀contemporary฀to฀the฀people฀who฀build฀it.฀However,฀
when฀reviewing฀the฀construction฀elements฀by฀themselves,฀they฀seem฀to฀have฀originated฀in฀different฀
traditions฀and฀ideas฀in฀different฀points฀in฀time.฀All฀these฀elements฀put฀together฀form฀the฀end฀result฀
which฀can฀be฀studied.฀Of฀course฀with฀a฀new฀ship฀the฀process฀of฀development฀and฀building฀the฀
construction฀can฀be฀studied฀as฀well,฀while฀in฀the฀case฀of฀a฀wreck฀only฀the฀result฀remains.
The฀easiest฀way฀to฀study฀which฀elements฀of฀a฀seagoing฀ship฀existed฀in฀a฀speciic฀period฀of฀
time,฀is฀to฀compare฀the฀ship฀to฀older฀ones.฀An฀archaeological฀record฀is฀a฀necessity฀in฀this฀respect.฀It฀
shows฀the฀evolution฀of฀naval฀architecture฀up฀to฀the฀point฀of฀interest฀in฀the฀study฀of฀a฀particular฀ship.฀฀
In฀Eastern฀Africa฀this฀is฀not฀possible.฀No฀ancient฀wreck฀of฀an฀indigenous฀vessel฀has฀ever฀been฀
found฀in฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean.฀Marine฀life฀in฀the฀tropical฀water฀temperatures฀destroy฀a฀ship’s฀
wood฀in฀a฀matter฀of฀decades,฀violent฀storms฀and฀heavy฀swells฀are฀the฀causes฀of฀quick฀decay฀in฀
shallow฀waters.฀Next฀to฀this฀the฀cargoes฀of฀the฀ships฀were฀very฀often฀of฀a฀biological฀nature,฀like฀spices฀
or฀wood.฀Any฀remains฀found฀will฀therefore฀be฀either฀very฀few,฀like฀a฀ship’s฀scattered฀inventory,฀or฀in฀
very฀deep฀waters.
In฀light฀of฀this฀problem฀in฀studying฀the฀Eastern฀African฀maritime฀archaeology฀another฀
approach฀should฀be฀sought฀after.
In฀the฀past,฀the฀main฀focus฀was฀on฀the฀historical฀and฀anthropological฀approaches.฀Historical฀
accounts฀of฀trade฀and฀maritime฀contacts,฀which฀possibly฀transmitted฀cultural฀aspects฀across฀the฀
societies฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean,฀go฀back฀all฀the฀way฀to฀Sumerian฀and฀Akkadian฀inscriptions฀of฀the฀
third฀millennium฀BC฀and฀the฀Ancient฀Greek฀world.฀They฀mention฀the฀Arab฀trade฀with฀the฀coast฀of฀
East฀Africa,฀but฀of฀course฀these฀writings฀are฀scarce฀and฀descriptions฀of฀the฀ships฀that฀sailed฀the฀seas฀
in฀those฀days฀are฀even฀scarcer.฀The฀main฀aim฀of฀the฀historical฀research฀on฀this฀area฀seems฀to฀have฀
focused฀on฀trade฀between฀different฀area’s.฀Trade฀is฀easier฀to฀research฀by฀means฀of฀archaeological฀
ieldwork,฀as฀for฀instance฀ninth฀to฀eleventh฀century฀Chinese฀imports฀were฀found฀on฀sites฀on฀the฀
Tanzanian฀and฀Kenyan฀coast.฀
Another฀popular฀approach฀is฀the฀anthropological฀one,฀like฀those฀of฀Prins฀(1965),฀Hawkins฀
(1977)฀and฀Beckerleg฀(2002).฀Apart฀from฀life฀and฀beliefs฀surrounding฀the฀maritime฀culture฀of฀East฀
Africa,฀they฀give฀some฀descriptions฀of฀the฀construction฀of฀the฀main฀parts฀of฀seagoing฀ships฀in฀the฀
area.฀Unfortunately฀these฀remain฀supericial฀descriptions฀and฀usually฀have฀very฀few฀naval฀
architectural฀details.฀The฀result฀is฀that฀if฀such฀a฀ship฀should฀disappear฀from฀the฀ethnological฀record฀
and฀for฀some฀reason฀the฀knowledge฀of฀how฀to฀build฀them฀is฀lost,฀they฀could฀not฀be฀replicated.฀These฀
historical฀and฀anthropological฀approaches฀should฀therefore฀be฀supplemented฀with฀naval฀
architectural฀and฀ethnographical฀research.฀
The฀focus฀of฀this฀study฀will฀be฀on฀the฀seagoing฀ships฀of฀the฀part฀of฀Eastern฀Africa฀known฀as฀
the฀Swahili฀coast.฀The฀Swahili฀culture฀dates฀back฀to฀the฀8th฀century฀AD฀when฀the฀descendants฀of฀the฀
Bantu-speaking฀people฀adopted฀the฀Islamic฀religion.฀Their฀culture฀has฀always฀been฀strongly฀
1
inluenced฀by฀a฀maritime฀orientation฀and฀traditions.฀
The฀large,฀sea-going฀vessels฀of฀the฀Swahili฀Coast฀used฀to฀be฀so-called฀‘stitched’฀or฀‘sewn’฀ships,฀
like฀in฀many฀parts฀of฀the฀Indian฀Ocean.฀Their฀hull฀was฀made฀out฀of฀planks฀that฀were฀sewn฀together฀
with฀coconut฀coir.฀One฀type฀of฀ship฀was฀called฀an฀mtepe฀(in฀Swahili฀meaning฀‘sail-boat’).฀
It฀is฀now฀extinct฀and฀little฀evidence฀of฀it’s฀existence฀remains.฀The฀oldest฀proof฀of฀the฀use฀of฀
this฀ship฀comes฀from฀a฀grafiti฀on฀the฀wall฀of฀a฀ruined฀house฀in฀the฀hinterlands฀of฀Malindi฀and฀was฀
provisionally฀dated฀to฀the฀ifteenth฀or฀sixteenth฀century.฀It฀had฀a฀square฀sail,฀whereas฀the฀present-day฀
ships฀all฀have฀lateen฀(triangular)฀sails.
Since฀the฀1920’s฀the฀dhow฀is฀said฀to฀be฀decreasing฀in฀numbers฀and฀although฀this฀process฀
seems฀to฀be฀slow,฀they฀are฀being฀replaced฀by฀modern,฀motorised฀ships.฀However,฀these฀have฀not฀been฀
able฀to฀make฀them฀totally฀redundant.฀In฀a฀few฀places,฀like฀Nungwi฀on฀Zanzibar,฀dhow-building฀is฀
still฀being฀practised.
This฀thesis฀consists฀of฀an฀account฀of฀ethnographical฀ieldwork฀on฀dhow-building฀practices฀in฀
Nungwi฀and฀a฀comparison฀to฀similar฀practices฀in฀other฀parts฀of฀the฀Western฀Indian฀ocean,฀in฀order฀
to฀be฀able฀to฀research฀the฀following฀questions:
Have฀the฀sailing฀ships฀that฀are฀presently฀build฀in฀East฀Africa฀recognisable฀African฀(Swahili)฀
aspects฀in฀their฀construction?฀Clearly,฀to฀determine฀what฀these฀‘African฀aspects’฀are,฀would฀have฀to฀be฀
the฀irst฀phase.฀As฀one฀of฀the฀most฀complex฀objects฀within฀a฀society,฀a฀ship฀as฀a฀part฀of฀the฀material฀
remains฀of฀a฀culture฀is฀nearly฀always฀the฀product฀of฀several฀evolutionary฀processes.฀Can฀these฀
processes฀be฀iltered฀out฀and฀what฀can฀be฀considered฀the฀‘African฀elements’฀in฀these?฀Can฀production฀
processes฀and฀construction฀elements฀be฀retraced฀to฀the฀extinct฀African฀mtepe?฀Are฀there฀detectable฀
inluences฀on฀ship-construction฀and฀design฀by฀other฀cultures,฀like฀the฀Arabs฀or฀the฀Europeans?฀
Three฀things฀supposedly฀changed฀since฀the฀arrival฀of฀the฀Portuguese฀around฀1500฀AD:฀the฀use฀
of฀iron฀nails฀to฀strengthen฀them,฀as฀before฀only฀rope฀was฀used฀and฀the฀edges฀of฀the฀strakes฀were฀sewn฀
together,฀the฀frames฀irst฀building฀method฀(skeleton฀irst)฀and฀the฀transom฀stern฀was฀added฀which฀
increased฀the฀cargo฀carrying฀capacity.฀Is฀it฀possible฀to฀conirm฀or฀enfeeble฀these฀statements?฀
The฀Arab฀cultures฀were฀the฀ones฀the฀Swahili฀came฀most฀in฀contact฀with฀and฀many฀Arabs฀
migrated฀to฀East฀Africa.฀Did฀they฀affect฀the฀local฀ship฀building฀industries?
First฀of฀all฀the฀ship฀shall฀be฀considered฀as฀an฀indigenous฀African฀technological฀development฀
and฀additional฀emphasis฀will฀be฀on฀its฀context฀within฀the฀semi-maritime฀culture฀of฀the฀Swahili฀and฀
the฀context฀within฀a฀broader฀Indian฀Ocean฀perspective.
2
1
Swahili shores and ships
1.1 A mercantile society on East African shores
Approaching฀the฀East฀African฀shores฀from฀the฀Indian฀Ocean,฀the฀long-stretched฀reefs฀propose฀
barriers,฀safe฀for฀the฀gaps฀where฀harbours฀were฀made฀and฀larger฀ships฀are฀able฀to฀reach฀the฀land.฀
Patches฀of฀turquoise฀and฀blue฀water฀laid฀out฀before฀seemingly฀endless฀bright฀beaches.฀Behind฀that,฀
green฀bushes฀and฀coconut฀trees฀alternated฀with฀tropical฀forests,฀mangrove฀swamps,฀creeks฀and฀river฀
mouths฀shape฀the฀seascape฀that฀has฀been฀the฀destination฀of฀many฀sailors฀and฀cargoes฀for฀the฀past฀
two฀thousand฀years.฀Towards฀the฀north,฀closer฀to฀the฀mighty฀Sahara฀desert,฀the฀land฀becomes฀more฀
arid.฀Far฀south,฀past฀Madagascar฀and฀Mozambique,฀are฀the฀treacherous฀seas฀of฀the฀cape.฀In฀between,฀
the฀environment฀of฀the฀East฀African฀shores฀does฀not฀vary฀greatly.฀Behind฀the฀lowland฀coastline฀
lies฀the฀slightly฀elevated฀savannah,฀a฀fertile฀hinterland฀with฀patches฀of฀forest฀and฀beyond฀that,฀the฀
African฀highlands฀and฀the฀Great฀Lakes.
The฀part฀called฀the฀Swahili฀Coast฀extends฀roughly฀from฀Mogadishu฀in฀Somalia฀in฀the฀north฀to฀
the฀mouth฀of฀the฀Limpopo฀river฀in฀Mozambique฀in฀the฀south฀(see฀the฀map฀in฀igure฀1.1).฀It฀has฀
often฀been฀described฀as฀a฀narrow฀strip฀of฀land,฀stretching฀further฀inland฀only฀along฀river฀sides.฀
The฀irst฀people฀to฀occupy฀the฀East฀African฀coastal฀regions฀were฀probably฀hunter-gatherers,฀
later฀joined฀by฀pastoralists฀(Kusimba฀1999).฀In฀the฀third฀century฀BC฀and฀thereafter,฀Bantu-speaking฀
farmers฀began฀to฀settle฀near฀the฀shores,฀migrating฀from฀the฀Great฀Lakes฀in฀what฀is฀known฀as฀‘the฀
Eastern฀Stream’.฀These฀people฀brought฀iron-smelting฀technology฀with฀them.฀On฀the฀Tanzanian฀coast฀
archaeological฀sites฀with฀‘Limbo’฀pottery฀were฀excavated,฀dating฀from฀200฀BC฀to฀200฀AD฀(Fawcett฀
1999).฀The฀sites฀show฀some฀use฀of฀maritime฀resources,฀like฀remains฀of฀shell฀ish,฀ish฀and฀turtles฀
(Kusimba฀1999).
Monsoon฀winds฀make฀seasonal฀travel฀across฀the฀water฀to฀and฀from฀East฀Africa฀a฀breeze.฀The฀
Western฀Indian฀Ocean฀monsoons฀were฀known฀to฀men฀from฀at฀least฀the฀Bronze฀Age฀(3000฀to฀1000฀
BC),฀crossing฀the฀ocean฀between฀Arabia฀and฀India฀(Horton฀and฀Middleton฀2000,฀Sheriff฀2001).฀In฀
the฀irst฀century฀AD,฀ships฀were฀going฀south฀to฀East฀Africa.฀The฀journey฀was฀described฀in฀the฀Periplus฀
of฀the฀Eritrean฀Sea฀(Periplus฀Maris฀Erythraei)฀.฀This฀unique฀work฀is฀a฀guidebook฀meant฀for฀ships฀and฀
captains฀going฀to฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean฀written฀by฀an฀anonymous฀Greek฀merchant฀from฀
Alexandria฀in฀about฀60฀AD.฀It฀describes฀ports,฀distances฀between฀those,฀commodities฀found฀and฀
even฀the฀weather฀from฀the฀Red฀Sea฀ports฀of฀Egypt฀sailing฀onward฀to฀India฀and฀Africa฀past฀Arabia฀
(Casson฀1984).฀Several฀towns฀were฀named,฀like฀Rhapta฀which฀was฀supposedly฀situated฀near฀
Zanzibar.฀Rhapta฀was฀a฀harbour฀town,฀so฀named฀by฀the฀Greeks฀after฀the฀sewn฀ships฀they฀
encountered฀there.฀The฀owners฀of฀these฀ships฀could฀have฀been฀locals,฀Arabs฀or฀both,฀for฀there฀is฀no฀
mention฀of฀this฀in฀writing,฀although฀some฀authors฀like฀De฀Vere฀Allen฀(1993)฀and฀Horton฀and฀
Middleton฀(2000)฀had฀no฀doubt฀coastal฀East฀Africa฀had฀a฀maritime฀technology฀at฀that฀time.฀Ivory,฀
rhinoceros฀horn,฀tortoise฀shell฀and฀nautilus฀shell฀were฀exported,฀in฀exchange฀for฀items฀like฀glass,฀
3
Fig.฀1.1฀Map฀of฀East฀Africa.฀
Scale:฀1:฀22.500.000.
4
wine฀and฀grain฀(Horton฀and฀Middleton฀2000).฀Archaeological฀proof฀of฀these฀trading฀commodities฀
comes฀from฀Roman฀glass,฀found฀in฀the฀Tanzanian฀site฀of฀Kivinja.฀
Geography,฀a฀Greek฀work฀by฀Ptolemy฀(ca.฀90-168฀AD),฀also฀mentioned฀Rhapta,฀but฀placed฀it฀in฀
the฀vicinity฀of฀the฀river฀Rhapton,฀possibly฀the฀present-day฀Kenyan฀river฀the฀Tana฀(Horton฀and฀
Middleton฀2000).฀Rhapta’s฀location฀thus฀remains฀uncertain.฀The฀inhabitants฀must฀have฀been฀the฀
Bantu-speaking฀farmers,฀somehow฀mediating฀between฀the฀people฀inland,฀providing฀the฀soughtafter฀commodities฀and฀the฀foreign฀traders.฀Although฀the฀pastoralists฀and฀the฀foragers฀still฀vacated฀
seasonal฀camps,฀especially฀on฀the฀more฀northerly฀shores฀of฀Kenya฀and฀Somalia,฀many฀settlements฀
became฀permanent.฀
Iron-working฀was฀an฀important฀aspect฀to฀the฀Bantu-speaking฀farmer฀society฀(Kusimba฀1999).฀
Iron฀was฀exported฀as฀well,฀as฀the฀products฀of฀the฀African฀smiths฀were฀of฀a฀high฀quality.฀The฀trade฀
and฀the฀iron-working฀industry฀made฀the฀coastal฀settlements฀grow฀and฀caused฀increasing฀complexity฀
within฀the฀societies.฀In฀the฀Azanian฀phase1฀from฀300฀to฀600฀AD฀and฀the฀subsequent฀Zanjian฀phase2฀
from฀600฀to฀1000฀AD,฀the฀settlements฀continued฀to฀prosper฀as฀the฀overseas฀trade฀connections฀
continued฀to฀increase.฀Continuation฀of฀inhabitation฀can฀be฀demonstrated฀by฀the฀unchanged฀pottery฀
styles,฀although฀a฀new฀style,฀called฀‘Tana฀ware’฀came฀into฀use฀next฀to฀the฀existing฀ones฀from฀about฀
500฀to฀1000฀AD3.฀Tana฀ware฀was฀in฀use฀on฀the฀coast฀as฀well฀as฀the฀hinterland,฀demonstrating฀the฀
relation฀with฀the฀inland฀people฀was฀maintained฀(Horton฀and฀Middleton฀2000).฀
750฀to฀950฀AD฀marked฀a฀transitional฀period฀into฀a฀more฀urban฀and฀mercantile฀society.฀The฀
coastal฀towns฀began฀to฀culturally฀separate฀themselves฀from฀the฀hinterland,฀although฀not฀
economically฀or฀linguistically฀(Horton฀and฀Middleton฀2000).฀Islamic฀religion฀spread฀out฀along฀the฀
shores฀and฀from฀about฀950฀AD฀stone฀buildings฀appeared฀within฀the฀town฀structure.฀The฀earliest฀
mosque,฀recovered฀on฀the฀site฀of฀Shanga฀on฀Pate฀island฀(Kenya),฀was฀a฀wooden฀building,฀dating฀
from฀about฀800฀AD฀(Horton฀1987,฀see฀igure฀1.2).฀Shanga฀is฀regarded฀by฀many฀as฀a฀typical฀Swahili฀
site฀(De฀Vere฀Allen฀1993).฀Conversion฀to฀Islam฀integrated฀the฀coastal฀communities฀into฀a฀broader฀
cosmopolitan฀society฀(Kusimba฀1999).฀The฀connection฀with฀other฀cultures฀around฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀
was฀gaining฀strength,฀as฀ceramic฀inds฀from฀Iran,฀China,฀India฀and฀Egypt฀testiied฀to฀(Kusimba฀1999,฀
Rougeulle฀1996).฀
In฀the฀second฀half฀of฀the฀tenth฀century฀there฀was฀a฀strong฀increase฀of฀imported฀African฀gold,฀
ivory฀and฀rock฀crystal฀in฀Europe฀(Horton฀1987).฀By฀then฀the฀East฀African฀coastal฀settlements฀had฀
developed฀into฀the฀autonomous฀political฀entities฀the฀Swahili฀culture฀was฀known฀for,฀with฀the฀largest฀
density฀of฀towns฀on฀Kenyan฀and฀Tanzanian฀shores.฀These฀coastal฀towns฀or฀cities฀were฀called฀miji4.฀
The฀political฀and฀economical฀power฀was฀in฀the฀hands฀of฀a฀merchant฀elite฀(waungwana).฀
The฀commoners฀were฀ishermen฀and฀farmers,฀many฀of฀them฀living฀in฀simple฀villages฀and฀
small฀non-trading฀towns,฀who฀sustained฀the฀patricians฀(Horton฀and฀Middleton฀2000).฀The฀trading฀
cities฀were฀the฀nodes฀in฀the฀trading฀network,฀and฀were฀supported฀by฀the฀settlements฀and฀the฀ields฀
that฀lay฀around.
The฀merchant฀elite฀dominated฀urban฀life฀and฀owned฀the฀ships฀and฀the฀use฀of฀the฀surrounding฀
forests.฀They฀determined฀when฀trees฀were฀to฀be฀cut฀and฀where฀the฀commoners,฀the฀slaves฀and฀the฀
5
Fig.฀1.2฀Lay-out฀of฀the฀
ninth฀century฀Kenyan฀site฀
Shanga฀(Horton฀1987).
immigrants฀resided.฀The฀relationship฀between฀the฀merchants฀and฀the฀commoners฀was฀that฀of฀client฀
and฀patron฀(Kusimba฀1999).฀The฀slaves฀came฀from฀the฀interior฀and฀were฀treated฀like฀servants.฀
At฀the฀height฀of฀the฀Swahili฀culture,฀in฀the฀thirteenth฀to฀the฀ifteenth฀century,฀the฀whole฀coast฀
shared฀a฀common฀cultural,฀linguistic฀and฀economic฀system,฀although฀the฀political฀power฀was฀never฀
centralized.฀Several฀characteristics฀made฀out฀the฀Swahili฀mercantile฀society฀(based฀on฀Horton฀and฀
Middleton฀2000):฀
•
•
•
They฀were฀of฀mixed฀origins฀and฀had฀contacts฀with฀several฀other฀cultures.
The฀actual฀merchants฀were฀a฀minority฀and฀formed฀the฀patrician฀top฀of฀a฀ranked฀society.
They฀never฀formed฀a฀single฀polity,฀but฀had฀a฀common฀economic฀system฀with฀coastal฀
towns.฀In฀igure฀1.3฀the฀Swahili฀social฀and฀economic฀landscape฀is฀schematically฀
•
portrayed.
•
into฀consumption,฀piety฀and฀charity,฀not฀land.
•
Wealth฀gained฀by฀merchants฀and฀even฀kings฀was฀redistributed,฀as฀it฀was฀transformed฀
The฀houses฀of฀the฀merchants฀were฀made฀of฀coral฀stones.
The฀Swahili฀were฀intermediaries฀who฀had฀little฀to฀no฀production฀of฀their฀own.฀They฀
used฀ships฀for฀coastal฀and฀river฀trading฀activities,฀probably฀without฀participating฀in฀the฀
•
•
ocean฀going฀trade฀(Nicholls฀1971,฀Pearson฀1998).฀
The฀elite฀had฀claims฀to฀high-status฀ancestry.
They฀were฀Muslims฀and฀all฀spoke฀Swahili.
The฀Arab฀culture฀was฀probably฀the฀one฀the฀Swahili฀came฀in฀contact฀with฀most,฀and฀they฀were฀also฀
the฀largest฀immigrant฀group฀in฀the฀Swahili฀culture.฀From฀the฀Periplus฀it฀is฀known฀that฀even฀then฀
Arab฀ships฀sailed฀south฀to฀their฀African฀trading฀partners฀and฀maybe฀even฀then฀some฀of฀the฀Arabs฀
stayed฀there.฀The฀immigrants฀were฀mostly฀men฀(Sheriff฀2001),฀although฀Allen฀Villiers฀(1940),฀a฀man฀
6
who฀sailed฀on฀an฀Kuwaiti฀dhow฀for฀a฀year,฀noted฀they฀had฀several฀
women฀in฀the฀ships฀hold฀who฀were฀to฀be฀married฀upon฀arrival฀in฀
by฀internal฀wars฀and฀natural฀disaster฀(Martin฀1975).฀Since฀that฀
time฀there฀were฀exchanges฀of฀people฀between฀Southern฀Arabia฀and฀
East฀Africa,฀as฀lineages฀in฀Africa฀were฀sustained฀and฀commercial฀
networks฀were฀founded.฀The฀immigrants฀did฀not฀come฀in฀large฀
numbers,฀but฀rather฀a฀few฀individuals฀at฀the฀time฀in฀all฀periods฀
as trading partne
rs
overse
migrations฀from฀the฀South฀Arabian฀Hadhramaut,฀probably฀caused฀
central฀Swahili฀towns
loods฀or฀political฀problems.฀From฀about฀1250฀AD฀there฀have฀been฀
hinterlands
their฀homeland,฀or฀as฀a฀result฀of฀climatic฀deterioration,฀famines,฀
distant฀trading฀partners
(interior)
Africa.฀Many฀Arabs฀migrated฀because฀of฀demographic฀pressures฀in฀
and฀from฀diverse฀regions฀(Chittick฀1975).฀
The฀Arabs฀sailed฀in฀characteristic฀vessels,฀which฀later฀
became฀known฀by฀the฀Europeans฀as฀‘dhows’.฀A฀‘dhow’฀is฀by฀
deinition฀a฀wooden-built฀lateen-rigged฀sailing฀ship฀(McMaster฀
trading฀routes
1966).฀It฀supposedly฀derived฀from฀the฀Swahili฀‘dau’฀and฀was฀
wrongly฀used฀by฀the฀English฀who฀traditionally฀identify฀a฀ship฀
by฀its฀rigging.฀Since฀all฀Arab฀ships฀have฀more฀or฀less฀the฀same฀
Fig.฀1.3฀Schematic฀diagram฀of฀the฀
Swahili฀landscape฀(after฀Horton฀and฀
Middleton฀2000).
rigging,฀they฀are฀virtually฀undistinguishable฀from฀one฀another฀
to฀the฀English.฀Arab฀themselves฀tend฀to฀name฀ships฀by฀the฀shape฀of฀their฀hull฀and฀‘dhow’฀is฀not฀a฀
word฀used฀in฀Arabic.฀฀
By฀the฀late฀ifteenth฀century,฀the฀Swahili฀culture฀seemed฀to฀be฀in฀decline.฀The฀cause฀was฀most฀
likely฀a฀great฀draught,฀between฀1100฀and฀1400฀AD,฀along฀with฀the฀world-wide฀black฀plague฀epidemic฀
in฀1348-1350฀(Horton฀and฀Middleton฀2000,฀Kusimba฀1999).฀Several฀population฀displacements฀were฀
the฀result,฀which฀in฀turn฀caused฀conlicts฀over฀water฀and฀land.฀Inland฀sites฀like฀the฀wealthy฀kingdom฀
of฀Great฀Zimbabwe,฀which฀had฀prospered฀from฀the฀gold฀trade,฀were฀also฀affected฀and฀abandoned฀in฀
the฀ifteenth฀century.฀
Then,฀in฀1498฀the฀Portuguese฀arrived฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀and฀life฀changed฀irreversibly.฀The฀
Portuguese฀had฀a฀very฀different฀and฀even฀aggressive฀vision฀on฀maritime฀trade฀and฀brought฀with฀
them฀heavily฀armoured฀ships.฀Their฀interference฀destroyed฀local฀industries฀and฀they฀attacked฀the฀
Swahili฀city฀states฀they฀encountered฀on฀the฀African฀coast฀during฀the฀sixteenth฀century.฀Wherever฀the฀
Portuguese฀established฀settlements,฀people฀led฀inland฀and฀settled฀in฀defensible฀locations.฀The฀
newcomers฀were฀mainly฀interested฀in฀the฀local฀commodities,฀especially฀gold฀and฀ivory฀and฀wanted฀
to฀control฀and฀take฀over฀the฀trade฀in฀these฀items.฀In฀1614,฀during฀the฀siege฀of฀their฀city,฀the฀citizens฀
of฀Mombasa฀asked฀their฀Omani฀trading฀partners฀for฀help฀(Kusimba฀1999).฀They฀received฀help฀from฀
Oman,฀and฀the฀Portuguese฀invaders฀were฀defeated,฀but฀the฀Omani฀decided฀to฀stay฀in฀East฀Africa฀and฀
by฀1700฀the฀irst฀Omani฀governor฀of฀Zanzibar฀was฀installed.฀From฀that฀time฀Arabs฀migrated฀to฀East฀
Africa฀in฀larger฀numbers฀than฀before.฀Trade฀lourished฀again฀and฀in฀many฀ways฀the฀late฀seventeenth฀
and฀early฀eighteenth฀century฀was฀a฀golden฀age฀to฀the฀Swahili.฀
7
The฀small฀Swahili฀renaissance฀did฀not฀last,฀as฀the฀late฀eighteenth฀century฀was฀the฀start฀of฀the฀socalled฀‘scramble฀for฀Africa’.฀Next฀to฀the฀Portuguese,฀other฀European฀nations฀wanted฀a฀part฀of฀
East฀Africa฀and฀the฀space฀was฀divided฀among฀them.฀The฀period฀from฀1750฀to฀1850฀marks฀one฀of฀
transition,฀in฀which฀the฀old฀Indian฀Ocean฀trade฀system฀is฀taken฀over฀by฀a฀new฀one,฀involving฀steam฀
powered฀ships฀in฀the฀nineteenth฀century฀(Gilbert฀2002).฀New฀towns฀were฀created฀and฀new฀trade฀
coalitions฀established.฀In฀1838฀the฀sultan฀of฀Oman,฀Sayyid฀Said,฀moved฀his฀sultanate฀to฀Zanzibar฀and฀
many฀Omani฀settlers฀followed฀(Horton฀and฀Middleton฀2000,฀Gilbert฀2002).฀Between฀1870฀and฀1888฀
the฀next฀Sultan,฀Sayyid฀Barghash,฀took฀commercial฀control฀over฀the฀Swahili฀coast฀and฀Omani฀traders฀
were฀able฀to฀manoeuvre฀themselves฀into฀the฀positions฀of฀the฀Swahili฀patricians.฀Migrating฀Hadrimi฀
had฀less฀opportunities฀and฀did฀the฀work฀open฀to฀them,฀mainly฀retailing.฀
The฀trade฀patterns฀changed฀in฀the฀nineteenth฀century,฀and฀many฀slaves,฀ivory฀and฀gold฀were฀
transported฀from฀the฀interior,฀along฀with฀iron,฀salt฀and฀copper฀and฀cloves฀from฀Zanzibar.฀Mangrove฀
poles฀were฀a฀sought-after฀export฀product,฀for฀the฀Arab฀countries฀used฀these฀to฀built฀houses฀as฀their฀
home฀lands฀grew฀very฀few฀trees฀(Gilbert฀1999).฀
From฀the฀1840s฀onwards฀many฀European฀missionaries,฀explorers฀and฀later฀imperialists฀came฀
to฀Africa.฀Eastern฀Africa฀became฀divided,฀with฀the฀British฀on฀Zanzibar฀and฀in฀Kenya,฀the฀Portuguese฀
still฀in฀Mozambique,฀the฀Italians฀in฀Somali-land฀and฀the฀Germans฀in฀Tanzania.฀Although฀that฀did฀
not฀last฀long,฀as฀German฀East฀Africa฀became฀part฀of฀the฀British฀Protectorate฀after฀WWI.฀In฀1873฀the฀
slave฀export฀was฀abolished฀by฀the฀British฀and฀in฀1897฀also฀by฀the฀Arabs฀in฀Zanzibar.฀The฀British฀
worked฀together฀with฀the฀Arab฀sultanate฀on฀Zanzibar฀in฀taking฀control฀over฀the฀Swahili฀towns฀and฀
trade฀networks.฀The฀last฀genuine฀Swahili฀city฀that฀upheld฀the฀traditional฀Swahili฀society,฀a฀large฀
hinterland฀stronghold฀called฀Witu,฀was฀completely฀destroyed฀by฀the฀British฀in฀1890฀(Horton฀and฀
Middleton฀2000).฀
The฀traditional฀coastal฀and฀ocean-going฀dhow฀trade฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean,฀using฀the฀seasonal฀
northeast฀and฀southwest฀monsoons,฀was฀upheld฀until฀the฀1960s.฀Between฀November฀and฀February฀
dhows฀arrived฀in฀East฀Africa฀from฀the฀north,฀leaving฀again฀with฀the฀southwest฀monsoon฀between฀
April฀and฀May,฀or฀in฀its฀‘tail-end’฀between฀August฀and฀September฀(Datoo฀1974).฀Travel฀along฀the฀
coasts฀was฀possible฀all฀year฀round,฀however฀not฀favourable.฀Dhows฀consequently฀lost฀competition฀to฀
motorized฀vessels,฀when฀those฀became฀more฀and฀more฀employed฀(Martin฀1973).฀Ever฀since฀the฀
1960s฀and฀1970s฀the฀dhow฀trade฀has฀been฀reported฀to฀be฀in฀dramatic฀decline฀(Martin฀1980,฀Noble฀
1963),฀although฀it฀never฀ceased฀entirely.
1.1.1฀ Considerations฀on฀the฀Swahili฀as฀a฀maritime฀culture
The฀Swahili฀had฀a฀strong฀connection฀with฀the฀sea฀and฀the฀coastal฀environment.฀Major฀inland฀towns฀
were฀mainly฀found฀along฀navigational฀rivers.฀They฀made฀use฀of฀the฀networks฀of฀creeks฀and฀lagoons฀
as฀means฀of฀roads฀and฀food฀resources.฀The฀question฀remains฀whether฀the฀Swahili฀society฀can฀be฀
considered฀a฀maritime฀or฀littoral฀one฀as฀it฀is฀often฀called฀(Pearson฀1998).฀It฀is฀a฀fact฀that฀the฀Swahili฀
culture฀would฀not฀have฀become฀so฀prosperous฀would฀it฀not฀have฀bordered฀the฀Indian฀Ocean.฀The฀
connection฀to฀the฀ocean฀is฀however฀just฀as฀important฀as฀the฀connection฀to฀the฀hinterland.฀
8
Prins฀(1965)฀described฀the฀Swahili฀as฀a฀maritime฀culture,฀being฀the฀irst฀one฀to฀use฀that฀speciic฀
term฀on฀the฀subject.฀He฀considered฀the฀‘little฀world฀of฀Lamu’,฀an฀island฀near฀the฀Kenyan฀shores,฀
from฀an฀anthropological฀perspective.฀There,฀maritime฀life฀is฀very฀integrated฀in฀the฀local฀culture.฀
Lamu฀cosmology฀as฀Prins฀describes฀it,฀thinks฀of฀the฀earth฀as฀resting฀on฀the฀horns฀of฀a฀bull,฀which฀in฀
itself฀stands฀on฀the฀back฀of฀a฀‘world฀ish’,฀located฀in฀the฀arch-ocean.฀The฀world-view฀as฀such฀is฀also฀
known฀from฀classical฀Crete฀and฀amongst฀Moroccan฀Berbers.฀The฀ish฀motive฀is฀found฀throughout฀
the฀Swahili฀coast฀on฀the฀carved฀doors,฀as฀a฀symbol฀of฀fertility฀and฀prosperity.฀Prins’฀considerations฀
were฀however฀on฀a฀maritime฀sub-culture,฀as฀found฀in฀many฀ishing฀villages฀all฀over฀the฀world.฀Lamu฀
was฀part฀of฀a฀larger฀Swahili฀community,฀who’s฀connection฀before฀the฀twentieth฀century฀was฀possibly฀
more฀emphasised฀than฀it฀was฀in฀the฀1950s.฀The฀Swahili฀culture฀consisted฀of฀many฀sub-cultures฀and฀
was฀complex฀and฀cosmopolitan฀(Sheriff฀2001).฀Regarding฀the฀whole฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean฀area฀as฀
a฀maritime฀culture฀would฀be฀generalising,฀as฀maritime฀contacts฀between฀different฀regions฀varied฀
through฀time.฀However,฀in฀naming฀Lamu฀as฀a฀maritime฀sub-culture,฀the฀deinition฀of฀a฀maritime฀
culture฀can฀be฀considered.฀
A฀‘true’฀maritime฀society฀would฀probably฀be฀wholly฀dependant฀of฀the฀connection฀with฀the฀sea.฀
The฀Republic฀of฀the฀Maldives฀could฀be฀a฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean฀example฀of฀this.฀A฀country฀solely฀
made฀out฀of฀islands฀with฀a฀collective฀way฀of฀life,฀has฀a฀different฀economic฀and฀social฀structure฀than฀
one฀with฀only฀water฀on฀a฀single฀border.฀The฀Maldivian฀society฀depends฀on฀maritime฀technology.฀At฀
one฀point฀in฀time,฀the฀people฀who฀settled฀on฀the฀islands,฀presuming฀it฀were฀islands฀then,฀must฀have฀
been฀arriving฀there฀by฀boat.฀A฀certain฀degree฀of฀maritime฀technology฀must฀therefore฀have฀been฀
available฀to฀them฀earlier,฀at฀their฀point฀of฀origin.฀
The฀Swahili฀can฀be฀considered฀rather฀as฀a฀semi-maritime฀society.฀They฀had฀developed฀
maritime฀technology,฀although฀it฀was฀not฀a฀necessity฀to฀them.฀If฀they฀were฀a฀maritime฀culture฀from฀a฀
seascape฀point฀of฀view,฀they฀were฀a฀coastal฀community฀from฀a฀continental฀point฀of฀view.
1.2 Means of a merchant
The฀people฀inhabiting฀the฀Swahili฀shores฀used฀their฀own฀ships฀for฀trading.฀Many฀commodities฀
were฀transported฀in฀the฀past฀along฀the฀East฀African฀coast:฀grain฀and฀rice฀(Prins฀1986),฀ivory,฀cotton฀
and฀leopard฀skins฀(Jewell฀1969),฀mangrove฀poles,฀cloves,฀cowries฀and฀even฀slaves฀(Martin฀1978;฀
Gilbert฀1998).฀The฀ships฀used฀in฀these฀trading฀activities฀are฀mentioned฀by฀travelers฀as฀far฀back฀as฀
the฀late฀ifteenth฀century.฀Vasco฀da฀Gama฀and฀subsequent฀others฀noticed฀the฀local฀ships฀having฀
a฀square฀palm฀matting฀sail,฀a฀single฀mast฀and฀a฀sewn฀hull,฀caulked฀with฀ish฀oil.฀The฀vessels฀were฀
itted฀out฀with฀a฀palm฀thatch฀roof,฀but฀not฀decked฀over.฀People฀aboard฀used฀a฀compass,฀quadrants฀
and฀charts฀(Prins฀1986).฀Since฀East฀Africa฀has฀been฀an฀integral฀part฀of฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean฀
trade฀for฀millennia,฀it฀remains฀uncertain฀whether฀the฀ships฀the฀Portuguese฀saw฀in฀those฀days฀were฀
either฀African,฀Arab฀or฀Indian.฀The฀Arabs฀themselves฀never฀mentioned฀the฀ships฀they฀saw฀in฀Africa,฀
probably฀because฀they฀did฀not฀ind฀anything฀remarkable฀about฀them฀(Prins฀1982).฀Most฀sightings฀
come฀from฀European฀literature.฀They฀all฀agree฀that฀the฀ships฀seen฀on฀the฀East฀African฀coast฀were฀
sewn฀of฀coconut฀iber฀rope฀(coir),฀without฀having฀a฀single฀metal฀nail฀used฀in฀them.฀In฀the฀sixteenth฀
9
and฀seventeenth฀century฀an฀ocean-going฀type฀called฀a฀‘pangayo’฀or฀‘pangaia’฀must฀have฀existed,฀for฀it฀
is฀mentioned฀several฀times฀(Welford฀1941,฀Prins฀1986).฀
These฀sewn฀ships฀must฀have฀varied฀in฀size฀and฀shape,฀according฀to฀function฀and฀traditions,฀
but฀any฀evidence฀for฀that฀is฀still฀lacking.฀Without฀information฀deriving฀from฀wrecks,฀indications฀
about฀how฀East฀African฀ships฀looked฀and฀were฀constructed฀comes฀from฀literary฀sources,฀including฀
data฀derived฀from฀archives฀and฀sightings,฀ship฀models,฀occasional฀paintings฀and฀photographs,฀
sculptures฀on฀walls฀of฀houses฀and฀a฀fragment฀of฀hull฀planking฀which฀decorates฀the฀ceiling฀in฀a฀
Mombasa฀museum.
1.2.1฀Double-ended฀African฀ship฀types:฀the฀mtepe฀and฀the฀dau
In฀the฀course฀of฀the฀nineteenth฀century฀evidence฀about฀several฀types฀of฀ships฀emerge.฀James฀
Emery,฀the฀governor฀of฀Mombasa฀in฀the฀period฀from฀1824฀to฀1826฀(Prins฀1986),฀was฀the฀irst฀to฀keep฀
count฀of฀ships฀leaving฀and฀entering฀the฀port.฀In฀1824฀more฀than฀250฀ships฀entered฀Mombasa฀
harbour.฀Of฀these฀55฀were฀of฀a฀type฀called฀mtepe฀and฀more฀than฀a฀hundred฀were฀dau’s.฀Some฀Indian฀
and฀Arab฀vessels฀were฀present฀as฀well:฀69฀beden,฀45฀baghala฀and฀one฀pattamar.฀Indigenous฀ships฀
therefore฀seemed฀to฀make฀out฀more฀than฀half฀of฀the฀vessels฀in฀that฀particular฀year.฀It฀also฀indicates฀
that฀the฀African฀community฀basically฀used฀two฀types฀for฀trading฀that฀could฀be฀distinguished฀from฀
each฀other:฀the฀mtepe฀and฀the฀dau.฀Emery฀did฀not฀state฀what฀these฀ships฀looked฀like฀and฀might฀have฀
generalized฀the฀types,฀while฀the฀locals฀recognized฀several฀more.฀Other฀nineteenth฀century฀European฀
travellers฀did฀take฀notice.฀Guillain฀published฀his฀travels฀in฀1856฀(Martin฀1978),฀along฀with฀some฀
drawings฀of฀beached฀and฀sailing฀ships฀he฀encountered฀in฀the฀years฀1846฀to฀1848.฀Among฀those฀was฀a฀
drawing฀of฀an฀mtepe฀(ig.฀1.4)฀and฀one฀of฀a฀dau฀(ig.฀1.5).฀The฀mtepe฀has฀a฀strange฀curved฀bow฀with฀a฀
very฀raked฀stem.฀A฀few฀vertical฀lines฀across฀the฀strakes฀on฀the฀hull฀seem฀to฀suggest฀the฀ship฀is฀sewn.฀
The฀drawing฀of฀the฀dau฀holds฀more฀details,฀such฀as฀a฀rudder฀moved฀with฀ropes,฀a฀sternpost฀that฀is฀
placed฀on฀top฀of฀the฀keel฀and฀a฀thatched฀roof.฀Both฀vessels฀appear฀to฀be฀double-ended5.฀Captain฀
Sullivan฀published฀a฀picture฀of฀a฀matapa฀(1873a฀and฀1873b),฀which฀according฀to฀him,฀was฀made฀and฀
manned฀by฀local฀people฀in฀the฀‘Northern฀rivers’฀(see฀igure฀1.6).฀Prins฀(1986)฀disregards฀the฀picture฀
and฀states฀Sullivan฀had฀it฀all฀wrong.฀One฀of฀the฀remarkable฀features฀of฀the฀ship฀in฀the฀pictures฀seems฀
Fig.฀1.4฀Mtepe฀by฀Guillain฀(1856).
Fig.฀1.5฀Dau฀by฀Guillain฀(1856).
10
Fig.฀1.6฀The฀‘matapa’฀
according฀to฀Sullivan฀
(1873a).
to฀be฀the฀lack฀of฀a฀rudder,฀as฀it฀is฀steered฀by฀an฀oar.฀Its฀construction฀is฀not฀visible,฀but฀the฀square฀sail฀
seems฀to฀be฀made฀of฀horizontal฀bands฀of฀(palm?)฀matting.฀One฀of฀the฀people฀on฀board฀is฀bailing฀
water฀out฀of฀the฀hold.฀Sullivan฀states฀in฀his฀story฀these฀boats฀were฀purely฀native฀and฀needed฀bailing฀
constantly.฀He฀further฀remarks฀a฀ship฀type฀called฀a฀bugala฀is฀built฀everywhere฀on฀the฀East฀African฀
coast.฀This฀type฀is฀however฀Arab฀and฀will฀be฀discussed฀in฀chapter฀3.฀The฀ships฀depicted฀by฀Guillain฀
and฀Sullivan฀appear฀to฀differ฀in฀some฀respects฀and฀even฀their฀names฀are฀not฀entirely฀similar.฀It฀is฀
however฀presumed฀in฀general฀that฀these฀are฀representations฀of฀the฀same฀ships฀Emery฀remarked฀as฀
mtepe฀(Prins฀1986).฀To฀presume฀a฀certain฀degree฀of฀diversity฀of฀the฀mtepe฀existed฀in฀different฀regions฀
of฀the฀East฀African฀coast,฀is฀not฀farfetched.฀
A฀diversity฀of฀ships฀is฀also฀shown฀in฀engravings฀on฀buildings฀along฀the฀coast.฀An฀engraving฀on฀
a฀building฀in฀the฀town฀of฀Kilwa,฀dating฀from฀the฀eighteenth฀century฀shows฀a฀vessel฀with฀a฀
remarkable฀curved฀bow฀(Garlake฀and฀Garlake฀1964).฀Older฀ones฀going฀back฀to฀the฀ifteenth฀century฀
seem฀to฀have฀mtepe-like฀features฀and฀important฀differences฀such฀as฀the฀stern฀and฀rudder฀
construction.฀
Towards฀the฀end฀of฀the฀nineteenth฀century฀travellers฀are฀starting฀to฀use฀camera’s฀to฀record฀
East฀African฀ships.฀These฀photographs฀have฀proved฀to฀be฀very฀informative฀and฀along฀with฀
descriptions฀of฀eye-witnesses฀and฀models฀of฀ships,฀the฀appearance฀and฀construction฀of฀a฀late฀
nineteenth฀century฀mtepe฀can฀be฀reconstructed.฀It฀appears฀to฀have฀been฀a฀graceful฀double-ended฀
ship,฀with฀a฀single฀mast฀and฀a฀prolonged฀curved฀stemhead,฀decorated฀with฀an฀oculus6฀(ig.฀1.7).฀This฀
feature฀is฀said฀to฀resemble฀the฀neck฀and฀head฀of฀the฀legendary฀she-camel,฀the฀favourite฀camel฀of฀the฀
prophet฀Mohammed฀as฀mentioned฀in฀the฀Koran฀(Crone฀1922).฀
Prins฀(1959;฀1965;฀1982;฀1986)฀pieced฀together฀a฀lot฀of฀information฀and฀described฀the฀mtepe฀as฀a฀
sewn฀ship,฀built฀mainly฀in฀and฀around฀the฀north฀Kenyan฀Bajun฀islands,฀such฀as฀Lamu,฀Faza฀and฀
11
Fig.฀1.7฀Decorated฀stemhead฀of฀the฀
mtepe.฀Model฀at฀the฀Science฀museum.
Fig.฀1.9฀View฀on฀the฀Science฀museum฀mtepe฀model฀from฀
the฀bow.฀V-shaped฀thwart฀in฀the฀foreground.
Fig.฀1.8฀Keel-to-stern฀connection฀the฀mtepe,฀
with฀holes฀in฀the฀sternpost฀to฀attach฀the฀
rudder.฀Model฀at฀the฀Science฀museum.
Fig.฀1.10฀Cross-section฀forward฀of฀
amidships฀according฀to฀Prins฀
(1965).
12
Pate.฀Its฀building฀process฀started฀with฀the฀keel,฀which฀has฀an฀inverted฀trapezium฀cross-section฀(Prins฀
1965).฀The฀irst฀strakes฀were฀attached฀to฀the฀keel฀prior฀to฀the฀erection฀of฀the฀stem฀and฀the฀sternpost฀
(Adams฀1985),฀as฀apparent฀by฀the฀oblique฀scarf฀connection฀between฀the฀stem,฀stern฀and฀keel฀(ig.฀
1.8).฀The฀hull฀was฀made฀lush,฀with฀the฀planking฀joined฀edge-to-edge.฀
The฀junction฀between฀two฀hull฀planks฀had฀cross-stitching฀on฀the฀inside,฀with฀a฀caulking฀strip฀
sewn฀in฀at฀the฀same฀time฀(Hornell฀1941).฀On฀the฀outside฀the฀stitches฀were฀merely฀vertical฀windings.฀
The฀planking฀was฀also฀secured฀by฀an฀obliquely฀driven-in฀tree-nail฀from฀the฀outside.฀The฀connection฀
to฀the฀keel฀showed฀the฀cross-stitching฀and฀the฀caulking฀on฀the฀outside,฀as฀additional฀strength฀and฀
water-tightness฀were฀required.฀After฀about฀ten฀strakes฀six฀or฀seven฀lower฀thwarts฀were฀positioned฀
(Prins฀1982),฀in฀a฀later฀stadium฀fastened฀by฀lashings฀to฀the฀upper฀thwarts.฀Between฀the฀upper฀and฀
lower฀thwarts฀there฀were฀two฀more฀strakes.฀Two฀upside-down฀V-shaped฀thwarts฀were฀placed฀in฀the฀
bow฀and฀stern฀(ig.฀1.9).฀The฀long฀stem฀consists฀of฀two฀planks,฀connected฀by฀a฀dovetail฀scarf฀and฀
fastened฀by฀dowels฀and฀stitches.฀The฀sternpost฀was฀a฀single฀piece฀of฀timber.฀Upon฀completion฀of฀the฀
hull,฀pegs฀were฀hammered฀into฀the฀sewing฀holes฀from฀the฀inside฀and฀the฀coir฀was฀cut฀away฀so฀the฀
hull฀was฀completely฀lush฀on฀the฀outside7฀(Hornell฀1941).฀Next,฀the฀frames฀could฀be฀placed.฀Their฀
outer฀side฀was฀shaped฀with฀hollows฀as฀to฀accommodate฀the฀caulking฀of฀the฀planks฀on฀the฀inside฀of฀
the฀hull.฀From฀the฀ifteen฀existing฀mtepe฀models,฀Prins฀(1982;฀1986)฀derived฀the฀information฀that฀the฀
frames฀were฀U-shaped฀with฀upper฀extensions฀(ig.฀1.10).฀The฀connection฀between฀the฀U-shaped฀
pieces฀and฀the฀extensions฀seems฀to฀have฀been฀a฀hook-scarf.฀On฀the฀model฀of฀the฀Science฀Museum฀is฀
visible฀that฀these฀scarfs฀were฀made฀in฀the฀longitudinal฀as฀well฀as฀the฀transverse฀direction฀of฀the฀ship.฀
The฀U-shape฀of฀the฀lower฀parts฀of฀the฀frames฀should฀however฀not฀be฀stressed,฀as฀it฀is฀unlikely฀many฀
tree-branches฀were฀found฀in฀this฀shape.฀More฀likely฀the฀U-frames฀were฀loors฀and฀the฀extensions฀
could฀be฀called฀futtocks,฀as฀they฀would฀have฀covered฀most฀of฀the฀hull’s฀sides.฀Floors฀in฀the฀ends฀of฀
the฀vessel฀were฀more฀V-shaped฀as฀they฀followed฀the฀hull฀shape.฀The฀frames฀were฀fastened฀by฀lashings฀
passed฀through฀holes฀in฀the฀planking฀(LeBaron฀Bowen฀1952).฀The฀spacing฀between฀them฀probably฀
was฀50฀to฀60฀cm.฀(Prins฀1986).฀A฀mast-step฀as฀long฀as฀possible฀was฀placed฀on฀top฀of฀the฀frames,฀
which฀were฀taken฀out฀in฀the฀bow฀and฀the฀stern฀to฀accommodate฀this฀long฀timber฀(as฀can฀be฀observed฀
in฀Prins’฀section฀forward฀of฀amidships฀in฀igure฀1.10).฀The฀mast฀is฀stepped฀in฀a฀square฀cut-out฀hole฀
and฀stands฀in฀a฀vertical฀position.฀According฀to฀Prins฀(1986)฀the฀mast฀could฀reach฀a฀height฀of฀50฀feet฀
(15฀m.),฀but฀one฀witness฀reports฀having฀seen฀one฀of฀60฀feet฀(20฀m.)8.฀Stringers฀in฀the฀shape฀of฀round฀
spars฀were฀lashed฀to฀the฀ribs฀and฀to฀the฀hull฀planking฀with฀lanyards.฀The฀decking฀consisted฀of฀two฀
small฀sections฀in฀the฀bow฀and฀the฀stern.฀A฀construction฀with฀a฀palm-thatched฀roof฀provided฀sleeping฀
places฀for฀the฀crew฀(see฀ig.฀1.11).
The฀mtepe฀was฀probably฀15฀to฀30฀meters฀in฀length฀(Prins฀1986฀and฀Gilbert฀1998฀combined),฀
with฀a฀beam฀of฀฀probably฀between฀4฀and฀7.5฀meters฀and฀a฀depth฀of฀about฀1.7฀to฀2.9฀meters.฀Gilbert฀
(1998)฀after฀investigating฀the฀Zanzibar฀Archives,฀discovered฀a฀description฀dating฀of฀1877฀of฀an฀mtepe฀
containing฀the฀following฀dimensions:฀L฀=฀29.5฀m,฀B฀=฀7.4฀m,฀D฀=฀2.9฀m,฀displacement฀=฀186฀tons.฀
This฀seemed฀unusually฀large฀for฀a฀sewn฀vessel฀and฀Gilbert฀therefore฀states฀this฀might฀have฀been฀an฀
exception.฀The฀ship฀was฀used฀to฀transport฀slaves,฀which฀might฀explain฀why฀it฀was฀built฀exceeding฀
13
Fig.฀1.11฀Mtepe฀according฀to฀
Horton฀(1987).฀This฀drawing฀
might฀be฀based฀on฀the฀models,฀
which฀causes฀the฀dimensions฀to฀
be฀incorrect.
normal฀proportions.฀The฀draft฀of฀this฀particular฀vessel฀was฀estimated฀by฀Gilbert฀to฀be฀about฀2.1฀
meters,฀which฀makes฀it฀possible฀to฀estimate฀the฀mtepe’s฀block-coeficient9:฀∆฀=฀L฀x฀B฀x฀T฀x฀Cb฀x฀ρ,฀
where฀ρ฀is฀the฀speciic฀gravity฀of฀sea-water,฀estimated฀at฀1.025฀t/m3.฀
⇒฀Cb฀=฀฀∆฀/฀(L฀x฀B฀x฀T฀x฀ρ)฀=฀186฀/฀(29.5฀x฀7.4฀x฀2.1฀x฀1.025)฀=฀0.4.฀
The฀Cb-value฀determines฀the฀‘fullness’฀of฀a฀hull.฀In฀this฀case฀it฀seems฀to฀be฀a฀slender฀hull.
The฀L/B฀ratio฀for฀this฀ship฀is฀4,฀which฀makes฀it฀more฀slender฀than฀the฀ship฀models฀Prins฀
studied.฀Prins฀(1982;฀1986)฀came฀to฀the฀conclusion฀the฀L/B฀ratio฀of฀the฀mtepe฀used฀to฀be฀between฀3฀
and฀3.7,฀not฀accounting฀for฀the฀inaccuracy฀these฀models฀usually฀hold.฀In฀reality฀L/B฀probably฀was฀3.7฀
to฀4.0.
A฀structural฀analysis฀of฀the฀mtepe฀proved฀the฀traditional฀assumption฀the฀ship฀was฀designed฀to฀
be฀lexible฀(Adams฀1985).฀These฀vessels฀were฀beached฀regularly,฀which฀supposedly฀was฀one฀of฀the฀
reasons฀they฀were฀sewn,฀for฀then฀they฀could฀withstand฀the฀shock฀upon฀impact.฀Other฀conclusions฀
were฀that฀the฀ornamented฀rudder,฀attached฀to฀the฀sternpost฀by฀ropes,฀was฀supposedly฀wellengineered฀and฀balanced.฀The฀sail฀and฀the฀rigging฀approached฀the฀limits฀of฀eficiency฀in฀their฀design฀
and฀the฀mast-assembly฀contributed฀to฀the฀hull’s฀competence.฀The฀mtepe฀was฀said฀to฀be฀surprisingly฀
fast฀for฀a฀sailing฀ship,฀as฀witnesses฀testiied฀too฀(Jewell฀1969)฀and฀as฀the฀mtepe฀replica฀proved฀(see฀
section฀further฀on).฀Adams฀concluded฀with฀the฀statement฀that฀the฀mtepe฀probably฀was฀the฀result฀of฀a฀
thousand฀years฀of฀reinement฀in฀ship-building฀technology.
In฀Faza฀about฀20฀mitepe10฀a฀year฀were฀made,฀one฀vessel฀taking฀two฀to฀three฀months11.฀They฀had฀
to฀be฀resewn฀every฀year฀and฀are฀said฀to฀have฀lasted฀for฀only฀four฀years฀in฀total,฀(Lydekker฀1919).฀
Prins฀(1986)฀presumed฀they฀would฀last฀longer,฀and฀although฀he฀states฀no฀reason฀he฀could฀be฀correct,฀
since฀sewn฀Arab฀ships฀were฀know฀to฀have฀a฀long฀life-span฀provided฀they฀were฀resewn฀every฀year.฀The฀
14
mtepe฀disappeared฀early฀in฀the฀twentieth฀century,฀its฀last฀appearance฀being฀no฀later฀than฀191012฀
(Hawkins฀1977)฀to฀1920฀(Prins฀1984).฀The฀reasons฀for฀this฀remain฀somewhat฀dubious,฀but฀
apparently฀they฀were฀no฀longer฀viable฀as฀the฀dau฀was฀a฀lot฀cheaper฀to฀built฀and฀maintain.
A฀certain฀type฀of฀dau,฀sewn฀like฀the฀mtepe,฀was฀at฀least฀for฀some฀time฀contemporary.฀Its฀
characteristics฀were฀the฀raking฀stem฀and฀stern,฀the฀bowsprit฀and฀the฀use฀of฀V-shaped฀‘breasthooks’฀in฀
the฀bow฀(see฀igure฀1.12).฀Lydekker฀(1919)฀was฀the฀irst฀author฀who฀wrote฀about฀the฀dau’s฀
construction.฀He฀named฀the฀ship฀a฀‘dau฀la฀mtepe’,฀probably฀confusing฀the฀type฀with฀the฀mtepe฀as฀it฀
was฀also฀of฀a฀sewn฀construction.฀It฀was฀built฀at฀Faza,฀where฀people฀used฀to฀refer฀to฀it฀as฀a฀dau13.฀The฀
square฀matted฀sail฀and฀the฀way฀the฀single฀mast฀was฀itted฀out,฀was฀similar฀to฀the฀mtepe.฀A฀description฀
of฀the฀construction฀method฀published฀in฀The฀Field฀magazine฀of฀1925฀(De฀V.W฀and฀N.14฀1925)฀
explains฀in฀an฀old-fashioned฀way฀that฀the฀breasthooks฀probably฀were฀the฀result฀of฀an฀evolutionary฀
process฀deriving฀from฀an฀extended฀canoe.฀Hornell฀(1941)฀shared฀this฀opinion฀and฀added฀that฀the฀
origins฀of฀the฀dau฀as฀well฀as฀that฀of฀the฀mtepe฀were฀to฀be฀sought฀after฀in฀the฀Maldives.฀A฀Maldivian฀
tribe฀called฀the฀Wadiba฀supposedly฀blew฀out฀of฀course฀and฀landed฀on฀the฀East฀African฀coast,฀where฀
they฀introduced฀the฀new฀ship-building฀technique.฀The฀square฀rig,฀the฀mention฀of฀coconut฀timber฀in฀
a฀local฀legend฀and฀the฀shape฀of฀the฀hull฀all฀seemed฀to฀conirm฀this฀according฀to฀Hornell.฀According฀
to฀Prins฀(1959)฀it฀could฀also฀have฀been฀the฀Laccadives฀or฀South฀India,฀as฀previously฀mentioned฀by฀
Lydekker฀in฀1919.฀The฀Indian฀type฀the฀pattamar฀is฀named฀by฀Prins฀as฀sewn฀with฀the฀same฀technique฀
and฀a฀similar฀hull-shape฀to฀the฀East฀African฀types.฀A฀common฀theory฀in฀the฀irst฀half฀of฀the฀
twentieth฀century฀was฀that฀native฀African฀ships฀received฀their฀boat-building฀knowledge฀from฀
another฀part฀of฀the฀Indian฀Ocean.฀Hornell฀was฀one฀of฀the฀great฀contributors฀to฀this.฀In฀the฀1930s฀he฀
seemingly฀believed฀a฀ship฀like฀the฀mtepe฀must฀have฀been฀basically฀an฀Arab฀design.฀Certain฀features฀of฀
the฀ship฀were฀however฀clearly฀non-Arabic.฀To฀Hornell฀the฀origins฀of฀these฀features฀should฀be฀sought฀
as฀far฀away฀as฀Indonesia฀(see฀for฀example฀his฀letter฀to฀Laird฀Clowes,฀the฀Science฀Museum฀curator฀in฀
the฀1920s฀and฀30s฀in฀Appendix฀E),฀rather฀than฀to฀consider฀the฀obvious฀option฀that฀they฀might฀have฀
been฀indigenous฀developments.฀Chittick฀(1980)฀on฀the฀contrary฀states฀it฀is฀very฀possible฀that฀the฀
mtepe’s฀characteristic฀features฀evolved฀on฀the฀East฀African฀coast.฀
Lydekker’s฀account฀and฀the฀one฀in฀The฀Field฀seem฀to฀be฀contradictive฀about฀the฀presence฀of฀a฀
false฀stempost฀(Hornell฀1941).฀It฀could฀be฀the฀type฀differed฀as฀it฀was฀made฀by฀different฀builders฀or฀in฀
different฀locations.฀The฀frames฀were฀sewn฀in฀after฀the฀hull฀was฀inished฀(De฀V.W฀and฀N.15฀1925)฀and฀
the฀sewing฀techniques฀were฀similar฀to฀those฀of฀the฀mtepe฀(Hornell฀1941).฀The฀sternpost฀was฀placed฀
against฀the฀aftside฀of฀the฀keel.฀The฀dau฀further฀distinguished฀itself฀from฀the฀mtepe฀by฀being฀smaller฀
and฀relatively฀wider฀(Prins฀1986),฀with฀a฀฀crew฀of฀up฀to฀
ifteen฀men฀(Bellingham฀1930).฀Lydekker฀(1919)฀
estimated฀their฀dimension฀to:฀length:฀60฀ft฀(18.3฀m.),฀the฀
length฀of฀the฀keel:฀35฀ft฀(10.7฀m.),฀beam:฀18฀ft฀(5.5฀m.)฀
and฀depth:฀6฀ft฀6฀inches฀(2.0฀m.).฀The฀L/B฀ratio฀for฀this฀
particular฀one฀is:฀3.3.฀The฀linesplan฀of฀a฀sewn฀dau฀as฀
Fig.฀1.12฀V-shaped฀breasthooks฀as฀published฀in฀
published฀by฀the฀1925฀The฀Field฀is฀given฀in฀appendix฀D,฀ the฀Field฀(1925).
15
along฀with฀its฀stability฀calculation.฀The฀‘Field’฀dau฀has฀a฀hull฀length฀of฀about฀22฀m.,฀a฀beam฀of฀5.5฀m.฀
and฀a฀depth฀of฀about฀3.5m.฀It฀L/B฀ratio฀is฀4.฀The฀stability฀calculation฀provided฀an฀indication฀of฀its฀
displacement,฀which฀is฀at฀a฀draft฀of฀1.4฀metres,฀about฀20฀tons฀in฀salt฀water.฀At฀a฀draft฀of฀1.8฀metres฀
the฀displacement฀is฀48฀tons.฀Remarkably,฀a฀trim฀seems฀to฀make฀little฀difference฀for฀these฀
displacement฀igures.฀Old฀photographs฀of฀this฀type฀generally฀show฀a฀ship฀with฀a฀large฀draft฀and฀little฀
freeboard฀left,฀so฀the฀displacement฀with฀cargo฀was฀probably฀nearer฀to฀the฀50฀tons฀mark.
In฀notes฀written฀by฀a฀C.S.฀Clive฀(ca.฀1930),฀currently฀in฀the฀possession฀of฀the฀British฀Institute฀
in฀Eastern฀Africa,฀Clive฀remarks฀having฀seen฀a฀mast฀of฀about฀60฀ft฀high฀on฀a฀ship฀he฀names฀an฀mtepe,฀
but฀describes฀it฀having฀a฀bowsprit.฀He฀also฀remarks฀that฀for฀long฀voyages฀these฀ships฀always฀travelled฀
in฀a฀convoy฀of฀three฀or฀more฀of฀the฀same฀type.฀Considering฀the฀mtepe฀was฀not฀in฀existence฀in฀the฀
1930s฀and฀the฀type฀having฀a฀bowsprit,฀he฀must฀have฀been฀speaking฀of฀a฀sewn฀dau.
The฀sewn฀dau฀was฀irst฀mentioned฀as฀a฀separate฀type฀in฀1903฀(Prins฀1982).฀Its฀existence฀in฀the฀
manner฀described฀above฀before฀that฀time฀remains฀uncertain.฀An฀eighteenth฀century฀engraving฀was฀
identiied฀as฀such฀a฀dau฀by฀Garlake฀and฀Garlake฀(1964)฀by฀the฀presence฀of฀a฀bow-sprit,฀a฀square฀sail฀
and฀the฀raking฀bow฀and฀stern฀(ig.฀1.13).฀The฀last฀sewn฀dau฀was฀wrecked฀on฀the฀coast฀of฀Somalia฀in฀
1933฀(Hornell฀1941),฀which฀limits฀the฀known฀life-span฀of฀this฀type฀to฀a฀mere฀thirty฀years.฀฀฀
Guillains฀dau฀(ig.฀1.4)฀seems฀to฀be฀of฀a฀different฀type.฀It฀is฀not฀visibly฀sewn฀and฀it฀is฀lacking฀a฀
bowsprit.฀The฀rudder฀is฀moved฀by฀ropes฀in฀stead฀of฀a฀tiller,฀unlike฀the฀type฀described฀in฀the฀irst฀
decades฀of฀the฀twentieth฀century.฀It฀does฀have฀the฀typical฀palm฀matted฀roof฀on฀the฀aft฀side.฀The฀fact฀
that฀this฀is฀also฀called฀a฀dau฀accounts฀for฀that฀name฀being฀used฀(by฀the฀locals)฀for฀several฀different฀
ships฀over฀a฀long฀period฀of฀time.฀In฀chapter฀2฀the฀present-day฀dau฀is฀described฀as฀it฀is฀built฀on฀
Tumbatu฀island.฀It฀looks฀very฀similar฀to฀the฀one฀portrayed฀by฀Guillain฀more฀than฀150฀years฀ago,฀
apart฀from฀the฀tiller฀and฀the฀size.฀Nowadays฀it฀is฀a฀small฀slender฀ship,฀mainly฀used฀for฀ishing฀and฀
sometimes฀for฀small-time฀coastal฀trading฀activities.฀Its฀sail฀is฀a฀triangular฀one,฀in฀contrary฀to฀the฀one฀
on฀the฀sewn฀dau.
The฀nailed฀dau฀and฀the฀sewn฀dau฀probably฀existed฀side฀by฀side฀for฀a฀long฀time.฀In฀1824฀both฀
types฀were฀supposedly฀seen฀by฀W.F.W.฀Owen฀(Prins฀1965),฀although฀those฀types฀might฀have฀differed฀
from฀the฀subsequent฀ones.฀Prins฀(1965)฀observed฀a฀lat-bottomed฀type฀of฀dau฀in฀Lamu,฀unknown฀to฀
other฀areas.฀The฀type฀portrayed฀by฀Guillain฀had,฀like฀the฀present-day฀Tumbatu฀dau฀and฀the฀sewn฀
dau,฀a฀more฀S-shaped฀hull,฀built฀on฀a฀keel.฀
As฀sewn฀ships฀seem฀to฀have฀disappeared฀on฀the฀
Swahili฀shores฀in฀the฀1930s,฀a฀late฀survival฀on฀the฀
coast฀of฀Somalia฀is฀described฀by฀Chittick฀(1980).฀
These฀were฀small฀ships฀called฀beden,฀with฀an฀
overall฀length฀of฀ten฀meters.฀They฀were฀doubleended,฀with฀the฀rake฀of฀the฀stern฀larger฀than฀that฀
of฀the฀stem.฀Their฀building฀process฀starts฀with฀
Fig.฀1.13฀Wall฀engravings,฀presumably฀of฀a฀dau฀(left)฀
and฀an฀mtepe฀(Garlake฀and฀Galake฀1964).฀
sewing฀the฀garboard฀strake฀to฀the฀keel.฀About฀
two฀more฀strakes฀are฀added฀lush฀to฀the฀garboard฀
16
before฀the฀stem฀and฀sternposts฀are฀itted฀on฀top฀of฀the฀keel.฀These฀could฀then฀be฀connected฀to฀the฀
strakes฀and฀were฀kept฀in฀position฀by฀the฀structure฀of฀the฀ship฀itself,฀in฀stead฀of฀using฀temporary฀
supports.฀Thin฀planks฀were฀supplemented฀by฀a฀thick฀gunwale฀on฀the฀top.฀The฀frames฀were฀sewn฀in฀
after฀the฀hull฀was฀inished,฀and฀made฀from฀naturally฀grown฀pieces฀of฀timber.฀They฀were฀alternately฀
half฀frames฀covering฀one฀side,฀and฀full฀frames฀covering฀both.฀Chittick฀does฀not฀describe฀their฀shape,฀
but฀it฀seems฀the฀full฀frames฀must฀have฀been฀U-shaped฀and฀the฀half฀frames฀were฀mere฀curves.฀The฀
ships฀were฀steered฀by฀a฀small฀rudder,฀moved฀by฀ropes฀and฀itted฀out฀with฀a฀single฀mast฀and฀a฀lateen฀
sail.
1.2.2฀The฀mtepe฀replica฀of฀Stone฀Town
In฀April฀of฀2003฀a฀project฀started฀under฀the฀management฀of฀professor฀Abdul฀Sheriff,฀curator฀of฀the฀
Zanzibar฀museums,฀involving฀the฀making฀a฀replica฀of฀the฀legendary฀mtepe.฀Going฀on฀some฀of฀the฀
evidence฀presented฀in฀the฀preceding฀chapter฀together฀with฀the฀knowledge฀of฀a฀fundi฀from฀Lamu฀in฀
Kenya,฀elements฀of฀the฀mtepe฀were฀reconstructed.฀Fortunately฀for฀me฀by฀September฀and฀October฀of฀
that฀year฀fundi฀Mohamed฀with฀a฀few฀assistants฀was฀still฀working฀on฀it,฀so฀I฀was฀able฀to฀observe฀some฀
of฀the฀work.฀The฀ship฀was฀built฀on฀the฀seaside฀in฀Stone฀Town฀in฀front฀of฀the฀House฀of฀Wonders,฀for฀
anyone฀interested฀to฀observe฀(ig.฀1.14).
At฀present฀it฀must฀be฀a฀rarity฀to฀observe฀the฀making฀of฀a฀sewn฀ship฀with฀not฀a฀single฀piece฀of฀
iron,฀nails฀or฀otherwise,฀being฀used.฀Fundi฀Mohamed฀learned฀the฀profession฀from฀his฀grandfather,฀
who฀was฀a฀model-builder฀in฀Lamu.฀The฀technique฀of฀sewing฀a฀model฀together฀must฀have฀been฀
basically฀the฀same฀as฀for฀a฀real฀size฀ship,฀so฀Mohamed฀was฀asked฀for฀the฀job฀in฀building฀the฀replica.฀
The฀replica฀is฀scaled฀down฀and฀thus฀a฀little฀smaller฀than฀the฀real฀size฀ones฀would฀have฀been,฀as฀its฀
purpose฀is฀to฀enrich฀the฀House฀of฀Wonders16฀and฀it฀would฀not฀have฀it฀through฀the฀doors฀if฀it฀were฀
any฀larger.
Fundi฀Mohamed’s฀construction฀practices฀were฀surprisingly฀similar฀to฀the฀ones฀on฀a฀modern฀dhow,฀
Fig.฀1.14฀Mtepe฀replica฀of฀Stone฀Town.฀Photograph฀courtesy฀of฀Jan฀den฀Hengst.
17
as฀described฀in฀chapter฀2฀and฀unlike฀the฀method฀described฀in฀Chapter฀1.2.1.฀It฀may฀be฀that฀the฀old฀
ways฀are฀no฀longer฀known.฀The฀frames฀are฀alternated฀half฀and฀loor-frames,฀with฀a฀large฀distance฀
between฀them,฀as฀to฀keep฀the฀weight฀down฀a฀little฀and฀make฀it฀easier฀to฀transport฀the฀inished฀
product฀inside฀the฀museum.฀Noticeable฀differences฀are฀the฀stem฀and฀stern฀to฀the฀keel฀connection,฀
the฀stringers฀(see฀igure฀2.36฀in฀Ch.฀2)฀and฀the฀caulking฀on฀the฀outside฀instead฀of฀inside,฀and฀the฀
interior฀of฀the฀shell฀is฀lush,฀so฀that฀the฀frames฀do฀not฀have฀to฀be฀taken฀out฀as฀described฀in฀Chapter฀
1.2.1.฀It฀might฀be฀that฀fundi฀Mohamed฀made฀it฀easy฀for฀himself,฀in฀not฀having฀to฀do฀the฀extra฀work฀
on฀the฀frames,฀or฀either฀it฀is฀an฀alternative฀way฀of฀building฀an฀mtepe.฀The฀latter฀is฀unusual฀but฀not฀
unheard฀of,฀as฀Prins฀(1986)฀encountered฀two฀mtepe฀models฀with฀similar฀features.฀As฀most฀models฀
were฀built฀in฀Lamu,฀it฀might฀be฀that฀these฀particular฀ones฀were฀built฀by฀Mohamed’s฀grandfather.
One฀of฀fundi’s฀helpers,฀a฀isherman฀by฀occupation,฀stated฀that฀they฀would฀never฀go฀sailing฀on฀
a฀ship฀like฀this,฀for฀besides฀being฀sewn,฀it฀also฀had฀too฀few฀frames฀and฀thus฀would฀never฀be฀strong฀
enough.฀Other฀shipbuilders฀who฀visited฀the฀mtepe฀had฀expressed฀similar฀thoughts฀and฀stated฀that฀a฀
sewn฀ship฀would฀never฀stay฀aloat฀for฀long.฀In฀general฀there฀seemed฀to฀be฀little฀conidence฀in฀the฀
sailing฀capabilities฀of฀a฀ship฀constructed฀like฀this.฀The฀maiden฀and฀only฀voyage฀after฀the฀launch฀
proved฀them฀wrong,฀as฀Abdul฀Sheriff฀stated฀afterwards฀“it฀sailed฀very฀smoothly฀and฀rapidly฀into฀the฀
port฀…฀It฀did฀take฀in฀water฀faster฀than฀other฀boats,฀but฀it฀was฀not฀unusual฀considering฀it฀was฀a฀sewn฀
boat฀that฀had฀been฀dry฀for฀a฀long฀time.฀What฀did฀come฀in฀could฀be฀bailed฀out฀with฀ordinary฀
buckets.”17฀So฀even฀if฀the฀fundi฀was฀making฀an฀extinct฀boat฀from฀the฀memory฀of฀his฀grandfather฀and฀
the฀details฀did฀not฀seem฀to฀it,฀the฀general฀hull-shape฀and฀sailing฀capabilities฀were฀very฀close฀to฀the฀
real฀thing฀and฀the฀experiment฀was฀a฀success.
1.2.3฀Transom฀stern฀African฀ship฀types:฀the฀jahazi฀and฀the฀mashua฀
Jahazi฀is฀a฀word฀used฀in฀Arab฀literature฀for฀at฀least฀ive฀hundred฀years฀to฀indicate฀an฀ocean฀going฀
ship,฀that฀made฀voyages฀from฀Aden฀(Yemen)฀to฀India฀(Prins฀1965).฀The฀word฀also฀seems฀to฀be฀
used฀for฀‘a฀ship’฀in฀general฀or฀for฀rigging.฀Nowadays฀it฀is฀a฀common฀East฀African฀cargo฀ship,฀used฀
for฀coastal฀voyages฀(Sassoon฀1970).฀The฀type฀is฀suggested฀to฀be฀a฀relative฀of฀Arab฀or฀Persian฀types,฀
although฀is฀locally฀developed฀into฀its฀own฀speciic฀hull฀shape฀(Nooteboom฀1966).฀They฀have฀a฀
relative฀short,฀broad฀hull฀and฀an฀almost฀vertical฀transom฀stern.฀The฀jahazi฀is฀build฀in฀Kenya฀as฀well฀
as฀in฀Tanzania,฀with฀subtle฀differences฀between฀them.฀They฀are฀generally฀referred฀to฀as฀the฀Lamu฀and฀
the฀Zanzibar฀jahazi฀(Prins฀1965;฀Sassoon฀1970).฀The฀large฀difference฀is฀the฀bow.฀The฀Lamu฀jahazi฀
has฀a฀vertical฀bow฀and฀therefore฀a฀longer฀keel฀(see฀ig.฀1.15),฀the฀Zanzibar฀jahazi฀has฀a฀raked฀one.฀
According฀to฀Sassoon฀(1970)฀other฀differences฀are฀decoration฀and฀the฀shape฀of฀the฀stern:฀usually฀
wine-grass฀shaped,฀but฀the฀Zanzibar฀jahazi฀sometimes฀is฀itted฀out฀with฀a฀square฀transom.฀The฀latter฀
feature฀was฀not฀conirmed฀by฀other฀authors.
A฀jahazi฀has฀an฀estimated฀deadweight฀of฀30฀to฀50฀tons฀(Prins฀1965;฀Lamu฀jahazi฀model฀ile฀in฀
the฀Science฀Museum).฀One฀large฀triangular฀sail฀is฀hoisted฀in฀a฀forward฀raking฀mast฀and฀in฀front฀
attached฀to฀a฀bowsprit.฀On฀a฀Lamu฀jahazi฀the฀bowsprit฀is฀always฀ixed฀to฀the฀mast฀with฀a฀lashing฀
(Jewell฀1969,฀Sassoon฀1970).฀The฀ship฀has฀a฀large฀quarter฀deck฀and฀a฀small฀one฀in฀the฀bow.฀
18
Johnston฀(1949)฀was฀the฀irst฀to฀describe฀the฀building฀process฀of฀a฀jahazi,฀although฀his฀terminology฀
suggests฀he฀was฀only฀supericially฀acquainted฀with฀shipbuilding.฀He฀briely฀explains฀the฀following฀
steps:
1.฀ The฀keel฀is฀laid฀and฀the฀stem฀and฀sternpost฀are฀ixed฀into฀scarves฀on฀the฀keel,฀held฀into฀position฀
with฀joists.
2.฀ ‘knee฀pieces’฀are฀added฀about฀a฀foot฀apart.฀(This฀seems฀hard฀to฀imagine,฀so฀he฀probably฀observed฀
loor฀frames฀being฀fastened฀on฀the฀keel.฀Only฀two฀possible฀knee฀pieces฀can฀be฀added฀in฀this฀stage฀
and฀those฀are฀the฀ones฀connecting฀the฀posts฀to฀the฀keel฀in฀longitudinal฀direction.฀These฀are฀
however฀a฀lot฀more฀than฀a฀foot฀apart,฀being฀at฀both฀ends฀of฀the฀length฀of฀the฀keel.)
3.฀ Pre-shaped฀planks฀for฀the฀hull฀are฀added.
4.฀ ‘Cross฀pieces’฀are฀joined฀(?).
5.฀ Mast฀step฀and฀thwarts฀(called฀‘joists’฀by฀Johnston)฀are฀added.
6.฀ Decking฀of฀the฀poop฀and฀bow฀and฀itting฀of฀the฀‘loor฀boards’฀(stringers฀or฀ceiling฀planking?)
7.฀ Caulking฀and฀launching
8.฀ After฀three฀days฀in฀the฀water฀the฀ship฀is฀examined฀for฀leaks
The฀transom฀seems฀to฀be฀added฀in฀a฀relative฀early฀stage.฀It฀is฀called฀‘chanda’,฀which฀according฀
to฀Johnston฀is฀a฀word฀originating฀from฀a฀language฀called฀‘Kimakonde’,฀spoken฀only฀in฀a฀part฀of฀
Tanzania.฀Johnston฀interviewed฀a฀master฀shipbuilder,฀who฀had฀been฀building฀ships฀for฀about฀ifty฀
years฀then.฀According฀to฀that฀man฀the฀building฀process฀and฀the฀ships฀had฀scarcely฀changed฀in฀all฀
those฀years.฀In฀the฀latter฀days฀of฀Arab฀rule,฀all฀shipbuilding฀activities฀at฀least฀along฀the฀southern฀
Swahili฀coast฀were฀entirely฀in฀the฀hands฀of฀the฀Swahili.฀It฀can฀be฀concluded฀the฀jahazi฀has฀been฀a฀
familiar฀ship฀type฀along฀the฀East฀African฀shores฀for฀at฀least฀a฀century.
Prins฀(1965)฀gave฀a฀more฀detailed฀description฀of฀the฀building฀process฀of฀a฀jahazi฀and฀
explained฀the฀process฀for฀a฀mashua฀was฀similar,฀as฀it฀can฀be฀considered฀merely฀a฀smaller฀version฀of฀a฀
jahazi.
Fig.฀1.15฀Lamu฀jahazi฀
(Prins฀1965).
19
The฀irst฀stage฀was฀the฀same฀as฀Johnston฀described,฀but฀after฀that฀according฀to฀Prins฀‘two฀Y-shaped฀
ribs฀are฀placed฀adjoining฀the฀posts’.฀Then฀the฀garboard฀(maliki)฀is฀placed,฀which฀is฀a฀moment฀of฀
some฀ceremonial฀importance,฀like฀the฀laying฀of฀the฀keel฀and฀the฀launching.฀The฀next฀frame฀to฀
be฀placed฀is฀the฀second฀one฀from฀the฀bow฀and฀then฀the฀second฀one฀in฀the฀stern.฀The฀ifth฀rib฀is฀
important฀for฀the฀inal฀shape฀of฀the฀hull,฀being฀the฀one฀amidships,฀where฀the฀hull฀is฀at฀its฀widest.฀
The฀bilge฀strake฀is฀the฀next฀strake฀to฀be฀positioned.฀In฀the฀subsequent฀chapter฀will฀be฀shown฀that฀a฀
fast฀but฀slightly฀inaccurate฀way฀of฀building฀is฀to฀add฀the฀planking฀in฀the฀bilge฀at฀a฀inal฀stage,฀for฀it฀is฀
the฀most฀dificult฀part฀to฀shape.฀The฀fact฀Prins฀described฀otherwise฀probably฀means฀the฀shipbuilders฀
he฀observed฀in฀Lamu฀were฀meticulous฀and฀not฀under฀any฀time฀pressure.฀One฀or฀two฀strakes฀at฀the฀
sheer฀were฀added฀next.฀After฀that฀stage฀the฀hull฀was฀further฀illed฀with฀frames฀and฀planking฀below฀
the฀bilge.฀The฀frames฀were฀placed฀as฀alternating฀half-frames฀and฀loor฀frames.฀Several฀of฀the฀lower฀
stringers฀are฀added.฀Then,฀at฀a฀relatively฀late฀stage฀the฀transom฀planking฀is฀added฀and฀planking฀from฀
the฀bilge฀upwards฀was฀continued.฀
A฀model฀of฀a฀Lamu฀jahazi฀in฀the฀London฀Science฀Museum฀clearly฀shows฀the฀alternating฀
framing฀(Fig.฀1.16).฀In฀the฀ile฀of฀the฀model฀can฀be฀read฀that฀it฀was฀made฀by฀an฀Englishman฀living฀in฀
Lamu.฀It฀was฀obtained฀by฀the฀museum฀in฀1932.฀The฀model฀must฀have฀been฀true฀to฀the฀real฀ship,฀as฀
the฀maker฀added฀a฀description฀of฀the฀local฀shipbuilding฀practices.฀This฀provides฀the฀information฀
that฀temporary฀timbers฀were฀used฀and฀permanent฀frames฀were฀inserted฀after฀the฀planking฀of฀the฀
hull฀was฀complete.฀This฀is฀quite฀the฀opposite฀of฀the฀process฀Prins฀observed฀in฀the฀late฀1950s.฀It฀either฀
means฀shipbuilding฀practices฀changed฀drastically฀within฀thirty฀years฀or฀different฀practices฀existed฀
side฀by฀side.
Fig.฀1.16฀Inside฀view฀on฀
a฀Lamu฀jahazi.฀Model฀
at฀the฀Schience฀
museum.
20
Mashua฀is฀a฀general฀term฀for฀planked฀sailing฀ships฀of฀about฀3฀to฀8฀tons฀deadweight฀(Sassoon฀1970).฀
Like฀all฀other฀East฀African฀ships฀it฀is฀built฀with฀lush฀laid฀planking.฀No฀clinker-built฀ships฀are฀known฀
from฀this฀region.฀The฀term฀mashua฀is฀a฀common฀one฀around฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean.฀In฀Arab฀
countries฀it฀is฀usually฀a฀‘ship’s฀boat’,฀or฀in฀other฀words฀a฀small฀vessel฀carried฀on฀a฀large฀(cargo)฀ship฀
(et฀al.฀Villiers฀1940).฀On฀India’s฀west฀coast฀it฀is฀called฀a฀mashwa฀and฀used฀for฀ishing฀activities.
Despite฀its฀popular฀name฀it฀was฀never฀studied฀closely,฀but฀for฀a฀few฀observations.฀In฀Eastern฀
Africa฀it฀is฀also฀mainly฀used฀for฀ishing,฀like฀the฀dau฀and฀the฀ngalawa.฀The฀latter฀ship฀type฀is฀an฀
outrigger฀canoe฀and฀will฀not฀be฀discussed฀in฀the฀scope฀of฀this฀thesis.฀For฀an฀accurate฀description฀of฀
its฀construction฀and฀all฀the฀hull฀elements฀see฀Morgan฀(1940).฀A฀survey฀held฀amongst฀ishing฀‘units’฀
in฀Zanzibar฀and฀Pemba฀in฀1980฀indicated฀the฀mashua฀held฀the฀highest฀catch฀rates฀(Ngoile฀1982)฀
with฀an฀average฀of฀43฀kg฀per฀day,฀against฀35฀kg฀for฀a฀dau฀and฀18฀kg฀for฀a฀ngalawa.฀The฀convenience฀
of฀the฀transom฀stern฀of฀a฀mashua฀is฀that฀it฀can฀easily฀be฀motorised.฀This฀would฀give฀the฀ishermen฀
owning฀that฀type฀of฀ship฀the฀opportunity฀to฀go฀ishing฀on฀less฀explored฀ishing฀grounds.฀The฀survey฀
proved฀however฀that฀this฀was฀not฀the฀case฀as฀the฀general฀attitude฀of฀the฀ishermen฀tended฀to฀be฀
rather฀conservative฀and฀they฀held฀on฀to฀their฀traditional฀ishing฀grounds.฀Of฀course,฀the฀advantage฀
of฀manoeuvring฀independently฀from฀the฀wind฀remained.
Beckerleg฀(2002)฀observed฀the฀construction฀of฀a฀mashua฀in฀Watamu,฀in฀Kenya฀near฀Malindi.฀
She฀remarked฀a฀shipbuilder฀never฀owns฀and฀runs฀his฀own฀boat฀and฀they฀acquire฀their฀skill฀through฀a฀
long฀period฀of฀apprenticeship.฀Beckerleg’s฀account฀emphasises฀the฀social฀aspect฀of฀the฀construction฀
process฀more฀than฀the฀technical฀details,฀but฀a฀few฀comments฀are฀interesting฀to฀review฀within฀the฀
context฀here.฀Seventy฀ribs฀were฀ordered฀for฀example,฀which฀seems฀a฀lot,฀but฀only฀forty-three฀were฀
delivered฀and฀a฀large฀percentage฀of฀those฀were฀discarded฀because฀they฀did฀not฀it.฀After฀the฀laying฀of฀
the฀keel฀the฀construction฀process฀had฀oficially฀started.฀The฀stem฀and฀sternposts฀were฀attached฀to฀the฀
keel฀and฀the฀garboard฀planks฀were฀shaped฀by฀burning฀them฀above฀a฀ire.฀Temporary฀ribs฀are฀inserted฀
to฀shape฀the฀hull.฀Then฀the฀hull฀was฀further฀planked฀up฀to฀ive฀strakes฀from฀the฀keel.฀Permanent฀
frames฀were฀placed฀in฀the฀hull฀and฀small฀pieces฀of฀wood฀illed฀in฀the฀gaps฀between฀the฀strakes.฀After฀
that฀structural฀elements฀like฀the฀decking,฀the฀transverse฀beams฀and฀mast-step฀were฀made.฀At฀last฀the฀
vessel฀was฀caulked฀with฀cotton฀soaked฀in฀coconut-oil.฀Before฀launching฀the฀ship฀was฀illed฀with฀
water฀for฀several฀days฀to฀check฀leakage.฀A฀inal฀task฀for฀the฀master฀shipbuilder฀remained฀as฀a฀hole฀
had฀to฀be฀made฀in฀the฀mast-step฀to฀accommodate฀the฀mast.฀This฀must฀be฀done฀by฀a฀person฀with฀
great฀skill.
Beckerleg฀described฀the฀ship฀was฀still฀aloat฀and฀in฀a฀reasonable฀condition฀ten฀years฀later.
A฀detailed฀account฀of฀the฀construction฀process฀of฀a฀Zanzibar฀mashua฀is฀given฀in฀the฀next฀
chapter.
21
Footnotes฀Ch.฀1
1
฀Named฀after฀the฀Greek฀name฀for฀East฀Africa:฀Azan.
2
3
฀Named฀after฀the฀Arab฀name฀for฀East฀Africa:฀Zanj.
฀Swahili฀pottery฀typology฀after฀Chami฀(Fawcett฀1999):฀Limbo:฀0-200฀AD;฀Kwale:฀200-550฀AD;฀Mwangia:฀500-600฀AD;฀early฀
Triangular฀Incised฀Ware฀(TIW):฀600-700฀AD;฀late฀TIW:฀700-1000฀AD;฀Plain฀Ware฀(PW):฀1000-1250฀AD;฀Neck฀Punctuating฀
(NP):฀1250-1500฀AD.
4
฀Miji฀is฀plural฀for฀mji.
5
฀Double-ended฀means฀without฀a฀transom฀or฀square฀stern.
6
฀Oculus:฀an฀architectural฀member฀resembling฀or฀suggesting฀an฀eye฀(Webster’s฀Third฀New฀International฀Dictionary).฀
7
฀Information฀stated฀in฀the฀ile฀of฀the฀mtepe฀model฀in฀the฀London฀Science฀Museum,฀written฀by฀the฀district฀commissioner฀
of฀Lamu฀in฀1936,฀Mr.฀A.C.M.฀Mullins.
8
฀As฀notes฀by฀S.C.฀Clive,฀a฀record฀in฀possession฀of฀the฀British฀Institute฀in฀Eastern฀Africa,฀probably฀dating฀from฀before฀1930.
9
฀The฀block-coeficient฀represents฀the฀percentage฀the฀hull-shape฀occupies฀in฀a฀rectangular฀box฀(with฀dimensions฀L฀x฀B฀x฀
D).฀
฀Mitepe฀is฀plural฀for฀mtepe
10
฀Notes฀by฀A.C.M.฀Mulllins,฀see฀footnote฀3฀of฀this฀chapter.
11
฀Notes฀by฀A.C.M.฀Mulllins,฀see฀footnote฀3฀of฀this฀chapter.
12
฀Notes฀by฀A.C.M.฀Mulllins,฀see฀footnote฀3฀of฀this฀chapter.
13
฀Only฀the฀initials฀of฀the฀authors฀are฀known.
14
฀Only฀the฀initials฀of฀the฀authors฀are฀known.
15
฀The฀House฀of฀Wonders฀is฀a฀former฀palace฀of฀the฀Sultan฀and฀now฀used฀as฀one฀of฀the฀primary฀museums฀in฀Stone฀Town.
16
฀Personal฀communication฀by฀email,฀March฀2,฀2004.
17
22
2
Ethnographic Fieldwork
2.1 Introduction
The฀ieldwork฀took฀place฀on฀the฀island฀of฀Zanzibar฀in฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean,฀30฀kilometres฀
off฀the฀coast฀of฀Tanzania฀(ig.฀2.1).฀On฀Zanzibar฀there฀are฀a฀few฀places฀where฀wooden฀ships฀are฀still฀
being฀built,฀although฀this฀is฀not฀in฀the฀numbers฀of฀the฀old฀days.฀The฀capital฀city฀of฀Stone฀Town฀
accounts฀for฀a฀few฀shipyards,฀but฀at฀present฀mainly฀motorized฀vessels฀are฀being฀built฀there.฀The฀best฀
place฀to฀study฀shipbuilding฀was฀the฀village฀of฀Nungwi,฀at฀the฀northern฀most฀end฀of฀the฀island,฀Ras฀
Nungwi,฀which฀is฀well฀known฀for฀this฀fact฀all฀over฀Zanzibar฀and฀even฀on฀the฀mainland.฀
Nungwi฀harbours฀by฀far฀the฀largest฀number฀of฀shipbuilders฀on฀the฀island.฀They฀are฀all฀located฀
in฀the฀same฀area,฀on฀the฀west฀and฀north฀side฀of฀the฀‘cape’,฀as฀close฀to฀the฀beach฀as฀possible฀without฀
actually฀being฀on฀the฀bare฀white฀sand.฀The฀importance฀for฀a฀yard฀to฀be฀near฀the฀beach฀lies฀in฀the฀
fact฀that฀the฀ships,฀when฀they฀are฀launched฀at฀high฀tide,฀have฀to฀be฀pulled฀by฀manual฀labour.฀Shade฀
to฀work฀under฀is฀created฀by฀either฀the฀various฀trees฀standing฀around฀or฀something฀like฀a฀sail฀or฀a฀
tarpaulin฀temporarily฀ixed฀above฀the฀action.฀At฀times฀when฀business฀is฀really฀well฀and฀all฀builders฀
are฀working,฀there฀are฀probalby฀as฀many฀as฀ten฀to฀eleven฀shipyards฀where฀new฀ships฀are฀under฀
construction.฀
The฀ieldwork฀was฀performed฀in฀September฀and฀October฀of฀2003,฀when฀four฀to฀ive฀new฀ships฀
were฀being฀built฀and฀about฀eight฀ships฀were฀being฀repaired฀in฀a฀total฀of฀seven฀shipyards.฀Most฀of฀the฀
wooden฀ships฀need฀a฀lot฀of฀maintenance,฀which฀is฀sometimes฀done฀by฀a฀yard฀and฀sometimes฀by฀the฀
owner,฀depending฀on฀the฀task฀at฀hand.฀The฀shipbuilders฀perform฀their฀profession฀all฀year฀round,฀
without฀having฀a฀second฀job฀on฀the฀side.฀There฀is฀not฀a฀speciic฀season฀in฀which฀the฀shipbuilding฀
industry฀is฀busier฀than฀at฀other฀times฀of฀the฀year.฀They฀can฀be฀out฀of฀work฀at฀one฀moment฀and฀need฀
extra฀workers฀the฀next.฀Even฀in฀the฀monsoon฀season฀from฀February฀to฀April฀when฀the฀long฀heavy฀
rains฀poor฀down,฀there฀are฀some฀activities฀on฀the฀Nungwi฀shipyards.฀Fishing฀is฀good฀then,฀so฀ships฀
are฀in฀use.
Five฀types฀of฀wooden฀ships฀are฀built฀in฀Nungwi฀and฀on฀the฀nearby฀small฀island฀of฀Tumbatu.฀
These฀are:฀mashua,฀jahazi,฀dau,฀ngalawa฀and฀boti.฀All฀ships,฀apart฀from฀the฀boti฀which฀is฀a฀motorized฀
vessel,฀have฀a฀triangular฀sail.฀The฀ieldwork฀for฀this฀study฀has฀concentrated฀on฀the฀larger฀ships฀with฀
a฀sail.฀In฀doing฀so฀this฀excludes฀the฀boti,฀although฀this฀type฀is฀largely฀constructed฀in฀the฀same฀way฀
as฀the฀sailing฀ships.฀The฀building฀of฀this฀type฀is฀a฀very฀recent฀development,฀strongly฀stimulated฀by฀
the฀local฀tourist฀diving฀industry.฀There฀are฀however฀a฀few฀facts฀about฀the฀boti฀worth฀mentioning,฀so฀
it฀will฀return฀gradually฀in฀the฀following฀account.฀The฀comparison฀between฀the฀traditionally฀built฀
dhows฀and฀the฀more฀modern฀boti฀could฀point฀to฀some฀interesting฀changes.฀
The฀study฀also฀excludes฀the฀picturesque฀ngalawa฀(ig.฀2.2)฀which฀is฀an฀outrigger฀canoe฀made฀
from฀a฀hollowed฀mango฀tree฀trunk.฀
The฀jahazi฀can฀be฀considered฀the฀traditional฀means฀of฀transportation฀of฀goods฀in฀this฀part฀
23
Fig.฀2.1฀Location฀of฀Zanzibar฀with฀places฀named฀in฀the฀text.
Fig.฀2.2฀Beached฀ngalawa
24
of฀Africa.฀These฀freighters฀are฀still฀being฀built฀new,฀though฀not฀many฀as฀in฀the฀old฀days.฀A฀local฀
shipyard฀just฀inished฀one฀in฀July,฀but฀at฀the฀time฀of฀the฀research฀there฀was฀only฀one฀in฀for฀repair.฀
The฀inished฀new฀one฀could฀still฀be฀observed฀on฀a฀beach฀near฀the฀village฀of฀Kendwa,฀4฀kilometres฀
away.฀In฀contrast฀to฀the฀jahazi,฀the฀mashua฀is฀a฀very฀common฀ship฀that,฀like฀the฀dau,฀is฀mainly฀used฀
for฀ishing.฀Only฀occasionally฀will฀it฀be฀used฀to฀transport฀goods.฀The฀overall฀length฀of฀a฀mashua฀is฀
about฀eight฀to฀twelve฀metres,฀a฀little฀larger฀than฀a฀dau.฀Like฀the฀jahazi฀the฀mashua฀has฀a฀transom฀and฀
is฀considered฀by฀many฀just฀the฀small฀version฀of฀the฀jahazi,฀which฀is฀usually฀up฀to฀15฀to฀20฀metres฀in฀
length.฀The฀mashua฀is฀the฀type฀which฀is฀mostly฀built฀in฀Nungwi,฀the฀double-ended฀dau฀is฀mainly฀
built฀on฀Tumbatu.
1
1
The฀research฀conducted฀was฀mostly฀done฀on฀mashua ,฀for฀majahazi ฀were฀not฀at฀hand฀and฀the฀
1
island฀of฀Tumbatu฀is฀dificult฀to฀access.฀I฀did฀manage฀one฀visit฀there฀to฀study฀the฀madau ,฀but฀not฀
without฀dificulty฀for฀the฀Tumbatu฀people฀do฀not฀encourage฀visitors.
2.2 The building of a mashua ishing vessel
2.2.1฀ On฀the฀builder฀and฀the฀commissioner
It฀takes฀anywhere฀between฀one฀and฀two฀months฀to฀built฀a฀mashua,฀depending฀on฀the฀urgency,฀the฀
number฀of฀people฀working฀on฀it฀and฀the฀availability฀of฀the฀raw฀materials.฀Upon฀commissioning฀a฀
2
new฀ship฀the฀only฀thing฀the฀fundi ฀(master฀shipbuilder)฀usually฀needs฀to฀know฀is฀the฀length.฀It฀is฀
important฀to฀note฀here฀that฀the฀indicated฀length฀is฀the฀length฀of฀the฀keel.฀For฀Westerners฀this฀is฀very฀
unusual:฀we฀use฀length฀over฀all,฀length฀between฀the฀stems฀or฀waterline฀length,฀but฀never฀keel฀length.฀
This฀has฀in฀the฀recent฀past฀caused฀some฀problems฀in฀Nungwi.฀There฀was฀a฀German฀who฀thought฀
that฀a฀Nungwi฀ship฀might฀be฀a฀good฀object฀for฀sale฀in฀Europe.฀Cheaply฀made฀with฀an฀authentic฀
impression฀about฀them,฀these฀dhows฀have฀a฀certain฀attraction฀if฀the฀wood฀can฀be฀suficiently฀
preserved฀for฀the฀European฀weather.฀The฀man฀commissioned฀a฀ship฀of฀10฀metres฀in฀length.฀The฀
ship฀was฀built฀and฀the฀future฀owner฀ordered฀a฀container฀to฀transport฀his฀new฀treasure฀home.฀
Unfortunately฀he฀forgot฀to฀inform฀how฀exactly฀the฀length฀was฀measured,฀so฀on฀completion฀the฀ship฀
was฀about฀two฀metres฀longer฀than฀planned฀and฀did฀not฀it฀in฀the฀container.฀In฀the฀end฀a฀part฀of฀the฀
front฀was฀sawn฀off฀before฀it฀could฀be฀transported.
If฀the฀fundi฀knows฀the฀length฀of฀the฀keel,฀the฀measurements฀of฀the฀other฀parts฀of฀the฀ship฀will฀
derive฀from฀it.฀They฀are฀not฀ixed฀measurements฀and฀are฀not฀written฀down฀or฀calculated,฀but฀exist฀
only฀in฀the฀fundi’s฀head.฀When฀told฀that฀in฀European฀countries฀it฀is฀common฀to฀draw฀and฀calculate฀
the฀whole฀ship฀before฀the฀construction฀starts,฀the฀fundi฀considered฀this฀totally฀unnecessary฀and฀even฀
ridiculous.฀
A฀future฀shipowner฀can฀make฀more฀demands฀apart฀from฀the฀length฀of฀his฀ship,฀but฀usually฀
leaves฀the฀details฀to฀the฀fundi.฀Some฀owners฀follow฀the฀building฀process฀almost฀on฀a฀daily฀basis฀and฀
in฀doing฀so฀control฀the฀way฀their฀ship฀is฀built฀in฀more฀aspects.฀Sometimes฀they฀supply฀the฀wood,฀or฀
they฀make฀sure฀the฀money฀is฀there฀for฀it฀to฀be฀ordered.
25
Fig.฀2.4฀Frames,฀eaten฀by฀insects.
Fig.฀2.3฀A฀pile฀of฀future฀frames.
Fig.฀2.5฀Mangrove฀trees฀on฀the฀tidal฀lats฀of฀Tumbatu
26
Nungwi฀only฀has฀a฀school฀since฀1964.฀Before฀this฀time฀children฀simply฀did฀not฀go฀to฀school.฀As฀a฀
result฀people฀who฀reached฀a฀mature฀age฀before฀this฀time฀have฀a฀different฀way฀of฀building฀ships฀than฀
3
the฀generations฀after฀them.฀There฀are฀still฀a฀few฀mafundi ฀old฀enough฀performing฀the฀shipbuilding฀
profession฀in฀Nungwi฀without฀ever฀taking฀a฀single฀measurement.฀Fundi฀Ali฀Kikoti฀Hayi฀of฀Tubareki฀
Shipyard฀is฀one฀of฀these฀people.฀About฀60฀years฀old฀he฀is฀now,฀as฀he฀runs฀the฀shipyard฀with฀his฀
nephew฀fundi฀Makame฀Mussa฀Ali.฀He฀has฀been฀a฀ship฀builder฀since฀at฀least฀1970฀and฀probably฀
earlier,฀but฀this฀remained฀unclear.฀In฀former฀days฀he฀used฀to฀built฀majahazi.฀He฀even฀went฀to฀Oman฀
in฀the฀early฀‘70s฀to฀built฀one฀for฀an฀Arab฀there฀and฀about฀22฀years฀ago฀he฀built฀one฀in฀Tanga฀(on฀the฀
mainland฀of฀Tanzania).฀Now฀it฀is฀mainly฀mashua,฀although฀he฀did฀built฀the฀jahazi฀that฀is฀currently฀
on฀the฀beach฀in฀Kendwa.฀On฀the฀shipyard,฀like฀on฀most,฀there฀are฀about฀four฀to฀ive฀apprentices฀
of฀the฀fundi.฀One฀of฀these฀is฀his฀son,฀but฀most฀of฀the฀others฀are฀not฀related.฀Anyone฀can฀become฀a฀
shipbuilder.฀It฀does฀not฀necessarily฀go฀from฀father฀to฀son,฀as฀might฀be฀expected.฀If฀a฀man฀(it฀will฀
never฀be฀a฀woman)฀decides฀to฀become฀a฀ship฀builder,฀he฀goes฀to฀a฀fundi฀and฀applies฀for฀the฀job.฀
There฀is฀no฀experience฀required฀and฀when฀he฀is฀accepted,฀he฀learns฀for฀about฀six฀months฀without฀
payment,฀save฀for฀a฀little฀bit฀with฀which฀he฀can฀buy฀necessities฀like฀soap.฀After฀that,฀his฀salary฀
increases฀gradually฀until฀after฀a฀few฀years฀he฀can฀work฀mostly฀independent,฀although฀even฀then฀the฀
fundi฀might฀still฀do฀a฀few฀complicated฀things.฀Fundi฀Ali฀himself฀learned฀the฀profession฀from฀his฀
older฀brother,฀Makame’s฀father,฀who฀in฀turn฀learned฀it฀from฀someone฀non-related฀from฀the฀village.฀
It฀seems฀never฀to฀have฀been฀a฀father-to-son฀profession฀for฀as฀long฀as฀anyone฀can฀remember.
2.2.2฀ Wood
Different฀kinds฀of฀wood฀are฀used฀and฀they฀come฀from฀different฀regions,฀like฀the฀Tanzanian฀
mainland,฀Kenya฀or฀the฀neighbouring฀island฀of฀Pemba.฀The฀keel฀is฀usually฀made฀from฀a฀very฀strong฀
and฀expensive฀type฀of฀wood,฀as฀it฀is฀the฀basis฀and฀the฀irst฀part฀of฀a฀ship.฀Usually฀wood฀of฀the฀mkoko฀
tree฀(Rhizophora฀mucronata)฀is฀preferred฀for฀this,฀which฀is฀a฀so-called฀red฀mangrove฀that฀can฀grow฀
to฀a฀height฀of฀up฀to฀20฀metres.฀It฀is฀very฀resistant฀against฀wood-eating฀insects฀like฀worms฀and฀the฀
Capricorn฀beetle,฀that฀can฀cause฀big฀tunnels฀inside฀the฀wood.฀An฀example฀of฀the฀diligent฀labour฀of฀
this฀animal฀can฀be฀seen฀in฀igure฀2.3.฀This฀piece฀of฀wood฀was฀initially฀used฀for฀a฀frame,฀but฀after฀a฀
week฀removed฀again฀from฀the฀ship฀and฀replaced฀by฀a฀proper฀one.฀
Another฀much฀sought-after฀type฀of฀wood฀and฀a฀mangrove฀as฀well฀is฀mkandaa฀(Ceriops฀tagal).฀
This฀is฀also฀very฀resistant฀against฀attacks฀from฀termites฀and฀other฀little฀unwanted฀wood-craving฀
critters.฀The฀disadvantage฀of฀this฀type฀is฀that฀with฀a฀maximum฀height฀of฀about฀7฀metres฀it฀does฀not฀
grow฀very฀tall,฀so฀it฀is฀hardly฀ever฀used฀for฀the฀keel,฀but฀rather฀for฀the฀frames฀or฀the฀stem฀and฀stern.฀A฀
bit฀more฀common฀for฀this฀purpose฀is฀mtondoo฀(Alexandrian฀laurel)฀which฀is฀also฀a฀very฀strong฀type฀
of฀wood.฀This฀is฀still฀a฀common฀tree฀in฀Pemba,฀where฀a฀lot฀of฀wood฀is฀brought฀from฀to฀the฀yards฀in฀
Nungwi.฀
Mvinge฀(Casuarina฀equisetifolia)฀or฀whistling฀pine฀is฀a฀tree฀that฀grows฀to฀a฀length฀of฀7฀to฀
30฀metres.฀Originally฀planted฀as฀windbreaks฀it฀is฀quite฀common฀and฀used฀as฀fuelwood,฀poles฀for฀
27
Fig.฀2.6฀Working฀with฀the฀adze.
Fig.฀2.7฀The฀fundi฀weights฀down฀the฀keel.
Fig.฀2.8฀Attaching฀the฀stem฀to฀the฀keel.
Fig.฀2.9฀Measurements฀of฀the฀stem-keel฀connection฀in฀centimetres.
28
construction฀of฀houses฀and฀some฀parts฀of฀a฀ship.฀If฀no฀mangroves฀long฀enough฀can฀be฀found฀to฀use฀
for฀the฀keel฀or฀if฀the฀funds฀are฀insuficient,฀the฀trunk฀of฀a฀mvinge฀is฀used.฀Although฀it฀is฀considered฀
by฀far฀an฀inferior฀type฀of฀wood,฀it฀is฀often฀used.
Wood฀commonly฀used฀for฀frames฀is฀mkomai฀(Xylocarpus฀granatum),฀also฀known฀as฀the฀
cannonball฀mangrove,฀which฀grows฀plentiful฀in฀Zanzibar฀on฀the฀seaside,฀however฀not฀in฀Nungwi.฀
Loved฀by฀the฀builders฀as฀wood฀for฀frames,฀for฀it฀is฀naturally฀very฀bent฀and฀crooked,฀as฀can฀be฀seen฀in฀
igure฀2.4.
Mkungu฀(Terminalia฀cathappa),฀the฀Indian฀almond฀tree,฀is฀often฀used฀for฀the฀planking.฀It฀
usually฀arrives฀at฀the฀yard฀in฀planks,฀already฀sawn฀by฀at฀a฀timber฀yard฀in฀Stone฀Town.
Mchapia฀Tumbili฀(Pitechellobium฀samam)฀is฀a฀plentiful฀tree฀on฀Tumbatu฀and฀used฀a฀lot฀in฀
shipbuilding฀there,฀in฀particular฀for฀frames.฀It฀grows฀on฀the฀tidal฀lats฀and฀spends฀half฀the฀time฀with฀
its฀roots฀under฀the฀seawater฀surface฀(ig.฀2.5).฀
2.2.3฀ The฀beginning฀
Construction฀starts฀as฀soon฀as฀the฀wood฀has฀arrived.฀As฀will฀become฀apparent,฀the฀quality฀and฀
sometimes฀the฀shape฀of฀a฀ship฀are฀very฀dependent฀of฀the฀wood฀the฀builders฀or฀the฀owner฀can฀get฀
their฀hands฀on฀or฀can฀afford.฀The฀start฀of฀a฀ship’s฀construction฀is฀always฀on฀the฀lowest฀part:฀the฀keel.฀
This฀is฀made฀of฀a฀longitudinal฀piece฀or฀pieces฀of฀timber,฀extending฀beyond฀the฀stem฀and฀stern฀of฀the฀
4
ship.฀When฀a฀tree฀trunk฀of฀a฀preferred฀wood฀type฀and฀of฀a฀suficient฀length฀for฀the฀keel฀(mkuku )฀
is฀found,฀it฀is฀shaped฀to฀a฀near฀square฀with฀an฀adze฀or฀shoka฀in฀Swahili฀(ig.฀2.7).฀The฀fundi฀and฀his฀
assistants฀are฀extremely฀skilful฀with฀an฀adze.฀It฀is฀the฀most฀frequently฀used฀tool฀in฀ship฀building฀and฀
deployed฀for฀various฀jobs.฀Thin฀layers฀or฀big฀pieces฀can฀be฀cut฀from฀wooden฀objects฀to฀obtain฀the฀
required฀shapes฀of฀all฀parts฀of฀the฀ship.฀
A฀tree฀trunk฀with฀a฀diameter฀of฀20-30฀centimetres,฀delivers฀a฀keel฀with฀a฀width฀of฀about฀11฀
to฀12฀centimetres,฀provided฀it฀is฀thick฀enough฀over฀the฀full฀length.฀On฀Tumbatu฀this฀was฀obviously฀
a฀problem,฀so฀most฀keels฀used฀in฀the฀building฀of฀the฀madau฀there,฀have฀a฀squared฀back฀and฀a฀round฀
front.฀The฀tree฀trunks฀are฀often฀too฀thin฀to฀make฀it฀square฀over฀the฀full฀length,฀so฀it฀is฀left฀as฀it฀is฀with฀
only฀a฀little฀smoothing,฀even฀though฀the฀square฀shape฀is฀preferred.
In฀many฀cases฀the฀tree฀trunk฀is฀not฀completely฀straight฀and฀sometimes฀it฀even฀is฀quite฀
crooked.฀This฀does฀not฀bother฀the฀fundi฀in฀the฀least,฀he฀simply฀straightens฀it฀out฀with฀as฀much฀
weights฀as฀needed฀(ig.฀2.8).฀It฀is฀placed฀on฀a฀few฀short฀poles,฀about฀30฀to฀40฀centimetres฀above฀the฀
ground฀(see฀also฀Appendix฀C-I).฀The฀keel฀needs฀to฀be฀secured฀tightly,฀as฀not฀to฀disturb฀the฀further฀
building฀process.฀Sometimes฀it฀takes฀a฀day฀to฀set฀it฀up฀with฀all฀the฀pieces฀of฀wood฀and฀bags฀of฀sand฀
to฀weight฀it฀down.฀It฀stays฀like฀this฀throughout฀the฀construction,฀as฀the฀weights฀are฀only฀taken฀off฀
when฀it฀is฀inished฀and฀the฀keel฀is฀secured฀to฀the฀rest฀of฀the฀ship฀and฀unable฀to฀bend฀back฀into฀the฀
original฀curve.฀The฀average฀length฀for฀a฀mashua฀keel฀seemed฀to฀be฀between฀eight฀and฀nine฀metres,฀
but฀larger฀ones฀are฀sometimes฀ordered.
After฀the฀keel฀is฀secured฀in฀place,฀the฀stempost฀(fashini)฀can฀be฀itted฀on.฀For฀this฀purpose฀
29
Fig.฀2.10฀Cross-sections฀of฀the฀keel฀as฀it฀is฀being฀shaped฀from฀tree-trunk฀to฀keel.฀All฀
measurements฀given฀in฀centimetres.
Fig.฀2.11฀The฀sternpost,฀shaped฀from฀one฀timber.฀Left:฀looking฀down,฀right:฀view฀from฀starboard,฀with฀the฀
section฀for฀the฀transom฀planking฀taken฀out.
Fig.฀2.12฀
Burning฀of฀
the฀planks.
30
scarves฀are฀made฀in฀the฀keel฀(see฀Appendix฀C-II)฀and฀the฀future฀stempost฀is฀cut฀in฀a฀itting฀way฀(ig.฀
2.6฀and฀2.9).฀Before฀the฀stem฀is฀fastened฀with฀a฀nail,฀it฀is฀checked฀that฀it฀is฀in฀the฀same฀centreline฀as฀
the฀keel.฀This฀is฀done฀by฀hammering฀two฀nails฀in฀the฀keel฀and฀the฀stem฀and฀placing฀a฀rope฀between฀
them.฀The฀rope฀is฀wetted฀with฀blue฀paint฀and฀held฀down฀to฀the฀wood,฀so฀it฀leaves฀a฀clear฀line฀in฀the฀
centre฀of฀the฀ship.฀After฀being฀tightened,฀a฀plumb-line฀is฀hung฀from฀it.฀By฀moving฀the฀plumb-line฀
back฀and฀forth,฀it฀can฀be฀checked฀if฀the฀stem฀is฀in฀line฀with฀the฀centre฀of฀the฀ship฀and฀the฀keel.฀Two฀
poles฀then฀secure฀the฀stem฀in฀place฀and฀are฀nailed฀to฀the฀stem฀for฀as฀long฀as฀the฀hull฀is฀not฀inished.฀
A฀nail฀through฀the฀stem฀into฀the฀keel฀then฀secures฀the฀position฀of฀the฀stem.฀The฀rake฀of฀the฀stem฀
varies฀between฀37°฀and฀40°฀for฀all฀mashua.฀There฀does฀not฀appear฀to฀be฀a฀ixed฀rule฀for฀the฀angle฀and฀
it฀differs฀with฀every฀new฀ship.
The฀keel฀and฀the฀stempost฀are฀now฀provided฀with฀two฀rabbets฀on฀the฀upper฀side,฀that฀are฀
triangular฀in฀cross-section฀(ig.฀2.10).฀These฀are฀used฀to฀it฀in฀the฀strakes.฀On฀the฀stem฀the฀rabbets฀
initially฀do฀not฀run฀up฀to฀the฀full฀length,฀but฀only฀to฀the฀second฀strake.฀Later฀on฀they฀are฀extended฀
over฀a฀length฀that฀covers฀the฀full฀height฀of฀the฀hull฀planking.
After฀this฀it฀is฀time฀for฀the฀sternpost,฀strangely฀enough฀also฀called฀fashini.฀Initially฀this฀is฀
a฀simple฀piece฀of฀timber,฀rectangular฀in฀cross-section,฀itted฀to฀the฀keel฀in฀a฀similar฀way฀as฀the฀
stempost.฀With฀a฀length฀of฀about฀1.5฀metres฀it฀is฀about฀a฀meter฀shorter฀than฀the฀stem.฀The฀rake฀of฀
the฀stern฀with฀the฀horizontal฀plane฀is฀about฀70°฀(see฀also฀Appendix฀C-III).฀Here฀too,฀the฀angle฀seems฀
to฀be฀estimated฀most฀of฀the฀time.฀This฀piece฀of฀wood฀is฀cut฀in฀a฀rather฀complicated฀shape฀after฀
the฀itting฀and฀lining-out฀is฀done.฀A฀section฀is฀taken฀out฀in฀the฀aft฀side฀to฀accomodate฀the฀transom฀
planking฀and฀the฀lower฀part฀is฀shaped฀so฀the฀lower฀strakes฀can฀be฀itted฀on฀(ig.฀2.11฀left).฀Only฀the฀
fundi฀knows฀how฀to฀do฀this,฀as฀this฀complex฀shape฀takes฀an฀experienced฀tree-dimensional฀insight.฀
2.2.4฀ The฀irst฀strakes
The฀base฀of฀the฀ship฀is฀ready฀for฀further฀manufacturing฀now.
The฀three฀most฀important฀parts฀are฀standing฀upright฀and฀are฀carefully฀lined-out฀in฀a฀straight฀
centreline.฀The฀lower฀part฀of฀the฀hull฀can฀be฀itted฀on฀now.฀This฀irst฀strake,฀the฀garboard฀strake,฀is฀
called฀the฀maliki฀and฀basically฀deines฀the฀angle฀the฀lower฀hull฀has฀with฀the฀keel฀and฀the฀bulging฀of฀
the฀ship.฀Like฀almost฀all฀parts฀of฀the฀ship,฀there฀is฀no฀pre-described฀angle฀or฀measurements฀for฀the฀
garboard.฀The฀fundi฀explained฀that฀it฀always฀consists฀of฀four฀parts:฀two฀strakes฀(one฀on฀starboard฀
and฀one฀on฀portside)฀which฀each฀consist฀of฀a฀front฀(mbao฀mbele)฀and฀a฀back฀(mbao฀yanyuma)฀plank.฀
In฀my฀opinion฀this฀four-part฀concept฀probably฀derives฀from฀the฀necessity฀to฀make฀a฀strake฀of฀two฀
parts,฀for฀few฀sawn฀planks฀are฀long฀enough฀to฀cover฀the฀whole฀length.฀It฀seems฀to฀have฀become฀a฀s฀
traditional฀way฀of฀building,฀with฀value฀applied฀to฀the฀four-part-garboard.฀
The฀irst฀two฀parts฀to฀be฀made฀are฀the฀front฀planks.฀The฀fore-end฀of฀such฀a฀plank฀(mbao)฀its฀
vertically฀against฀the฀stem,฀the฀aft฀end฀is฀almost฀horizontal฀at฀the฀middle฀of฀the฀hull.฀The฀planks฀are฀
about฀2.5฀to฀3.5฀cm฀thick฀and฀straight฀upon฀arrival,฀so฀they฀have฀to฀be฀twisted฀to฀obtain฀the฀required฀
hull-shape.฀This฀must฀be฀done฀simultaneously฀for฀starboard฀and฀portside,฀to฀assure฀their฀symmetry,฀
31
Fig.฀2.13฀The฀
burned฀planks฀are฀
left฀to฀cool฀down.
Fig.฀2.14฀A฀cleat฀to฀hold฀the฀maliki฀in฀place.
Fig.฀2.16฀Drawing฀aid.
Fig.฀2.15฀A฀kisongo฀as฀another฀help฀for฀
shaping฀the฀maliki.
32
as฀applies฀for฀all฀lower฀strakes.฀It฀is฀one฀of฀the฀tasks฀of฀the฀apprentices฀on฀the฀shipyard.฀The฀process฀
of฀shaping฀the฀planks฀is฀done฀by฀two฀to฀three฀of฀them฀in฀ten฀easy฀steps:
1.฀ Two฀planks฀are฀taken฀from฀the฀rack฀(not฀necessarily฀of฀exactly฀the฀same฀length)฀and฀the฀part฀
of฀them฀that฀is฀to฀be฀twisted฀is฀smeared฀with฀oil,฀over฀about฀a฀length฀of฀1-1.3฀metres.฀The฀men฀
certiied฀this฀was฀‘Mobil’-oil,฀but฀admitted฀they฀sometimes฀use฀kerosene฀or฀coconut-oil฀for฀this฀
purpose.
2.฀ The฀two฀planks฀are฀placed฀in฀two฀slots฀with฀the฀ends฀that฀are฀nearest฀to฀the฀oiled฀parts,฀right฀next฀
to฀each฀other.
3.฀ On฀the฀other฀end฀a฀long฀pole฀is฀attached฀by฀means฀of฀a฀rope฀and฀a฀short฀stick฀on฀the฀‘outside’.฀
The฀poles฀are฀on฀the฀inside฀and฀will฀work฀as฀levers.฀
4.฀ Old฀matting฀of฀coconut-leaves฀are฀placed฀underneath฀the฀oiled฀part.฀On฀other฀occasions฀they฀
might฀have฀used฀other฀means฀of฀creating฀a฀ire,฀the฀coconuts-matting฀merely฀happended฀to฀be฀
available.
5.฀ The฀ire฀is฀lit฀and฀the฀oil฀starts฀to฀boil฀after฀only฀a฀minute฀or฀so.฀This฀is฀shown฀by฀the฀small฀
bubbles฀forming฀on฀the฀blackened฀surface.
6.฀ Two฀large,฀heavy฀pieces฀of฀wood฀are฀brought฀in฀and฀placed฀next฀to฀the฀long฀poles.
7.฀ The฀ire฀is฀poked฀until฀it฀seems฀to฀be฀very฀hot฀(ig.฀2.12).
8.฀ The฀poles฀are฀simultaneously฀bent฀to฀the฀outsides,฀until฀they฀are฀approximately฀horizontal.฀The฀
smeared฀parts฀of฀the฀planks฀are฀very฀lexible฀at฀this฀point.
9.฀ The฀ire฀is฀put฀out฀by฀means฀of฀a฀can฀of฀water฀carried฀from฀the฀sea฀(not฀the฀obvious฀lying฀around฀
sand),฀after฀it฀only฀burned฀for฀about฀5฀minutes.
10.฀The฀poles฀are฀roped฀to฀the฀heavy฀pieces฀of฀wood฀to฀weigh฀them฀down.฀The฀whole฀installation฀is฀
left฀to฀cool฀down฀and฀can฀stay฀like฀this฀for฀several฀hours,฀until฀the฀planks฀are฀needed฀(ig.฀2.13).
Again฀the฀angle฀at฀which฀the฀planks฀were฀twisted฀was฀an฀object฀of฀curiosity,฀but฀the฀men฀explained฀
that฀they฀simply฀estimate฀how฀far฀they฀have฀to฀bend฀the฀poles฀to฀get฀the฀desired฀angle.฀It฀probably฀
does฀not฀matter฀a฀lot,฀as฀long฀as฀starboard฀and฀portside฀are฀symmetrical.฀
Here฀it฀might฀be฀interesting฀to฀note฀that฀the฀names฀starboard฀and฀portside฀are฀not฀used฀in฀
the฀Swahili฀language.฀They฀simply฀use฀left฀(kushoto)฀and฀right฀(kulia)฀in฀maritime฀contexts฀as฀well.฀
There฀are฀however฀terms฀for฀windward-side฀and฀lee-side:฀demanini฀and฀joshini.
The฀newly฀formed฀planks฀are฀held฀against฀the฀location฀they฀were฀made฀for.฀The฀front฀end฀is฀
still฀square,฀so฀it฀has฀to฀be฀shaped฀with฀an฀adze฀to฀it฀the฀rabbet฀in฀the฀stem.฀While฀one฀man฀holds฀
the฀plank,฀another฀draws฀a฀diagonal฀line฀with฀blue฀paint฀where฀the฀plank฀is฀to฀be฀cut.฀After฀the฀piece฀
has฀been฀taken฀off,฀the฀plank฀is฀temporarily฀fastened฀at฀the฀appointed฀place฀to฀the฀keel.฀An฀essential฀
aid฀for฀this฀purpose฀is฀a฀cleat,฀lattened฀on฀one฀side฀and฀nailed฀to฀the฀stem฀(ig.฀2.14).฀It฀stays฀there฀
33
Fig.฀2.17฀Placing฀and฀shaping฀
the฀garboard฀strake.
Fig.฀2.18฀Nails฀on฀the฀
inside฀and฀outside฀of฀the฀
garboard฀strake.
Fig.฀2.19฀Working฀with฀the฀keokeo฀on฀the฀mtepe฀(see฀
Ch.apter฀1).
Fig.฀2.21฀Aft฀bitana.
Fig.฀2.20฀Forward฀bitana.
34
for฀as฀long฀a฀the฀strakes฀are฀worked฀on.฀Another฀aid฀to฀hold฀a฀plank฀is฀with฀a฀clamp฀at฀the฀front฀
end฀and฀at฀the฀aft฀end฀with฀a฀kisongo.฀This฀latter฀method฀of฀tightening฀a฀plank฀is฀frequently฀used฀
throughout฀the฀building฀process.฀The฀name฀kisongo฀points฀to฀the฀cleat฀or฀cleats฀used฀together฀with฀
a฀lashing,฀as฀shown฀in฀igure฀2.15.฀The฀cleat฀can฀be฀turned,฀making฀the฀rope฀shorter฀and฀in฀doing฀so฀
tightening฀the฀objects฀to฀each฀other.฀In฀this฀case฀the฀rope฀on฀the฀end฀of฀the฀cleat฀is฀tied฀to฀a฀weight,฀
while฀the฀other฀end฀of฀the฀wood฀is฀nailed฀to฀the฀keel.฀The฀plank฀is฀made฀to฀it฀in฀the฀rabbet฀in฀the฀
keel฀and฀in฀the฀stem.฀If฀this฀is฀too฀complicated฀the฀rabbets฀themselves฀are฀adjusted.฀It฀is฀a฀trial-anderror฀method฀and฀each฀time฀the฀plank฀is฀taken฀down,฀a฀small฀piece฀is฀sliced฀off฀here฀or฀there.
When฀this฀is฀done,฀a฀few฀nails฀are฀hammered฀through฀the฀inside฀of฀the฀garboard฀strake฀into฀
the฀keel,฀for฀just฀about฀a฀centimetre,฀to฀hold฀it฀there฀temporarily.฀With฀blue฀paint฀the฀fundi฀draws฀
a฀line฀on฀the฀inside฀where฀the฀timber฀is฀to฀be฀cut.฀The฀device฀he฀uses฀to฀put฀the฀paint฀on฀is฀made฀
of฀two฀small฀lat฀sticks฀with฀a฀rope฀and฀a฀wedge฀in฀between฀(ig.฀2.16).฀This฀way฀it฀can฀make฀two฀
parallel฀lines฀simultaneously.฀By฀moving฀it฀closer฀to฀the฀rope,฀the฀wedge฀ixes฀the฀distance฀between฀
the฀sticks.฀The฀paint฀that฀is฀used฀is฀an฀indigo฀blue฀one,฀imported฀from฀India.฀It฀is฀a฀powder฀that฀can฀
be฀made฀liquid฀with฀water.฀Unfortunately฀it฀is฀expensive฀and฀sometimes฀the฀shipbuilders฀have฀to฀
resort฀to฀different฀means.฀The฀empty฀battery฀shells฀that฀are฀lying฀around฀on฀each฀shipyard฀testify฀in฀
this฀respect.฀They฀are฀aware฀the฀paste฀inside฀batteries฀is฀poisonous,฀but฀use฀them฀regardless฀of฀this฀
knowledge.฀Empty฀batteries฀always฀seem฀to฀be฀in฀abundance฀in฀Africa.฀
The฀fundi฀bevels฀the฀edges฀of฀the฀planks฀with฀an฀adze,฀on฀the฀inside฀and฀the฀front฀(ig.฀2.17).฀
After฀this฀it฀is฀more฀permanently฀fastened฀by฀hammering฀the฀front฀to฀the฀stem฀and฀keel฀by฀two฀nails฀
from฀the฀outside฀and฀the฀rest฀of฀the฀plank฀to฀the฀keel฀from฀the฀inside฀(ig.฀2.18).฀Almost฀all฀holes฀
where฀nails฀are฀going฀to฀be฀hammered฀through฀are฀drilled฀irst฀with฀a฀bow฀drill฀(keo฀keo).฀This฀is฀
an฀authentic฀kind฀of฀drill฀and฀the฀only฀type฀they฀use.฀It฀works฀with฀a฀rope฀on฀a฀kind฀of฀‘bow’฀that฀
is฀moved฀sideways฀wound฀about฀a฀rotating฀part฀and฀a฀part฀that฀can฀be฀held฀still฀while฀applying฀
pressure฀(ig.฀2.19).฀The฀drills฀used฀are฀available฀in฀all฀sizes฀and฀sharpened฀frequently.
The฀iron฀nails฀that฀are฀used฀on฀all฀parts฀of฀the฀ship฀are฀not฀manufactured฀locally,฀but฀in฀a฀
neighbouring฀village.฀They฀are฀clearly฀hand-made,฀as฀their฀length฀varies฀between฀10฀and฀15฀cm,฀with฀
most฀being฀13฀to฀14.5฀cm.฀Their฀section฀is฀square.
When฀the฀two฀front฀parts฀of฀the฀garboard฀strake฀are฀in฀place,฀the฀aft฀parts฀are฀done฀in฀a฀
similar฀way.฀The฀only฀difference฀is฀that฀they฀have฀to฀be฀itted฀against฀the฀stern,฀so฀they฀are฀cut฀in฀
an฀arc฀instead฀of฀oblique.฀The฀connection฀between฀the฀two฀is฀oblique฀as฀well.฀The฀aft฀end฀of฀the฀
forward฀plank฀is฀cut฀in฀the฀same฀direction฀as฀the฀front฀(forwards฀up).฀The฀aft฀plank฀is฀made฀to฀it฀
this฀exactly.฀This฀is฀done,฀as฀with฀most฀timbers฀used฀in฀the฀construction฀of฀the฀ship,฀by฀holding฀the฀
part฀that฀is฀to฀be฀shaped฀next฀to฀the฀part฀that฀is฀already฀in฀place฀and฀mark฀off฀the฀part฀to฀be฀cut฀with฀
blue฀paint฀(see฀also฀Appendix฀C-IV).฀
35
Fig.฀2.22฀The฀frames฀and฀their฀marks.
Fig.฀2.23฀A฀kipande฀to฀measure฀angles.
Fig.฀2.24฀Attached฀transom฀planking.
Fig.฀2.25฀Floor฀frames฀of฀a฀boti฀(left)฀and฀a฀mashua฀(right).
36
2.2.5฀ The฀frames
While฀the฀garboard฀is฀being฀made฀and฀ixed฀in฀place,฀the฀fundi฀igures฀out฀where฀the฀frames฀are฀
going฀to฀be.฀Only฀he฀can฀do฀this฀and฀he฀is฀the฀only฀one฀on฀the฀shipyard.฀There฀is฀a฀special฀reason฀for฀
that,฀which฀has฀to฀do฀with฀the฀way฀measurements฀are฀taken.฀As฀explained฀earlier,฀younger฀people฀
who฀went฀to฀school฀use฀tools฀like฀measuring-tapes,฀but฀older฀ones฀like฀the฀fundi฀have฀their฀own฀
system.
Frames฀have฀a฀sort฀of฀a฀ixed฀distance฀between฀them,฀dependent฀on฀the฀size฀of฀the฀ship฀and฀
the฀purpose฀it฀is฀going฀to฀be฀used฀for.฀Fishing฀vessels฀have฀a฀relatively฀larger฀distance฀between฀their฀
frames฀than฀cargo-vessels,฀because฀it฀is฀believed฀the฀latter฀ones฀need฀to฀be฀stronger.฀The฀ishing฀ships฀
need฀to฀be฀lighter,฀so฀they฀will฀be฀faster฀and฀easier฀to฀handle.฀On฀this฀mashua฀the฀distance฀inbetween฀
the฀frames฀varied฀between฀17฀and฀29฀cm,฀with฀an฀average฀of฀20.2฀cm.฀The฀frames฀themselves฀have฀an฀
average฀width฀of฀10.3฀cm฀(measured฀in฀longitudinal฀direction฀of฀the฀ship)฀and฀an฀average฀height฀of฀
7.7฀cm.
For฀a฀mashua฀the฀fundi฀uses฀the฀width฀of฀his฀spread฀hand฀to฀appoint฀the฀appropriate฀framedistance.฀This฀particular฀fundi฀was฀a฀rather฀small฀guy฀and฀so฀were฀his฀hands,฀so฀when฀he฀spreads฀
his฀ingers฀the฀distance฀between฀the฀frames฀might฀be฀less฀than฀on฀other฀yards.฀He฀also฀had฀a฀very฀
peculiar฀way฀of฀determining฀the฀middle฀of฀the฀ship฀(in฀length).฀Apparently฀this฀was฀the฀irst฀step฀
to฀be฀taken฀in฀his฀expert฀opinion฀to฀determine฀where฀the฀frames฀were฀going฀to฀be.฀It฀looked฀very฀
complicated:฀he฀used฀the฀width฀of฀both฀his฀hands฀and฀drew฀several฀lines฀across฀the฀keel,฀starting฀at฀
the฀aft฀end.฀When฀he฀arrived฀at฀about฀the฀midship,฀it฀appeared฀to฀be฀all฀wrong฀and฀he฀started฀again,฀
trying฀to฀erase฀with฀a฀knife฀the฀blue฀lines฀that฀were฀already฀on฀the฀keel.฀He฀did฀this฀for฀about฀three฀or฀
four฀times฀before฀it฀seemed฀to฀be฀right฀to฀him.฀A฀suggestion฀to฀one฀of฀the฀onlooking฀mafundi฀on฀my฀
part฀as฀to฀why฀he฀simply฀did฀not฀use฀a฀rope฀and฀fold฀it฀into฀two฀halves,฀was฀met฀with฀the฀remark฀that฀
the฀fundi฀always฀knows฀best฀and฀is฀not฀to฀be฀disturbed฀in฀his฀work.฀In฀theory฀it฀would฀be฀possible฀to฀
determine฀how฀large฀the฀hands฀of฀the฀fundi฀who฀made฀a฀ship฀were,฀but฀in฀reality฀this฀is฀probably฀not฀
very฀reliable.฀
Zanzibar฀was฀part฀of฀British฀East฀Africa฀until฀1963,฀so฀traditionally฀people฀were฀taught฀
the฀Imperial฀measurement฀system.฀The฀older฀people฀still฀use฀this,฀even฀if฀they฀do฀not฀know฀the฀
numbers:฀an฀inch฀is฀the฀same฀as฀a฀thumb,฀half฀a฀foot฀is฀the฀breadth฀of฀a฀ist฀with฀the฀dumb฀stretched,฀
a฀foot฀is฀the฀length฀of฀a฀forearm฀or฀two฀ists฀with฀the฀thumbs฀stretched฀and฀฀pushed฀against฀each฀
other.฀
Eventually,฀the฀keel฀is฀divided฀into฀24฀frames฀with฀a฀varied฀spacing฀of฀15฀to฀18฀cm฀between฀
them.฀The฀fundi฀continues฀to฀work฀on฀the฀‘toggle-joints’฀or฀knee-pieces฀which฀connect฀the฀stem฀and฀
stern฀with฀the฀keel,฀while฀in฀the฀mean฀time฀the฀apprentices฀start฀to฀cut฀the฀irst฀frames.฀All฀of฀these฀
timbers฀come฀from฀the฀same฀pile฀of฀tree-branches฀(see฀also฀ig.฀2.4).฀
The฀heel฀knees฀for฀the฀stem฀as฀well฀as฀for฀the฀stern฀are฀called฀bitana.฀They฀are฀important฀
pieces฀of฀the฀overall฀construction,฀for฀their฀purpose฀is฀to฀strengthen฀the฀connection฀between฀the฀keel฀
and฀the฀vertical฀parts฀(see฀ig.฀2.20฀and฀2.21).฀A฀bitana฀is฀made฀from฀one฀piece฀of฀carefully฀chosen฀
37
Fig.฀2.26฀Transom฀with฀half-frames.
Fig.฀2.27฀Guiding฀ropes.
38
timber.฀The฀sides฀are฀made฀to฀it฀in฀between฀the฀port฀and฀starboard฀sides฀of฀the฀garboard฀strake.฀
Again฀this฀is฀a฀trial-and-error฀working฀method.฀When฀fully฀shaped,฀they฀are฀nailed฀to฀the฀stem฀or฀
respectively฀the฀stern.฀The฀bitana฀against฀the฀stem฀is฀at฀the฀same฀time฀the฀basis฀for฀the฀‘second฀stem’,฀
that฀is฀going฀to฀be฀placed฀directly฀behind฀the฀actual฀one.
The฀irst฀four฀or฀ive฀frames฀are฀put฀in฀after฀the฀garboard฀strake฀is฀in฀place.฀These฀are฀not฀full฀
frames฀yet,฀but฀only฀the฀loor฀parts.฀They฀are฀put฀in฀so฀the฀next฀strake฀can฀be฀adjusted฀above฀the฀
garboard฀strake.฀As฀the฀ship฀is฀lush฀built,฀the฀strakes฀are฀without฀an฀overlap.฀
There฀are฀actually฀two฀kinds฀of฀frames฀(mataruma)฀in฀most฀Zanzibar฀constructed฀ships:฀
masayali฀and฀haligamu.฀The฀haligamu฀are฀itted฀in฀irst฀and฀consist฀of฀three฀parts:฀a฀loor฀frame฀
5
which฀is฀U-฀or฀V-shaped ฀and฀starboard฀and฀portside฀futtocks฀(ig.฀2.22฀left).฀To฀make฀sure฀they฀are฀
going฀in฀at฀the฀right฀locations,฀the฀fundi฀uses฀a฀mark฀for฀haligamu฀and฀a฀mark฀for฀masayali฀(also฀see฀
ig.฀2.22).฀They฀are฀placed฀alternating฀inside฀the฀ship,฀but฀the฀masayali฀(half-frames)฀have฀to฀have฀a฀
irm฀basis฀of฀strakes฀before฀they฀can฀be฀constructed.฀
There฀are฀several฀reasons฀for฀using฀two฀kinds฀of฀frames.฀First฀of฀all฀the฀irregularity฀of฀the฀
branches฀demands฀a฀creative฀use฀of฀the฀available฀wood.฀This฀usage฀increases฀the฀chance฀they฀it฀
somewhere฀in฀the฀ship.฀Second,฀it฀results฀in฀a฀more฀stable฀construction฀by฀irst฀connecting฀the฀lower฀
strakes฀to฀the฀keel฀(by฀means฀of฀the฀loors)฀and฀then฀connecting฀the฀upper฀strakes฀to฀the฀lower฀part฀
of฀the฀ship฀(by฀means฀of฀the฀half-frames).฀The฀process฀of฀shaping฀the฀frames฀is,฀like฀for฀example฀
with฀the฀batina,฀repetitive฀in฀three฀steps:
1.฀ The฀roughly฀shaped฀part฀is฀held฀against฀the฀location฀where฀it฀is฀going฀to฀be฀placed
2.฀ With฀blue฀paint฀the฀wood฀is฀marked
3.฀ The฀marked฀parts฀are฀cut฀off฀and฀shaped฀with฀the฀adze
Then฀it฀is฀held฀at฀its฀designated฀location฀again฀and฀the฀process฀is฀repeated฀until฀there฀is฀a฀(near)฀
perfect฀it.฀At฀some฀point฀after฀step฀one,฀the฀symmetry฀of฀the฀frame฀is฀checked฀by฀means฀of฀a฀kipande฀
(ig.฀2.23).฀This฀little฀tool฀is฀used฀to฀measure฀angles,฀by฀holding฀it฀against฀the฀frames฀with฀the฀lat฀
side฀and฀reading฀how฀the฀rope฀with฀the฀lead฀falls฀to฀the฀scale.฀It฀is฀not฀divided฀into฀90°฀as฀might฀be฀
expected,฀but฀instead฀has฀nine฀uneven฀parts.฀The฀reason฀for฀this฀division฀remained฀unexplained,฀but฀
an฀educated฀guess฀might฀be฀that฀the฀angles฀cut฀into฀the฀wooden฀tool฀are฀merely฀the฀ones฀used฀most฀
often฀as฀the฀fundi฀never฀learned฀to฀work฀with฀degrees฀anyway฀or฀either฀it฀is฀an฀inaccurate฀replica฀of฀
another฀one.฀Furthermore฀it฀is฀veriied฀that฀the฀frame฀makes฀a฀right฀angle฀to฀the฀keel฀in฀the฀vertical฀
plane.฀A฀rope฀from฀the฀nail฀on฀the฀stem฀(or฀stern,฀depending฀which฀frame฀it฀is)฀is฀stretched฀irst฀to฀
one฀end฀of฀the฀frame฀and฀then฀to฀the฀other฀and฀give฀an฀equal฀length฀to฀both฀points.
After฀the฀irst฀few฀loor฀frames฀are฀made฀to฀it,฀they฀are฀equipped฀with฀two฀triangular฀cuts฀on฀
the฀bottom฀side฀to฀let฀water฀through฀and฀then฀nailed฀to฀the฀garboard฀฀from฀the฀outside฀(ig.฀2.25).฀
The฀nails฀are฀not฀hammered฀in฀wholly,฀so฀potential฀mistakes฀can฀be฀corrected.฀The฀construction฀is฀
now฀ready฀for฀the฀second฀strake,฀which฀will฀be฀made฀in฀a฀similar฀way฀as฀the฀irst฀one.฀See฀also฀steps฀V฀
and฀VI฀of฀Appendix฀C.
39
Fig.฀2.28฀Four฀pairs฀of฀frames.
Fig.฀2.29฀‘Second’฀or฀‘aft’฀stem.
Fig.฀2.30฀Closing฀the฀hull฀from฀the฀top.
Fig.฀2.31฀Lashing฀to฀hold฀
up฀the฀strake.
40
2.2.6฀ Hull,฀transom฀and฀more฀frames
As฀mentioned฀earlier,฀the฀sternpost฀has฀a฀piece฀cut฀out฀of฀it฀to฀it฀the฀transom฀planking.฀The฀
transom,฀or฀chanda,฀usually฀consists฀of฀two฀to฀four฀horizontal฀planks.฀The฀timber฀for฀these฀is฀thicker฀
than฀that฀used฀for฀the฀hull฀planking,฀about฀4฀-฀5.5฀cm.฀This฀could฀be฀a฀recent฀development,฀for฀
when฀building฀a฀boti฀the฀transom฀needs฀to฀be฀a฀lot฀irmer฀to฀hold฀the฀outboard฀engine฀that฀will฀be฀
attached฀to฀it.฀At฀the฀moment฀the฀demand฀for฀larger฀and฀heavier฀outboard฀engines฀is฀still฀evolving฀
the฀construction฀of฀the฀transom.฀Some฀diving฀companies฀even฀want฀two฀engines,฀but฀the฀current฀
construction฀is฀insuficient฀as฀the฀boats฀leak.฀The฀future฀transoms฀will฀as฀a฀consequence฀need฀some฀
other฀reinforcement฀then฀mere฀thicker฀planking,฀but฀at฀the฀moment฀this฀has฀not฀developed฀yet.
Making฀the฀transom฀again฀is฀the฀work฀of฀the฀fundi.฀For฀the฀curve฀of฀the฀transom฀he฀uses฀a฀
metal฀rod.฀It฀already฀has฀an฀S-shape,฀used฀on฀the฀previous฀ship฀and฀the฀fundi฀adjusts฀it฀a฀little฀to฀
it฀this฀one.฀This฀‘mould’฀is฀also฀an฀insurance฀that฀portside฀and฀starboard฀sides฀of฀the฀transom฀are฀
similarly฀shaped.฀For฀each฀transom฀plank฀one฀side฀is฀shaped฀irst,฀where฀after฀the฀centre฀of฀the฀ship฀
is฀determined฀with฀a฀stripe฀on฀the฀wood฀and฀the฀other฀side฀can฀be฀done.฀When฀all฀are฀inished,฀
they฀are฀nailed฀to฀the฀sternpost฀(ig.฀2.24).฀A฀space฀is฀held฀open฀above฀the฀uppermost฀plank฀of฀the฀
transom฀that฀will฀be฀illed฀with฀another฀thick฀plank฀upon฀inishing฀the฀ship฀(see฀Appendix฀C-VII).฀
On฀the฀aft฀part฀of฀the฀ship,฀the฀fundi฀is฀placing฀two฀half-frames฀to฀strengthen฀the฀transom฀(ig.฀
2.26;฀Appendix฀C-VIII).฀When฀these฀two฀frames฀are฀in฀place,฀the฀third฀stake฀can฀be฀itted฀on,฀against฀
the฀lower฀part฀of฀the฀new฀transom.฀A฀saw฀is฀used฀to฀even฀the฀seams฀between฀the฀strakes,฀which฀will฀
make฀the฀caulking฀easier฀later฀on.
In฀the฀mean฀time฀the฀frames฀are฀being฀cut฀by฀the฀pair,฀to฀ensure฀their฀symmetry.฀With฀three฀
strakes฀a฀strong฀basis฀has฀formed฀that฀can฀hold฀the฀half-frames.฀The฀making฀of฀these฀strakes฀takes฀
up฀a฀lot฀of฀time฀and฀two฀to฀four฀apprentices฀are฀working฀on฀it฀every฀day฀for฀at฀least฀two฀weeks.฀It฀
is฀a฀precise฀job฀that฀has฀to฀be฀done฀with฀care,฀where฀the฀three฀steps฀as฀described฀with฀the฀bitana฀are฀
performed฀over฀and฀over฀again.฀Sometimes฀the฀metal฀rods฀are฀adjusted฀a฀bit฀to฀it฀this฀particular฀hull฀
and฀the฀fundi’s฀liking.฀He฀holds฀the฀lower฀part฀of฀the฀curved฀rod฀to฀the฀lower฀strakes฀and฀bends฀the฀
vertical฀part฀to฀the฀required฀hull-shape.฀For฀the฀portside฀and฀starboard฀half-frames฀the฀symmetry฀
is฀checked฀with฀the฀kipande฀and฀their฀position฀with฀the฀rope.฀They฀are฀loosely฀nailed฀to฀the฀hull.฀
Symmetry฀is฀also฀checked฀by฀holding฀a฀stick฀to฀the฀upper฀ends฀of฀the฀frames฀from฀the฀centre฀rope.
At฀this฀point฀the฀three฀strakes฀are฀held฀together฀by฀means฀of฀clam-like฀constructions฀or฀
kisongo฀and฀sometimes฀one฀or฀two฀little฀‘help-frames’฀and฀of฀course฀the฀four฀or฀ive฀loor฀frames฀
that฀where฀already฀in฀place.฀A฀‘help-frame’฀consists฀of฀a฀simple฀narrow฀plank,฀nailed฀to฀two฀or฀three฀
strakes฀at฀a฀time฀to฀keep฀them฀together.฀Everything฀is฀being฀done฀to฀ensure฀the฀whole฀construction฀
is฀stable฀during฀the฀building฀process.฀The฀third฀strake฀consists฀of฀three฀pieces,฀instead฀of฀the฀irst฀two฀
strakes฀which฀were฀both฀constructed฀of฀two฀pieces.฀The฀reason฀for฀this฀is฀that฀this฀strake฀bends฀more฀
than฀the฀former฀two,฀being฀the฀irst฀one฀to฀be฀attached฀to฀both฀the฀stem฀and฀the฀transom.฀The฀heads฀
of฀the฀planks฀are฀placed฀with฀a฀diagonal฀seam฀against฀each฀other.
The฀rope฀along฀the฀centreline฀is฀a฀measure฀for฀the฀height฀of฀the฀frames฀and฀with฀that฀the฀
41
Fig.฀2.32฀฀Schematic฀view฀
of฀the฀strakes฀and฀their฀
construction.฀They฀are฀all฀
placed฀lush฀above฀eachother฀
in฀vertical฀direction.฀
Fig.฀2.33฀Distribution฀of฀frames฀on฀a฀mashua.฀Frame฀distance฀and฀width฀is฀to฀scale.
Fig.฀2.34฀Frames฀of฀a฀ship฀in฀Mkokotoni.
Fig.฀2.35฀Frames฀of฀a฀ship฀in฀Nungwi.
42
depth฀of฀the฀ship฀in฀the฀side.฀Two฀additional฀ropes฀–made฀of฀coconut฀ibres–฀are฀attached฀to฀the฀
nails฀that฀run฀on฀the฀outside฀of฀the฀already฀standing฀half-frames.฀These฀are฀not฀tightened฀but฀let฀to฀
hang฀in฀an฀arch฀(ig.฀2.27).฀The฀rope฀across฀the฀centre฀is฀about฀110฀cm฀above฀the฀topside฀of฀the฀keel,฀
the฀ropes฀on฀either฀side฀about฀90฀cm฀amidships.฀The฀location฀of฀the฀irst฀four฀half-frames฀is฀ixed฀by฀
little฀ribbons฀tied฀to฀the฀centre฀rope,฀which฀correspond฀with฀the฀appointed฀marks฀on฀the฀keel.
The฀frames฀themselves฀are฀about฀7.6฀cm฀or฀3”฀thick.฀This฀measurement฀is฀ixed฀with฀a฀little฀
block฀of฀such฀a฀length.฀The฀block฀is฀dragged฀across฀the฀side฀of฀a฀roughly฀pre-shaped฀frame฀and฀a฀
blue฀line฀is฀drawn฀beside฀it,฀to฀point฀out฀how฀much฀has฀to฀be฀taken฀off฀with฀the฀adze฀to฀reach฀the฀
required฀thickness.฀When฀nearly฀inished,฀the฀port฀and฀starboard฀futtocks฀are฀placed฀one฀upon฀the฀
other฀to฀inspect฀their฀similarity฀visually.฀The฀corners฀of฀the฀upper-฀and฀innerside฀of฀the฀frames฀are฀
canted฀with฀the฀adze฀too.฀The฀newest฀and฀youngest฀apprentice฀helps฀by฀holding฀the฀frames฀in฀place฀
inside฀the฀hull฀while฀they฀are฀being฀checked฀on฀accuracy.฀
Four฀pairs฀of฀frames฀are฀erected฀evenly฀spaced฀over฀the฀length฀of฀the฀ship฀(ig.฀2.28).฀It฀
appears฀to฀be฀quite฀common฀to฀put฀in฀four฀or฀ive฀pairs฀of฀half-frames฀and฀then฀continuing฀on฀other฀
aspects฀of฀the฀construction.฀They฀function฀as฀a฀basis฀for฀further฀strakes,฀as฀do฀the฀transom฀and฀the฀
stem.฀The฀bitana฀or฀knee-piece฀behind฀the฀stem฀is฀prolonged฀for฀this฀purpose฀with฀a฀timber฀that฀
functions฀as฀a฀‘second’฀stem฀behind฀the฀regular฀one฀(ig.฀2.29;฀Appendix฀C-IX).฀
From฀here฀there฀are฀basically฀two฀ways฀of฀constructing฀the฀remaining฀part฀of฀the฀hullplanking:฀from฀the฀bottom฀up฀or฀from฀the฀top฀down฀and฀then฀closing฀the฀middle฀last.฀In฀Nungwi฀
and฀even฀sometimes฀in฀Stone฀Town฀both฀methods฀can฀be฀observed฀side฀by฀side.฀The฀irst฀method฀is฀
a฀more฀meticulous฀way฀and฀takes฀up฀more฀time.฀It฀is฀used฀when฀time฀is฀not฀an฀issue฀and฀a฀prettier฀
ship฀is฀required.฀More฀attention฀can฀be฀reserved฀for฀inding฀planks฀with฀the฀right฀dimensions฀and฀
itting฀them฀above฀the฀former฀strakes.฀The฀result฀looks฀better฀than฀a฀ship฀inished฀with฀the฀second฀
method.฀At฀Tubareki฀Shipyard฀the฀observed฀hull฀was฀built฀by฀the฀second฀method฀and฀this฀is฀the฀one฀
described฀below฀(ig.฀2.30;฀Appendix฀C-X).฀
The฀bottom฀strakes฀that฀are฀already฀in฀place,฀are฀a฀part฀of฀the฀hull฀that฀is฀called฀the฀kitanda.฀
This฀is฀the฀part฀that฀will฀be฀under฀water฀when฀the฀ship฀is฀in฀working฀condition.฀The฀part฀above฀the฀
waterline฀is฀called฀wahiji.฀These฀Swahili฀names฀refer฀mainly฀to฀the฀hull฀itself,฀or฀in฀other฀words,฀the฀
strakes฀that฀make฀it.฀
The฀uppermost฀strake,฀it฀could฀be฀called฀the฀‘sheer฀strake’฀on฀a฀ship฀such฀as฀a฀mashua,฀is฀the฀
irst฀one฀of฀the฀wahiji฀to฀be฀made.฀Two฀planks฀are฀taken฀and฀fastened฀against฀the฀half-frames฀with฀
the฀aid฀of฀kipande.฀These฀planks฀are฀not฀burned฀to฀bend฀them,฀they฀are฀simply฀bent฀by฀manpower฀
alone.฀Two฀of฀the฀apprentices฀work฀with฀the฀fundi฀on฀the฀hull,฀while฀the฀others฀keep฀on฀cutting฀
frames.฀The฀two฀planks฀overlap฀in฀the฀middle฀while฀their฀front฀and฀aft฀ends฀are฀marked฀off.฀The฀
whole฀strake฀is฀taken฀down฀again฀and฀the฀ends฀are฀hewn฀into฀shape฀to฀it฀against฀the฀transom฀and฀
the฀stem.฀Like฀all฀timbers,฀it฀needs฀to฀be฀checked,฀so฀it฀is฀placed฀back฀up,฀held฀by฀a฀lashing฀(ig.฀
2.31).฀The฀aft฀and฀the฀forward฀planks฀are฀provided฀with฀an฀oblique฀Z-shaped฀seam,฀but฀instead฀
of฀connecting฀them฀to฀one฀another,฀an฀extra฀piece฀is฀itted฀in฀the฀middle฀(ig.฀2.32).฀From฀here฀the฀
43
Fig.฀2.36฀Making฀stringers฀on฀the฀mtepe฀replica฀฀(see฀chapter฀1).
Fig.฀2.37฀Making฀stringers฀on฀a฀mashua.
Fig.฀2.38฀Stringers฀on฀a฀mashua฀(left),฀with฀shelf฀(middle)฀and฀inished฀on฀a฀jahazi฀(right).
Fig.฀2.39฀Beams฀
underneath฀the฀decks฀
(a)฀and฀inished฀with฀
forward฀and฀aft฀deck฀
(b).
44
shipbuilders฀work฀their฀way฀down.฀Four฀strakes฀are฀attached฀to฀the฀frames฀before฀the฀bilge฀of฀the฀
hull฀is฀reached,฀where฀the฀frames฀bend฀most.฀Spaces฀left฀open฀in฀the฀side฀are฀illed฀with฀loose฀bits฀
and฀pieces฀made฀to฀it฀in฀the฀gaps.฀Remarkably฀none฀of฀the฀strakes฀seem฀to฀be฀shaped฀in฀a฀uniform฀
way.฀
All฀the฀frames฀are฀ready฀and฀itted฀in฀place.฀All฀are฀provided฀with฀two฀small฀triangular฀cuts฀
on฀the฀underside฀to฀allow฀incoming฀water฀to฀low฀to฀the฀midship.฀There฀it฀can฀be฀bailed฀out฀in฀a฀
small฀open฀space฀between฀the฀frames฀called฀the฀ngama.฀Some฀ships฀are฀provided฀with฀two฀ngama,฀a฀
forward฀and฀an฀aft฀space฀for฀bailing,฀depending฀on฀where฀the฀water฀lows฀to.
The฀particular฀mashua฀described฀has฀13฀half-frames฀in฀total.฀Twelve฀of฀these฀were฀originally฀
marked฀on฀the฀keel฀and฀one฀small฀one฀is฀placed฀in฀the฀front฀of฀the฀ship฀on฀the฀stem.฀The฀halfframes฀are฀inished฀irst.฀Only฀after฀the฀last฀one฀is฀in฀place฀the฀apprentices฀start฀on฀the฀futtocks.฀
Their฀number฀was฀on฀this฀occasion฀the฀same,฀with฀one฀small฀one฀on฀the฀stem.฀This฀is฀however฀not฀a฀
standard฀for฀every฀ship.฀One฀that฀was฀inished฀by฀the฀same฀yard฀the฀previous฀month฀had฀28฀frames฀
in฀total,฀of฀which฀the฀two฀aft฀ones฀were฀half-frames.฀This฀resulted฀in฀15฀half-frames฀and฀13฀loor฀
frames.฀A฀sketch฀of฀the฀top฀view฀on฀the฀hold฀of฀this฀ship฀can฀be฀seen฀in฀igure฀2.33.฀It฀seems฀that฀
the฀amount฀of฀the฀two฀types฀of฀frames฀is฀rather฀left฀to฀coincidence.฀Figure฀2.34฀shows฀a฀different฀
example฀of฀this.฀Here,฀a฀boti฀is฀under฀construction฀with฀all฀loor฀frames฀in฀the฀bow.฀
When฀inished,฀the฀frames฀seem฀to฀be฀a฀good฀indication฀of฀where฀the฀ship฀was฀built.฀Nungwi฀
ships฀have฀frames฀which฀were฀made฀with฀more฀skill฀and฀attention฀than฀a฀ship฀for฀example฀from฀
Chaka฀Chaka฀(on฀Pemba฀island)฀or฀Mkokotoni฀(compare฀ig.฀2.34฀with฀ig.฀2.35).฀They฀all฀had฀more฀
irregular฀frames฀and฀a฀rougher฀inishing.฀It฀might฀be฀one฀of฀the฀reasons฀Nungwi฀ships฀and฀their฀
builders฀have฀such฀a฀good฀reputation.
2.2.7฀ Stringers
Like฀most฀ships฀the฀hull฀and฀the฀frames฀alone฀are฀considered฀not฀strong฀enough฀in฀seas฀with฀waves฀
where฀the฀ship฀is฀tested฀on฀torsion,฀shear฀and฀bending฀forces.฀Hence฀darumeti฀or฀stringers฀are฀added฀
on฀the฀inside฀of฀the฀frames.฀Stringers฀are฀horizontally฀placed฀parts฀of฀the฀ship฀that฀contribute฀to฀the฀
longitudinal฀strength฀of฀the฀construction.
In฀Zanzibar฀most฀mashua฀have฀seven฀or฀eight฀planks฀on฀each฀side฀of฀the฀ship฀that฀make฀out฀
the฀stringers.฀Larger฀ships฀like฀the฀jahazi฀can฀have฀as฀much฀as฀ten฀or฀eleven฀of฀them.฀The฀lower฀six฀
are฀similar฀in฀thickness฀and฀width.฀Their฀length฀varies,฀but฀in฀general฀they฀are฀as฀long฀as฀possible,฀
extending฀from฀stern฀to฀stem.฀The฀irst฀one฀to฀be฀put฀in฀is฀the฀lowest฀one฀and฀closest฀to฀the฀keel.฀The฀
sharp฀edges฀are฀taken฀off฀with฀the฀adze฀before.฀
One฀side฀has฀a฀pre-drilled฀hole฀through฀which฀the฀irst฀nail฀is฀hammered฀into฀an฀aft฀frame.฀
The฀srtingers฀are฀also฀bent฀by฀attaching฀them฀to฀the฀frames฀with฀nails,฀like฀the฀upper฀hull฀planking.฀
This฀requires฀a฀lot฀of฀manpower,฀as฀the฀wood฀is฀irm฀and฀not฀especially฀lexible,฀and฀levers฀and฀
wedges฀are฀used฀again฀(see฀ig.฀2.36,฀foreground).฀The฀lower฀stringer฀seems฀to฀be฀put฀in฀as฀a฀
reference฀for฀the฀subsequent฀ones.฀Sometimes฀the฀second฀one฀is฀the฀uppermost฀one,฀as฀can฀be฀
observed฀in฀igure฀2.37.฀Usually฀the฀second฀one฀and฀the฀ones฀after฀that฀are฀put฀in฀from฀the฀bottom฀
45
Fig.฀2.40฀A฀transverse฀beam฀with฀horizontal฀fore฀
and฀aft฀knees฀(karva).
Fig.฀2.42฀A฀yard฀temporarily฀lashed฀together฀
(above)฀and฀permanently฀fastened฀(below).
Fig.฀2.41฀Old฀mashua฀on฀the฀beach฀held฀upwards฀by฀a฀magadi.
Fig.฀2.43฀A฀yard฀temporarily฀lashed฀together฀(left)฀and฀permanently฀fastened฀(right).
46
upwards,฀next฀to฀the฀primairy฀stringer,฀like฀fundi฀Mohamed฀does฀in฀igure฀2.36.฀
Figure฀2.38฀shows฀how฀the฀stringers฀look฀when฀they฀are฀all฀in฀place.฀The฀sixth฀plank฀from฀the฀
bottom฀is฀the฀one฀which฀supports฀the฀deck฀planking฀and฀the฀deck฀beams,฀as฀on฀the฀mashua฀(left).฀In฀
the฀picture฀on฀the฀right฀there฀is฀another฀thicker฀and฀narrower฀stringer,฀or฀rather฀a฀‘shelf฀clamp’,฀used฀
to฀support฀the฀deck฀construction.฀That฀option฀is฀actually฀far฀more฀common.฀Another฀timber฀is฀used฀
above฀the฀deck฀construction,฀thus฀consituting฀a฀waterway,฀and฀if฀there฀is฀enough฀space฀a฀second฀one฀
is฀added.฀
2.2.8฀ Deck฀and฀beams
6
A฀mashua฀usually฀has฀a฀front฀and฀an฀aft฀deck .฀Exceptionally,฀the฀front฀deck฀is฀left฀out฀when฀more฀
cargo฀space฀is฀required.฀The฀decks฀are฀supported฀by฀a฀construction฀of฀several฀transverse฀beams฀and฀
the฀aft฀deck฀by฀two฀additional฀longitudinal฀beams฀as฀shown฀in฀igure฀2.39a.฀These฀longitudinal฀
beams฀support฀the฀deck฀alongside฀an฀open฀spacing฀in฀the฀aft฀deck฀planking฀(ig.฀2.39b).฀Not฀
continuing฀the฀deck฀in฀the฀open฀space฀results฀in฀a฀piece฀of฀the฀transverse฀beam฀to฀be฀exposed.฀Sailors฀
use฀the฀beam฀to฀tie฀the฀halyard฀(heze)฀to฀when฀the฀sail฀is฀hoisted.฀
The฀number฀of฀transverse฀beams฀(fundo)฀is฀dependent฀on฀the฀length฀of฀the฀ship.฀On฀a฀small฀
mashua฀it฀is฀common฀to฀use฀two฀large฀ones฀and฀two฀or฀three฀smaller฀ones฀to฀support฀each฀deck.฀One฀
of฀the฀large฀ones฀is฀the฀main฀supporter฀of฀the฀considerably฀larger฀aft฀deck,฀the฀other฀one฀supports฀
the฀upstanding฀mast.฀The฀beams฀are฀made฀to฀it฀in฀between฀two฀frames฀and฀placed฀resting฀on฀a฀
stringer.฀Another฀stringer฀is฀used฀to฀ix฀the฀position฀of฀the฀beam.฀Supposedly฀the฀beams฀contribute฀
to฀the฀overall฀strength฀of฀the฀ship,฀but฀since฀they฀are฀not฀fastened฀very฀tight฀this฀remains฀doubtful.฀
However,฀reinforcement฀comes฀from฀knees฀(karva)฀applied฀on฀the฀front-฀and฀aftside฀of฀the฀beam.฀
These฀are฀natural฀grown฀timbers,฀like฀the฀frames,฀picked฀to฀it฀their฀particular฀purpose฀(ig.฀2.40).฀
They฀are฀nailed฀to฀the฀frames฀as฀well฀as฀the฀transverse฀beams฀and฀thus฀attach฀the฀beams฀to฀the฀
frames.฀On฀the฀aft฀side฀of฀the฀mast-supporting฀beam฀an฀additional฀smaller฀beam฀is฀nailed,฀in฀
between฀the฀knees.฀This฀one฀discontinues฀amidships฀to฀accommodate฀the฀mast,฀like฀in฀igure฀2.41.฀
The฀mast฀is฀tied฀down฀with฀rope฀around฀the฀beam฀and฀placed฀in฀the฀mast฀step฀(Ch.฀3.2.9).฀The฀
beams฀do฀not฀have฀a฀regular฀position฀as฀it฀varies฀with฀every฀ship,฀but฀are฀dependent฀on฀the฀amount฀
and฀spacing฀of฀the฀frames.฀Their฀height฀and฀width฀varies,฀as฀the฀fundi฀works฀with฀the฀raw฀materials฀
at฀hand.฀The฀observed฀large฀beams฀in฀general฀had฀measurements฀of฀H฀x฀B฀=14฀x฀15-16฀cm,฀with฀
rounded-off฀edges.฀
The฀front฀(staha฀mbele)฀and฀aft฀(staha฀yanyuma)฀decks฀are฀made฀of฀longitudinal฀planks,฀
nailed฀to฀the฀supporting฀beams.฀Planking฀a฀deck฀starts฀in฀the฀centre,฀as฀this฀makes฀the฀itting฀easier.฀
Spaces฀under฀the฀decks฀so฀created฀are฀used฀as฀a฀storage฀place.฀
2.2.9฀ Fittings,฀inishing฀and฀accessories
The฀bulwark฀can฀be฀closed฀by฀a฀rail7฀on฀the฀upper฀side฀which฀looks฀better฀and฀is฀easier฀to฀sit฀on,฀but฀
it฀is฀just฀as฀often฀left฀open.฀Possibly฀it฀is฀cheaper฀that฀way฀and฀the฀spacing฀between฀the฀ribs฀is฀used฀
for฀storage฀space,฀especially฀with฀madau฀as฀these฀often฀lack฀decking.฀
47
Fig.฀2.44฀Aft฀seleman.
Fig.฀2.45฀Forward฀seleman.
Fig.฀2.46฀Cathead฀for฀fastening฀the฀anchor฀rope.
Fig.฀2.48฀A฀hinged฀rudder.
Fig.฀2.47฀Example฀of฀a฀mashua฀rudder.
48
To฀accommodate฀the฀mast฀a฀mast-step฀is฀needed,฀which฀is฀added฀in฀a฀fairly฀late฀phase฀of฀the฀
building฀process.฀The฀step฀is฀made฀of฀one฀large฀timber฀made฀to฀it฀on฀the฀frames฀at฀the฀appropriate฀
location.฀Sometimes฀pieces฀are฀cut฀from฀the฀bottom฀of฀the฀wood฀for฀a฀better฀it฀between฀the฀loors,฀
but฀apparently฀this฀is฀not฀a฀necessity.฀Aft฀and฀front฀ends฀are฀rounded฀off,฀probably฀to฀avoid฀painful฀
bumping฀of฀the฀toes,฀while฀moving฀around฀the฀ship฀on฀bare฀feet.฀The฀mast-step฀is฀secured฀in฀place฀
by฀six฀timbers,฀three฀on฀each฀side฀that฀are฀nailed฀to฀the฀loor฀frames฀underneath.฀Half-frames฀inbetween฀never฀seem฀to฀be฀used฀for฀this฀purpose.฀Usually฀the฀mast-step฀covers฀the฀length฀of฀ive฀
frames.฀The฀square฀hole฀where฀the฀mast฀is฀going฀to฀be฀in,฀has฀to฀be฀just฀aft฀of฀the฀transverse฀beam฀
where฀it฀leans฀against.฀Deciding฀on฀this฀precise฀location฀is฀therefore฀the฀work฀of฀the฀fundi.฀The฀heel฀
of฀the฀mast฀itself฀is฀rounded฀of฀for฀easier฀handling฀(ig.฀2.42).฀
The฀tide฀varies฀when฀a฀ship฀returns฀home,฀so฀some฀ishermen฀beach฀their฀boat฀further฀out฀to฀
sea฀than฀others฀do.฀Closer฀to฀shore฀is฀preferred,฀because฀then฀the฀ishermen฀do฀not฀have฀to฀wade฀far฀
through฀the฀water.฀On฀outgoing฀tides฀the฀ships฀fall฀dry฀upon฀the฀sand.฀To฀prevent฀them฀inclining฀to฀
one฀side,฀a฀device฀is฀used฀called฀the฀magadi฀(see฀also฀ig.฀2.41).฀The฀transverse฀beam฀of฀the฀magadi฀is฀
laid฀across฀the฀ship฀and฀over฀the฀sides,฀directly฀above฀the฀transverse฀beam฀for฀the฀mast,฀to฀which฀฀it฀
will฀be฀attached฀with฀ropes฀and฀never฀taken฀off฀again.฀The฀ends฀of฀the฀magadi฀are฀put฀through฀two฀
poles฀with฀holes฀in฀them฀that฀support฀the฀ship฀in฀an฀upright฀position.฀In฀operating฀condition฀the฀
mast฀is฀roped฀to฀the฀beam฀as฀well฀as฀the฀magadi.฀This฀results฀in฀a฀tilt฀forwards,฀causing฀the฀typical฀
look฀on฀the฀sailing฀dhows.฀The฀mast฀itself฀(mlingoti)฀is฀of฀a฀short฀and฀simple฀nature:฀made฀from฀one฀
piece฀of฀(mangrove)฀wood,฀no฀longer฀than฀6.5฀to฀7฀m.฀on฀the฀average฀mashua.฀About฀18฀cm฀under฀
the฀top,฀a฀hole฀is฀cut฀to฀accommodate฀a฀sheave฀for฀the฀halyard.฀The฀diameter฀of฀the฀mast฀varies฀from฀
about฀15฀cm฀on฀the฀lower฀to฀11฀cm฀on฀the฀topside.฀
A฀mashua฀has,฀like฀a฀jahazi฀and฀a฀dau,฀a฀lateen฀rigging฀with฀just฀one฀triangular฀sail.฀It฀is฀
attached฀to฀a฀large฀yard฀(foromali)฀and฀hoisted฀into฀the฀short฀mast.฀The฀dimensions฀of฀the฀yard฀is฀
why฀the฀sail฀is฀such฀a฀large฀size.฀A฀general฀rule฀for฀the฀length฀of฀the฀yard฀is฀the฀length฀of฀the฀keel฀plus฀
8
three฀metres฀extra฀fore฀and฀aft ,฀in฀this฀case฀13.10฀m.฀for฀a฀keel฀of฀7.15฀m.฀It฀is฀made฀of฀three฀timbers,฀
the฀one฀in฀the฀middle฀where฀the฀yard฀is฀pulled฀up฀being฀the฀thicker฀one.฀The฀pieces฀are฀cut฀obliquely฀
and฀pressed฀together฀by฀two฀or฀three฀tightly฀wound฀ropes.฀At฀irst฀these฀are฀temporary฀ropes฀to฀force฀
the฀often฀crooked฀but฀reasonable฀lexible฀wood฀into฀a฀straight฀shape.฀Only฀after฀about฀a฀week฀the฀
pieces฀are฀roped฀together฀permanently,฀with฀the฀aid฀of฀a฀few฀countersunk฀nails฀(ig.฀2.43).฀On฀the฀
middle฀piece฀a฀hoisting฀eye฀is฀itted฀on฀which฀the฀halyard฀is฀tied.฀Sometimes฀the฀centre฀is฀reinforced฀
by฀an฀extra฀timber฀with฀a฀concave฀section฀placed฀on฀top฀of฀the฀foromali.฀In฀case฀of฀a฀small฀extra฀
9
timber฀it฀is฀called฀a฀bakara ฀and฀if฀it฀is฀a฀relatively฀large฀one฀it฀is฀called฀a฀mtoto,฀which฀is฀the฀word฀for฀
‘child’฀in฀Swahili.฀It฀is฀considered฀a฀sort฀of฀a฀baby฀of฀the฀foromali.
The฀yard฀rests฀on฀two฀supports฀(seleman)฀when฀it฀is฀down,฀one฀constructed฀above฀the฀forward฀
deck฀and฀one฀that฀is฀placed฀just฀in฀front฀of฀the฀transom.฀They฀are฀made฀of฀two฀poles฀nailed฀between฀
the฀frames฀with฀a฀horizontal฀beam฀attached฀to฀them.฀The฀aft฀seleman฀is฀shown฀in฀igure฀2.44,฀the฀
forward฀one฀in฀igure฀2.45.฀The฀latter฀sometimes฀functions฀as฀a฀sort฀of฀bollard฀for฀the฀anchor฀line,฀
49
Fig.฀2.49฀Making฀a฀sail฀is฀a฀sort฀of฀a฀social฀event.
Fig.฀2.50฀Close-up฀of฀the฀stitching.
Fig.฀2.51฀An฀older฀sail฀in฀action.
50
but฀on฀most฀mashua฀there฀is฀a฀cathead฀(mangili)฀for฀this฀purpose฀(like฀in฀ig.฀2.46).฀It฀is฀nailed฀to฀a฀
horizontally฀placed฀V-shaped฀piece฀of฀timber฀against฀the฀‘second’฀stem.฀Some฀mashua฀observed฀even฀
lacked฀a฀forward฀seleman฀and฀used฀the฀cathead฀for฀the฀purpose฀as฀a฀yard฀support฀as฀well.฀
The฀last฀essential฀piece฀of฀any฀ship฀is฀the฀rudder฀(sukani).฀Mashua฀have฀a฀simple฀hinged฀
rudder฀with฀a฀helm฀that฀goes฀through฀a฀hole฀in฀the฀main฀timber฀(ig.฀2.48).฀The฀dimensions฀of฀a฀
mashua฀rudder฀are฀given฀in฀igure฀2.47.฀It฀is฀hung฀on฀two฀iron฀hinges฀attached฀to฀the฀back฀of฀the฀
stern.
While฀the฀construction฀of฀the฀ship฀is฀being฀inalized,฀the฀sail฀(tanga)฀is฀made.฀This฀is฀a฀pretty฀
straightforward฀job฀as฀it฀appears฀to฀be฀a฀lat฀sail,฀without฀any฀considerations฀for฀the฀wing-effect฀aa฀
costumary฀on฀for฀example฀modern฀European฀ships฀with฀a฀lateen฀sail.฀On฀an฀open฀space฀near฀the฀
shipyard฀and฀the฀beach฀ropes฀are฀stretched฀into฀a฀triangle.฀Then฀a฀large฀roll฀of฀cotton฀cloth฀is฀taken฀
and฀rolled฀down฀in฀strips฀parallel฀with฀what฀is฀going฀to฀be฀the฀aftside฀of฀the฀sail.฀Ends฀are฀cut฀off฀to฀
it฀within฀the฀triangle฀of฀the฀stretched฀ropes.฀The฀strips฀are฀sewn฀together฀by฀hand฀by฀a฀few฀men.฀It฀
is฀quite฀a฀relaxed฀job฀and฀takes฀several฀hours฀while฀the฀men฀chat฀away฀at฀the฀latest฀news฀and฀gossip.฀
The฀left฀side฀of฀the฀sail฀in฀igure฀2.49฀will฀be฀the฀aft฀leech฀of฀the฀sail,฀the฀right฀side฀will฀be฀roped฀to฀
the฀yard.฀The฀latter฀is฀cut฀obliquely,฀in฀contrast฀to฀the฀underside฀(ig.฀2.51)฀which฀is฀cut฀straight.฀The฀
stitching฀can฀be฀seen฀in฀igure฀2.50฀and฀is฀done฀with฀large฀needles฀and฀a฀single฀interlacing.฀The฀edges฀
are฀reinforced฀with฀a฀sewn-in฀rope.฀On฀the฀side฀where฀the฀yard฀is฀going฀to฀be,฀short฀pairs฀of฀ropes฀
are฀attached฀to฀fasten฀it.฀Once฀in฀use฀the฀sail฀is฀usually฀kept฀on฀the฀yard,฀except฀when฀it฀has฀to฀be฀
dried.฀The฀cotton฀ibres฀stretch฀out฀when฀the฀sail฀ages,฀causing฀the฀surface฀to฀bulge฀and฀attributing฀
to฀a฀little฀‘wing-effect’.฀The฀sail฀is฀hoisted฀on฀the฀frontside฀of฀the฀mast,฀with฀the฀halyard฀running฀over฀
the฀pulley฀in฀the฀mast-top฀to฀the฀aft.
The฀inished฀ship฀has฀a฀displacement฀of฀about฀2฀to฀4฀metric฀tons,฀dependent฀on฀the฀draft.฀The฀
centre฀of฀boyancy฀is฀located฀about฀4฀metres฀before฀the฀aftside฀of฀the฀keel฀(see฀Appendix฀B:฀stability฀
calculations).฀The฀draft฀is฀calculated฀from฀the฀underside฀of฀the฀keel.
2.2.10฀ Caulking฀method
When฀the฀hull฀is฀completely฀inished฀it฀must฀be฀made฀waterproof.฀Holes,฀however฀small,฀must฀be฀
illed฀with฀caulking.฀For฀this฀a฀mixture฀of฀cotton฀ibres฀and฀coconut฀oil฀is฀used,฀named฀kalafati.฀It฀is฀
hammered฀in-between฀the฀strakes฀and฀other฀parts฀of฀the฀ship฀by฀several฀mean฀sitting฀next฀to฀each฀
other,฀using฀a฀hammer฀and฀a฀chisel฀(ig.฀2.52).฀Performed฀with฀the฀greatest฀care,฀it฀will฀be฀a฀regular฀
part฀of฀the฀maintenance฀of฀the฀ship.฀About฀every฀six฀months฀the฀task฀has฀to฀be฀repeated฀to฀secure฀the฀
impermeability฀of฀the฀hull฀and฀since฀there฀are฀a฀lot฀of฀ships฀in฀Nungwi,฀the฀sound฀of฀the฀hammering฀
of฀the฀kalafati฀is฀a฀common฀one.
The฀heads฀of฀the฀iron฀nails฀which฀are฀hammered฀into฀the฀ship฀from฀the฀outside฀are฀treated฀as฀
well.฀Here,฀a฀mixture฀of฀lime฀and฀coconut฀oil฀is฀used฀(lago).฀The฀lime฀is฀obtained฀in฀lime-ovens฀(ig.฀
2.53)฀out฀of฀the฀abundant฀coral-฀and฀limestone.฀A฀lime-oven฀฀consist฀of฀a฀shallow฀hole฀in฀the฀ground฀
where฀wood฀is฀burned฀to฀obtain฀a฀high฀temperature฀and฀a฀surrounding฀wall฀to฀keep฀the฀heat฀in.฀The฀
limestone฀is฀put฀on฀top฀of฀the฀burning฀wood฀and฀left฀to฀ire฀for฀two฀to฀three฀days.฀After฀that฀it฀is฀left฀
51
Fig.฀2.52฀Hammering฀the฀kalafati฀in฀between฀the฀strakes.
Fig.฀2.53฀An฀operating฀lime฀oven.
Fig.฀2.54฀Launching฀of฀a฀dhow฀in฀Nungwi.
52
to฀cool฀for฀about฀a฀month.฀The฀substance฀obtained฀in฀this฀way฀closely฀resembles฀slake฀lime฀and฀as฀a฀
consequence฀is฀quite฀dangerous฀to฀touch฀with฀bare฀hands.฀The฀heated฀and฀cooled฀stones฀are฀crushed฀
to฀powder฀for฀further฀use.฀Besides฀its฀uses฀in฀the฀shipbuilding฀industry฀it฀has฀many฀purposes,฀for฀
example฀on฀walls฀of฀houses.
A฀day฀after฀the฀kalafati฀has฀been฀done,฀the฀hull฀is฀illed฀with฀water฀from฀the฀sea.฀It฀is฀left฀like฀
this฀for฀at฀least฀a฀day฀to฀check฀if฀the฀caulking฀has฀been฀effective.฀A฀hole฀on฀the฀bottom฀of฀the฀ship฀
near฀the฀keel,฀now฀closed฀by฀a฀cork฀(ngorosi),฀is฀used฀to฀let฀the฀water฀out฀after฀any฀effective฀leaks฀have฀
been฀marked.
Finally,฀an฀infamous฀substance฀is฀used฀to฀treat฀the฀outside฀of฀the฀hull.฀It฀protects฀the฀wood฀
from฀ship฀worms฀and฀the฀likes.฀The฀preferred฀oily฀stuff฀for฀this฀purpose฀is฀called฀sifa.฀It฀is฀obtained฀
by฀leaving฀a฀shark’s฀liver฀to฀rot฀in฀a฀closed฀canister฀for฀several฀months.฀Besides฀being฀very฀sticky,฀the฀
stench฀is฀understandably฀quite฀horrifying.฀Putting฀the฀shark-liver฀oil฀on฀the฀hull฀is฀therefore฀not฀one฀
of฀the฀shipbuilder’s฀favourite฀jobs฀and฀other฀people฀keep฀clear฀of฀the฀area฀when฀they฀are฀working฀
with฀it.฀It฀is฀however฀the฀most฀effective฀way฀of฀protecting฀the฀wood฀but฀quite฀expensive฀and฀thus฀
sometimes฀cheaper฀methods฀are฀used.฀An฀old฀fashioned฀one฀is฀blackening฀the฀hull฀by฀burning฀a฀ire฀
underneath,฀but฀to฀be฀effective฀this฀has฀to฀be฀done฀nearly฀every฀week฀and฀as฀it฀thins฀the฀hull฀bit฀by฀
bit฀it฀is฀far฀from฀ideal.฀It฀is฀more฀commonly฀used฀for฀the฀thick฀hulls฀of฀the฀ngalawa’s.฀Paint฀is฀a฀good฀
solution,฀but฀expensive฀and฀sometimes฀hard฀to฀come฀by฀in฀the฀region.฀Properly฀done฀a฀layer฀of฀paint฀
is฀added฀over฀the฀layer฀of฀sifa.฀An฀alternative฀is฀treating฀the฀hull฀with฀the฀same฀mixture฀of฀lime฀and฀
coconut฀oil฀used฀for฀the฀protection฀of฀the฀nails,฀which฀gives฀it฀a฀greasy฀white฀look.
2.2.11฀ The฀launching
All฀over฀the฀world฀the฀launching฀of฀a฀new฀ship฀holds฀some฀kind฀of฀ceremony.฀In฀Africa฀the฀extent฀
of฀the฀feast฀accompanying฀the฀launching฀depends฀on฀the฀wealth฀of฀the฀owner.฀A฀poor฀owner,฀like฀
a฀common฀isherman,฀generally฀means฀a฀small฀celebration.฀The฀ship฀is฀pushed฀and฀hauled฀over฀
rolling฀wooden฀beams฀into฀the฀water฀at฀high฀tide฀by฀as฀many฀people฀as฀necessary฀from฀the฀village.฀
Afterwards฀they฀receive฀some฀food฀and฀a฀drink฀from฀the฀owner฀for฀their฀efforts.฀The฀whole฀action฀
can฀be฀over฀by฀as฀few฀as฀20฀to฀30฀minutes.
Unfortunately฀I฀was฀not฀so฀lucky฀as฀to฀observe฀any฀launching.฀There฀was฀one฀in฀the฀time฀I฀
was฀there฀and฀although฀I฀was฀invited฀the฀event฀took฀place฀at฀six฀o’clock฀in฀the฀morning฀and฀they฀
declined฀to฀inform฀me.฀It฀had฀been฀delayed฀for฀days,฀awaiting฀a฀convenient฀moment฀at฀high฀tide฀and฀
as฀it฀took฀them฀only฀20฀minutes฀it฀was฀well฀over฀by฀the฀time฀I฀arrived.฀I฀was฀however฀explained฀the฀
procedure฀and฀given฀an฀idea฀of฀how฀a฀rich฀man’s฀ship฀is฀supposed฀to฀be฀launched.฀The฀celebration฀
can฀take฀up฀most฀of฀a฀day฀with฀a฀lot฀of฀food฀and฀singing฀going฀on,฀with฀a฀local฀witchdoctor฀
performing฀some฀rituals.฀This฀is฀especially฀the฀way฀to฀do฀it฀when฀a฀large฀ship฀like฀a฀jahazi฀is฀inished.฀
Someone฀who฀is฀rich฀enough฀to฀afford฀one฀of฀those,฀certainly฀must฀be฀rich฀enough฀to฀pay฀for฀a฀
proper฀launching.฀At฀least฀half฀the฀village฀is฀present฀at฀such฀an฀event,฀to฀join฀in฀the฀celebrations฀and฀
push฀and฀pull฀the฀ship฀onto฀the฀beach.฀This฀must฀have฀been฀what฀is฀was฀like฀on฀for฀example฀the฀
launching฀of฀the฀ship฀that฀was฀built฀for฀the฀German10฀(ig.฀2.54).
53
Fig.฀2.55฀Side฀view฀of฀a฀beached฀jahazi฀(author฀on฀the฀left฀in฀the฀photograph,฀standing฀beside฀the฀hull).
Fig.฀2.56฀View฀inside฀the฀hold.
Fig.฀2.58฀Arabian฀Boom฀(Al-Hijji฀2001).
Fig.฀2.57฀Jahazi฀in฀the฀
Stone฀Town฀dhow฀port.
54
2.3 The jahazi
The฀deinition฀of฀a฀jahazi฀is฀basically฀a฀cargo฀dhow฀with฀a฀length฀up฀to฀20฀m.฀The฀construction฀
method฀is฀in฀many฀ways฀very฀similar฀to฀that฀of฀the฀mashua฀described฀above.฀The฀hull฀of฀a฀jahazi฀
seems฀to฀be฀bulkier11,฀which฀is฀to฀be฀expected,฀as฀it฀is฀built฀for฀cargo฀carrying฀and฀not฀for฀ishing฀(ig.฀
2.55).฀The฀freeboard12฀is฀relatively฀higher฀as฀well.฀To฀carry฀a฀heavier฀load฀the฀frames฀are฀irmer฀and฀
placed฀closer฀to฀one฀another฀(ig.฀2.56).฀Where฀a฀mashua฀has฀an฀average฀frame฀distance13฀of฀20.4฀cm,฀
on฀a฀jahazi฀this฀is฀approximately฀10.6฀cm.฀The฀average฀widths฀of฀the฀frames14฀are฀respectively฀10.5฀
cm฀and฀17.3฀cm.฀On฀the฀whole,฀it฀can฀be฀concluded฀that฀on฀a฀jahazi฀the฀width฀of฀the฀frames฀is฀larger฀
than฀the฀distance฀between฀them,฀which฀is฀the฀other฀way฀around฀on฀a฀mashua.฀
The฀differences฀start฀at฀placing฀the฀order฀from฀the฀customer:฀in฀stead฀of฀stating฀what฀length฀
the฀ship฀should฀be,฀the฀general฀demand฀will฀state฀how฀much฀cargo฀it฀must฀be฀able฀to฀carry.฀So฀the฀
tonnage฀is฀the฀basic฀starting฀point.฀Further฀questions฀of฀importance฀could฀be:฀what฀kind฀of฀cargo฀
will฀it฀carry฀and฀what฀is฀its฀basic฀function?฀Some฀of฀them฀are฀even฀designed฀as฀a฀passenger฀ship.฀In฀
the฀past฀these฀latter฀could฀have฀been฀slaves.฀
Knowing฀the฀amount฀of฀cargo,฀the฀fundi฀will฀be฀able฀to฀decide฀how฀large฀it฀will฀have฀to฀be.฀No฀
calculations฀are฀used฀here,฀just฀experience.฀Since฀there฀are฀few฀jahazi฀built฀nowadays,฀the฀knowledge฀
of฀things฀like฀these฀are฀slowly฀disappearing.฀In฀Nungwi฀only฀one฀jahazi฀was฀built฀in฀the฀past฀year.฀At฀
the฀time฀of฀the฀research฀one฀small฀one฀was฀being฀converted฀into฀a฀motorized฀ship฀and฀another฀one฀
was฀in฀for฀repairs.
There฀are฀two฀kinds฀of฀jahazi:฀small฀ones฀for฀short฀distances฀and฀small฀cargoes฀and฀large฀ones,฀
or฀rather฀long-distance฀ones.฀When฀asked฀the฀fundi฀explained฀that฀the฀basic฀differences฀between฀
them฀are฀that฀the฀latter฀have฀a฀toilet,฀a฀kitchen,฀a฀palm-leave฀thatched฀roof฀and฀a฀mast฀with฀two฀
halyard฀pulleys฀(ig.฀2.57).฀The฀irst฀three฀are฀added฀to฀make฀the฀longer฀journeys฀more฀comfortable.฀
Extra฀pulleys฀are฀merely฀a฀necessity฀to฀hoist฀the฀much฀heavier฀yard฀and฀sail,฀that฀goes฀with฀a฀larger฀
ship.฀
The฀basic฀layout฀is฀very฀similar฀to฀that฀of฀the฀mashua.฀Since฀both฀types฀are฀built฀by฀the฀same฀
people,฀it฀is฀a฀simple฀matter฀of฀applying฀a฀larger฀scale฀to฀the฀ship’s฀components.฀The฀largest฀and฀
most฀conspicuously฀altered฀feature฀is฀the฀angle฀of฀the฀stem.฀On฀most฀observed฀jahazi฀this฀is฀65-70°฀
or฀more,฀which฀is฀a฀lot฀steeper฀than฀on฀the฀ishermen’s฀ships.฀Other฀than฀that฀there฀are฀of฀course฀
small฀alterations฀on฀parts฀of฀the฀construction.฀The฀mast-step฀for฀example฀is฀relatively฀longer฀and฀
has฀an฀additional฀hole฀to฀put฀in฀a฀pole,฀where฀the฀mast฀will฀be฀connected฀to฀by฀a฀lashing฀above฀the฀
transverse฀beam.฀This฀construction฀is฀very฀well฀known฀from฀Arabian฀dhows฀(ig.฀2.58).฀
Another฀typical฀feature฀for฀a฀jahazi฀is฀the฀built-in฀wale,฀usually฀painted฀in฀bright฀blue,฀with฀
white฀and฀red฀markings฀on฀the฀ends.฀Originally฀intended฀to฀protect฀the฀sides฀of฀the฀ship฀from฀
damage฀by฀bumping฀onto฀quay-walls฀and฀other฀ships,฀it฀now฀seems฀to฀be฀more฀of฀a฀traditional฀
identity฀marker฀and฀ornament.
On฀the฀bottom฀of฀the฀cargo฀hold฀there฀will฀be฀a฀loor,฀made฀of฀longitudinally฀placed฀planks฀
on฀small฀transverse฀timbers.฀This฀prevents฀the฀cargo฀from฀sliding฀in฀between฀the฀frames.฀Some฀
55
Fig.฀2.59฀Dau฀beached฀at฀Nungwi.
Fig.฀2.60฀Rudder฀of฀a฀dau,฀attached฀to฀the฀ship฀with฀ropes.
56
mashua฀have฀this฀as฀well,฀which฀might฀be฀convenient฀during฀the฀ishing฀as฀it฀makes฀walking฀around฀
inside฀the฀hold฀easier.
Of฀one฀measured฀jahazi฀the฀main฀dimensions฀were:฀L฀x฀B฀x฀D฀=฀16.20฀x฀5.60฀x฀2.44฀metres.฀L฀
is฀length฀over฀the฀stems.฀The฀breadth฀is฀measured฀at฀the฀widest฀point฀of฀the฀hull,฀about฀amidships,฀
and฀is฀overall.฀The฀depth฀is฀measured฀in฀the฀side฀at฀the฀same฀longitudinal฀point฀up฀to฀the฀height฀of฀
the฀main฀deck.฀This฀makes฀the฀L/B฀ratio฀2.9,฀the฀B/D฀ratio฀2.3฀and฀the฀L/D฀ratio฀6.5.฀On฀a฀mashua฀
this฀would฀be฀for฀example:฀L฀x฀B฀x฀D฀=฀9.10฀x฀2.80฀x฀1.30฀m.฀L/B฀ratio฀is฀as฀a฀consequence฀about฀3.2,฀
B/D฀is฀2.1฀and฀L/D฀is฀7.0.฀In฀conclusion,฀a฀jahazi฀has฀a฀comparatively฀large฀breadth,฀but฀this฀might฀
differ฀with฀every฀ship฀and฀the฀demands฀they฀were฀built฀by.฀Being฀out฀in฀open฀ocean฀and฀carrying฀
cargo฀might฀account฀for฀the฀comparatively฀larger฀depth,฀which฀in฀turn฀provides฀for฀a฀higher฀
freeboard฀and฀greater฀safety.
The฀yard฀that฀goes฀with฀this฀particular฀jahazi฀is฀23.20฀m฀in฀length.฀Furthermore,฀it฀is฀said฀
this฀one฀is฀built฀to฀carry฀a฀load฀of฀1500฀cement฀bags฀of฀50฀kilograms฀each,฀from฀the฀mainland฀of฀
Tanzania฀to฀Zanzibar.฀The฀costs฀of฀a฀large฀jahazi฀are฀at฀about฀$40000,-,฀ten฀times฀as฀much฀as฀those฀of฀
an฀average฀mashua.฀Building฀it฀takes฀about฀ive฀times฀longer.
2.4 The Tumbatu dau
Like฀the฀mashua฀the฀dau฀is฀a฀ishing฀vessel.฀It฀is฀said฀to฀be฀a฀lot฀faster฀than฀a฀mashua฀because฀of฀its฀
slim฀hull.฀The฀mashua฀however฀is฀said฀to฀be฀stronger฀and฀a฀bit฀larger.฀Despite฀these฀proclamations,฀it฀
is฀also฀said฀that฀madau฀venture฀further฀out฀at฀sea฀than฀mashua฀which฀commonly฀stay฀closer฀to฀shore.฀
It฀appears฀that฀most฀people฀from฀Zanzibar฀use฀a฀mashua฀or฀a฀ngalawa฀for฀ishing฀and฀all฀people฀
from฀Tumbatu฀use฀a฀dau.฀The฀hull-sections฀of฀the฀former฀are฀more฀U-shaped,฀while฀the฀sections฀
of฀a฀dau฀are฀more฀V-shaped.฀On฀the฀whole฀the฀dau฀seems฀to฀be฀of฀a฀very฀old฀design฀and฀virtually฀
unchanged฀for฀at฀least฀150฀years฀(as฀discussed฀in฀Ch.฀2).฀They฀are฀most฀commonly฀built฀on฀the฀small฀
island฀of฀Tumbatu,฀although฀upon฀visiting฀the฀island฀this฀appeared฀not฀to฀be฀the฀case฀the฀whole฀year฀
around฀as฀there฀were฀only฀three฀ships฀in฀repair฀at฀that฀moment.
A฀dau฀is฀built฀as฀a฀light,฀fast฀ship,฀about฀eight฀to฀eleven฀metres฀in฀length.฀The฀most฀typical฀
feature฀are฀the฀double฀ends.฀The฀angle฀of฀the฀stem,฀again,฀seems฀to฀be฀a฀means฀of฀identity฀for฀the฀
type฀of฀ship.฀One฀of฀the฀irst฀thing฀locals฀look฀at฀when฀identifying฀a฀ship฀apart฀from฀the฀size,฀is฀its฀
stem฀and฀the฀angle฀it฀has฀relative฀to฀the฀water.฀On฀a฀dau฀this฀nearly฀always฀is฀30°฀(ig.฀2.59).฀The฀
angle฀of฀the฀stern฀is฀about฀70°.฀The฀rudder฀is฀attached฀to฀the฀stern฀with฀three฀ropes฀(ig.฀2.60),฀
although฀on฀a฀few฀ships฀iron฀fastenings฀were฀observed฀and฀in฀the฀future฀this฀will฀no฀doubt฀become฀
more฀common.฀
No฀forward฀deck฀is฀present฀and฀as฀a฀result฀the฀front฀of฀the฀ship฀seems฀more฀spacious฀(ig.฀
2.61).฀Noticeable฀is฀the฀lack฀of฀a฀seleman฀on฀the฀front฀and฀the฀aft฀of฀the฀ship.฀The฀yard฀simply฀rests฀
on฀the฀sides฀of฀the฀ship฀when฀it฀is฀down.฀Aft฀is฀room฀for฀a฀small฀triangular฀deck฀(ig.฀2.62),฀providing฀
for฀the฀only฀available฀storage฀space.฀The฀helmsman฀sits฀on฀it.฀The฀bulwarks฀are฀always฀left฀open฀on฀
the฀topside,฀apart฀from฀the฀ends฀which฀are฀reinforced฀with฀so-called฀kasama.฀This฀piece฀of฀timber฀is฀
57
Fig.฀2.61฀Inside฀of฀a฀dau฀looking฀forward.
Fig.฀2.62฀Aft฀side฀of฀a฀small฀dau,฀top฀view.
Fig.฀2.63฀View฀on฀the฀fore฀kasama.
58
V-shaped฀on฀the฀aft฀side15฀and฀Y-shaped฀on฀the฀front฀(ig.฀2.63).฀The฀front฀also฀has฀a฀vertical฀hole฀on฀
the฀foremost฀end฀through฀which฀the฀rope฀for฀the฀sail฀(joshi)฀runs.
Some฀measured฀main฀dimensions฀for฀two฀dau’s:฀L฀x฀B฀x฀D฀=฀8.93฀x฀2.32฀x฀0.93฀m.฀and฀10.09฀
x฀2.66฀x฀1.06฀m.,฀with฀L฀being฀the฀length฀over฀the฀stems.฀For฀this฀type฀of฀ship฀the฀ratio’s฀are:฀L/B฀=฀
3.8,฀B/D฀=฀9.5-9.6฀and฀L/D฀=฀2.5.฀Again,฀to฀be฀able฀to฀assign฀meaning฀to฀these฀numbers,฀they฀will฀be฀
compared฀to฀the฀other฀ships฀at฀hand.฀It฀appears฀that฀despite฀of฀its฀narrow฀look,฀the฀dau฀is฀relatively฀
wide฀and฀its฀depth฀is฀less.฀All฀the฀ships฀observed฀in฀Tumbatu฀had฀this฀limited฀depth,฀but฀one฀beached฀
in฀Nungwi฀had฀heightened฀sides.฀On฀this฀one฀an฀additional฀stake฀was฀added฀on฀the฀topside฀of฀the฀
hull.฀Short฀timbers฀of฀about฀50฀centimetres฀in฀length฀were฀added฀for฀support฀in฀between฀the฀frames,฀
as฀a฀sort฀of฀short฀frames฀(ig.฀2.64).฀The฀result฀of฀these฀extra฀13฀centimetres฀was฀apparently฀just฀
enough฀to฀provide฀the฀safety฀needed฀when฀operating฀in฀wavy฀seas.
Madau฀built฀in฀Tumbatu฀sometimes฀had฀a฀keel฀constructed฀of฀two฀parts.฀Trees฀long฀enough฀
to฀built฀them฀of฀one฀piece฀are฀hard฀to฀get฀around฀there.฀The฀two฀parts฀are฀connected฀by฀an฀oblique฀
seam.฀As฀many฀trees฀are฀too฀thin,฀keels฀are฀left฀round฀on฀the฀front฀side.฀On฀one฀ship฀a฀keel฀of฀about฀
nine฀centimetres฀in฀diameter฀was฀round฀on฀5/8฀part฀of฀the฀front.฀The฀aft฀was฀made฀square,฀as฀is฀the฀
preferred฀section฀for฀a฀dau฀as฀well.
Most฀madau฀are฀blackened฀by฀burning฀to฀protect฀the฀hull.฀In฀busy฀times฀this฀is฀done฀every฀
Friday.
Fig.฀2.64฀Extra฀frames.
59
Footnotes฀Ch.฀2
1฀
Plural฀for฀mashua฀is฀mashua,฀for฀jahazi฀it฀is฀majahazi฀and฀for฀dau฀it฀is฀madau.
2฀
The฀word฀fundi฀is฀used฀for฀many฀(usually฀male)฀occupations,฀like฀‘crafsperson’,฀‘expert’,฀‘instructor’,฀‘master’฀and฀
‘technician’.฀
3฀
Mafundi฀is฀plural฀for฀fundi.
4฀
Swahili฀names฀of฀parts฀of฀the฀ship฀will฀mostly฀be฀added฀behind฀the฀English฀term฀in฀italic฀and฀between฀brackets
5฀
Distinctly฀V-shaped฀on฀the฀ship฀ends฀and฀a฀lattened฀U-shape฀in฀the฀middle฀part.
6฀
The฀front฀and฀aft฀of฀a฀mashua฀are฀in฀general฀referred฀to฀as฀respectively฀the฀kidamu฀and฀the฀tezi.
A฀rail฀is฀a฀horizontally฀placed฀plank฀that฀forms฀the฀top฀of฀the฀bulwarks฀(sides)฀of฀a฀ship
7฀
8฀
Six฀metres฀in฀total฀of฀course,฀but฀it฀was฀explained฀to฀me฀as฀noted฀above฀with฀some฀emphasis฀on฀the฀three฀meter฀remark.
A฀bakara฀can฀be฀about฀50฀to฀100฀cm,฀a฀mtoto฀is฀several฀metres฀in฀length.
9฀
The฀picture฀was฀taken฀from฀the฀German’s฀website฀where฀the฀Nungwi฀dhow฀is฀shown฀for฀sale:฀http://www.forceive.freese
10฀
ve.co.uk/boat/
See฀the฀linesplan฀in฀appendix฀A.
11฀
The฀freeboard฀is฀the฀part฀of฀the฀hull฀in฀the฀side฀above฀the฀waterline.
12฀
The฀frame฀distance฀here฀is฀the฀open฀spacing฀between฀two฀frames.
13฀
On฀a฀mashua฀this฀varies฀between฀7.5฀and฀12.5฀cm,฀on฀a฀jahazi฀between฀15฀to฀20฀cm.
14฀
On฀a฀dau฀the฀front฀is฀called฀kidamu฀and฀the฀aft฀is฀called฀tezi.
15฀
60
3 Sailing Ships in the Western Indian Ocean
In฀the฀previous฀chapter฀an฀outline฀is฀given฀of฀the฀sailing฀ships฀as฀they฀are฀currently฀being฀built฀
in฀Zanzibar.฀These฀ships฀are฀similar฀to฀but฀not฀identical฀with฀the฀ships฀built฀in฀other฀parts฀on฀the฀
Swahili฀coast,฀in฀particular฀to฀the฀traditional฀shipbuilding฀center฀of฀the฀Lamu฀Archipelago.฀฀
In฀order฀to฀say฀anything฀about฀the฀method฀used฀to฀construct฀ships฀on฀the฀Swahili฀shores,฀the฀
inluences฀by฀other฀regions฀this฀area฀has฀had฀contacts฀with฀must฀be฀reviewed.฀The฀most฀inluential฀
of฀these฀are฀the฀Arab1฀countries,฀with฀whom฀the฀contacts฀through฀the฀centuries฀have฀been฀very฀
intensive฀in฀trade฀as฀well฀as฀in฀cultural฀aspects.
Similarities฀in฀shipbuilding฀of฀wooden฀ships฀occur฀all฀over฀the฀world฀and฀even฀dispersed฀in฀
time.฀Whether฀this฀is฀the฀result฀of฀an฀evolutionary฀process,฀diffusion฀or฀convergence฀is฀very฀dificult฀
to฀determine.฀Similarities฀are฀always฀there฀to฀be฀found,฀but฀it฀is฀precarious฀to฀say฀anything฀
conclusive฀about฀these.฀How฀can฀be฀determined฀whether฀similarities฀are฀the฀result฀of฀transitions฀of฀
techniques฀in฀shipbuilding฀?฀
Methods฀of฀constructing฀wooden฀ships฀might฀develop฀following฀the฀logical฀order฀of฀
assembling฀the฀parts.฀The฀way฀these฀parts฀look฀and฀are฀attached฀to฀each฀other฀is฀very฀diverse.฀
Examining฀how฀ships฀are฀assembled฀in฀other฀regions฀of฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean฀can฀give฀clues฀as฀
to฀how฀these฀areas฀are฀technically฀related฀and฀how฀technology฀may฀have฀been฀transferred฀from฀one฀
region฀to฀another.฀Are฀the฀ships฀in฀East฀Africa฀similar฀in฀construction฀to฀other฀regions฀the฀Africans฀
came฀into฀contact฀with฀in฀the฀past?฀The฀evidence฀comes฀from฀a฀diversity฀of฀sources:฀literary,฀
iconographic,฀archaeological฀and฀ship฀models.฀Construction฀of฀ships฀in฀those฀sources฀will฀be฀
examined฀on฀basic฀parts฀which฀could฀be฀considered฀typical฀for฀a฀speciic฀technique:฀
•฀
The฀keel฀and฀its฀connection฀to฀the฀garboard,฀the฀stem฀and฀the฀sternpost
•฀
The฀strakes,฀their฀connection฀to฀each฀other฀and฀to฀the฀stems;฀lush฀or฀clinker฀built
•฀
The฀stem฀and฀the฀sternpost;฀the฀attachment฀of฀the฀rudder;฀the฀presence฀of฀false฀posts
•฀
Frame฀arrangement
•฀
The฀presence฀of฀stringers
•฀
The฀mast-step฀or฀keelson
•฀
The฀decking
•฀
Transverse฀beams฀and฀thwarts
The฀order฀in฀which฀the฀components฀are฀incorporated฀in฀the฀structure฀will฀be฀examined฀as฀well.฀Are฀
these฀ships฀being฀built฀shell-irst,฀making฀an฀‘empty’฀hull฀irst฀and฀afterwards฀illing฀it฀with฀frames฀
or฀is฀the฀common฀method฀more฀likely฀to฀be฀skeleton฀irst฀as฀the฀ribs฀shape฀the฀hull?฀The฀order฀of฀
assambly฀can฀be฀an฀indication฀of฀how฀ships฀were฀constructed฀in฀the฀past,฀as฀will฀be฀explained฀in฀this฀
chapter.
61
3.1 Arab ships, contacts and sightings
Much฀more฀is฀known฀about฀the฀Arab฀traders฀and฀their฀ships฀than฀there฀is฀from฀those฀on฀the฀East฀
African฀side฀off฀the฀Indian฀Ocean.฀Still,฀most฀literature฀about฀Arab฀ships฀holds฀nothing฀more฀than฀a฀
sighting,฀a฀mere฀description฀of฀the฀outside฀appearance฀of฀the฀vessel฀with฀on฀occasion฀a฀few฀details.฀
Actual฀descriptions฀of฀the฀building-process฀and฀construction฀of฀ships฀are฀extremely฀rare.฀
Prehistoric฀evidence฀from฀Mesopotamia฀dates฀back฀as฀far฀as฀the฀third฀millennium฀BC,฀like฀the฀Silver฀
model฀of฀a฀boat฀from฀Ur฀of฀c.2250฀BC฀(McGrail฀2001).฀Most฀ancient฀boats฀can฀be฀classiied฀as฀rafts,฀
reed฀bundles,฀dugouts฀or฀hides฀boats.฀These฀so-called฀primitive฀crafts฀are฀not฀considered฀in฀this฀
thesis.฀Only฀‘constructed’฀plank-built฀ships฀and฀changes฀in฀their฀technologies฀will฀be฀examined.฀
Connections฀between฀primitive฀crafts฀and฀subsequent฀construction฀additions฀will฀be฀briely฀
mentioned฀only.
The฀Egyption฀record,฀dating฀back฀to฀the฀spectacular฀ind฀of฀the฀Cheops฀ship฀of฀c.2550฀BC,฀will฀
also฀be฀left฀out฀of฀consideration.฀Though฀of฀a฀very฀complicated฀sewn฀construction,฀evidence฀of฀a฀
whole฀evolution฀leading฀up฀to฀this฀beautiful฀ceremonial฀ship,฀it฀is฀quite฀dificult฀to฀relate฀to฀the฀
dhows฀which฀are฀the฀subject฀here.฀Egypt฀might฀have฀gone฀through฀a฀different฀evolution฀with฀a฀focus฀
on฀the฀Nile฀rather฀than฀on฀the฀Red฀Sea฀side฀of฀the฀country.
By฀Arab฀ships฀and฀shipbuilding,฀the฀Arab฀countries฀of฀the฀Arabian฀peninsula฀together฀with฀
Kuwait฀and฀to฀a฀lesser฀extent฀Iran,฀Iraq฀and฀Pakistan฀are฀taken฀into฀consideration.฀The฀inhabitants฀of฀
that฀region฀consituted฀seafaring฀nations,฀they฀were฀traders฀in฀contact฀with฀East฀Africa,฀who฀migrated฀
there฀and฀who฀might฀have฀had฀an฀impact฀on฀the฀local฀shipbuilding฀industry.฀
3.1.1฀Descriptions฀dating฀from฀Roman฀and฀Greek฀times
The฀Arab฀merchants฀and฀their฀means฀were฀mentioned฀as฀early฀as฀two฀millennia฀ago฀in฀the฀Periplus฀
of฀the฀Eritrean฀Sea.฀According฀to฀the฀anonymous฀Greek฀author,฀the฀Arabs฀where฀peaceful฀traders,฀
to฀be฀found฀all฀over฀the฀shores฀of฀the฀African฀continent฀as฀far฀south฀as฀the฀town฀of฀Rhapta,฀near฀
Zanzibar฀(Hourani฀1951).฀Evidently฀they฀too,฀sailed฀in฀boats฀made฀of฀planks฀of฀imported฀teak฀from฀
India฀sewn฀together฀by฀palm฀ibre฀rope฀(McGrail฀2001)฀and฀built฀in฀Omana฀(Persia).
Material฀evidence฀of฀Greek฀and฀Roman฀merchants฀trading฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀comes฀from฀
coins฀found฀all฀over฀the฀Indian฀subcontinent฀(Begley฀1991,฀Hourani฀1951).฀During฀the฀irst฀century฀
AD,฀the฀trade฀between฀Rome฀and฀India฀was฀at฀its฀height.฀Many฀coins฀with฀emperor฀Nero’s฀head฀on฀
them฀(54-68฀AD)฀were฀recovered฀in฀India,฀dating฀from฀the฀time฀of฀the฀writing฀of฀the฀Periplus฀.
Natural฀History,฀a฀work฀by฀Pliny฀the฀Elder,฀published฀in฀77฀AD฀contained฀some฀information฀
on฀the฀shipping฀route฀between฀Rome฀and฀India฀as฀well,฀like฀that฀of฀geographer฀Ptolemy฀Claudius฀of฀
c.155฀AD฀(Hourani฀1951).฀By฀the฀middle฀of฀the฀second฀century฀the฀Greeks฀had฀a฀greater฀knowledge฀
of฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀than฀the฀writer฀of฀the฀Periplus.฀They฀were฀coasting฀their฀square฀rigged฀vessels฀
along฀the฀East฀African฀ports฀south฀towards฀Rhapta฀like฀the฀Arabs.฀African฀products฀made฀their฀way฀
into฀the฀Roman฀Empire฀since฀the฀reign฀of฀emperor฀Marcus฀Aurelius฀(161-180฀AD):฀ivory,฀rhinoceros฀
horn฀and฀tortoise฀shells฀(Hourani฀1951,฀Casson฀1984).
62
3.1.2฀A฀Greek฀shipwreck฀
No฀Arab฀wrecks฀from฀Greek฀and฀Roman฀times฀are฀known,฀but฀it฀is฀interesting฀to฀review฀an฀ancient฀
Greek฀merchant฀vessel฀found฀near฀Cyprus฀in฀the฀Mediterranean.฀The฀so฀called฀Kyrenian฀shipwreck฀
dates฀from฀about฀300฀BC฀(McGrail)฀and฀therefore฀predates฀the฀Periplus฀by฀a฀few฀hundred฀years.฀
It฀nevertheless฀holds฀a฀few฀interesting฀construction฀details.฀Excavated฀in฀the฀late฀1960s,฀it฀revealed฀
more฀than฀half฀of฀its฀hull฀which฀originally฀would฀have฀been฀about฀15฀metres฀in฀length.฀Part฀of฀the฀
cargo฀was฀preserved฀as฀well:฀amphorae฀and฀various฀other฀objects฀(Steffy฀1994).฀The฀strakes฀were฀
fastened฀by฀many฀mortise-and-tenon฀joints,฀spaced฀quite฀close฀
to฀each฀other฀(Steffy฀1994,฀McGrail฀2001).฀The฀garboard฀planks฀
were฀placed฀on฀top฀of฀the฀keel฀(ig.฀3.1)฀which฀is฀remarkably฀
different฀from฀the฀subsequent฀common฀practice฀of฀placing฀
them฀against฀the฀sides฀of฀the฀keel.฀The฀ship฀was฀double-ended2,฀
with฀the฀slightly฀curved฀sternpost฀resting฀half฀on฀top฀of฀the฀
keel฀(length:฀c.9.30m)฀strengthened฀by฀a฀separate฀knee-piece.฀
The฀stem฀was฀in฀itself฀a฀large฀knee฀connected฀to฀the฀rest฀of฀the฀
Fig.฀3.1฀Garboard฀with฀mortise-฀andtenon฀joint฀(Steffy฀1994,฀46).
keel฀by฀a฀hook฀scarf฀(Steffy฀1994).฀No฀frames฀were฀attached฀
to฀the฀keel.฀Floors฀and฀half-frames฀were฀made฀from฀naturally฀
grown฀timbers฀and฀placed฀alternating฀from฀one฀another.฀The฀
loor฀frames฀had฀futtocks฀placed฀above฀them,฀not฀connected฀but฀with฀a฀gap฀in฀between฀(ig.฀3.2).฀
The฀spacing฀between฀two฀loor฀frames฀was฀approximately฀50฀centimetres฀measured฀center-to-center฀
(Steffy฀1994).฀All฀frames฀were฀nailed฀to฀the฀hull฀planking฀by฀driving฀the฀nails฀though฀from฀the฀
outside฀and฀clenched฀on฀the฀inside.
The฀garboard฀strake฀consisted฀of฀two฀parts,฀connected฀by฀a฀diagonal฀scarf,฀also฀secured฀by฀
mortise-and-tenon฀joints.฀The฀loor฀frames฀were฀itted฀in฀in฀a฀relatively฀early฀stage฀right฀after฀the฀
irst฀few฀bottom฀strakes.฀The฀half-frames฀needed฀a฀irm฀footing฀in฀the฀lower฀hull฀before฀they฀could฀
be฀placed.
The฀ship฀was฀probably฀square฀rigged฀and฀manoeuvred฀by฀a฀steering฀oar,฀which฀according฀to฀
Agius฀would฀explain฀why฀it฀was฀double-ended฀(2002,฀134).฀฀Ships฀supposedly฀needed฀the฀space฀at฀
the฀narrow฀stern฀to฀accomodate฀a฀steering฀oar.
3.1.3฀Pre-Islamic฀times฀and฀early฀medieval฀wrecks
After฀the฀Roman฀Empire฀declined฀not฀much฀is฀written฀
about฀the฀Arabs฀until฀Islamic฀times฀(Hourani฀1951).฀
There฀are฀some฀Chinese฀records฀of฀sea฀trade฀between฀
China,฀India,฀East฀Africa฀and฀Syria฀and฀there฀seems฀
to฀be฀seafaring฀among฀Persians,฀Greeks,฀Abyssinians฀
and฀Somali’s฀(also฀called฀‘Barbarians’)฀but฀there฀is฀no฀
mention฀of฀the฀Arabian฀peninsula.฀Hourani฀(1951)฀
Fig.฀3.2฀Construction฀of฀the฀฀Kyrenian฀shipwreck฀
suggests฀there฀may฀have฀been฀an฀economic฀decline฀in฀ McGrail฀1994,฀150).
63
the฀region฀in฀the฀6th฀century฀AD.฀
Only฀one฀shipwreck฀in฀the฀Red฀Sea฀dating฀to฀this฀period฀is฀known.฀฀This฀ifteen฀hundred฀year฀
old฀wreck฀was฀found฀near฀the฀coast฀of฀Eritrea฀and฀investigated฀in฀1997฀(Petersen฀2000).฀The฀survey฀
was฀inconclusive฀as฀the฀subsequent฀research฀was฀cancelled฀due฀to฀war฀in฀the฀region.฀The฀origins฀and฀
destination฀of฀the฀ship฀remain฀unknown฀so฀far,฀but฀the฀site฀shows฀great฀promise฀for฀the฀future฀once฀
the฀research฀will฀be฀continued.฀The฀ship’s฀cargo฀consisted฀mainly฀of฀Byzantine฀amphorae,฀but฀
unfortunately฀nothing฀is฀known฀about฀
its฀construction.
In฀the฀eastern฀Mediterranean฀Sea฀
several฀wrecks฀have฀been฀found,฀among฀
which฀a฀few฀on฀the฀Turkish฀south-coast฀
near฀a฀rocky฀little฀island฀called฀Yassi฀Ada฀
(Steffy฀1994).฀One฀wreck฀dated฀from฀the฀
fourth฀century฀AD.฀It฀had฀mortise-andtenon฀joints฀like฀the฀Kyrenian฀one,฀
though฀more฀widely฀spaced.฀It฀showed฀
an฀alternating฀pattern฀of฀loors฀and฀halfframes.฀Not฀much฀else฀is฀known฀about฀
it,฀but฀another฀wreck฀dated฀from฀about฀
625฀AD฀is฀more฀complete฀and฀as฀a฀result฀
much฀more฀informative.฀The฀latter฀still฀
Fig.฀3.3฀Construction฀of฀the฀฀Yassi฀Ada฀wreck;฀a฀and฀b:฀loor฀frames,฀ had฀the฀mortise-and-tenon฀joints฀but฀
c:฀section฀with฀futtocks฀(Steffy฀1994,฀82).
even฀more฀widely฀spaced.฀The฀building฀
method฀using฀this฀type฀of฀joints฀went฀
out฀of฀practice฀completely฀by฀the฀early฀eleventh฀century.฀
The฀seventh฀century฀Yassi฀Ada฀wreck฀was฀a฀20฀metre฀long฀Byzantine฀wine฀carrier,฀excavated฀in฀
the฀early฀1960s฀by฀Professor฀Bass.฀The฀ship฀was฀double-ended,฀again฀with฀an฀alternating฀framing฀
pattern฀(ig.฀3.3).฀The฀frames฀were฀nailed฀to฀the฀planking฀from฀the฀outside,฀but฀the฀nails฀did฀not฀
reach฀all฀the฀way฀through฀to฀the฀inside.฀The฀keel฀was฀connected฀to฀the฀curved฀stem฀and฀sternposts฀by฀
Fig.฀3.4฀Half฀model฀of฀the฀Yassi฀Ada฀ship฀(Steffy฀1994,฀83).
64
a฀hook฀scarf.฀A฀keelson฀and฀ceiling฀planking฀were฀itted฀on฀the฀inside฀(ig.฀3.4).
Ship-construction฀in฀the฀Mediterranean฀may฀not฀have฀had฀inluence฀on฀the฀way฀Arabs฀
constructed฀their฀ships฀nor฀may฀there฀have฀been฀any฀connection฀or฀diffusion.฀It฀could฀however฀point฀
to฀a฀general฀building฀practice฀based฀upon฀a฀logical฀assembly฀technique.฀
Post-dating฀wrecks,฀like฀the฀Serçe฀Limani฀one฀(1025฀AD)฀also฀found฀south฀of฀Turkey,฀were฀
different฀in฀construction.฀
3.1.4฀Early฀Centuries฀of฀the฀Islam฀(7th฀to฀9th฀century)฀
In฀the฀seventh฀century฀AD฀the฀Islamic฀religion฀came฀into฀existence.฀With฀it,฀a฀frontier฀rose฀between฀
the฀Christian฀North฀of฀the฀Mediterranean฀and฀the฀Islamic฀Arab฀countries.฀These฀were฀the฀two฀great฀
religions฀of฀the฀time.฀Islam฀spread฀fast฀across฀the฀Arabian฀peninsula,฀the฀surrounding฀countries฀and฀
all฀the฀way฀across฀Northern฀Africa,฀while฀Europe฀fell฀into฀the฀‘dark’฀early฀medieval฀times.฀For฀several฀
centuries฀to฀come฀Arab฀society฀prospered฀and฀their฀culture฀developed฀in฀many฀directions:฀travel,฀
commerce,฀literature,฀geography,฀history฀and฀warfare.฀Trafic฀between฀the฀Gulf,฀the฀Red฀Sea฀and฀East฀
Africa฀revived฀and฀Arabs฀occupied฀the฀coasts฀around฀the฀Persian฀Gulf฀(Hourani฀1951).฀In฀contrast฀
to฀earlier฀times฀when฀the฀Gulf฀was฀infested฀with฀Indian฀pirates,฀the฀Arabs฀could฀trade฀freely฀now.
During฀the฀reign฀of฀the฀Umayyad฀caliphs฀(660-749฀AD)฀and฀the฀‘Abbasids฀(750-870฀AD)฀the฀
Arab฀world฀was฀united฀with฀the฀exception฀of฀Spain฀and฀Northern฀Africa.฀Naval฀bases,฀shipyards,฀
docks฀and฀shipbuilders฀were฀required฀to฀fulil฀the฀demands฀of฀ever฀growing฀maritime฀aspirations.฀
Ships฀were฀built฀in฀Siraf฀and฀Basra฀in฀Mesopotamia฀(Hourani฀1951).฀Wood฀for฀these฀and฀for฀
houses฀has฀always฀been฀scarce฀in฀the฀region,฀so฀teak฀was฀imported฀from฀India,฀coconut฀wood฀from฀
the฀Maldives฀and฀other฀types฀of฀wood฀from฀East฀Africa.฀
The฀Arabs฀also฀imported฀slaves฀for฀their฀labour฀from฀East฀Africa฀known฀as฀the฀Zanj฀
(Trimingham฀1975),฀which฀resulted฀in฀the฀great฀slave฀rebellion฀of฀869฀in฀Mesopotamia฀(de฀Vere฀
Allen฀1993).฀After฀that฀the฀slave฀trade฀came฀to฀a฀temporary฀halt.
Not฀much฀is฀known฀about฀the฀ships฀the฀Arabs฀sailed฀in฀the฀early฀
centuries฀of฀the฀Islam.฀They฀must฀have฀had฀quite฀a฀large฀number฀
of฀them.฀The฀early฀slave฀trade฀alone฀provided฀so฀many฀slaves฀
their฀rebellion฀shook฀the฀nation’s฀foundations.฀Wood฀must฀
have฀been฀another฀cargo฀transported฀by฀sea฀in฀large฀amounts,฀
probably฀like฀many฀other฀utilitarian฀or฀luxury฀items.฀Neither฀
indigenous฀nor฀European฀wrecks฀are฀known฀from฀the฀Western฀
Indian฀Ocean฀region฀of฀this฀period,฀but฀iconographic฀evidence฀
is฀the฀cause฀of฀much฀debate฀about฀the฀sail.
Sometime฀in฀the฀early฀medieval฀times,฀or฀even฀in฀the฀late฀
Roman฀Empire,฀the฀square฀sail฀made฀way฀for฀the฀triangular฀or฀
‘lateen’฀sail.฀A฀type฀of฀lug฀sail฀including฀a฀short฀luff3฀has฀probably฀
been฀in฀use฀in฀the฀Mediterranean฀Sea฀for฀1700฀years฀(LeBaron฀
Fig.฀3.5฀Picture฀on฀the฀tomb฀of฀
Bowen฀1956).฀The฀lateen฀sail฀supposedly฀is฀a฀logical฀result฀of฀the฀ Alexander฀of฀Miletus฀(Casson฀1996,฀49).
65
fore฀and฀aft฀setting฀of฀the฀square฀sail฀(Brindley฀1926).฀
Square฀sails฀are฀notoriously฀unhelpful฀when฀sailing฀close฀to฀the฀wind.฀
Therefore฀the฀upper฀halyard฀(some฀square฀sails฀had฀a฀lower฀one฀as฀well)฀
was฀brought฀forward฀and฀down฀and฀fastened฀to฀the฀front฀of฀the฀ship,฀
in฀the฀process฀creating฀a฀lug฀sail.฀The฀next฀step฀obviously฀was฀to฀make฀
the฀sail฀and฀the฀yard฀triangular฀to฀it฀that฀purpose฀right฀away.฀The฀luff฀is฀
seen฀as฀a฀left-over฀step฀in฀the฀evolutionary฀process.
Although฀the฀lateen฀has฀been฀the฀typical฀point฀of฀recognition฀for฀
Fig.฀3.6฀Byzantine฀ship฀
(Brindley฀1926)
dhows฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean,฀there฀seems฀to฀be฀no฀proof฀the฀Arabs฀were฀
using฀it฀before฀the฀Portuguese฀arrived฀in฀the฀sixteenth฀century฀(LeBaron฀Bowen฀1956).฀Iconographic฀
evidence฀for฀a฀lateen฀sail฀in฀the฀Mediterranean฀is฀possibly฀as฀old฀as฀the฀boat฀on฀the฀tombstone฀of฀
Alexander฀of฀Miletus,฀from฀the฀second฀century฀AD.฀The฀icon฀in฀igure฀3.5฀likely฀shows฀a฀lateen฀sail฀
with฀a฀luff.฀Roman฀and฀Greek฀ships฀are฀nevertheless฀much฀more฀commonly฀depicted฀with฀a฀square฀
sail฀which฀is฀therefore฀thought฀to฀be฀the฀predominant฀type฀(Casson฀1996).฀
The฀presence฀of฀the฀lateen฀sail฀as฀early฀as฀Roman฀times฀in฀the฀Mediterranean฀does฀not฀prove฀
they฀were฀using฀it฀before฀the฀Arabs฀did.฀It฀remains฀unclear฀whether฀the฀triangular฀sail฀developed฀in฀
the฀two฀regions฀independently฀as฀the฀logical฀result฀of฀the฀use฀of฀a฀square฀sail,฀or฀if฀some฀sort฀of฀
diffusional฀process฀is฀to฀be฀imagined.฀In฀the฀Mediterranean฀the฀lateen฀further฀developed฀into฀a฀
triangular฀sail฀without฀a฀luff฀(Hourani฀1951)฀as฀the฀picture฀of฀a฀Byzantine฀ship฀of฀880฀AD฀testiies฀to฀
(ig.฀3.6).
3.1.5฀Islamic฀Prosperity฀(10th฀to฀15th฀century)
Some฀accounts฀of฀travellers฀by฀sea฀are฀known฀from฀the฀ninth฀century,฀but฀from฀the฀tenth฀century฀
onwards฀the฀geographic฀descriptions฀of฀distant฀corners฀of฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀appeared฀in฀writing.฀
This฀made฀the฀Arabs฀of฀those฀days฀famous.฀In฀c.947฀the฀geographer฀Al-Mas’udi฀reported฀as฀one฀of฀
the฀irst฀his฀description฀of฀India฀and฀Africa฀(Hourani฀1951,฀Tibbetts฀1971,฀Trimingham฀1975).฀He฀
noted฀that฀“the฀seawater฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean4฀corrodes฀iron฀and฀nails฀grow฀weak”฀(Hourani฀1951),฀
adding฀to฀the฀myth฀that฀all฀Arab฀ships฀were฀sewn฀and฀totally฀without฀iron.฀At฀the฀same฀time,฀this฀
conirms฀they฀knew฀about฀the฀use฀of฀nails฀in฀shipbuilding.฀Hourani฀(1951)฀added฀that฀a฀simple฀
shortage฀of฀iron฀might฀have฀made฀sewn฀ships฀a฀lot฀cheaper฀than฀their฀nailed฀counterparts.฀It฀could฀
be฀argued฀however,฀they฀might฀as฀easily฀have฀acquired฀it฀by฀trading฀whenever฀desired.฀
Other฀authors฀soon฀followed,฀but฀as฀the฀descriptions฀of฀ancient฀lands฀accumulated,฀not฀much฀
information฀about฀the฀ships฀they฀travelled฀with฀was฀added.฀The฀Islam฀expanded฀towards฀the฀south฀
from฀Ethiopia฀in฀the฀ninth฀century฀along฀with฀the฀use฀of฀iron฀(de฀Vere฀Allen฀1993)฀and฀in฀the฀tenth฀
century฀Egypt฀gradually฀replaced฀Mesopotamia฀as฀the฀center฀of฀the฀Islamic฀world.
In฀the฀twelfth฀century฀the฀works฀of฀the฀famous฀author฀al-Idrisi฀provided฀a฀lot฀of฀information.฀
He฀was฀the฀irst฀to฀mention฀a฀‘jahazi’฀in฀1165฀AD฀as฀a฀trading฀vessel,฀although฀he฀does฀not฀state฀its฀
location฀(Agius฀2002,฀97).฀Al-Idrisi฀also฀tells฀of฀small฀whales฀being฀caught฀in฀all฀regions฀of฀the฀
Nothern฀Indian฀Ocean฀and฀their฀oil฀being฀used฀to฀plug฀holes฀in฀a฀ship’s฀hull฀(Hourani฀1951).฀
66
Supposedly฀this฀substance฀prevents฀attacks฀by฀ship-worms.฀Another฀twelfth฀century฀traveller,฀IbnJubayr,฀noted฀coating฀of฀ships฀was฀done฀with฀ish-oil฀and฀the฀shark’s฀oil฀was฀the฀best.
From฀about฀1250฀onwards฀many฀South฀Arabian฀Arabs,฀mainly฀from฀the฀Hadhramaut5฀started฀
to฀migrate฀to฀other฀parts฀of฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean฀(Martin฀1975).฀The฀causes฀were฀probably฀
drought,฀famines฀and฀seasonal฀loods฀or฀political฀upheavals.฀฀฀
A฀irst฀iconographic฀image฀of฀an฀Arab฀ship฀appears฀in฀the฀thirteenth฀century฀in฀the฀shape฀of฀
the฀Hariri฀ship฀(ig.฀3.7).฀This฀gives,฀to฀some฀detail,฀an฀impression฀of฀what฀a฀ship฀in฀the฀Indian฀
Ocean฀in฀late฀medieval฀times฀could฀have฀looked฀like.฀The฀fact฀the฀merchants฀on฀the฀vessel฀seemed฀to฀
be฀Persian,฀and฀not฀originating฀from฀Arabia,฀could฀be฀the฀explanation฀as฀to฀why฀the฀ship฀is฀depicted฀
at฀all,฀as฀Muslims฀normally฀avoid฀having฀their฀image฀portrayed฀(Cuyvers฀2003).฀On฀close฀inspection฀
the฀ship฀seems฀to฀be฀sewn,฀shown฀by฀the฀little฀vertical฀pairs฀of฀stripes฀across฀the฀strakes฀on฀the฀hull.฀
Two฀of฀the฀sailors฀are฀bailing,฀what฀conirms฀the฀last฀observation,฀for฀sewn฀ships฀supposedly฀leaked฀
all฀the฀time฀(Sullivan฀1873,฀103).฀
Marco฀Polo,฀a฀European฀traveller,฀writes฀about฀the฀ships฀he฀encounters฀on฀the฀shores฀of฀the฀
Indian฀Ocean฀in฀the฀thirteenth฀century6฀(Martin฀1978):฀
“These฀ships฀are฀wretched฀affairs,฀and฀many฀of฀them฀get฀lost,฀for฀they฀have฀no฀iron฀fastenings,฀and฀are฀only฀stitched฀
together฀with฀twine฀made฀from฀the฀husk฀of฀the฀Indian฀nut.฀They฀beat฀this฀husk฀until฀it฀becomes฀horse-hair,฀and฀
from฀that฀they฀spin฀twine,฀and฀with฀this฀stitch฀the฀planks฀of฀the฀ships฀together.฀It฀keeps฀well,฀and฀is฀not฀corroded฀by฀
seawater,฀but฀it฀will฀not฀stand฀well฀in฀a฀storm.฀These฀ships฀are฀not฀pitched,฀but฀are฀rubbed฀with฀ish-oil.฀They฀have฀
one฀mast,฀one฀sail,฀and฀one฀rudder,฀and฀have฀no฀deck,฀but฀only฀a฀cover฀spread฀over฀the฀cargo฀when฀loaded.฀This฀
cover฀consists฀of฀hides,฀and฀on฀top฀of฀the฀hides฀they฀put฀the฀horses฀which฀they฀take฀to฀India฀for฀sale.฀They฀have฀no฀
iron฀to฀make฀nails฀of,฀and฀for฀this฀reason฀they฀use฀only฀wooden฀treenails฀in฀their฀shipbuilding,฀and฀then฀stitch฀the฀
planks฀with฀twine฀as฀I฀have฀told฀you.฀Hence฀‘tis฀a฀perilous฀business฀to฀go฀and฀voyage฀in฀one฀of฀these฀ships฀and฀
many฀of฀them฀are฀lost฀in฀that฀Sea฀of฀India.”฀
The฀Hariri฀ship฀testiies฀to฀most฀of฀Polo’s฀remarks.฀The฀picture฀further฀shows฀a฀double-ended฀ship฀
with฀a฀stern฀rudder฀and฀a฀steering฀oar,฀a฀lookout฀in฀the฀center฀mast฀which฀does฀not฀have฀a฀sail,฀two฀
(?)฀square฀sails฀on฀the฀front฀mast฀and฀a฀grapnel฀anchor฀(Hourani฀1951).฀The฀passengers฀seemed฀to฀
be฀located฀on฀a฀lower฀deck฀or฀in฀the฀cargo฀hold.฀A฀small฀cabin฀is฀placed฀in฀front฀of฀the฀center฀mast.฀
The฀sails฀are฀controlled฀by฀the฀man฀who฀is฀possibly฀the฀captain฀and฀three฀or฀four฀other฀sailors.฀
The฀stern฀rudder฀is฀cause฀for฀another฀debate.฀Who฀irst฀invented฀the฀stern฀rudder?฀Again฀the฀
possibilities฀seem฀to฀be฀limited฀to฀the฀Europeans฀or฀the฀Arabs.฀The฀Arabs฀obviously฀used฀it฀during฀
the฀thirteenth฀century,฀but฀Johnstone฀and฀Muir฀(1962)฀point฀out฀that฀Marco฀Polo฀might฀have฀seen฀
a฀steering฀oar.฀They฀also฀claim฀that฀the฀stern฀rudder฀remained฀unknown฀in฀the฀Mediterranean฀
until฀the฀North฀Europeans฀introduced฀it฀in฀the฀fourteenth฀century.฀Then฀LeBaron฀Bowen฀(1963)฀
points฀out฀that฀the฀Hariri฀ship฀was฀not฀taken฀into฀account฀by฀Johnstone฀and฀Muir฀and฀that฀it฀might฀
be฀noted฀the฀rudder฀on฀the฀Hariri฀ship฀hangs฀on฀the฀stern฀by฀three฀lashes.฀This฀type฀of฀rudder฀
attachment฀was฀quite฀common,฀especially฀among฀sewn฀ships.฀The฀practice฀is฀still฀in฀use฀today,฀as฀is฀
visible฀on฀the฀Tumbatu฀dau฀described฀in฀the฀previous฀chapter.฀The฀thirteenth฀century฀variant฀merely฀
differs฀by฀the฀lack฀of฀a฀tiller.฀LeBaron฀Bowen฀(1963)฀suggests฀the฀medieval฀rudder฀was฀probably฀
67
moved฀by฀ropes,฀but฀this฀hypothesis฀seems฀to฀lack฀evidence฀completely.฀Muir’s฀(1965)฀answer฀points฀
to฀the฀oar฀seen฀next฀to฀the฀rudder,฀although฀he฀refrains฀from฀making฀any฀further฀statements฀about฀
it.฀In฀stead฀Muir฀suggests฀the฀artist฀could฀not฀possibly฀be฀a฀sailor฀himself฀and฀further฀study฀of฀the฀
Hariri฀ship฀is฀needed.฀So,฀a฀deinite฀solution฀to฀the฀rudder-enigma฀remains฀for฀now7.
Fig.฀3.7฀Hariri฀
ship฀(Cuyvers฀
2003)
3.1.6฀European฀Interference
The฀arrival฀of฀Vasco฀da฀Gama฀in฀1498฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀had฀a฀large฀impact฀on฀people’s฀lives฀there฀
and฀on฀the฀movements฀of฀the฀peaceful฀Arab฀traders.฀They฀and฀their฀trade฀were฀constrained฀by฀the฀
Portuguese฀in฀the฀sixteenth฀century฀(Martin฀1980)฀and฀later฀on฀by฀other฀European฀naval฀powers,฀
although฀it฀never฀stopped฀them฀entirely.฀By฀1512฀the฀Portuguese฀had฀taken฀control฀over฀the฀whole฀
of฀the฀East฀African฀coast฀(Martin฀1978)฀and฀had฀started฀building฀their฀own฀ships฀on฀the฀Indian฀
Malabar฀coast฀and฀in฀Persia฀(Green฀19968).฀It฀is฀generally฀believed฀they฀introduced฀new฀shipbuilding฀
techniques฀to฀the฀region฀which฀were฀either฀previously฀unknown฀or฀unused฀by฀the฀Arabs:
The฀use฀of฀nails฀(Hornell฀1942,฀LeBaron฀Bowen฀1949,฀Johnstone฀and฀Muir฀1962,฀Adams฀1985,฀
Prados฀1997,฀McGrail฀2001)฀is฀often฀mentioned฀as฀the฀most฀innovative฀change฀and฀the฀one฀with฀the฀
largest฀impact.฀Arabs฀continued฀to฀build฀in฀their฀old฀shell-irst฀building฀tradition,฀accustomed฀to฀
68
them฀because฀of฀the฀sewn฀ships฀they฀supposedly฀
used฀for฀such฀a฀long฀time.฀The฀strakes฀were฀
fastened฀by฀nails฀and฀the฀frames฀were฀put฀in฀
afterwards.฀Green฀(1996)฀disagrees฀by฀quoting฀
Moreland9,฀who฀speaks฀of฀an฀indigenous฀leet฀
built฀in฀Goa฀(India)฀in฀1509฀to฀attack฀the฀
Portuguese.฀They฀were฀defeated฀by฀the฀
Portuguese,฀who฀in฀turn฀captured฀the฀shipyards฀
and฀later฀made฀an฀account฀of฀inding฀nails฀there.฀
Green฀argues฀it฀is฀unlikely฀that฀only฀eleven฀years฀
after฀Da฀Gama’s฀arrival฀ships฀were฀built฀with฀
nails,฀concluding฀they฀probably฀had฀them฀much฀
earlier.฀It฀is฀possible฀that฀the฀use฀of฀nails฀was฀
simply฀never฀mentioned฀before.฀Hawkins฀(1977)฀ Fig.฀3.8฀View฀on฀the฀aft฀ship฀of฀the฀batil฀model฀(Courtesy฀
dismisses฀the฀matter฀by฀stating฀that฀there฀is฀no฀ of฀the฀Science฀Museum,฀photo฀by฀the฀author).
proof฀that฀nails฀have฀been฀introduced฀much฀
earlier.฀McGrail฀(2001)฀nuances฀his฀opinion฀by฀
saying฀there฀could฀not฀have฀been฀a฀direct฀
transfer฀of฀technology฀because฀late฀ifteenthcentury฀European฀ships฀were฀skeleton-irst฀built฀
and฀did฀not฀use฀iron฀nails฀to฀fasten฀the฀planking.฀
Just฀the฀“boats฀carried฀by฀the฀European฀ships฀
Fig.฀3.9฀Steering฀gear฀on฀a฀ballam฀according฀to฀Moore฀
might฀have฀been฀shell-irst฀built฀with฀their฀edges฀ (1920).
fastened฀by฀nails”.
The฀transom฀stern฀(Hornell฀1942,฀
LeBaron฀Bowen฀1949,฀Hourani฀1951,฀McGrail฀
2001)฀is฀another฀elusive฀feature฀of฀Arab฀ships฀
commonly฀accepted฀as฀being฀a฀Portuguese฀
innovation.฀Green฀(1996)฀again฀disagrees฀and฀
states฀this฀is฀an฀Eurocentric฀view฀of฀events.฀He฀
examined฀an฀atlas฀dating฀from฀1519฀and฀found฀
Arab฀ships฀were฀already฀portrayed฀with฀transom฀
sterns฀by฀that฀time.฀This฀seems฀a฀very฀fast฀
Fig.฀3.10฀Red฀Sea฀batello฀(Nance฀1920).
adaptation฀of฀a฀supposedly฀completely฀new฀
construction฀technique฀that฀it฀can฀be฀considered฀unlikely฀indeed,฀although฀not฀impossible.฀The฀
Arabs฀continued฀to฀build฀many฀ships฀like฀the฀Boom฀without฀a฀stern฀even฀to฀the฀present฀day.฀Like฀the฀
use฀of฀nails฀these฀innovations฀were฀probably฀used฀alongside฀each฀other฀at฀least฀from฀the฀sixteenth฀
century฀until฀the฀twentieth฀century.
LeBaron฀Bowen฀(1963)฀and฀Johnstone฀and฀Muir฀(1962)฀name฀the฀tiller฀as฀another฀European฀
69
invention฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean.฀At฀least฀on฀some฀Arab฀ships฀the฀stern฀rudder฀was฀moved฀with฀ropes.฀
Figure฀3.8฀shows฀the฀steering฀arrangement฀of฀a฀batil฀as฀observed฀on฀a฀ship฀model฀acquired฀by฀the฀
Science฀Museum฀in฀1929฀from฀the฀Indian฀Museum.฀The฀same฀device฀was฀irst฀described฀by฀Pâris฀
(Hornell฀1942,฀see฀igure฀3.16)฀in฀184110,฀Moore฀(1920)฀observed฀it฀early฀in฀the฀twentieth฀century฀on฀
a฀double-ended฀ballam฀(ig.฀3.9)฀and฀฀Nance฀(1920)฀on฀a฀Red฀Sea฀batello11฀(ig.฀3.10).
Sean฀McGrail฀(2001)฀mentions฀the฀head฀sail฀as฀a฀new฀feature฀to฀the฀Arabs,฀also฀introduced฀in฀
the฀same฀period.฀It฀is฀visible฀on฀the฀replica฀of฀a฀medieval฀bum12฀by฀Tim฀Severin฀(1985;฀ig.฀3.11),฀
although฀that฀was฀modelled฀after฀surveys฀and฀illustrations฀of฀bums฀in฀the฀nineteenth฀and฀twentieth฀
centuries.
All฀these฀innovations฀seem฀to฀be฀questionable.฀It฀is฀dificult฀to฀determine฀if฀any฀of฀them฀will฀
be฀revealed฀on฀a฀wreck฀once฀one฀is฀ever฀found.฀Nance฀(1914)฀examining฀the฀Arab฀ships฀came฀to฀the฀
conclusion฀that฀‘more฀than฀half฀is฀European฀about฀the฀ship’฀and฀identiied฀European฀features฀
everywhere.฀Truth฀probably฀is฀that฀the฀Arab฀leet฀in฀the฀past฀probably฀was,฀and฀still฀is,฀of฀a฀very฀
mixed฀composition฀with฀ships฀of฀all฀sizes,฀shapes฀and฀functions,฀depending฀on฀factors฀like฀demand,฀
overseas฀relations฀(which฀varied฀through฀time)฀and฀fashion.฀The฀question฀remains฀whether฀they฀
were฀all฀constructed฀in฀as฀many฀different฀ways฀as฀well.฀The฀outward฀appearance฀could฀be฀different฀
while฀assembly฀methods฀are฀the฀same.฀This฀hypothesis฀will฀be฀tested฀by฀examining฀the฀construction฀
in฀detail.฀Do฀constructions฀show฀the฀Arabs฀copied฀European฀shipbuilding฀techniques?฀Or฀is฀it฀
indeed฀just฀the฀outward฀appearance฀they฀copied?฀Are฀Arab฀ships฀constructed฀in฀a฀similar฀way฀even฀
though฀they฀look฀very฀different?฀Is฀there฀reason฀to฀believe฀something฀like฀an฀‘Arab฀way’฀of฀
constructing฀a฀ship฀exists฀and฀is฀widely฀practised?฀
The฀arrival฀of฀the฀Portuguese฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀most฀likely฀did฀not฀cause฀a฀revolution฀in฀
shipbuilding฀there฀as฀Hornell฀(1942)฀claims,฀but฀probably฀made฀the฀Arab฀leet฀even฀more฀diverse.
According฀to฀Hourani฀(1951),฀with฀all฀the฀evidence฀put฀together,฀the฀Arab฀ships฀of฀late฀medieval฀
times฀could฀be฀
‘distinguished’฀by฀two฀
features:฀the฀manner฀in฀
which฀the฀planks฀were฀
sewn฀together฀and฀the฀
fore฀and฀aft฀set฀of฀the฀
sails.
Furthermore฀
these฀ships฀were฀
probably฀double-ended,฀
as฀this฀could฀more฀easily฀
accommodate฀a฀steering฀
oar฀(Johnstone฀and฀
Muir฀1962,฀Prados฀
Fig.฀3.11฀The฀replica฀of฀an฀Omani฀Bum฀made฀by฀Tim฀severin฀(McGrail฀2001,฀81).
70
1997).฀There฀is฀however฀
a฀risk฀the฀irst฀hypothesis฀does฀not฀hold฀when฀tested.฀The฀Arab฀writers,฀like฀other฀authors฀might฀not฀
have฀taken฀notice฀of฀ships฀that฀were฀in฀their฀eyes฀made฀in฀a฀‘normal’฀manner:฀nailed.฀They฀might฀
only฀have฀written฀down฀observations฀they฀thought฀were฀extraordinary.฀Types฀of฀ships฀named฀in฀
medieval฀literature฀are:฀sanbuq฀(see฀Ch.฀3.1.4)฀as฀being฀a฀small฀Red฀Sea฀craft,฀the฀jalbah฀and฀the฀
barijah฀(an฀Indian฀pirate฀vessel).฀The฀zawraq,฀dunij฀and฀qarib฀are฀names฀of฀small฀boats฀(Hourani฀
1951).฀Their฀construction฀is฀described฀as฀a฀keel฀that฀is฀lain฀on฀the฀ground฀and฀strakes฀are฀sewn฀to฀it.฀
There฀is฀no฀mention฀of฀฀ribs,฀but฀as฀Hourani฀remarked฀medieval฀ships฀probably฀would฀have฀had฀
them,฀if฀they฀were฀to฀cross฀any฀large฀body฀of฀open฀water.
3.1.7฀Arab฀Ships฀seen฀by฀European฀eyes฀in฀the฀nineteenth฀century
By฀the฀late฀eighteenth฀and฀the฀early฀nineteenth฀century,฀descriptions฀of฀native฀vessels฀seen฀by฀
European฀travellers฀and฀traders฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀became฀more฀frequent.฀John฀Edye฀published฀
his฀descriptions฀of฀Indian฀vessels฀in฀1833฀(Hornell฀1926,฀Hawkins฀1977),฀followed฀by฀E.F.฀Pâris฀with฀
‘Essai฀sur฀la฀construction฀navale฀des฀peuples฀extra-europées’฀in฀1841฀(Hornell฀1942,฀LeBaron฀Bowen฀
1952,฀Hawkins฀1977,฀Agius฀2002),฀Guillain฀in฀1856฀(Guillain฀1856,฀Martin฀1978)฀and฀Captain฀
Sullivan฀in฀1873฀(Sullivan฀1873a฀and฀1873b,฀Nance฀1914).฀There฀were฀other฀writers13฀but฀as฀they฀all฀
merely฀show฀pictures฀and฀descriptions฀of฀the฀outwards฀appearance฀of฀these฀vessels,฀the฀ones฀stated฀
above฀will฀be฀suficient฀for฀a฀general฀impression.
The฀authors฀described฀several฀ships,฀giving฀them฀names฀that฀differed,฀but฀in฀general฀supplying฀
an฀฀interesting฀perspective฀on฀the฀Arab฀vessels฀of฀the฀Indian฀Ocean.฀Some฀of฀these฀ships฀must฀have฀
made฀a฀familiar฀view,฀especially฀from฀behind฀as฀they฀were฀chased฀by฀people฀like฀Sullivan,฀who฀were฀
sent฀there฀to฀control฀the฀by฀then฀illegal฀movements฀of฀Arab฀slave฀ships.฀In฀his฀amusing฀‘Dhow฀
chasing฀in฀Zanzibar฀Waters’฀(1873a)฀he฀gives฀an฀account฀of฀years฀of฀wandering฀the฀Western฀Indian฀
Ocean฀making฀sure฀the฀Arabs฀obliged฀the฀English฀rules฀of฀anti-slavery.฀In฀table฀3.1฀several฀authors฀
and฀the฀types฀of฀Arab฀ships฀they฀described฀are฀given.
Author
Period฀of฀observation
Types฀of฀Arab฀ships฀observed฀and฀drawn
Edye
1820s?
dow,฀baggala฀or฀budgerow
Pâris
1830s?
badan,฀garookuh,฀(sambuk,฀baghla)14฀
Guillain
1846-1848
bar’alla,฀zaarouka,฀chebar,฀beden
Sullivan
1860s
badane,฀bateele,฀bugala฀or฀dhow
Table฀3.1฀฀
A฀type฀of฀ship฀named฀by฀all฀of฀them,฀although฀spelled฀differently฀every฀time,฀is฀the฀baggala฀/฀
bar’alla฀/฀bugala฀/฀baghla.฀The฀baghla฀was฀a฀majestic฀ship฀to฀encounter,฀Hawkins฀(1977)฀called฀it฀‘the฀
aristocrat฀of฀all฀dhows’.฀Villiers฀(1940)฀adored฀these฀ships,฀every฀time฀he฀saw฀a฀baghla฀on฀his฀yearlong฀monsoon฀trip฀in฀1938-39.฀He฀even฀considered฀buying฀one฀just฀to฀preserve฀it฀as฀their฀number฀
was฀diminishing฀and฀there฀were฀only฀about฀50฀of฀them฀left฀in฀his฀days.฀A฀specimen฀he฀saw฀was฀
about฀200฀tons฀and฀an฀astonishing฀50฀years฀old,฀which฀may฀have฀been฀the฀reason฀it฀had฀virtually฀no฀
passengers.฀They฀tended฀to฀prefer฀the฀relative฀safety฀of฀a฀newer฀bum.฀The฀baghla฀is฀the฀traditional฀
71
Fig.฀3.12฀“Dow”฀as฀published฀by฀Edye฀in฀1833฀(Hornell฀1926).
deep-sea฀dhow฀of฀the฀Persian฀Gulf฀and฀Oman,฀with฀its฀most฀distinctive฀feature฀an฀elaborately฀
carved,฀transom฀stern฀with฀several฀windows15฀(Villiers฀1940).฀
Hornell฀(1926)฀tried฀to฀unravel฀the฀confusion฀about฀Edye’s฀so-called฀‘dow’฀by฀explaining฀it฀actually฀
is฀a฀baghla฀(ig.฀3.12).฀Hawkins฀(1977)฀dismisses฀Edye’s฀detailed฀drawing฀as฀unreliable฀because฀it฀
shows฀‘chain-plates฀and฀dead-eyes฀to฀secure฀shrouds฀on฀the฀outside’.฀He฀suggests฀all฀Edye’s฀drawings฀
were฀most฀likely฀made฀from฀a฀distance฀and฀that฀they฀were฀probably฀‘Europeanised’.฀Sullivan’s฀(1873)฀
picture฀of฀a฀‘bugala฀or฀dhow’฀shows฀a฀ship฀with฀a฀little฀different฀bow,฀although฀the฀carved฀stem-head฀
seems฀to฀be฀present฀in฀some฀form฀(ig.฀3.13).฀It฀also฀shows฀two฀masts,฀a฀quarterdeck฀and฀a฀transom฀
stern,฀features฀again฀to฀be฀recognised฀in฀Guillain’s฀฀picture฀(ig.฀3.14).฀Unfortunately฀the฀information฀
about฀the฀construction฀is฀minimal.฀The฀ship฀Edye฀called฀a฀baggala฀is฀also฀dismissed฀by฀Hornell฀
(1926),฀for฀this฀one฀may฀be฀a฀bum฀as฀it฀is฀double-ended.
The฀baghla฀is฀recorded฀as฀having฀been฀built฀in฀the฀nineteenth฀century฀at฀the฀Malabar฀coast,฀in฀
Kuwait฀until฀the฀early฀twentieth฀century฀(Agius฀2002)฀and฀in฀the฀1930s฀in฀Sur฀(Oman)฀(Villiers฀
1940).฀
One฀other฀type฀of฀ship฀that฀is฀named฀by฀at฀least฀three฀nineteenth฀century฀authors฀is฀the฀badan฀
/฀beden฀/฀badane.฀This฀type฀is฀classiied฀by฀Agius฀(2002)฀and฀Vosmer฀(1997)฀as฀one฀of฀the฀traditional฀
ishing฀crafts฀of฀Oman.฀Remarkably,฀it฀seems฀to฀have฀lost฀its฀sailing฀capability฀as฀these฀authors฀
observed฀it฀without฀a฀sail.฀Vosmer฀states฀only฀few฀remain฀nowadays฀of฀this฀double-ender,฀for฀the฀
badan฀was฀more฀widely฀spread฀across฀the฀
Gulf฀at฀the฀beginning฀of฀the฀twentieth฀
century.฀It฀is฀lush-built16฀with฀a฀long฀slim฀
hull฀and฀a฀double฀keel,฀having฀a฀‘sharp฀
needle-nose฀stern฀and฀a฀high฀sternpost฀
about฀ten฀to฀twelve฀feet฀above฀the฀ground’฀
(Agius฀2002).฀An฀interesting฀feature฀is฀the฀
sewn฀connection฀between฀the฀hull฀
planking฀and฀the฀stem฀and฀sternposts.฀
Pâris฀showed฀his฀beden฀being฀rowed฀(Agius฀
2002,฀102),฀but฀Sullivan฀depicted฀a฀large฀
Fig.฀3.13฀A฀baghla฀according฀to฀Sullivan฀(1873a฀and฀1873b)
one฀with฀a฀lateen฀sail฀(ig.฀3.15).฀Guillain฀
portrayed฀it฀beached฀and฀estimated฀their฀
72
tonnage฀at฀about฀15฀to฀20฀tons.฀
Compared฀to฀the฀present-day฀
variant,฀it฀used฀to฀be฀much฀
heavier.฀Furthermore,฀Pâris฀saw฀
the฀planks฀of฀small฀bedens฀being฀
sewn฀with฀coir฀when฀he฀visited฀
Muscat฀in฀the฀irst฀quarter฀of฀
the฀nineteenth฀century฀(Hornell฀
1942).฀It฀was฀then฀employed฀in฀
coastal฀trading฀and฀sometimes฀
even฀passenger฀transportation฀ Fig.฀3.14฀Baghla฀according฀to฀Guillain฀(Martin฀1978,฀5).
as฀well฀as฀ishing.
Guillain฀and฀Pâris฀seem฀to฀agree฀for฀most฀parts฀of฀
the฀garookuh฀or฀zaarouka฀despite฀the฀difference฀in฀names฀
(ig.฀3.16).฀Its฀most฀outstanding฀feature฀is฀the฀peculiar฀
way฀the฀rudder฀is฀handled.฀It฀differs฀from฀the฀badan฀by฀
the฀overhanging฀or฀‘grab’฀bow,฀the฀raked฀mast฀where฀the฀
badan฀has฀a฀vertical฀one฀and฀the฀fact฀that฀it฀is฀fully฀
decked.฀The฀latter฀prevents฀the฀present-day฀observer฀
from฀having฀a฀peek฀on฀the฀framing฀arrangement฀and฀
other฀parts฀of฀the฀interior.
Fortunately฀these฀images฀are฀not฀all฀that฀remain฀of฀ Fig.฀3.15฀A฀beden฀according฀to฀Sullivan฀(1873a฀and฀
the฀nineteenth฀century฀perceptions.฀Some฀travellers฀
1873b).
brought฀back฀models฀of฀the฀ships฀they฀had฀seen,฀some฀
built฀these฀themselves฀and฀some฀had฀
these฀models฀especially฀made฀for฀
them.฀On฀the฀occasion฀of฀the฀Grand฀
Exhibition฀of฀London฀in฀1851,฀
several฀models฀of฀ships฀were฀
commissioned฀in฀Bombay฀and฀sent฀
over฀from฀the฀Indian฀Ocean.฀Two฀of฀
these,฀called฀the฀Arab฀‘Baghla’฀and฀
the฀Arab฀‘Pirate฀dhow’฀together฀with฀
a฀somewhat฀more฀recent฀model฀of฀
an฀Arab฀‘zarûka’฀are฀in฀the฀
possession฀of฀the฀Science฀Museum฀
in฀South฀Kensington,฀London.฀They฀
will฀be฀discussed฀below.฀
The฀baghla฀on฀display฀in฀the฀ Fig.฀3.16฀Pâris’฀zaarouka฀(Hornell฀1942,฀28).
73
museum฀is฀a฀small฀model฀without฀many฀details.฀Being฀completely฀decked฀over฀prevents฀an฀
examination฀of฀the฀interior.฀The฀outside฀is฀plated฀with฀some฀kind฀of฀black฀painted฀metal.฀According฀
to฀the฀accompanying฀note฀in฀the฀ile฀of฀the฀model,฀it฀was฀built฀in฀the฀Bombay฀Dock฀Yard.฀The฀
anonymous฀writer฀may฀have฀been฀the฀person฀to฀order฀or฀pick฀up฀the฀model.฀The฀notes฀states:฀
“They฀carry฀three฀suits฀of฀sails฀of฀different฀sizes…The฀bugla฀is฀now฀almost฀the฀only฀kind฀of฀Vessel,฀used฀by฀the฀
Arabs฀for฀trading฀purposes฀to฀different฀ports,฀as฀they฀carry฀a฀large฀cargo…The฀bottom฀of฀the฀bugla฀is฀painted฀over฀
with฀a฀mixture฀of฀lime฀and฀tallow,฀for฀preservation฀against฀marine฀insects,฀but฀some฀of฀them฀are฀coppered…
Previous฀to฀the฀destruction฀of฀the฀Pirates฀in฀the฀Persian฀Gulf,฀in฀the฀year฀1819,฀the฀Pirates฀had฀many฀of฀this฀
description฀of฀vessel,฀some฀of฀which฀were฀as฀large฀as฀500฀tons฀carrying฀from฀10฀to฀14฀guns฀on฀deck฀which฀made฀
them฀formidable฀vessels.”
The฀approximate฀dimensions฀of฀an฀original฀baghla,฀taken฀from฀the฀model฀are฀given฀as:฀Tonnage:฀
about฀300฀tons;฀length฀over฀all฀120฀ft.฀(36.6฀m.);฀breadth฀25฀ft.฀(7.6฀m.);฀depth฀12฀ft.฀(3.7฀m.).
The฀pirates฀the฀writer฀speaks฀of฀in฀his฀note฀are฀said฀to฀have฀used฀a฀baghla฀for฀their฀activities฀
(Agius฀2002),฀but฀they฀may฀have฀modiied฀the฀design฀to฀accommodate฀their฀speciic฀needs.฀The฀
model17฀of฀the฀‘Arab฀Pirate฀Dhow’฀(ig.฀3.17)฀also฀has฀an฀accompanying฀note฀in฀the฀ile฀which฀says฀it฀
represents฀a฀vessel฀used฀by฀the฀Joaseme฀pirates,฀sailing฀from฀the฀West฀coast฀of฀Ras฀Jebel฀(Oman),฀at฀
the฀entrance฀of฀the฀Persian฀Gulf.฀It฀was฀also฀made฀at฀the฀Bombay฀Dock฀Yard฀prior฀to฀the฀Great฀
Exhibition฀in฀1850,฀but฀the฀type฀supposedly฀dates฀from฀before฀1819.฀Further฀information฀given฀
states:
“The฀vessel฀is฀very฀similar฀in฀rig฀and฀hull฀to฀the฀Arab฀cargo-carrying฀Baghlas,฀except฀for฀the฀very฀long฀overhanging฀
counter฀above฀the฀transom฀stern฀which฀is฀the฀particular฀mark฀of฀these฀unusual฀craft.฀When฀in฀chase฀of฀another฀
ship฀the฀pirates฀impelled฀their฀vessels฀by฀sweeps,฀stern฀foremost,฀steering฀her฀with฀a฀long฀paddle฀from฀the฀bow.฀On฀
overtaking฀the฀enemy,฀they฀ran฀the฀long฀projecting฀stern฀up฀over฀the฀waist฀of฀the฀other฀ship฀and฀then฀attacked฀by฀
boarding฀over฀this฀long฀stern…The฀largest฀of฀these฀dhows฀was฀not฀more฀than฀200฀tons.”
Dimensions฀taken฀from฀the฀model:฀Tonnage฀about฀110฀tons;฀length฀over฀all฀106฀ft.฀(33.5฀m.);฀
breadth฀21฀ft.฀(6.4฀m.);฀depth฀8.1฀ft.฀(2.5฀m.).฀The฀scale฀is฀noted฀as฀1:18,฀which฀makes฀it฀quite฀a฀
detailed฀model฀at฀about฀1.80฀metres฀in฀length.฀The฀maker฀used฀a฀beautiful฀dark฀coloured฀wood฀and฀
perfected฀the฀model฀by฀adding฀little฀items฀like฀iron฀door฀handles฀and฀wood฀carved฀decorations.
The฀model฀has฀hatches฀in฀the฀deck฀large฀enough฀to฀allow฀inspection฀of฀the฀interior.฀It฀shows฀a฀
seemingly฀accurate฀display฀of฀frames,฀put฀closely฀together฀by฀the฀pair฀(ig.฀3.18).฀They฀were฀fastened฀
to฀the฀hull฀by฀nails฀hammered฀through฀from฀the฀outside,฀with฀the฀internal฀ends฀of฀the฀nails฀bent฀
over.฀In฀longitudinal฀direction฀a฀few฀stringers฀and฀a฀keelson฀were฀placed฀across฀the฀frames.฀It฀is฀not฀
clear฀how฀the฀frames฀were฀constructed฀and฀of฀how฀many฀parts฀they฀consist.฀On฀the฀outside฀the฀keel฀
connection฀to฀the฀stem฀and฀stern฀is฀reasonably฀visible฀through฀the฀white฀paint.฀The฀stem฀is฀placed฀
on฀top฀of฀the฀keel฀probably฀with฀a฀scarf฀connection,฀the฀stern฀looked฀like฀either฀a฀false฀one฀or฀some฀
kind฀of฀hook฀connection.
The฀rudder฀was฀hung฀onto฀the฀sternpost฀by฀only฀two฀ropes,฀but฀then฀this฀is฀merely฀a฀model฀
and฀the฀accuracy฀should฀not฀be฀stressed฀too฀much.฀Also,฀it฀is฀the฀model฀of฀an฀Arab฀vessel฀made฀in฀
74
Fig,.฀3.17฀Model฀of฀the฀
‘Arab฀pirate฀dhow’฀in฀the฀
Science฀Museum฀
(courtesy฀of฀the฀Science฀
museum,฀photo฀by฀the฀
author).
India฀and฀the฀building฀method฀might฀be฀different฀from฀the฀original฀one.฀At฀least฀it฀was฀made฀by฀
someone฀in฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean฀and฀not฀by฀a฀European,฀like฀some฀of฀the฀other฀models฀(see฀
Ch.฀3.3).
The฀existence฀of฀these฀pirate฀vessels฀before฀1800฀was฀accidentally฀proved฀by฀Nance฀(1914),฀
who฀managed฀to฀ind฀a฀drawing฀by฀someone฀called฀E.C.฀dating฀from฀1795,฀although฀he฀did฀not฀
recognise฀it฀as฀such.
Finally฀the฀zarûka฀is฀a฀nicely฀made฀model฀with฀a฀scale฀of฀1:18,฀but฀the฀maker฀made฀it฀easy฀on฀
himself.฀The฀inside฀can฀be฀viewed฀through฀a฀gap฀in฀the฀decking฀without฀the฀hatch฀cover,฀but฀only฀to฀
reveal...฀an฀empty฀hull.฀The฀topview฀of฀the฀ship฀has฀the฀suggestion฀of฀frames,฀but฀they฀are฀only฀the฀
top฀ends฀cut฀off฀at฀deck฀level.฀The฀model฀represents฀a฀ship฀of฀about฀1880฀and฀was฀acquired฀by฀the฀
museum฀in฀1929.฀Dimensions฀taken฀from฀the฀model:฀length฀70฀ft.฀(21.3฀m.);฀breadth฀18฀ft.฀(5.5฀m.);฀
depth฀10.5฀ft.฀(3.2฀m.).
3.1.8฀Arab฀Ships฀in฀the฀twentieth฀century฀
A฀large฀diversity฀of฀Arab฀vessels฀is฀described฀by฀many฀authors฀in฀
the฀twentieth฀century.฀It฀is฀neither฀possible฀nor฀necessary฀in฀the฀
scope฀of฀this฀thesis฀to฀discuss฀their฀typologies฀and฀appearances฀in฀
the฀full.฀The฀answers฀to฀the฀questions฀asked฀in฀Ch.฀3.1.6฀and฀the฀
usefulness฀of฀this฀study฀to฀the฀history฀of฀African฀ships฀lie฀in฀their฀
construction.฀Only฀a฀few฀twentieth฀century฀writers฀actually฀paid฀
attention฀to฀construction฀details฀of฀Arab฀ships฀and฀their฀building฀
process.฀Their฀accounts฀will฀be฀discussed฀along฀with฀a฀short฀
description฀of฀and฀a฀distinction฀between฀the฀relevant฀vessels.฀
75
Fig.฀3.18฀Interior฀of฀the฀Pirate฀Dhow฀
model฀(courtesy฀of฀the฀Science฀
Museum,฀photo฀by฀the฀author).
Hornell฀(1942)฀made฀the฀irst฀attempt฀to฀classify฀Arab฀ships.฀He฀put฀them฀into฀two฀major฀classes:฀
those฀with฀a฀square฀or฀with฀a฀transom฀type฀of฀stern฀and฀the฀double-ended฀ones.฀Yajima฀(1976)฀
did฀the฀same,฀although฀he฀called฀the฀two฀categories฀‘baghla฀type’฀(with฀transom)฀and฀‘bum฀type’฀
(double-ended).฀In฀each฀of฀the฀two฀classes฀he฀further฀distinguished฀two฀subclasses:฀ocean฀going฀
dhows฀and฀coastal฀dhows.฀There฀are฀two฀problems฀with฀these฀classiications฀as฀Prados฀(1997)฀points฀
out:฀ships฀change฀according฀to฀demands฀on฀the฀market฀and฀technological฀developments.฀The฀sanbuq฀
for฀example฀was฀believed฀to฀be฀a฀double-ended฀ship฀before฀the฀sixteenth฀century฀and฀developed฀into฀
a฀transom฀sterned฀vessel฀later฀on,฀only฀to฀be฀transformed฀back฀again฀the฀second฀half฀of฀the฀twentieth฀
century฀into฀a฀double-ended฀ship฀as฀Hawkins฀(1977)฀has฀seen฀it.฀Another฀example฀is฀given฀by฀Prados฀
(1997)฀himself.฀His฀study฀of฀the฀huri฀discusses฀a฀vessel฀that฀changed฀from฀a฀double-ended฀one฀into฀
one฀with฀a฀transom฀due฀to฀economic฀pressures,฀for฀an฀engine฀had฀to฀be฀itted฀inboard.฀
Another฀problem฀is฀that฀some฀of฀these฀ships฀used฀to฀cross฀oceans฀in฀the฀past฀and฀are฀now฀
degraded฀to฀coastal฀vessels.฀Many฀types฀reduced฀in฀size฀as฀a฀consequence.฀This฀points฀to฀dynamic฀
processes฀in฀shipbuilding.฀Naval฀architects฀and฀ship-builders฀may฀be฀notoriously฀conservative,฀they฀
still฀have฀to฀subject฀to฀contemporary฀demands.฀Ships฀and฀parts฀of฀ships฀are฀therefore฀continuously฀
being฀adapted.
Al-Hijji฀(2001)฀on฀Kuwaiti฀dhows฀and฀Agius฀(2002)฀for฀the฀Arabian฀Gulf฀and฀Oman฀try฀
another฀approach.฀Their฀classiication฀of฀contemporary฀and฀in฀Agius’฀case฀also฀historical฀ships฀is฀on฀
the฀basis฀of฀function฀rather฀than฀appearance.฀Agius฀adds฀hull฀design฀and฀size฀to฀his฀classiication.฀
Their฀classiications฀of฀dhows฀are฀as฀follows:
Al-Hijji฀(2001)
classiication
Fishing
warjiyyah,฀balam฀fudiri
Agius฀(2002)
classiication
Large฀Ocean-going
Deep-sea
baqqarah,฀battil,฀shu’i,฀sanbuq,฀
jalbut,฀pearling฀bum
baghlah,฀deep-sea฀bum
Fishing฀and฀Pearling฀
Gulf-trade
Coastal฀trade
Gulf-trade฀bum
tashalah,฀hammal฀bashi
Ships’฀boats,฀canoes
and฀rafts
Water-carrying
water-bum
Pearling
types
types
baghla,฀Suri฀ghanja,฀
Indo-Pakistani฀dhows,฀
war฀daw
ghurab,฀battil,฀bum,฀
dangi,฀chala
sanbuq,฀za’ima,฀qatira,฀
shu’i,฀jalbut,฀jahazi,฀
badan,฀baqqara,฀shahuf,฀
zaruka,฀balam฀
keter,฀qals,฀mashuwwa,฀฀
huri,฀dug-out฀balam,฀
shasha,
irteh,฀wariyya,฀ramath
฀Table฀3.2
The฀bum฀seems฀to฀be฀a฀very฀multifunctional฀vessel฀and฀according฀Al-Hijji฀it฀has฀not฀changed฀a฀
lot฀as฀its฀purpose฀differs.฀According฀to฀Villiers฀in฀1940,฀who฀sailed฀on฀one฀for฀a฀season,฀the฀bum฀
has฀taken฀the฀place฀of฀the฀baghla฀as฀a฀more฀economic฀ship฀to฀sail฀and฀one฀particular฀popular฀with฀
Kuwaitis.฀Agius฀(2002,฀181)฀estimates฀the฀replacement฀of฀the฀baghla฀by฀the฀bum฀to฀have฀taken฀place฀
somewhere฀between฀the฀years฀1892-1927.฀The฀sanbuq18฀likewise฀has฀multiple฀purposes฀and฀is฀known฀
76
as฀large฀cargo฀vessel฀and฀double-ended฀sewn฀ishing฀boat฀(King-Webster฀1956).฀According฀to฀Villiers฀
(1940)฀it฀is฀so฀common฀a฀name,฀it฀sometimes฀is฀applied฀to฀all฀vessels,฀like฀the฀European฀applied฀the฀
word฀dhow.฀
Noticeable฀in฀table฀3.2฀is฀the฀large฀number฀of฀smaller฀vessels฀which฀clutter฀the฀Arab฀coasts฀and฀
are฀different฀in฀every฀region.
The฀earliest฀indication฀of฀how฀Arabs฀built฀their฀ships฀came฀from฀Sir฀Alan฀Moore฀(1920).฀He฀
gives฀in฀his฀account฀the฀picture฀of฀a฀two-masted฀sanbuq฀with฀most฀of฀the฀parts฀named฀in฀Arabic.฀In฀a฀
simple฀drawing฀is฀explained฀that฀the฀mast฀is฀footed฀in฀a฀short฀keelson฀and฀the฀mast฀itself฀is฀leaning฀
forwards฀against฀the฀main฀beam฀(ig.฀3.19-A).฀On฀the฀forward฀side฀of฀the฀beam฀a฀small฀spar฀is฀
located฀and฀a฀lashing฀binds฀spar,฀beam฀and฀mast฀together.฀The฀ships฀seems฀to฀have฀a฀false฀sternpost฀
and฀a฀curved฀stem.฀The฀stern฀seems฀to฀be฀standing฀on฀the฀keel฀and฀the฀false฀sternpost฀is฀placed฀at฀the฀
back฀of฀the฀keel฀and฀sternpost฀put฀
together.฀The฀stem-keel฀connection฀
remains฀unclear.฀Moore฀further฀states฀
that฀the฀frames฀are฀irregular฀as฀they฀
are฀unevenly฀spaced,฀vary฀in฀size฀and฀
in฀the฀number฀of฀pieces฀they฀consist฀
of฀(ig.฀3.19-B).฀There฀seemed฀to฀be฀
two฀types฀of฀frames,฀named฀by฀Moore฀
‘loor฀pieces’฀and฀‘illing฀pieces’.฀The฀
question฀is฀if฀they฀were฀really฀placed฀
so฀close฀together฀as฀depicted฀or฀if฀
there฀should฀be฀a฀larger฀distance฀
between฀them.฀
Villiers฀(1940)฀tells฀a฀lively฀tale฀
Fig.฀3.19฀Arab฀ship฀construction฀according฀to฀Alan฀Moore฀(1920).
of฀events฀on฀board฀‘his’฀Kuwaiti฀Boom.฀One฀of฀the฀very฀few฀occupations฀sailors฀had฀besides฀praying฀
and฀eating฀is฀the฀building฀of฀small฀dhows฀or฀‘ship’s฀boats’.฀Villiers฀describes฀the฀ship’s฀carpenter฀
building฀a฀16฀feet฀(4.9฀m.)฀shewe.฀He฀irst฀put฀the฀keel฀on฀a฀bed฀of฀small฀blocks฀and฀then฀attached฀the฀
stempost฀and฀the฀stern.฀Two฀bottom฀planks฀were฀added฀on฀each฀side฀shaping฀them฀with฀wedges฀and฀
lashings฀to฀the฀loor.฀Then฀he฀put฀in฀the฀ribs:฀half฀of฀them฀irst฀and฀the฀other฀half฀when฀the฀planking฀
was฀inished.฀The฀boat฀was฀completely฀built฀by฀eye฀without฀ever฀using฀any฀measurements.฀Tools฀
used฀were฀an฀adze,฀two฀Indian฀saws,฀an฀Indian฀bow-drill,฀a฀hammer฀and฀a฀primitive฀plane.
LeBaron฀Bowen฀(1952)฀observed฀how฀a฀South฀Arabian฀huri฀was฀promoted฀from฀a฀dug-out฀
canoe฀to฀a฀constructed฀ship฀by฀increasing฀the฀freeboard.฀Nearly฀all฀these฀huris฀have฀raised฀sides฀by฀
the฀addition฀of฀a฀broad฀wash฀strake฀attached฀to฀the฀outside฀of฀the฀dug-out,฀connected฀with฀the฀
overlapping฀clinker฀built฀technique.฀A฀new฀huri฀is฀irst฀buried฀in฀the฀sand฀and฀illed฀with฀water฀
inside.฀Leaving฀it฀in฀the฀sun฀for฀several฀days,฀while฀wetting฀the฀sand฀outside฀the฀canoe,฀causes฀the฀
wood฀to฀steam.฀The฀softened฀sides฀are฀then฀forced฀outwards฀with฀sticks฀as฀far฀as฀possible.฀Slowly,฀the฀
canoe฀is฀partially฀dried฀and฀the฀strakes฀are฀attached.฀After฀this฀several฀frames฀are฀added฀which฀are฀
77
not฀U-shaped฀as฀in฀other฀regions฀where฀this฀technique฀is฀practised,฀but฀half-frames฀added฀in฀pairs.฀
At฀last฀the฀sticks฀are฀replaced฀by฀about฀three฀permanent฀thwarts.฀
LeBaron฀Bowens฀appears฀to฀have฀witnessed฀the฀irst฀stages฀in฀shipbuilding฀developing฀from฀a฀
simple฀dug-out.฀Especially฀the฀remark฀about฀the฀ribs฀not฀being฀U-shaped฀seems฀interesting฀as฀Arabs฀
appear฀to฀be฀very฀persistent฀about฀their฀half-frames.
Basil฀Greenhill฀(1956)฀was฀the฀only฀writer฀mentioned฀here฀who฀did฀research฀in฀Pakistan.฀
Situated฀halfway฀between฀the฀Arab฀countries฀and฀India฀it฀is฀part฀of฀the฀same฀maritime฀space.฀
Greenhill฀observed฀the฀building฀of฀a฀hora,฀which฀is฀part฀of฀a฀group฀of฀ishing฀vessels฀ranging฀from฀
dug-outs฀to฀planks-built฀ships฀more฀than฀20฀metres฀in฀length.฀Greenhill฀explains฀that฀all฀the฀plankbuilt฀horas฀are฀built฀by฀the฀same฀method.฀The฀keel,฀usually฀made฀from฀one฀piece,฀is฀lain฀on฀top฀of฀a฀
series฀of฀short฀posts฀driven฀into฀the฀ground.฀A฀curved฀stem฀piece฀and฀a฀straight฀sternpost฀are฀secured฀
to฀the฀keel฀by฀what฀he฀calls฀‘a฀rather฀limsy฀joint’,฀and฀often฀they฀are฀simply฀nailed฀to฀the฀top฀of฀the฀
keel.฀New฀loor฀moulds฀are฀then฀sometimes฀ixed฀across฀the฀keel฀and฀the฀garboard฀strakes฀are฀itted.฀
They฀are฀fastened฀to฀the฀keel฀with฀galvanised฀spikes฀driven฀through฀the฀edge฀of฀the฀planking฀in฀slots฀
cut฀out฀in฀advance,฀but฀the฀rest฀of฀the฀planking฀is฀joined฀edge฀to฀edge฀with฀galvanised฀pegs฀or฀pins,฀
put฀in฀holes฀drilled฀2.5-5฀cm฀deep฀into฀both฀planks.฀Due฀to฀shortage฀of฀timber,฀a฀hora฀is฀built฀up฀
‘jigsaw฀fashion’.฀Planking฀towards฀the฀turn฀of฀the฀bilge฀is฀often฀done฀last,฀for฀the฀builders฀apparently฀
ind฀this฀the฀most฀dificult฀part.
The฀ship฀is฀built฀completely฀shell-irst,฀held฀together฀by฀‘short฀lengths฀of฀rough฀timber฀tacked฀
in฀place฀here฀and฀there,฀as฀may฀be฀required’฀and฀struts฀to฀support฀the฀hull฀in฀an฀advanced฀state฀of฀
the฀building฀process.฀Frames฀are฀added฀when฀planking฀is฀complete฀or฀nearly฀so.฀Soft-iron฀rods฀are฀
bent฀to฀it฀and฀used฀as฀templates.฀The฀amount฀of฀frames฀depends฀on฀the฀budget.฀They฀are฀usually฀
laid฀alternately,฀starting฀amidships,฀full฀frames฀with฀loors฀and฀half-frames฀which฀do฀not฀touch฀the฀
keel.฀One฀or฀two฀extra฀large฀beams฀are฀itted฀in฀and฀iron฀straps฀are฀used฀as฀well฀as฀wooden฀knees฀for฀
extra฀strength.฀In฀the฀inal฀stage฀the฀hora฀is฀caulked฀with฀local฀cotton฀and฀varnished฀with฀ish-oils.
Greenhill฀also฀describes฀another฀type,฀the฀bheddi,฀which฀he฀claims฀is฀disappearing.฀This฀is฀a฀
more฀complicated฀ship฀and฀although฀Greenhill฀himself฀never฀watched฀it฀under฀construction฀he฀
gives฀a฀very฀informative฀construction฀plan฀and฀a฀lines฀plan฀of฀the฀ship฀(ig.฀3-20).฀Apparently฀the฀
framing฀follows฀roughly฀the฀same฀pattern฀as฀the฀hora’s฀but฀it฀is฀unclear฀whether฀or฀not฀the฀bheddi฀is฀
also฀built฀shell-irst.฀Greenhill฀presumes฀the฀origins฀of฀the฀bheddi฀and฀the฀hora฀are฀completely฀
different,฀but฀similarities฀in฀sections฀and฀construction฀may฀indicate฀the฀latter฀was฀inluenced฀by฀the฀
irst.฀He฀concludes฀by฀saying฀that฀edge฀joining฀with฀inserted฀frames฀is฀almost฀universal฀in฀the฀river฀
and฀sea฀boats฀of฀East฀Pakistan.
Examining฀his฀drawing฀of฀the฀bheddi฀more฀closely,฀the฀similarities฀with฀the฀East฀African฀built฀
mashua฀seem฀to฀be฀numerous:฀transom,฀keel฀with฀a฀scarfed฀connection฀to฀the฀stempost,฀alternating฀
frames,฀decking฀arrangement,฀mast฀and฀mast-step,฀and฀the฀fore฀and฀aft฀‘rests’฀for฀the฀yard.฀
Of฀course฀there฀seem฀to฀be฀differences฀as฀well,฀like฀the฀way฀the฀stempost฀is฀made฀up฀and฀
curved,฀the฀angle฀of฀the฀stern,฀the฀shape฀of฀the฀rudder฀and฀the฀possibility฀that฀the฀strakes฀are฀edge-
78
joined.฀
Johnstone฀and฀Muir฀(1962)฀create฀an฀interesting฀hypothesis฀by฀stating฀contemporary฀Arab฀
shipbuilding฀techniques฀have฀their฀origin฀in฀the฀sewn฀ships฀they฀used฀to฀make฀in฀the฀past.฀They฀
describe฀the฀Arab฀construction฀process฀as฀being฀different฀from฀the฀European฀one.฀After฀the฀keel฀is฀
laid฀and฀the฀stem฀and฀sternpost฀are฀erected,฀the฀garboard฀strakes฀are฀itted฀into฀grooves฀that฀have฀
been฀cut฀in฀the฀top฀of฀the฀keel฀and฀the฀sides฀of฀the฀stem฀and฀sternposts.฀Four฀more฀strakes฀on฀each฀
side฀are฀bent฀into฀position฀and฀itted฀into฀the฀grooves฀or฀deep฀rabbets฀in฀the฀stem฀and฀sternpost,฀
each฀strake฀being฀temporarily฀attached฀to฀its฀neighbour฀by฀a฀staple.฀They฀suggest฀this฀technique฀
goes฀straight฀back฀to฀the฀planks฀ixed฀to฀the฀‘gunwales’฀of฀dug-out฀canoes.฀Next฀a฀keelson฀is฀placed฀
to฀clamp฀down฀the฀inner฀edges฀of฀the฀garboard฀strakes฀and฀force฀them฀more฀irmly฀into฀the฀grooves฀
of฀the฀keel฀(ig฀3.21).฀฀Then฀the฀naturally฀grown฀loors฀are฀itted฀on฀top฀and฀nailed฀to฀the฀keel.฀Floors฀
are฀scarfed฀to฀futtocks฀and฀form฀alternate฀frames,฀where฀the฀remaining฀framing฀does฀not฀have฀loors,฀
but฀stops฀at฀the฀keelson.฀Johnstone฀and฀Muir฀point฀out฀the฀advantage฀of฀having฀two฀types฀of฀frames฀
is฀that฀adjacent฀futtocks฀are฀scarfed฀at฀different฀places.฀A฀stringer฀covers฀all฀the฀scarfs฀of฀the฀loors,฀
another฀the฀scarfs฀of฀the฀futtocks฀that฀do฀not฀have฀loors.฀
In฀large฀ships฀the฀space฀between฀the฀frames฀scarcely฀exceeds฀the฀width฀of฀the฀frames฀
themselves,฀as฀frames฀become฀more฀important฀with฀the฀increase฀in฀size฀of฀the฀ship.฀฀
Johnstone฀and฀Muir฀further฀stress฀that฀terms฀used฀in฀shipbuilding฀should฀be฀considered฀as฀well,฀
stating฀that฀when฀a฀technique฀is฀borrowed฀from฀a฀people฀speaking฀a฀different฀language,฀the฀foreign฀
term฀is฀usually฀taken฀over฀with฀the฀object฀or฀method฀adopted,฀since฀no฀other฀suitable฀word฀is฀
available.฀This฀statement฀causes฀a฀dilemma฀when฀studying฀East฀African฀shipbuilding,฀as฀nearly฀all฀
the฀words฀used฀there฀are฀pure฀Swahili฀and฀do฀not฀match฀any฀words฀used฀in฀Arabic฀or฀any฀other฀
language!฀Following฀Johnstone฀and฀Muir’s฀hypothesis฀this฀should฀mean฀the฀Swahili฀never฀adopted฀
Fig.฀3.20฀Detailed฀construction฀plan฀of฀Greenhill’s฀dheddi฀(Greenhil฀1956).
79
any฀foreign฀techniques…฀or฀did฀they฀merely฀adjust฀
and฀perfect฀their฀already฀existing฀methods฀by฀applying฀
newer฀technologies฀whenever฀these฀became฀available฀to฀
them?฀Or฀maybe฀there฀is฀another฀reason฀to฀assume฀the฀
Swahili฀invented฀their฀own฀words฀for฀new฀innovations฀
brought฀to฀them?฀It฀could฀also฀be฀Johnstone฀and฀Muir,฀
when฀making฀their฀hypothesis,฀had฀only฀the฀Arabs฀in฀
mind฀and฀it฀simply฀does฀not฀apply฀to฀the฀Swahili.฀In฀
any฀case,฀the฀connection฀between฀terms฀that฀sound฀or฀
Fig.฀3.21฀Arab฀construction฀details฀(Johnstone฀
and฀Muir฀1962).
look฀alike฀should฀not฀be฀stressed฀too฀much฀or฀at฀least฀be฀
handled฀with฀caution.
Yajima฀(1976)฀shows฀in฀his฀paper฀the฀drawing฀of฀an฀
entirely฀sewn฀type฀of฀sanbuq,฀the฀sanbuk฀zarui.฀The฀description฀of฀the฀construction฀method฀is฀
minimal,฀but฀the฀drawings฀are฀informative.฀It฀shows฀a฀vessel฀8฀to12฀metres฀in฀length,฀used฀for฀
sardines฀ishing.฀Hull,฀mast,฀ropes฀and฀rudder฀are฀all฀made฀from฀products฀of฀the฀coconut฀tree.฀The฀
rudder฀is฀small฀and฀triangular฀and฀moved฀by฀ropes฀(ig.฀3.22b).฀A฀frame฀seems฀to฀consist฀of฀three฀
parts:฀a฀loor฀timber฀and฀two฀futtocks,฀all฀sewn฀to฀the฀hull฀planks฀(ig.฀3.22c).฀Of฀the฀16฀or฀17฀frames,฀
seven฀are฀itted฀with฀broad฀thwarts,฀used฀as฀benches.฀The฀stempost฀and฀the฀stern฀seem฀to฀be฀placed฀
on฀top฀of฀the฀keel฀(ig.฀3.22a฀and฀b).
The฀building฀of฀a฀small19฀sewn฀sanbuq฀in฀Yemen,฀as฀witnessed฀by฀LeBaron฀Bowen฀(1952)฀was฀
described฀by฀Prados฀(1991)฀who฀interviewed฀people฀about฀the฀subject฀since฀this฀type฀of฀vessel฀was฀
no฀longer฀being฀built฀at฀the฀beginning฀of฀the฀1990s.฀The฀sanbuq฀was฀lush฀built,฀the฀planks฀
connected฀with฀lashings฀after฀obliquely฀driven฀in฀treenails฀secured฀a฀tight฀it.฀The฀stem฀and฀sternpost฀
were฀narrower฀than฀
the฀keel฀which฀was฀
tapered฀at฀the฀ends฀
to฀make฀the฀
connection.฀
The฀garboard฀
strake฀was฀placed฀in฀
a฀specially฀shaped฀
rabbet฀and฀then฀
lashed฀to฀the฀keel฀
(ig.฀3.23).฀It฀was฀
then฀connected฀to฀
the฀lower฀strakes฀
with฀a฀type฀of฀
Fig.฀3.22฀Details฀of฀the฀construction฀of฀a฀sewn฀sanbuq;฀a:฀bow,฀b:฀stern฀with฀rudder,฀c:฀
sewn-in฀frame฀with฀thwart฀(Yajima฀1976).
80
fastening฀technique฀
similar฀to฀that฀used฀
in฀the฀construction฀of฀the฀mtepe฀in฀East฀Africa฀(Prados฀1991).฀Above฀the฀turn฀of฀the฀bilge฀the฀type฀of฀
stitching฀changed฀into฀continued฀and฀single฀lashings.฀This฀is฀an฀inferior฀sewing฀method฀as฀it฀is฀less฀
secure฀and฀watertight,฀but฀it฀saves฀time.฀Strangely฀enough฀the฀stem฀and฀sternpost฀were฀attached฀after฀
the฀completion฀of฀the฀hull.฀The฀planks฀of฀the฀hull฀were฀made฀to฀it฀against฀the฀posts฀and฀fastened฀by฀
stitching฀from฀the฀outside.฀The฀frames฀could฀only฀be฀inserted฀after฀the฀hull฀was฀inished฀as฀their฀
presence฀would฀otherwise฀have฀interfered฀with฀the฀stitching.฀They฀were฀attached฀to฀the฀planking฀by฀
single฀lashings.฀It฀is฀no฀surprise฀to฀learn฀there฀were฀two฀kind฀of฀frames:฀irst฀to฀be฀put฀in฀were฀the฀
half-frames฀and฀secondly฀came฀the฀loor฀frames฀with฀their฀futtocks฀(ig.฀3.24).฀Prados฀remarks฀this฀
way฀of฀framing฀prevented฀potential฀structural฀weaknesses.฀The฀conspicuous฀aspect฀about฀this฀
building฀sequence฀is฀that฀apparently฀in฀this฀sewn฀ship฀the฀half-frames฀are฀put฀in฀irst,฀whereas฀in฀a฀
nailed฀construction฀the฀loor฀frames฀have฀to฀be฀irst.฀Logically,฀it฀does฀not฀matter฀which฀frames฀are฀
put฀in฀irst฀or฀last฀in฀a฀sewn฀ship,฀as฀it฀primary฀still฀is฀a฀shell-irst฀building฀method฀and฀the฀outcome฀
stays฀unavoidably฀the฀same.
For฀inishing,฀two฀or฀three฀thwarts฀were฀fastened฀by฀a฀lashing฀to฀the฀frames฀and฀a฀mast-step฀was฀
placed฀forward฀of฀amidships.฀As฀the฀sanbuqs฀are฀more฀often฀
being฀motorised,฀a฀little฀triangular฀transom฀stern฀is฀added฀to฀
accommodate฀the฀engine.
The฀sanbuq฀was฀known฀to฀be฀one฀of฀the฀few฀ships฀of฀the฀Western฀
Indian฀Ocean฀to฀be฀itted฀out฀with฀a฀square฀sail฀in฀relatively฀recent฀
times.฀This,฀in฀combination฀with฀the฀sewing฀technique฀below฀the฀
waterline,฀must฀have฀been฀the฀reason฀for฀Agius฀(2002)฀to฀state฀
Fig.฀3.23฀Garbaord฀in฀rabbet฀
(Prados฀1991).
in฀his฀foreword฀that฀the฀dhows฀of฀East฀Africa,฀the฀Yemen฀and฀
Hadhramaut฀form฀a฀typology฀together฀and฀are฀in฀many฀ways฀
different฀from฀those฀of฀the฀Arabian฀Gulf฀and฀Oman.฀Agius฀himself฀
unfortunately฀does฀not฀motivate฀his฀hypothesis.
The฀construction฀of฀the฀extinct฀Omani฀kambari,฀as฀described฀by฀Vosmer฀(1997)฀proves฀
otherwise.฀This฀vessel฀seems฀to฀be฀related฀to฀the฀beden฀of฀the฀Somali฀coast฀that฀Chittick฀described฀
(1980a).฀Studying฀the฀remains฀of฀one฀in฀the฀Exeter฀Maritime฀Museum,฀he฀came฀to฀the฀conclusion฀
the฀construction฀started฀with฀cutting฀rabbets฀in฀the฀keel,฀in฀which฀the฀garboard฀planks฀are฀placed฀
and฀fastened฀by฀lashings฀(ig.฀3.25).฀The฀sewing฀is฀continuous,฀going฀from฀one฀end฀of฀the฀keel฀to฀the฀
other฀and฀back,฀similar฀to฀what฀Prados฀(1991)฀described.฀The฀next฀strakes฀are฀all฀fastened฀by฀
lashings฀and฀obliquely฀driven฀in฀dowels.฀The฀hood฀ends฀of฀the฀planks฀are฀sewn฀together฀to฀which฀the฀
stem฀and฀sternpost฀are฀
added฀later.฀Several฀
frames฀and฀thwarts฀are฀
itted฀in฀and฀lashed฀
through฀additional฀holes฀
made฀in฀the฀planking.฀
Fig.฀3.24.฀Frame฀arrangement฀of฀a฀sewn฀sanbuq฀(Le฀Baron฀Bowen฀1952).
81
The฀Kambari฀was฀mainly฀
a฀double-ended฀rowing฀boat฀made฀of฀
mango-wood฀and฀the฀one฀Vosmer฀
examined฀was฀about฀9฀metres฀in฀overall฀
length.
The฀construction฀of฀a฀badan฀
(Vosmer฀1997)฀belongs฀to฀another฀
tradition฀which฀seems฀more฀typical฀for฀
Oman฀as฀is฀suggested฀by฀studies฀of฀other฀
types฀of฀vessels.฀Badans฀range฀in฀size฀
from฀10฀to฀14฀metres,฀with฀a฀2.1฀to฀2.6฀
metre฀beam฀and฀a฀displacement฀of฀2฀to฀3฀
Fig.฀3.25฀Keel-garboard฀connection฀on฀a฀kambari฀(Vosmer฀1997).฀
tonnes.฀It฀has฀a฀false฀stem฀and฀a฀high฀
The฀second฀strake฀is฀connected฀with฀an฀oblique฀dowel.
pointed฀in฀sometimes฀called฀fashin฀on฀
the฀stern.฀The฀ends฀of฀the฀hull฀planks฀are฀sewn฀to฀these฀with฀the฀fore฀end฀having฀the฀‘true’฀stem฀
placed฀on฀the฀inside.฀Half-frames฀and฀loors฀with฀futtocks฀scarfed฀to฀them฀with฀short฀angled฀joints,฀
are฀placed฀alternatingly฀with฀a฀spacing฀of฀about฀30฀cm฀in-between.฀This฀pattern฀differs฀at฀the฀ends฀of฀
the฀vessel,฀where฀only฀half-frames฀are฀itted฀in,฀as฀well฀as฀just฀after฀the฀mast-step,฀where฀two฀sets฀of฀
half-frames฀are฀placed฀to฀facilitate฀bailing.฀Only฀the฀heads฀of฀the฀half-frames฀are฀let฀into฀mortises฀in฀
the฀cap-rail.฀The฀futtocks฀apparently฀stop฀underneath.฀The฀lower฀planking,฀like฀the฀upper฀one,฀has฀
strakes฀which฀run฀the฀full฀length.฀At฀the฀chine฀in฀the฀middle฀the฀planks฀are฀shorter,฀which฀makes฀it฀
conceivable฀that฀it฀was฀the฀last฀place฀to฀be฀illed฀up.
The฀most฀excellent฀record฀of฀ship฀construction฀to฀make฀all฀others฀redundant฀comes฀from฀dr.฀
Ya’qub฀Yusuf฀Al-Hijji฀(2001),฀who฀described฀in฀detail฀and฀lavishly฀decorated฀with฀pictures฀and฀
drawings฀the฀building฀process฀of฀a฀Kuwaiti฀bum.฀In฀short฀the฀process฀follows฀the฀familiar฀structure฀
of฀laying฀the฀keel฀irst฀and฀cutting฀out฀grooves฀in฀the฀top.฀The฀stem฀and฀sternpost฀have฀similar฀
grooves฀and฀are฀placed฀on฀top฀of฀the฀keel.฀The฀stem฀and฀stern฀are฀connected฀by฀tenon฀joints฀with฀a฀
scarf฀cut฀out฀in฀the฀keel฀(ig.฀3.26).฀The฀garboard฀strakes฀are฀then฀placed฀in฀the฀grooves฀and฀carefully฀
bend฀into฀shape฀(ig.฀3.27).฀A฀keelson฀is฀placed฀on฀top฀of฀the฀keel฀exactly฀in฀the฀way฀described฀by฀
Johnstone฀and฀Muir฀(1962).฀Other฀planks฀of฀the฀hull฀are฀added,฀temporarily฀held฀in฀place฀with฀cleats฀
as฀shown฀in฀igure฀3.28,฀where฀the฀ship฀looks฀a฀lot฀like฀the฀hora฀Greenhill฀(1956)฀described.฀The฀
Fig.฀3.26฀Keel-to-stern฀connection฀
(Al-Hijji฀2001).
Fig.฀3.27฀Shaping฀the฀garboards฀(Al-Hijji฀2001).
82
master฀builder฀divides฀the฀keel฀into฀three฀sections฀and฀marks฀the฀places฀where฀the฀frames฀will฀be฀
itted฀on฀the฀outermost฀strakes.฀Three฀key฀frames฀that฀determine฀the฀hull฀shape฀will฀be฀placed฀irst,฀
which฀are฀half-frames฀that฀reach฀up฀to฀the฀sheer.฀Their฀shape฀is฀based฀on฀lat฀iron฀templates.฀Vshaped฀loor-frames฀are฀ixed฀in฀position฀and฀more฀key฀ribs฀are฀itted฀in฀next฀(ig฀3.29).฀All฀the฀loorframes฀are฀inished฀and฀the฀planking฀continues฀up฀to฀the฀waterline.฀Planking฀up฀to฀the฀gunwale฀is฀
inished฀simultaneously฀with฀the฀futtocks฀above฀the฀loor฀frames.฀The฀stingers฀are฀itted฀in฀and฀a฀
mast-step฀covering฀six฀frames฀is฀placed.฀Deck฀beams฀are฀placed฀to฀support฀the฀decking,฀connected฀to฀
the฀hull฀with฀knees.
The฀inishing฀of฀this฀large฀vessel฀is฀quite฀complicated฀still฀and฀will฀not฀be฀given฀here,฀but฀the฀
result฀is฀a฀meticulously฀constructed฀and฀beautifully฀decorated฀wooden฀cargo฀ship.฀
Agius฀(2002)฀described฀a฀similar฀sequence฀of฀events฀as฀he฀observed฀the฀building฀of฀a฀bum฀in฀
Qatar.฀He฀mentioned฀the฀itting฀of฀a฀knee฀supporting฀the฀keel-to-stem฀connection฀fore฀and฀aft.฀In฀
Al-Hijji’s฀account฀it฀was฀a฀very฀small฀knee,฀supplemented฀with฀large฀vertical฀blocks฀of฀timbers.฀The฀
difference฀here฀might฀be฀ascribed฀to฀the฀size฀of฀the฀ships,฀although฀this฀remains฀uncertain.฀
Remarkably฀Agius฀also฀noted฀the฀master฀builder฀dividing฀the฀keel฀into฀three฀parts,฀but฀the฀
Fig.฀3.28฀Additional฀hull฀planking,฀
held฀in฀place฀with฀temporary฀cleats฀
(Al-Hijji฀2001).
Fig.฀3.29฀Basic฀framing฀pattern฀
(above)฀and฀temporary฀frame฀
templates฀(Al-Hijji฀2001).
83
afterwards฀erected฀wooden฀key฀frames฀are฀temporary฀templates฀replaced฀afterwards.฀The฀permanent฀
ones฀will฀be฀copies฀of฀these฀as฀each฀master฀owns฀his฀particular฀templates฀which฀he฀uses฀repeatedly.฀
3.1.9฀Arab฀shipbuilding฀reviewed
As฀far฀as฀details฀in฀Arab฀shipconstruction฀can฀be฀traced฀back,฀which฀apparently฀is฀no฀further฀than฀
about฀the฀1910s,฀the฀Arabs฀seemed฀to฀have฀used฀building฀methods฀with฀several฀recurring฀aspects.฀In฀
general฀can฀be฀concluded฀about฀the฀assembly฀sequence฀and฀building-practices:
1.฀ The฀keel฀has฀rabbets฀for฀the฀garboard฀strakes฀on฀top.
2.฀ After฀the฀keel,฀the฀stem฀and฀sternposts฀are฀erected฀and฀placed฀on฀top฀of฀the฀keel,฀usually฀
connected฀with฀a฀hook฀scarf.
3.฀ The฀garboard฀strake฀is฀placed฀in฀the฀rabbets฀on฀the฀keel,฀possibly฀bent฀into฀shape฀afterwards.
4.฀ A฀keelson฀might฀be฀the฀next฀part฀to฀be฀added,฀to฀secure฀the฀garboards,฀although฀it฀is฀
conceivable฀this฀was฀not฀a฀common฀practice.฀On฀occasions฀it฀might฀have฀been฀left฀out.
5.฀ After฀the฀garboard,฀other฀planks฀of฀the฀lower฀hull฀are฀added,฀along฀with฀a฀few฀templates฀or฀
key-frames.
6.฀ Further฀planking฀of฀the฀hull฀and฀itting฀of฀frames฀in฀the฀interior฀is฀done฀simultaniously.฀The฀
process฀can฀not฀be฀classiied฀as฀either฀shell-irst฀or฀skeleton-irst.฀฀
7.฀ Floor-frames฀are฀placed฀irst.฀Then฀half-frames฀in฀between฀and฀futtocks฀above฀the฀loors,฀
fastening฀the฀hull-planking฀as฀construction฀progresses฀upwards.
The฀methods฀described฀above฀may฀have฀had฀their฀origins฀in฀the฀building฀practices฀of฀sewn฀ships.฀
Sewn฀ships฀used฀to฀be฀much฀more฀common,฀although฀it฀is฀all฀but฀certain฀that฀Arabs฀did฀not฀use฀
nails฀in฀shipbuilding฀before฀the฀arrival฀of฀the฀Portuguese.฀Sewn฀ships฀were฀most฀likely฀always฀built฀
shell-irst,฀for฀otherwise฀the฀stitching฀would฀have฀been฀interrupted.฀When฀this฀practice฀changed฀
and฀the฀planks฀were฀no฀longer฀held฀together฀with฀stitches,฀the฀most฀convenient฀way฀to฀build฀a฀ship฀
was฀by฀fastening฀the฀planks฀to฀the฀frames฀in฀the฀process.฀The฀examples฀of฀the฀Kyrenian฀shipwreck฀
and฀the฀seventh฀century฀Yassi฀Ada฀wreck฀seem฀to฀conirm฀that฀the฀Arab฀method฀of฀framing฀is฀a฀
convienient฀way฀of฀construction฀a฀ship฀rather฀than฀the฀result฀of฀diffusional฀processes.฀
It฀seems฀that฀the฀Arabs฀had฀their฀own฀unique฀way฀of฀steering฀a฀ship฀with฀a฀roping฀system,฀as฀
noticed฀by฀several฀observers.฀It฀is฀however฀still฀conceivable฀they฀used฀other฀means฀of฀manoeuvring฀a฀
ship฀as฀well.
Their฀typical฀lateen฀sail฀has฀deinitely฀been฀the฀Arab฀trade฀mark฀for฀at฀least฀ive฀hundred฀years.
The฀presence฀of฀a฀transom฀stern฀on฀some฀ships฀is฀as฀elusive฀as฀ever฀and฀without฀stating฀
anything฀deinite฀about฀that,฀it฀merely฀seems฀to฀conirm฀the฀great฀diversity฀in฀Arab฀ship฀design.฀
84
3.2 India and Sri Lanka
Bringing฀India฀into฀the฀comparison฀makes฀tracing฀the฀origins฀of฀naval฀techniques฀in฀the฀Indian฀
Ocean฀even฀more฀complicated.฀India฀forms฀an฀important฀piece฀of฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀cultural฀puzzle.฀
Its฀geographical฀more฀or฀less฀central฀position฀made฀it฀a฀transitional฀harbour฀for฀commodities฀as฀well฀
as฀cultural฀and฀technological฀aspects฀in฀the฀past.฀The฀sub-continents’฀coastline฀borders฀the฀Arabian฀
sea฀in฀the฀west฀and฀the฀Sea฀of฀Bengal฀in฀the฀East.฀When฀not฀a฀inal฀destination,฀India฀and฀Sri฀Lanka฀
were฀always฀a฀stop-over฀for฀ships฀travelling฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀from฀east฀to฀west฀or฀vice-versa.฀They฀
have฀to฀be฀considered฀because฀they฀are฀and฀always฀have฀been฀an฀integral฀part.฀In฀the฀scope฀of฀this฀
thesis฀it฀is฀however฀not฀possible฀to฀discuss฀the฀role฀of฀India฀in฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean฀littoral฀in฀
detail,฀but฀an฀attempt฀to฀discuss฀the฀involvement฀of฀the฀ship-building฀traditions฀of฀the฀subcontinent฀
in฀short฀will฀nonetheless฀be฀made฀here.
In฀considering฀India’s฀maritime฀traditions,฀the฀connection฀with฀the฀hinterland฀must฀be฀kept฀
in฀mind.฀Unlike฀the฀Swahili฀in฀Eastern฀Africa,฀the฀kingdoms฀of฀India฀might฀not฀have฀been฀primarily฀
focussed฀on฀the฀ocean.฀An฀example฀of฀this฀being฀the฀Maratha฀state฀on฀the฀Konkan฀coast฀(see฀igure฀
1.1),฀who฀despite฀of฀being฀a฀coastal฀society,฀basically฀were฀not฀into฀maritime฀trading฀until฀the฀
Europeans฀arrived฀in฀the฀sixteenth฀century฀(Kulkarni฀1997).฀This฀was฀reason,฀along฀with฀continuous฀
raids฀by฀Arab฀pirates,฀for฀the฀head฀of฀the฀state฀to฀create฀a฀navy฀and฀several฀naval฀bases.฀Having฀said฀
this,฀the฀term฀‘maritime฀culture’฀has฀come฀more฀into฀focus฀in฀India’s฀literature฀as฀well฀(Chakravarti฀
2002).฀Despite฀the฀lack฀of฀indigenous฀wrecks,฀the฀sources฀at฀hand฀are฀being฀used฀to฀it฀the฀shipbuilding฀technologies฀(among฀other฀things)฀into฀a฀greater฀picture.
3.2.1฀Maritime฀pictorial฀art
India’s฀maritime฀history฀can฀be฀traced฀back฀as฀far฀as฀approximately฀3000฀BC฀(Ray฀1996,฀
Greeshmalatha฀and฀Rajamanickam฀1997,฀Dhavalikar฀1999)฀by฀illustrations฀on฀seals฀and฀clay฀
amulets,฀but฀also฀by฀archaeological฀investigation฀of฀coastal฀sites.฀Even฀these฀ancient฀iconographic฀
sources฀already฀point฀to฀some฀diversity฀in฀local฀ship฀types.฀
Skipping฀a฀few฀millennia฀of฀maritime฀history,฀among฀which฀the฀contacts฀with฀the฀Roman฀
Empire฀(Begley฀1991),฀evidence฀for฀the฀appearance฀of฀Indian฀ships฀comes฀mainly฀from฀iconographic฀
evidence.฀Between฀the฀2nd฀century฀BC฀and฀the฀7th฀century฀AD฀pictures฀show฀stitched฀boats,฀many฀
‘banana฀shaped’฀and฀steered฀with฀oars,฀of฀which฀some฀have฀masts฀and฀probably฀square฀sails฀
(Deloche฀1996).฀They฀appear฀to฀be฀double-ended฀with฀a฀raked฀stem฀and฀stern.฀After฀a฀hiatus฀in฀
pictorial฀evidence,฀stone฀memorials฀near฀the฀West฀coast฀dating฀from฀the฀11th฀to฀the฀13th฀centuries฀
show,฀besides฀the฀appearance฀of฀larger฀vessels,฀an฀interesting฀change฀of฀techniques:฀the฀stern฀rudder.฀
The฀earliest฀representation฀outdates฀the฀European฀one฀by฀almost฀half฀a฀century.฀This฀seems฀to฀prove฀
the฀stern฀rudder฀was฀not฀beyond฀a฀doubt฀an฀European฀invention,฀but฀rather฀a฀logical฀development฀
of฀technology฀in฀regions฀thousands฀of฀kilometres฀apart.฀The฀Arabs฀might฀as฀well฀have฀received฀the฀
idea฀from฀the฀Indians฀and฀transferred฀it฀onto฀the฀Mediterranean฀Sea.
Memorial฀stones฀dating฀from฀the฀14th฀and฀15th฀centuries฀show฀other฀developments฀in฀
85
shipbuilding.฀Ships฀are฀depicted฀with฀square฀sterns฀and฀lateen฀sails฀carried฀by฀raked฀masts.฀This฀
implies฀the฀square฀stern฀was฀already฀known฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀before฀the฀arrival฀of฀the฀Portuguese.฀
It฀has฀been฀suggested฀that฀the฀technique฀was฀adopted฀from฀the฀Chinese฀stern฀shape฀(Deloche฀1996).฀
According฀to฀Chaudhuri฀(1985)฀and฀Devendra฀(฀2002)฀three฀key฀considerations฀determined฀the฀size฀
and฀shape฀of฀ships฀:฀
1.฀ Navigating฀the฀coastal฀waters,฀taking฀into฀account฀the฀reefs฀and฀other฀natural฀obstacles฀
2.฀ Crossing฀the฀ocean,฀as฀a฀ship฀has฀to฀be฀able฀to฀withstand฀reasonable฀sized฀waves฀and฀storms
3.฀ Cross-fertilization฀between฀technologies
The฀last฀one,฀as฀discussed฀before,฀is฀important฀for฀the฀Indian฀subcontinent฀and฀surrounding฀islands.฀
Chaudhuri฀(1985)฀gives฀a฀plausible฀reason฀as฀to฀why฀the฀coming฀of฀the฀Portuguese฀had฀such฀an฀
impact฀on฀the฀local฀ship-design.฀The฀intruders฀had฀guns฀and฀ships฀modiied฀to฀European฀standards฀
to฀carry฀those฀heavy฀artillery฀pieces.฀Indian฀and฀Arab฀ships฀formerly฀just฀had฀armed฀men฀walking฀
the฀decks฀in฀defence,฀but฀in฀order฀to฀stand฀even฀half฀a฀chance฀against฀the฀new฀arrivals฀some฀upgrades฀
were฀unavoidable.฀These฀should฀at฀least฀have฀included฀a฀heavier฀construction฀and฀a฀gun฀deck.
A฀constant฀factor฀in฀Indian฀shipbuilding฀was฀the฀use฀of฀coir฀for฀sewing฀the฀planks฀of฀the฀hull.฀
In฀general฀it฀is฀believed฀that฀the฀Indians,฀like฀the฀Arabs,฀only฀started฀using฀nails฀in฀ship-building฀after฀
ca.฀1500฀AD.฀฀Probably฀during฀the฀seventeenth฀and฀eighteenth฀centuries,฀the฀builders฀shifted฀to฀other฀
types฀of฀wood,฀as฀the฀traditional฀teak฀was฀not฀particularly฀suitable฀for฀nails฀(Arunachalam฀1997).
Some฀images฀dating฀from฀the฀12th฀to฀the฀15th฀century฀point฀to฀a฀practice฀on฀the฀inland฀river฀
shores฀of฀north-east฀India฀that฀ships฀were฀built฀in฀clinker฀style฀and฀in฀‘reverse’฀clinker฀style20.฀฀
Dhow technology zone (after McPherson)
Single outrigger zone (after Hornell)
Double outrigger zone (after Hornell)
Shaped-log-raft micro-zone
Hybrid technology zone
Fig.฀3.30฀Ship-building฀technology฀zones฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀according฀to฀Devendra฀(2002).
86
3.2.2฀Widely฀dispersed฀maritime฀technology
James฀Hornell฀must฀have฀been฀one฀of฀the฀very฀few฀researchers฀who฀actually฀visited฀most฀countries฀
around฀the฀whole฀Indian฀Ocean฀and฀was฀in฀the฀unique฀position฀to฀describe฀and฀compare฀the฀ships฀
in฀different฀regions.฀Concerning฀India,฀Hornell฀(1946)฀concluded฀that฀Arab฀designs฀were฀dominant฀
on฀the฀north-west฀coast,฀further฀south฀around฀Bombay฀types฀were฀of฀mixed฀origin฀and฀the฀ships฀
of฀the฀Malabar฀coast฀showed฀Portuguese฀as฀well฀as฀Indonesian฀inluences.฀Several฀Indian฀ship฀types฀
correspond฀with฀an฀Arab฀variant฀according฀to฀Hornell฀and฀Hawkins฀(1977):
Indian
Indian฀habitat
Arab฀counterpart
Kotia
North-west฀coast฀-฀Malabar
Baghla
Dhangi,฀nauri
North-west฀coast
Bum21
Batel
North-west฀coast฀/฀Gujarat
(Sambuk)22฀
Machwa
North-west฀coast฀/฀฀Gujarat
Pattamar
Konkan฀-฀Malabar
Table฀3.3
The฀pattamar฀is฀considered฀by฀Hornell฀of฀a฀design฀which฀can฀be฀considered฀indigenous฀in฀origin,฀
almost฀uninluenced฀by฀European฀and฀Arab฀contacts.฀They฀can฀be฀recognised฀by฀a฀great฀sheer,฀an฀
overhanging฀grab฀bow฀and฀a฀great฀beam฀at฀the฀quarters.฀It฀supposedly฀still฀has฀aspects฀about฀its฀
features฀that฀derive฀straight฀from฀more฀primitive฀vessels฀like฀dug-out฀canoes.฀Prins฀(1982)฀thought฀
that฀the฀pattamar฀and฀the฀mtepe฀both฀derived฀from฀a฀common฀ancestor.฀The฀method฀used฀for฀
joining฀the฀planks฀lends฀credibility฀to฀this฀hypothesis฀according฀to฀Varadarajan฀(1998),฀stating฀the฀
Wadiba฀people฀moved฀from฀the฀Laccadives฀to฀Lamu฀at฀some฀time฀in฀the฀past.฀Also฀Hornell฀(1941)฀
believed฀the฀mtepe฀could฀be฀linked฀to฀an฀Indian฀boat-building฀tradition,฀although฀he฀named฀the฀
Maldives฀for฀it.
Chaudhuri฀(1985)฀makes฀a฀more฀wider฀classiication฀by฀designating฀all฀of฀India’s฀ship฀types฀
up฀to฀the฀coast฀of฀Bengal฀to฀the฀‘Indo-Islamic’฀tradition,฀stating฀they฀have฀common฀hull฀shapes฀and฀
lateen฀rigs฀and฀are฀constructed฀according฀to฀the฀same฀principles.฀Two฀other฀regional฀groups฀can฀be฀
recognised฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean.฀In฀Indonesia,฀Malaysia฀and฀Burma฀maritime฀activities฀take฀place฀in฀
either฀a฀prahu฀or฀a฀sampan.฀These฀are฀light฀ships,฀not฀often฀used฀for฀ocean-going฀trade.฀The฀other฀
tradition฀is฀the฀Chinese฀junk,฀which฀has฀a฀unique฀method฀of฀construction฀and฀can฀take฀on฀
tremendous฀proportions.฀This฀broadly฀corresponds฀with฀Devendra’s฀map฀(Devendra฀2002),฀which฀
displays฀the฀shipbuilding฀technology฀zones,฀leaving฀out฀the฀Chinese฀one฀(see฀igure฀3.30).฀On฀this฀
map฀East฀Africa฀is฀shown฀as฀belonging฀to฀two฀traditions:฀dhows฀and฀double-outriggers.฀A฀dhow฀is฀
here฀deined฀as฀a฀lush฀built฀plank฀boat,฀sewn฀with฀coconut-ibre฀rope,฀a฀prominent฀rudder฀and฀a฀
forward฀raking฀mast฀carrying฀a฀lateen฀sail.฀On฀the฀East฀African฀mtepe฀however,฀the฀mast฀was฀not฀
raked฀and฀the฀sail฀was฀square.฀Devendra฀contradicts฀himself,฀for฀he฀also฀states฀pre-modern฀ships฀
were฀double-ended฀and฀of฀a฀lush฀built฀shell-construction฀with฀sewn-plank฀technology,฀and฀rigged฀
with฀a฀square฀sail.฀The฀technology฀further฀might฀have฀been฀similar฀to฀the฀mtepe,฀as฀it฀has฀the฀same฀
framing฀pattern฀as฀a฀Sri฀Lankan฀yathra฀dhoni,฀a฀stitched฀vessel,฀in฀the฀curious฀possession฀of฀an฀
87
outrigger฀and฀a฀huge฀rudder฀(ig.฀3.31).฀A฀calculation฀based฀on฀a฀model฀of฀this฀extinct฀type฀indicates฀
its฀stability฀was฀suficient฀for฀oceanic฀travel฀without฀an฀outrigger฀(Devendra฀2002).฀The฀outrigger฀
technology,฀particular฀with฀two฀outriggers,฀supposedly฀came฀to฀Africa฀irst฀via฀the฀Maldives,฀and฀
then฀through฀Madagascar,฀originating฀in฀Indonesia฀(Hornell฀1946).฀The฀region฀in฀which฀Chaudhuri฀
and฀Devendra฀seem฀to฀disagree฀is฀East฀India,฀which฀is฀not฀taken฀into฀consideration฀by฀Devendra.฀A฀
much฀noted฀type฀of฀the฀Coromandel฀coast฀is฀the฀wrongly฀named฀masula฀(locally฀named฀padau;฀
Kentley฀1985).฀A฀vessel฀with฀a฀lat฀bottom,฀sewn฀together฀and฀at฀least฀in฀use฀from฀the฀sixteenth฀
century฀onwards.฀Relatively฀unchanged,฀it฀is฀described฀by฀many฀authors฀(Hornell฀1926,฀Hill฀1958,฀
Kentley฀1985,฀Chaudhuri฀1985)฀without฀a฀mast฀or฀frames.฀The฀internal฀strength฀apparently฀came฀
from฀cross-beams,฀although฀sometimes฀it฀seems฀to฀lack฀these฀too.฀฀
Fig.฀3.31฀Yathra฀dhoni,฀drawn฀by฀
Tom฀Vosmer฀(Devendra฀2002).
3.2.3฀Contemporary฀ethnographical฀research฀in฀and฀around฀India
Asiatic฀ship-building฀traditions฀are฀supposedly฀very฀distinctive฀and฀thrive฀on฀a฀local฀conventional฀
social฀environment฀(Chaudhuri฀1985).฀European฀traditions฀were฀not฀so฀much฀bothered฀by฀this฀and฀
as฀a฀result฀were฀more฀lexible.฀This฀might฀explain฀why฀in฀all฀regions฀around฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀local฀
traditions฀remained฀implemented,฀even฀while฀technologies฀changed฀according฀to฀demands฀and฀
innovations.฀To฀state฀what฀a฀speciic฀Indian฀building฀tradition฀might฀hold฀requires฀more฀research,฀
but฀some฀is฀revealed฀by฀contemporary฀observations.฀Many฀traditions฀are฀said฀to฀be฀unchanged฀for฀at฀
least฀400฀to฀500฀years,฀for฀the฀knowledge฀of฀ship-building฀is฀held฀by฀a฀speciic฀caste฀which฀transfers฀
its฀knowledge฀only฀to฀a฀next฀generation.฀
The฀speciic฀building฀sequence฀varies฀in฀different฀regions,฀but฀regarding฀the฀Indian฀West฀
coast,฀in฀general฀larger฀ships฀are฀constructed฀according฀to฀the฀following฀steps:
•
The฀keel฀is฀laid,฀formerly฀in฀one฀piece,฀฀but฀now฀constructed฀from฀two฀or฀three฀timbers฀(Swamy฀
1999,฀Arunachalam฀1997),฀sometimes฀joined฀by฀a฀‘inter-ingering฀tongue’฀and฀‘groove฀scarf ’฀
with฀wooden฀pegs.฀The฀keel฀length฀is฀considered฀the฀length฀of฀the฀ship฀(Greeshmalatha,฀and฀
Rajamanickam฀1997).฀The฀keelson฀is฀sculptured฀as฀seen฀by฀Hawkins฀(1977)฀(see฀ig.฀3.32)฀or฀
made฀from฀an฀additional฀timber฀(Arunachalam฀1997).฀The฀addition฀of฀
the฀keelson฀before฀the฀garboard฀is฀distinctly฀different฀from฀the฀Arab฀
•
method.
•
happened฀in฀a฀later฀stage฀(Kurup฀1997).
Stem฀and฀sternposts฀are฀erected฀(Swamy฀1999),฀although฀sometimes฀this฀
Sometimes฀the฀garboard฀is฀added฀at฀this฀stage฀(Greeshmalatha,฀and฀
Rajamanickam฀1997)฀or฀even฀up฀to฀three฀strakes฀(Arunachalam฀1997),฀
but฀more฀customary฀the฀next฀step฀contains฀the฀adding฀of฀several฀frames฀
88
Fig.฀3.32฀Keel฀and฀frame฀
as฀seen฀by฀Hawkins฀
(1977).
•
irst฀(Kurup฀1997,฀Swamy฀1999).
•
temporary฀(Swamy฀฀1999).
Frames฀on฀each฀side,฀sometimes฀
Bottom฀planking.฀Hull฀planking฀is฀often฀
joined฀by฀a฀V-shaped฀scarf,฀which฀is฀
locally฀called฀an฀open฀crow’s฀beak฀
(Greeshmalatha,฀and฀Rajamanickam฀
•
1997).฀Planking฀is฀lush฀laid.
Adding฀rib฀extensions฀(futtocks)฀as฀the฀
planking฀of฀the฀hull฀continues฀
(Arunachalam฀1997).
Ribs฀are฀observed฀to฀be฀U-shaped฀or฀
angular฀(Arunachalam฀1997),฀or฀made฀in฀
a฀European฀looking฀manner฀as฀can฀be฀seen฀
on฀a฀photograph฀taken฀by฀Hawkins฀(1997,฀
103)฀with฀the฀loor฀timbers฀overlapping฀the฀
futtocks,฀connecting฀to฀them฀by฀a฀dove-tailed฀
scarf฀(see฀Ch.฀3.3).฀Indian฀ship-building฀is฀
widely฀classiied฀as฀skeleton-irst฀built฀(Kurup฀1997,฀
3.33฀Sewing฀the฀hull-planking฀of฀an฀odam฀using฀
coconut฀roping฀(Varadarajan฀1998).
Swami฀1999).
Sewing฀traditions฀were฀upheld฀on฀the฀Indian฀West-coast฀up฀to฀the฀early฀1960s฀(Hawkins฀
1977),฀but฀can฀still฀be฀observed฀on฀the฀Laccadive฀islands.฀One฀of฀the฀Laccadive’s฀traditional฀ships,฀
the฀odam,฀was฀boarded฀by฀Hawkins฀in฀1959฀in฀Bombay฀who฀observed฀the฀seams฀on฀the฀inside฀were฀
covered฀with฀compacted฀coir฀wadding฀and฀on฀the฀outside฀every฀stitch฀was฀vertically฀recessed฀into฀
the฀planking.฀That฀particular฀ship฀was฀then฀45฀years฀old.
Traditionally,฀Laccadive฀ships฀were฀only฀built฀for฀sailing฀to฀the฀mainland.฀Laccadive฀men฀had฀
to฀do฀this฀at฀least฀one฀time,฀or฀otherwise฀were฀not฀allowed฀marry฀(Varadarajan฀1998).฀The฀
contemporary฀odam฀seems฀to฀have฀decreased฀in฀size,฀but฀is฀still฀built฀by฀the฀same฀method฀(ig.฀3.33฀
and฀3.34).฀The฀frames฀added฀
later฀have฀hollowed฀spaces฀to฀
accommodate฀the฀roping.฀
Remarkably,฀the฀holes฀through฀
the฀hull฀are฀not฀pegged,฀but฀
made฀watertight฀by฀stufing฀
them฀with฀more฀coir.
Fig.฀3.34฀A฀frame฀of฀an฀odam฀
with฀hollowed฀spaces฀to฀
accomodate฀the฀wadding฀on฀the฀
iterior฀(Varadarajan฀1998).
89
3.3 European inluences closer examined
The฀Portuguese฀had฀a฀shipping฀monopoly฀in฀Asia฀in฀the฀sixteenth฀century,฀but฀this฀soon฀ended฀with฀
the฀arrival฀of฀other฀Europeans.฀In฀the฀seventeenth฀and฀eighteenth฀century฀many฀countries฀had฀their฀
own฀shipping฀company฀to฀sail฀to฀the฀east.฀The฀Dutch฀East฀India฀Company฀(VOC)฀was฀the฀largest,฀
followed฀by฀the฀English,฀French,฀Danish,฀Swedish฀and฀Southern฀Netherlands฀companies฀(Bruijn฀and฀
Gaastra฀1993).฀Of฀these฀the฀Portuguese,฀Dutch฀and฀English฀are฀said฀to฀have฀had฀an฀inluence฀on฀the฀
shipbuilding฀industries฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀(Prins฀1965),฀so฀it฀is฀time฀to฀examine฀their฀ships฀and฀
way฀of฀building฀a฀little฀closer.
3.3.1฀European฀construction฀traditions
As฀already฀mentioned฀in฀Ch.฀3.1.6฀the฀Portuguese฀were฀building฀ships฀in฀India฀and฀Persia฀early฀in฀
the฀sixteenth฀century.฀Their฀naval฀power฀in฀the฀region฀was฀being฀organised฀and฀directed฀from฀one฀
central฀place:฀Goa฀in฀India฀(Gaastra฀1991,฀Friel฀1994).฀
The฀Portuguese฀ship฀of฀late฀medieval฀years฀was฀the฀carrack,฀a฀three฀masted฀cargo฀vessel฀with฀
square฀sails฀on฀the฀forward฀two฀masts฀and฀a฀lateen฀sail฀on฀the฀aft฀mast.฀The฀carrack฀was฀according฀to฀
Portuguese฀tradition฀built฀skeleton-irst,฀with฀lush-laid฀planking฀and฀large฀longitudinal฀wales฀(Friel฀
1994).฀Other฀features฀were฀a฀high฀freeboard,฀a฀stern฀rudder,฀fore฀and฀aftcastle฀and฀a฀transom฀stern.฀
Other฀European฀nation฀built฀this฀type฀of฀vessel฀as฀well฀and฀its฀appearance฀varied,฀as฀the฀ifteenth฀
century฀Venetian฀carracks฀were฀for฀example฀double-ended.฀The฀฀caravel฀disappeared฀sometime฀in฀
the฀sixteenth฀century.฀
The฀Portuguese฀explorations฀were฀conducted฀with฀another฀type฀of฀vessel,฀partly฀
contemporary฀to฀the฀carrack,฀the฀caravel.฀Vasco฀da฀Gama฀was฀rumoured฀to฀sail฀in฀one฀of฀them฀upon฀
entering฀the฀Indian฀Ocean.฀In฀contrast฀to฀the฀carrack,฀the฀forecastle฀of฀the฀caravel฀was฀lower฀than฀the฀
one฀aft,฀making฀it฀its฀distinct฀feature.฀These฀ships฀usually฀had฀three฀or฀four฀masts฀and฀were฀rigged฀
with฀a฀combination฀of฀square฀and฀lateen฀
sails.฀This฀type฀too,฀was฀built฀skeleton-irst฀
as฀were฀other฀Portuguese฀types,฀like฀galleys,฀
pinnaces,฀naos฀and฀chinchorros฀(Steffy฀1994).฀
The฀shape฀of฀the฀hull฀derived฀automatically฀
from฀the฀use฀of฀the฀largest฀and฀fullest฀ribs,฀
located฀slightly฀forwards฀of฀amidships฀
(Philips฀1994).฀First,฀the฀keel฀was฀assembled,฀
then฀the฀stem฀and฀sternposts฀and฀the฀
midship฀rib฀(Filgueiras฀1991).฀The฀garboard฀
strake฀was฀placed฀into฀rabbets฀in฀the฀sides฀of฀
the฀keel,฀as฀was฀common฀throughout฀most฀
parts฀of฀Western฀Europe.฀Typical฀for฀
sixteenth฀century฀Iberian฀ship฀construction,฀ Fig.฀3.35฀Construction฀of฀an฀Iberian฀ship฀(Steffy฀1994,฀133).
90
the฀Portuguese฀used฀a฀frame฀pattern฀that฀connected฀loor-frames฀and฀futtocks฀with฀an฀overlapping฀
dovetail฀joint฀(ig.฀3.35).฀The฀whole฀framing฀pattern฀consisted฀entirely฀of฀loor-frames฀and฀futtocks.฀
Two฀futtocks฀and฀a฀loor฀part฀made฀up฀a฀frame฀which฀probably฀would฀have฀been฀assembled฀before฀it฀
became฀member฀of฀the฀construction฀(Steffy฀1994).฀The฀lush฀planking฀of฀the฀hull฀would฀have฀been฀
added฀after฀all฀the฀frames฀were฀erected.฀The฀lower฀part฀of฀the฀hold฀was฀covered฀with฀ceiling฀planking฀
on฀the฀inside฀and฀illing฀pieces฀closed฀it฀at฀the฀loor฀heads.฀The฀ceiling฀started฀next฀to฀the฀keelson฀in฀
which฀a฀mast-step฀was฀cut฀out.฀
A฀number฀of฀Portuguese฀wrecks฀have฀been฀found฀in฀East฀African฀waters.฀A฀late฀seventeenth฀
century฀40-gun฀frigate฀lays฀in฀front฀of฀the฀Mombasa฀harbour฀(Kirkman฀1972,฀Piercy฀1977฀-฀1981).฀It฀
sunk฀after฀participating฀in฀the฀defence฀of฀the฀Portuguese฀fort,฀a฀150฀metres฀away฀on฀the฀land,฀which฀
was฀being฀besieged฀by฀the฀Omani฀Arabs.฀The฀wreck฀held฀many฀inds฀which฀helped฀with฀the฀
determination฀of฀the฀age฀and฀origins฀of฀the฀wreck.฀A฀large฀portion฀of฀the฀portside฀hull฀up฀to฀the฀gun฀
deck฀was฀preserved,฀which฀made฀the฀study฀of฀its฀construction฀possible.฀Excavation฀took฀place฀in฀the฀
late฀1970s฀and฀revealed฀the฀ship฀would฀have฀been฀about฀30฀metres฀in฀length฀with฀a฀beam฀of฀about฀10฀
metres฀and฀possibly฀a฀transom฀stern฀(Piercy฀1979).฀The฀28฀metres฀of฀keelson฀left,฀showed฀a฀maststep฀at฀about฀amidships.฀It฀was฀reinforced฀with฀one฀heavy฀timber฀to฀either฀side.฀The฀frames฀have฀a฀
section฀of฀20฀x฀20฀cm฀and฀overlap฀under฀the฀irst฀bilge฀strake.฀The฀gun฀deck฀is฀estimated฀to฀have฀
been฀3.2฀metres฀above฀the฀keelson.฀
Remains฀of฀another฀Portuguese฀wreck,฀dating฀from฀the฀mid฀sixteenth฀century,฀were฀found฀on฀
an฀isolated฀reef฀near฀the฀Seychelles฀(Blake฀and฀Green฀1986).฀Not฀much฀is฀known฀about฀the฀
construction฀of฀this฀ship,฀for฀the฀hull฀was฀only฀visible฀in฀two฀small฀places฀on฀the฀site.฀In฀contrast฀to฀
the฀Mombasa฀wreck,฀which฀was฀built฀in฀India,฀this฀one฀came฀from฀the฀Portuguese฀homeland.฀The฀
average฀thickness฀of฀the฀hull฀planking฀was฀9฀cm,฀the฀average฀frame฀was฀about฀17฀x฀18฀cm฀and฀these฀
occupied฀56%฀of฀the฀length฀of฀the฀section.฀Derived฀from฀some฀standard฀rules,฀Blake฀and฀Green฀
came฀to฀the฀conclusion฀the฀planking฀thickness฀corresponded฀to฀those฀of฀a฀small฀nao฀or฀carrack฀and฀
the฀frame฀size฀to฀a฀somewhat฀bigger฀one,฀both฀round฀and฀beamy฀vessels฀for฀carrying฀a฀large฀amount฀
of฀cargo฀(200-350฀tonnes).฀The฀average฀spacing฀of฀the฀frames฀conforms฀to฀the฀rule฀that฀the฀width฀of฀
the฀timbers฀was฀equal฀to฀the฀spacing฀in฀between.฀Seams฀between฀planking฀of฀the฀outside฀hull฀were฀
closed฀with฀lead฀caulking฀with฀a฀lead฀strip฀covering.
Nothern฀Europe฀had฀a฀tradition฀of฀clinker-built฀ships,฀made฀according฀to฀a฀shell-irst฀method฀
with฀overlapping฀strakes.฀By฀the฀seventeenth฀century฀large฀ocean-going฀ships฀were฀made฀with฀lushlaid฀planking.
The฀Dutch฀modelled฀their฀organisation฀after฀the฀Portuguese฀manner฀by฀founding฀their฀Asiatic฀
headquarters฀in฀Batavia23฀in฀the฀early฀seventeenth฀century฀(Gaastra฀1991).฀There฀they฀built฀and฀
repaired฀ships฀on฀their฀own฀dockyards฀according฀to฀Dutch฀fashion.฀Two฀works฀of฀literature฀dating฀
from฀that฀century฀unravel฀the฀Dutch฀art฀of฀shipbuilding,฀one฀published฀by฀Nicolaes฀Witsen฀in฀1671฀
and฀another฀by฀Cornelis฀van฀Yk฀in฀1697.฀They฀both฀portray฀a฀different฀tradition฀in฀shipbuilding,฀
whereas฀the฀shell-irst฀technique฀Witsen฀described฀was฀the฀one฀most฀commonly฀practised฀(Hoving฀
1994).฀The฀start฀is฀the฀same฀in฀both฀traditions:฀irst฀the฀keel฀is฀made฀of฀several฀parts,฀connected฀by฀
91
an฀oblique฀scarf฀and฀placed฀on฀blocks.฀The฀sternpost฀is฀placed฀on฀top฀of฀the฀keel฀fastened฀with฀
mortises฀and฀the฀curved฀stempost฀is฀connected฀by฀a฀vertical฀scarf฀on฀the฀underside฀and฀on฀top฀by฀a฀
horizontal฀overlap฀(ig.฀3.36).฀A฀transom฀stern฀is฀part฀of฀the฀construction฀right฀from฀the฀start.฀Then,฀
the฀garboard฀strake฀is฀itted฀on฀(ig.฀3.37).฀After฀this฀the฀
methods฀divert฀into฀different฀directions.฀Witsens’฀works฀
shows฀how฀the฀next฀bottom฀strakes฀are฀attached฀to฀the฀
garboard฀by฀temporary฀cleats฀and฀clamps฀(ig.฀3.38).฀The฀
bilge฀is฀shaped฀to฀the฀irst฀frame฀which฀consists,฀like฀its฀
Portuguese฀variant,฀of฀a฀loor-frame฀and฀two฀futtocks฀with฀
an฀overlap฀(ig.฀3.39).฀Two฀more฀of฀these฀frames฀were฀added฀
and฀on฀the฀top-end฀the฀sheerstrake฀could฀be฀connected.฀This฀
roughly฀determined฀the฀breadth฀of฀the฀ship฀and฀the฀shape฀of฀
Fig.฀3.36฀Keel-stem฀conncection฀of฀a฀Dutch฀ the฀hull.฀The฀empty฀shell฀could฀now฀be฀illed฀with฀the฀
seventeenth฀century฀ship฀(Hoving฀1994,฀67).
remaining฀frames,฀all฀made฀up฀like฀the฀irst฀one฀and฀placed฀
side฀by฀side฀without฀
spacing฀between฀them฀
at฀the฀location฀of฀the฀
overlap.฀
Van฀Yk’s฀
method฀involved฀
erecting฀key฀frames฀
immediately฀after฀the฀
garboard฀strake.฀The฀
irst฀two฀were฀placed฀
at฀the฀parallel฀part฀of฀
Fig.฀3.37฀First฀stage฀in฀Dutch฀shipbuilding฀practices฀(Hoving฀1994,฀29).
the฀midship.฀The฀
sheerstrake฀is฀
connected฀after฀the฀
positioning฀of฀a฀
forward฀and฀aft฀frame.฀
Horizontal฀ribbands฀
are฀then฀placed฀to฀
determine฀the฀hull฀
shape฀(ig.฀3.40).
฀The฀Dutch฀way฀of฀
building,฀especially฀
the฀shell-irst฀
method,฀is฀a฀fast฀one฀
Fig.฀3.38฀Temporary฀solutions฀to฀keep฀the฀planking฀together฀(Hoving฀1994,฀91).
92
which฀came฀to฀their฀
advantage฀in฀the฀VOC-days.฀It฀also฀
shows฀that฀the฀distinction฀between฀
shell-irst฀and฀skeleton฀irst฀is฀not฀
as฀straightforward฀as฀previously฀
assumed.฀Actually,฀both฀methods฀
could฀be฀classiied฀as฀in-between฀shell฀
and฀skeleton฀construction.฀Neither฀the฀
complete฀shell฀nor฀the฀complete฀set฀of฀
frames฀is฀erected฀irst,฀but฀in฀stead฀it฀is฀
done฀simultaneously฀which฀makes฀it฀
more฀easy฀and฀faster.
The฀seventeenth฀century฀
English฀shipbuilding฀tradition฀was฀
similar฀to฀the฀way฀Van฀Yk฀had฀
described฀it.฀Details฀might฀have฀been฀
different฀and฀the฀English฀had฀their฀
own฀ship฀types,฀but฀in฀general฀
construction฀was฀similar฀to฀the฀Dutch฀
skeleton-irst฀method.฀The฀keel฀
consisted฀of฀several฀parts฀connected฀by฀
a฀scarf,฀sometimes฀a฀vertical฀and฀
Fig.฀3.39฀First฀loor-frame฀and฀two฀futtock,฀connected฀with฀a฀
sometimes฀a฀horizontal฀one.฀The฀stem฀ overlapping฀hook-scarf฀(Hoving฀1994,฀97).
and฀stern-to-keel฀connection฀are฀
similar฀to฀the฀Dutch฀method.฀
Fig.฀3.40฀Shipbuilding฀according฀to฀Van฀Yk฀(Hoving฀1994,฀31).
93
Fig.฀3.41฀Construction฀of฀the฀Boscawen฀wreck฀(Steffy฀1991,฀173).
In฀the฀eighteenth฀century฀their฀method฀of฀framing฀becomes฀different,฀as฀shown฀by฀wrecks฀of฀English฀
ships฀found฀in฀the฀United฀states.฀The฀wreck฀of฀the฀Boscawen฀had฀a฀pattern฀of฀alternating฀so-called฀
irst฀futtocks฀and฀loor-frames฀with฀second฀futtocks.฀As฀shown฀in฀igure฀3.41,฀the฀garboard฀is฀still฀in฀
typical฀European฀style฀placed฀to฀the฀sides฀of฀the฀keel.฀A฀keelson฀is฀nailed฀on฀top฀of฀the฀frames.฀The฀
irst฀futtocks฀do฀not฀run฀all฀the฀way฀up฀to฀the฀sheer,฀but฀possibly฀there฀were฀more฀futtocks฀higher฀up฀
that฀have฀not฀been฀recovered.฀Steffy฀(1991)฀remarks฀the฀framing฀pattern฀is฀‘curious’฀and฀compares฀it฀
to฀ancient฀Mediterranean฀vessels.฀He฀concludes฀the฀planking฀must฀have฀begun฀as฀soon฀as฀the฀loor฀
timbers฀were฀in฀place฀and฀proceeded฀with฀each฀additional฀set฀of฀futtocks฀(hence฀the฀name฀‘irst’฀and฀
‘second’฀futtocks).฀He฀further฀suggests฀it฀must฀have฀been฀built฀in฀this฀manner฀because฀there฀was฀a฀
great฀need฀for฀warships฀at฀the฀time฀and฀there฀was฀an฀urgency฀to฀do฀it฀quickly.฀Reading฀between฀the฀
lines,฀Steffy฀seems฀to฀regard฀this฀as฀an฀inferior฀construction฀method.฀The฀fact฀that฀it฀was฀made฀of฀
white฀oak฀points฀to฀fabrication฀in฀the฀homeland,฀so฀apparantly฀foreign฀inluences฀can฀be฀ruled฀out.฀
The฀early฀eighteenth฀century฀Ronson฀shipwreck฀showed฀a฀different฀arrangement฀of฀the฀
frames฀(Steffy฀1991).฀Unlike฀the฀seventeenth฀century฀variant฀these฀are฀positioned฀in฀the฀ship฀by฀the฀
pair,฀together฀averaging฀43฀cm฀in฀breadth฀and฀22฀cm฀deep,฀with฀a฀frame฀spacing฀in฀between฀of฀60฀
cm.฀This฀type฀of฀framing฀pattern฀very฀much฀looks฀like฀the฀interior฀of฀the฀model฀of฀the฀Arab฀pirate฀
dhow฀as฀previously฀described฀in฀Ch฀3.1.8฀and฀shown฀in฀igure฀3.18.฀The฀model฀was฀therefore฀
probably฀made฀by฀an฀Englishman฀or฀commissioned฀by฀one.฀A฀much฀less฀likely฀option฀is฀proposed฀by฀
the฀suggestion฀the฀Indian฀shipyards฀in฀the฀early฀nineteenth฀century฀built฀according฀to฀the฀English฀
style.฀This฀is฀however฀not฀relected฀on฀the฀Indians฀own฀shipbuilding฀tradition.
94
3.3.2฀A฀two฀century฀transition฀gap
Comparing฀sixteenth฀to฀eighteenth฀century฀European฀shipbuilding฀techniques฀to฀twentieth฀century฀
East฀African฀and฀Arab฀ones฀could฀be฀considered฀disproportionate.฀The฀few฀centuries฀long฀gap฀
between฀the฀European฀and฀West฀Indian฀Ocean฀technologies,฀represents฀a฀period฀in฀which฀the฀local฀
shipbuilding฀techniques฀of฀the฀latter฀region฀could฀have฀developed฀into฀a฀wide฀variety฀of฀directions.฀
Even฀if฀the฀European฀traditions฀had฀an฀inluence฀once,฀they฀could฀have฀fallen฀into฀disuse฀and฀be฀
undetectable฀by฀now.฀But฀as฀the฀Europeans฀turned฀to฀steel,฀the฀leet฀made฀by฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀
peoples฀was฀still฀entirely฀made฀of฀wood.฀It฀would฀therefore฀not฀be฀illogical฀to฀presume฀that฀any฀
inluence฀coming฀from฀the฀European฀side,฀would฀certainly฀have฀stopped฀by฀the฀beginning฀of฀the฀
twentieth฀century,฀if฀not฀earlier฀already.
95
Footnotes฀Ch.฀3
1
฀‘Arabs’฀are฀primairy฀the฀people฀from฀Arabia฀(Saudi,฀Oman,฀Yemen,฀United฀Emirates)฀and฀secondly฀people฀who฀speak฀
Arabic,฀which฀covers฀a฀much฀larger฀area฀then฀just฀the฀peninsula฀(among฀whom฀the฀Kuwaiti,฀Iraqi,฀Irani).
2
฀Double-ended฀means฀with฀a฀sharp฀end฀at฀the฀front฀and฀back฀of฀the฀ship,฀i.o.฀without฀a฀transom฀stern.
3
฀Luff:฀A฀perpendicular฀or฀vertical฀edge฀of฀the฀lateen฀sail฀below฀the฀heel฀of฀the฀yard฀(Hornell฀1942),฀sometimes฀several฀feet฀
in฀length,฀making฀it฀four-cornered฀in฀stead฀of฀triangular.
4
฀The฀Northwest฀part฀of฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀was฀called฀‘Bahr฀al-Hind’฀by฀the฀Arabs฀(Hourani฀1951).
5
฀Nowadays฀part฀of฀Yemen,฀the฀Hadhramaut฀is฀the฀region฀between฀South฀Yemen฀and฀Oman,฀including฀the฀coastal฀region.
6
฀Speaking฀of฀the฀ships฀he฀saw฀in฀Hormuz฀in฀the฀Arabian฀Gulf฀(Martin฀1978).
7
฀The฀stern-rudder฀with฀tiller฀might฀as฀well฀have฀been฀adopted฀from฀the฀Africans฀irst,฀there฀is฀no฀proof฀either฀way!
8
฀Green฀was฀citing฀W.H.฀Moreland,฀‘The฀ships฀of฀the฀Arabian฀Sea฀about฀AD฀1500’,฀Journal฀of฀the฀Royal฀Society฀of฀Great฀
Britain฀and฀Ireland฀(January฀and฀April฀1939),฀pp฀63-74฀and฀12-192.฀Unfortunately฀I฀was฀personally฀unable฀to฀locate฀these฀
articles.฀
9
฀See฀note฀8.
10
฀See฀Ch.฀3.1.8.
11
฀Nance฀(1920)฀further฀remarks฀batello฀is฀probably฀another฀฀word฀for฀bateele,฀although฀he฀says฀the฀last฀one฀has฀a฀different฀
stern฀as฀well฀as฀another฀steering฀gear.฀Nevertheless,฀bateele฀is฀another฀word฀for฀batil฀or฀battil,฀a฀pirate฀vessel฀already฀
mentioned฀by฀the฀Dutch฀in฀the฀eighteenth฀century฀(Agius฀2002)฀with฀a฀stern฀rudder฀and฀ropes.฀Nance฀probably฀had฀the฀
name฀wrong฀as฀Agius฀(2002,฀66)฀states฀the฀batella฀is฀dificult฀to฀relate฀to฀the฀battil.
12
฀Also฀called฀boom฀by฀English฀language฀writers.฀
13
฀For฀example฀Valentia฀in฀1811,฀Owen฀in฀1833฀and฀Burckhardt฀in฀1829฀(Hornell฀1942)฀and฀Osgood฀in฀1854฀(LeBaron฀
Bowen฀1952.
14
฀The฀ships’฀names฀given฀between฀brackets฀are฀said฀to฀be฀included฀in฀Pâris’฀book฀by฀Hawkins฀(1977,฀26),฀but฀I฀have฀not฀
been฀able฀to฀ind฀their฀image฀anywhere฀amongst฀the฀used฀literature฀and฀these฀names฀seem฀modern฀(by฀Hawkins?).
15
฀Villiers฀(1940)฀stated฀they฀had฀ive฀windows,฀but฀this฀might฀not฀always฀have฀be฀the฀case฀as฀the฀600฀tons฀baghla฀Al฀
Hashemi฀II฀(Agius฀2002,฀51)฀had฀seven.
16
฀Without฀the฀strakes฀overlapping.
17
฀This฀model฀in฀not฀on฀display฀but฀in฀the฀museums฀storage฀facilities฀in฀Olympia.
18
฀Also฀called฀sambuk฀or฀sanbuk.
19
฀Small฀in฀one฀particular฀case฀being฀6.85฀metres฀in฀overall฀length,฀with฀a฀beam฀of฀1.30฀metres.
20
฀Reversed฀clinker฀means฀that฀the฀upper฀edges฀of฀the฀lower฀strakes฀are฀outside฀the฀lower฀edges฀of฀the฀upper฀planks.
21
฀Chaudhuri฀(1985)฀suggests฀the฀design฀of฀the฀bum฀originated฀in฀India.฀He฀states฀the฀design฀of฀both฀ships฀had฀a฀common฀
origin฀in฀any฀case.
22
23
฀Hawkins฀(1977)฀disagrees฀and฀states฀the฀sambuk฀and฀the฀batel฀are฀very฀different฀‘once฀you฀get฀to฀know฀them฀better’.
฀Nowadays฀Jakarta฀on฀the฀Indonesian฀island฀of฀Java.
96
Conclusion
As฀the฀Swahili฀people฀grew฀from฀a฀farmer฀society฀into฀a฀more฀mercantile฀one,฀the฀use฀of฀ships฀must฀
have฀gained฀importance.฀Evidence฀of฀Swahili฀ships฀owned฀by฀Bantu-speaking฀farmers฀living฀on฀the฀
East฀African฀coast฀two-thousand฀years฀ago฀is฀scarce,฀but฀for฀now฀there฀is฀no฀reason฀to฀assume฀the฀
Swahili฀did฀not฀build฀and฀sail฀their฀own฀ships฀as฀early฀as฀that฀time.฀The฀earliest฀known฀East฀African฀
ship฀types฀were฀coastal฀vessels,฀of฀a฀sewn฀construction:฀mtepe฀and฀dau.฀Study฀of฀these฀types฀learned฀
us฀that฀Africans฀build฀their฀ships฀typically฀double-ended,฀on฀a฀keel,฀with฀the฀stem฀and฀sternposts฀
placed฀obliquely฀scarfed฀to฀the฀aft฀and฀fore฀ends.฀They฀were฀built฀mainly฀of฀materials฀from฀the฀
mangrove฀and฀the฀coconut฀tree,฀and฀the฀planks฀were฀sewn฀together฀with฀coir.฀The฀building฀process฀
would฀have฀been฀basically฀shell-irst,฀as฀it฀is฀impossible฀to฀put฀in฀the฀frames฀in฀an฀early฀phase.฀Other฀
features฀of฀ancient฀and฀sub-recent฀African฀ships฀were฀the฀square฀palm-matted฀sail,฀on฀the฀mtepe฀the฀
ornamented฀stem-head,฀several฀upper฀and฀lower฀thwarts฀lashed฀together,฀U-shaped฀loor฀frames฀
with฀relatively฀short฀futtocks,฀a฀sort฀of฀฀keelson฀placed฀on฀the฀frames฀and฀a฀palm฀thatched฀roof฀above฀
the฀quarter.฀The฀ships฀had฀an฀open฀cargo฀hold฀and฀usually฀a฀small฀aft฀and฀fore฀deck.฀The฀rudder฀
was฀hung฀on฀the฀sternpost฀by฀three฀ropes฀and฀had฀a฀tiller฀for฀steering.฀The฀mtepe฀can฀be฀considered฀
a฀typical฀African฀sailing฀vessel,฀although฀the฀sewing฀technique฀is฀also฀known฀from฀the฀Indian฀
sub-continent.฀A฀connection฀between฀the฀two฀area’s฀seems฀therefore฀likely,฀but฀remains฀otherwise฀
unclear.฀It฀is฀not฀known฀who฀inluenced฀who฀or฀if฀this฀speciic฀ship-building฀aspect฀was฀adopted฀by฀
a฀transitional฀or฀a฀migrational฀process.฀
The฀notable฀V-shaped฀breasthooks฀on฀the฀dau฀could฀have฀derived฀from฀extending฀a฀dug-out฀
canoe.฀There฀seems฀to฀be฀no฀other฀reasonable฀explanation฀for฀the฀presence฀of฀this฀building฀
technique฀in฀East฀African฀history.฀The฀dau฀and฀the฀mtepe฀probably฀went฀through฀different฀
evolutionary฀processes,฀each฀to฀result฀in฀their฀speciic฀end฀product.฀The฀mtepe฀went฀out฀of฀
production฀in฀the฀late฀nineteenth฀century,฀the฀dau฀in฀the฀1920s.฀Their฀disappearance฀does฀not฀seem฀
to฀coincide฀with฀a฀speciic฀historic฀event฀or฀sequence฀of฀events.฀They฀might฀have฀inally฀lost฀
competition฀with฀nail-constructed฀ships,฀which฀required฀less฀maintenance฀and฀bailing฀efforts.฀Other฀
types฀of฀vessels฀undoubtedly฀existed฀in฀other฀points฀of฀the฀East฀African฀time-space฀continuum,฀
perhaps฀even฀ocean-going฀ones.฀
Studying฀other฀sewn฀ships฀learned฀that฀in฀the฀construction฀procedure฀the฀sequence฀is฀not฀
without฀question:฀keel฀irst,฀stem฀and฀sternposts฀after฀that฀and฀then฀the฀irst฀few฀strakes.฀Sometimes฀
after฀the฀keel฀a฀whole฀portion฀of฀the฀shell฀is฀sewn฀together฀irst.฀Only฀after฀that฀the฀posts฀are฀
connected.฀Nothing฀is฀known฀about฀the฀construction฀process฀of฀the฀mtepe,฀but฀the฀keel-to-stem฀
connection฀makes฀the฀latter฀method฀a฀possibility.
Present-day฀East฀African฀ship฀types฀could฀be฀classiied฀as฀‘dhows’,฀as฀they฀carry฀the฀typical฀
West฀Indian฀Ocean฀lateen฀sail.฀The฀jahazi฀in฀its฀present฀form฀could฀be฀about฀150฀years฀old.฀There฀is฀
not฀enough฀information฀written฀on฀the฀time฀predating฀that฀period,฀to฀demonstrate฀an฀earlier฀
existence.฀The฀jahazi฀clearly฀is฀a฀cargo฀vessel฀build฀by฀Arab฀standards,฀like฀the฀mashua฀ishing฀vessel,฀
and฀its฀introduction฀in฀the฀nineteenth฀century฀might฀be฀related฀to฀the฀moving฀of฀the฀Omani฀
97
sultanate฀to฀Zanzibar.฀The฀large฀low฀of฀Arab฀immigrants฀that฀followed฀might฀be฀related฀to฀the฀Arab฀
inluences฀found฀in฀the฀shipbuilding฀industry.฀Further฀research฀on฀the฀impact฀of฀the฀Arab฀rule฀on฀
the฀local฀economy฀is฀required฀in฀order฀to฀investigate฀the฀apparent฀changes฀in฀local฀shipbuilding฀
traditions฀in฀that฀period.฀The฀Arab฀building฀method฀seems฀to฀have฀gained฀terrain฀since฀then,฀until฀it฀
completely฀took฀over฀in฀the฀course฀of฀the฀twentieth฀century.฀The฀remarkable฀thing฀is฀that฀the฀
building฀of฀ships฀on฀the฀East฀African฀coast฀has฀always฀been฀and฀still฀is฀done฀solely฀by฀the฀Swahili฀
people฀and฀never฀by฀the฀immigrated฀Arabs.฀The฀use฀of฀a฀complete฀nautical฀vocabulary฀in฀Swahili฀
seems฀to฀conirm฀this.฀The฀new฀Arab฀elite฀that฀took฀over฀the฀position฀of฀the฀Swahili฀patricians฀could฀
however฀have฀imposed฀their฀method฀on฀the฀locals฀or฀it฀could฀have฀started฀by฀repair฀and฀
maintenance฀of฀their฀old฀ships฀brought฀over฀from฀Oman฀and฀the฀Hadhramaut.฀This฀enfeebles฀the฀
thesis฀put฀by฀Johnstone฀and฀Muir฀that฀on฀borrowing฀naval฀techniques฀from฀another฀culture,฀the฀
nautical฀terms฀are฀copied฀as฀well.฀
One฀of฀the฀main฀conclusions฀of฀this฀research฀is฀that฀no฀aspects฀that฀can฀be฀considered฀typical฀
African฀remain฀in฀the฀construction฀method฀of฀ships฀to-day.฀The฀building฀process฀is฀entirely฀Arab฀in฀
style฀and฀design,฀as฀is฀evident฀by฀the฀manner฀in฀which฀the฀stem฀and฀sternposts฀are฀scarved฀into฀the฀
top฀of฀the฀keel,฀the฀alternating฀framing฀pattern,฀the฀arrangement฀of฀the฀stringers฀and฀the฀thwarts,฀
the฀short฀mast-step฀with฀the฀forward฀raking฀mast฀and฀the฀fore฀and฀aft฀rests฀for฀the฀yard.฀Even฀the฀
assembly฀order฀of฀the฀parts฀is฀Arab,฀for฀there฀seems฀to฀be฀neither฀a฀clear฀skeleton-irst฀construction฀
process฀or฀a฀shell-irst฀one.฀In฀stead,฀the฀lush-build฀shell฀and฀the฀frames฀are฀more฀or฀less฀
simultaneously฀build฀upwards฀from฀the฀keel.฀A฀fast฀and฀easy฀building฀method,฀supported฀by฀the฀
alternating฀framing฀pattern.฀Sometimes฀templates฀are฀used฀as฀temporary฀frames,฀which฀are฀taken฀
out฀later.฀The฀ancient฀Kyrenian฀shipwreck฀and฀the฀seventh฀century฀Yassi฀Ada฀wreck฀show฀a฀similar฀
framing฀pattern,฀as฀does฀the฀eighteenth฀century฀English฀Boscawen฀wreck.฀A฀similar฀technique฀on฀
different฀shores฀and฀periods฀for฀all฀these฀ships฀seems฀to฀point฀to฀the฀similarity฀being฀coincidental.฀
For฀the฀Arabs฀however,฀the฀quick฀building฀method฀apparently฀became฀a฀tradition.
The฀caulking฀method฀is฀one฀generally฀used฀all฀around฀the฀Western฀Indian฀Ocean,฀involving฀
cotton฀ibers฀and฀coconut฀oil.฀Likewise,฀the฀hull฀is฀treated฀with฀ish-oil฀or฀oil฀from฀a฀shark’s฀liver,฀a฀
custom฀that฀dates฀back฀to฀the฀time฀of฀the฀Periplus.฀
Inluences฀on฀shipbuilding฀techniques฀by฀the฀Europeans฀seem฀to฀be฀limited.฀Pictorial฀
evidence฀from฀the฀Indian฀subcontinent฀points฀to฀knowledge฀of฀the฀transom฀stern฀before฀the฀arrival฀
of฀the฀Portuguese.฀The฀Chinese฀yonk฀had฀similar฀features.฀It฀is฀however฀probable฀that฀the฀square฀
stern฀gained฀in฀popularity฀after฀1500.฀The฀Arabs฀knew฀about฀it,฀but฀had฀not฀used฀it฀often฀until฀then.฀
The฀superior฀naval฀power฀of฀the฀Europeans฀could฀have฀induced฀these฀kinds฀of฀adjustments฀in฀Arab฀
ship฀design.฀
For฀the฀use฀of฀nails฀in฀shipbuilding฀the฀same฀statement฀could฀be฀valid,฀although฀there฀is฀no฀
evidence฀for฀this.฀Sewn฀and฀nailed฀ships฀seem฀to฀have฀coexisted฀for฀a฀long฀time฀in฀the฀Western฀
Indian฀Ocean,฀at฀least฀from฀about฀1500฀to฀1900.฀In฀some฀remote฀places฀sewing฀techniques฀are฀even฀
upheld฀in฀the฀twentieth฀century.฀It฀remains฀uncertain฀if฀ships฀were฀ever฀nailed฀before฀the฀arrival฀of฀
the฀Portuguese.
98
The฀thesis฀proposed฀in฀the฀introduction฀about฀the฀skeleton-irst฀building฀method฀being฀a฀European฀
innovation฀in฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀has฀been฀proven฀irrelevant.฀Indian฀Ocean฀shipbuilding฀can฀not฀be฀
classiied฀as฀such,฀for฀practices฀are฀too฀diverse.฀This฀might฀have฀been฀a฀Euro-centric฀point฀of฀view,฀as฀
was฀a฀common฀line฀of฀thought฀about฀ifty฀years฀ago.
In฀the฀end฀few฀changes฀in฀ship฀design฀and฀building฀techniques฀which฀were฀previously฀claimed฀
to฀be฀European฀innovations,฀can฀be฀sustained฀as฀such.฀It฀can฀be฀safely฀presumed฀however,฀that฀
European฀interference฀had฀a฀large฀impact฀on฀the฀local฀economy฀and฀industries,฀so฀some฀adjustments฀
on฀the฀local฀shipbuilding฀were฀likely฀unavoidable.฀
It฀is฀uncertain฀which฀position฀ships฀had฀within฀the฀Swahili฀culture.฀As฀in฀any฀ethnoarchaeological฀research฀of฀a฀maritime฀or฀semi-maritime฀culture,฀the฀relation฀between฀the฀ships,฀the฀
people฀who฀made฀them,฀who฀sailed฀them฀and฀who฀owned฀them฀is฀a฀relatively฀unexplored฀subject.฀
The฀people฀who฀made฀them,฀belonged฀to฀the฀so-called฀commoner-class,฀the฀people฀who฀owned฀
them฀were฀the฀patricians.฀The฀sailors฀would฀most฀likely฀have฀been฀on฀their฀payroll฀too.
Shipbuilding฀and฀other฀maritime฀aspects฀about฀the฀Swahili฀culture฀must฀be฀reviewed฀within฀
the฀broader฀perspective฀of฀the฀Indian฀Ocean฀seascape.฀Like฀contacts฀and฀exchanges฀with฀other฀
cultures,฀shipbuilding฀is฀a฀dynamic฀process.฀It฀changes฀over฀time,฀according฀to฀demands฀and฀
innovations.฀The฀lack฀of฀wrecks฀currently฀prevents฀the฀testing฀of฀this฀statement,฀but฀hopefully฀this฀
thesis฀has฀proved฀to฀give฀some฀insight฀in฀the฀subject฀by฀combining฀the฀data฀that฀was฀available.
99
100
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฀
Appendix A: Lines plan of the mashua
Appendix B: Stability calculations of the mashua
HYDROSTATIC
19-05-2004
11:59
PARTICULARS
Mashua
trim =
Draught Displacement [t/m3] Immersion Moment
from
S.W.
S.W.
change
base
1.000
1.025
trim
m
ton
ton
ton/cm Tonm/cm
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.10
0.13
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.15
0.20
0.21
0.02
0.01
0.20
0.33
0.34
0.03
0.01
-0.1 m
LCB
from
APP
m
1.83
2.96
3.34
3.48
3.60
LCF
from
APP
m
2.85
3.88
3.78
3.73
3.84
KM
transv.
m
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.18
0.46
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.51
0.76
1.07
1.43
1.84
0.53
0.78
1.09
1.46
1.88
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
3.69
3.75
3.78
3.80
3.81
3.87
3.86
3.85
3.85
3.83
0.78
1.09
1.34
1.50
1.57
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
2.30
2.80
3.36
3.96
4.60
2.35
2.87
3.45
4.06
4.71
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.13
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.05
3.81
3.81
3.80
3.79
3.79
3.80
3.77
3.75
3.76
3.77
1.62
1.67
1.65
1.62
1.59
0.75
5.27
5.40
0.14
0.05
3.78
3.73
1.57
HYDROSTATIC
19-05-2004
11:59
PARTICULARS
Mashua
trim =
Draught Displacement [t/m3] Immersion Moment
from
S.W.
S.W.
change
base
1.000
1.025
trim
m
ton
ton
ton/cm Tonm/cm
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.08
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.10
0.13
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.15
0.21
0.21
0.02
0.01
0.20
0.34
0.35
0.03
0.01
0m
LCB
from
APP
m
3.88
3.88
3.87
3.88
3.90
LCF
from
APP
m
3.88
3.86
3.85
3.92
3.97
KM
transv.
m
0.09
0.04
0.06
0.20
0.48
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.54
0.79
1.10
1.46
1.87
0.55
0.81
1.12
1.50
1.92
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
3.93
3.94
3.94
3.93
3.93
3.96
3.94
3.94
3.92
3.92
0.81
1.12
1.37
1.50
1.55
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
2.33
2.84
3.40
4.00
4.63
2.39
2.91
3.48
4.10
4.75
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.13
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.05
3.93
3.92
3.91
3.90
3.89
3.91
3.87
3.85
3.84
3.83
1.60
1.64
1.64
1.61
1.58
0.75
5.30
5.44
0.14
0.05
3.89
3.85
1.56
HYDROSTATIC
19-05-2004
Draught
from
base
m
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
11:58
PARTICULARS
Mashua
trim =
Displacement [t/m3] Immersion Moment
S.W.
S.W.
change
1.000
1.025
trim
ton
ton
ton/cm Tonm/cm
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.00
0.08
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.14
0.14
0.01
0.01
0.22
0.23
0.02
0.01
0.36
0.37
0.04
0.01
0.1 m
LCB
from
APP
m
5.70
4.70
4.37
4.26
4.19
LCF
from
APP
m
4.59
3.87
4.05
4.07
4.07
KM
transv.
m
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.23
0.52
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.56
0.82
1.13
1.50
1.92
0.57
0.84
1.16
1.54
1.97
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
4.14
4.11
4.09
4.07
4.06
4.05
4.03
4.02
4.01
4.00
0.85
1.16
1.41
1.50
1.54
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
2.39
2.89
3.45
4.05
4.69
2.45
2.97
3.54
4.15
4.80
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.05
4.05
4.04
4.02
4.01
4.00
4.00
3.97
3.94
3.93
3.92
1.57
1.62
1.64
1.60
1.58
0.75
5.36
5.49
0.14
0.06
3.99
3.91
1.55
Hull฀shape฀after฀input฀in฀the฀PIAS฀program฀for฀stability฀calculations:
Appendix C: Construction process of a mashua
Appendix D: Lines plan and stability calculations of a sewn dau
Lines฀plan฀of฀a฀sewn฀dau฀as฀published฀in฀The฀Field฀of฀1925฀by฀A.฀de฀V.W.฀and฀E.J.N.:
Hull฀shape฀after฀input฀in฀the฀PIAS฀program฀for฀stability฀calculations:
sewn dau
HYDROSTATIC PARTICULARS
19-05-2004
14:49
Draught
from
base
m
Displacement
S.W.
1.000
ton
[t/m3]
1.025
ton
Immersion
Moment
change
trim
ton/cm Tonm/cm
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
0.00
0.89
1.97
3.38
5.48
0.00
1.12
2.46
4.23
6.84
0.00
0.06
0.08
0.11
0.16
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
8.68
13.45
19.94
28.09
37.61
10.85
16.81
24.92
35.11
47.01
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
48.28
59.96
72.45
85.65
60.35
74.95
90.57
107.07
trim =
0m
LCB
from
APP
m
LCF
from
APP
m
KM
transv.
0.00
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.13
0.00
6.72
6.80
6.79
6.72
6.61
6.82
6.86
6.73
6.46
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.25
0.35
0.46
0.56
0.63
0.17
0.23
0.34
0.47
0.60
6.58
6.46
6.41
6.43
6.49
6.27
6.23
6.38
6.56
6.77
1.23
1.92
2.56
2.85
2.93
0.70
0.76
0.80
0.85
0.73
0.84
0.94
1.04
6.57
6.66
6.74
6.81
6.96
7.11
7.13
7.20
2.97
3.01
3.06
3.10
sewn dau
HYDROSTATIC PARTICULARS
19-05-2004
14:49
Draught
from
base
m
Displacement
S.W.
1.000
ton
[t/m3]
1.025
ton
Immersion
Moment
change
trim
ton/cm Tonm/cm
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
0.11
0.95
2.04
3.47
5.57
0.13
1.18
2.55
4.34
6.96
0.03
0.06
0.08
0.11
0.16
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
8.78
13.57
20.17
28.47
38.16
10.97
16.96
25.21
35.59
47.70
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
48.99
60.81
73.37
86.65
61.24
76.01
91.71
108.31
trim =
m
0.15 m
LCB
from
APP
m
LCF
from
APP
m
KM
transv.
0.01
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.13
10.97
7.74
7.36
7.22
7.07
9.43
6.98
7.05
6.97
6.66
0.20
0.17
0.28
0.43
0.69
0.25
0.36
0.47
0.57
0.64
0.17
0.26
0.36
0.50
0.63
6.87
6.72
6.67
6.69
6.74
6.46
6.57
6.64
6.80
6.97
1.23
1.92
2.56
2.86
2.93
0.71
0.76
0.81
0.85
0.76
0.87
0.96
1.05
6.81
6.88
6.93
6.99
7.12
7.16
7.26
7.30
2.98
3.02
3.06
3.11
m
sewn dau
HYDROSTATIC PARTICULARS
19-05-2004
14:49
Draught
from
base
m
Displacement
S.W.
1.000
ton
[t/m3]
1.025
ton
Immersion
Moment
change
trim
ton/cm Tonm/cm
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
0.22
1.01
2.12
3.58
5.69
0.28
1.26
2.65
4.48
7.11
0.03
0.06
0.08
0.11
0.16
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
8.91
13.79
20.51
28.98
38.83
11.13
17.24
25.64
36.23
48.54
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
49.82
61.69
74.37
87.73
62.27
77.12
92.96
109.66
trim =
0.3 m
LCB
from
APP
m
LCF
from
APP
m
KM
transv.
0.01
0.07
0.08
0.10
0.13
11.00
8.68
7.89
7.62
7.40
10.35
7.12
7.21
7.20
6.84
0.16
0.20
0.30
0.44
0.70
0.25
0.36
0.48
0.58
0.65
0.17
0.27
0.39
0.53
0.66
7.15
7.00
6.95
6.96
6.99
6.63
6.79
6.91
7.04
7.17
1.24
1.93
2.56
2.86
2.94
0.72
0.77
0.82
0.86
0.78
0.89
0.97
1.05
7.04
7.08
7.12
7.17
7.27
7.29
7.36
7.40
2.99
3.03
3.07
3.12
sewn dau
HYDROSTATIC PARTICULARS
19-05-2004
14:49
Draught
from
base
m
Displacement
S.W.
1.000
ton
[t/m3]
1.025
ton
Immersion
Moment
change
trim
ton/cm Tonm/cm
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
0.34
1.09
2.22
3.72
5.83
0.43
1.36
2.78
4.64
7.29
0.03
0.06
0.08
0.11
0.16
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
9.10
14.09
20.98
29.62
39.62
11.37
17.61
26.23
37.02
49.52
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
50.68
62.67
75.45
88.91
63.36
78.34
94.32
111.14
trim =
m
0.45 m
LCB
from
APP
m
LCF
from
APP
m
KM
transv.
0.01
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.12
11.03
9.43
8.39
8.00
7.71
10.41
7.91
7.38
7.41
6.97
0.17
0.23
0.33
0.47
0.72
0.26
0.37
0.49
0.59
0.66
0.20
0.29
0.42
0.55
0.68
7.43
7.28
7.24
7.23
7.25
7.01
7.09
7.19
7.26
7.35
1.27
1.96
2.57
2.86
2.95
0.72
0.78
0.82
0.86
0.80
0.90
0.99
1.06
7.27
7.29
7.32
7.34
7.35
7.41
7.47
7.51
3.00
3.04
3.08
3.13
m
Appendix E: Letter by James Hornell
Appendix F: List of Swahili words used in the text
bakara
bitana
boti
chanda
darumeti
dau
demanini
fashini
foromali
fundi
fundo
haligamu
heze
jahazi
joshi
joshini
kalafati
karva
kasama
keo฀keo
kidamu฀
kidamu฀
kipande
kisongo
kitanda
kulia
kushoto
lago
magadi
maliki
masayali
mashua
mataruma
mbao
mbao฀mbele
mbao฀yanyuma
mkuku
mlingoti
mtepe
mtoto
ngalawa฀
ngama
ngorosi
seleman
shoka
sifa
staha฀mbele
staha฀yanyuma
tezi
wahiji
reinforcement on the yard
heel knee
sort of motorised mashua
transom
stringers
East African ishing vessel, double-ended
windward side
stem or sternpost
yard
master (ship)builder
beam or thwart
loor-frames and futtocks
halyard
East African cargo vessel, sometimes passenger ship
sail
lee side
caulking
(horizontal) structural knee
V- or Y-shaped timber on a the stem and stern of a dau
drill bow
front part of a ship
front side of a dau
angle-measuring device
temporary fastening or cleat with a lashing
lower part of the hull (beneath the waterline)
right
left
a mixture of lime and coconut oil
device to keep a beached ship upright
garboard (strake)
half-frames
East African ishing vessel, with a transom stern
frames
plank
front plank (of the garboard strake)
aft plank (of the garboard strake)
keel
mast
East African extinct type of sewn sailing vessel
literally ‘child’, but also a small bakara
East African dug-out canoe with two out-riggers
open space between two frames for bailing
cork
support for the yard, on the front and the aft of a ship
adze
very smelly shark-liver oil
forward deck
aft deck
aft part of a ship
upper part of the hull (freeboard)