The Status of Traditional Art Music in Muslim Nations
Author(s): Amnon Shiloah
Source: Asian Music, Vol. 12, No. 1, Symposium on Art Musics in Muslim Nations (1980), pp.
40-55
Published by: University of Texas Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/833797 .
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THE STATUS OF TRADITIONALART MUSIC IN MUSLIMNATIONS
By
Amnon Shiloah
I
The multiple
Islamic sources on music and musical
which cover a long period of time, almost exclusively
life,
concern cultivated
or "thought out" music.
This type of
music is characterized
skill
and
by its sophistication,
in
to norms codified
and by its reference
creativeness,
the theoretical
treatises.
The same sources also reflect
art
the intimate
between this sophisticated
connection
and its most fervent
the ruling class in
supporters,
the aristocratic
milieu.
However, while this musical art
and nobility,
was cherished
and highly regarded by rulers
orthodox religion
continual
and harsh attacks
enunciated
it as a major factor of depravity.
it, considering
against
of the orthodox was directed
This radical
opposition
all forms and manifestations
of art music,
against
for spiritual
its practice
purposes among
including
it is well known
As to the latter,
certain
sufi orders.
art music as
that certain mystical
orders cultivated
defended its raison
part of their ceremonies,
eagerly
and even contributed
to its development and
d'etre
survival.
In their defense of music the sufi authorities
them
on the deep gap which separated
laid great stress
in matters of behavior and concept from the secular
to the
Here I would like to draw attention
milieu.
to which any mystic
social
One of the ideals
aspect.
hence his attribute
is poverty,
adept aspires
faqrr (poor).
And in fact most of the adepts came from the lower
if we admit that the sufi orders
classes.
Therefore,
and fostered
art music, we cannot speak of
cultivated
the ruling elite
and the rich as having been the only
Moreover, it should be borne in
patrons of art music.
with
mind that the available
sources are almost silent
of the more modest strata
regard to the musical activity
of society,
let alone folk music, so that our information
in this respect
But if we refer to
is quite limited.
we find that art music played
verifiable
historical
facts,
of people of
a part in enhancing the family rejoicings
the same line of
modest condition.
Continuing
relatively
we should not forget that some of the highest
reasoning,
in terms of art music can be found in the
achievements
music of the Jews in
synagogal and paraliturgical
as we shall see later.
important Near Eastern urban centres,
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Before coming to observations
based on my own experience
I should like to present a few representative
opinions
of art music and musicians.
the status
These
regarding
were chosen out of many because,
while taking
opinions
Western music as a reference,
two extreme
they represent
our present problem.
positions
regarding
II
In a study published
in a volume dedicated
to
Music and Society,
Edith Gerson-Kiwi
(1974) has undertaken a comprehensive
comparison between the role and
status of the Western musician and his Near Eastern
The study also involves
some considerations
counterpart.
the status
of art music which are relevant
to
regarding
our discussions.
The following
points are the most
important.
1.
The advent of a new type of music under the
of modernization
and Westernization
did not
pressure
eliminate
the Old School, whose representatives
are
still
in the majority
active
of Oriental
communities.
2.
and political
Despite all social
upsets it
seems that the gifted
musician continues
to enjoy the
same fervent
admiration
as his medieval ancestor
of the
Golden Age of Islam.
3.
following
The Old School
characteristics:
a.
The tradition
of intimacy.
is
is
distinguished
transmitted
by the
in conditions
b.
Its ideal is to express not only the
Beautiful
but also the Good. By this statement
the
author refers
to the ethical
power of music as it is
extolled
and other writers
on music.
by philosophers
This art of music is founded upon rules
c.
elaborated
the ages in theoretical
and
throughout
philosophical
writings.
d. The training
and a special
teaching
master and pupil.
4.
artist
is
of the artist
is based on oral
kind of relationship
between
One of the distinctive
his
lack
poss-ede pas cette
of
an historical
conscience
features
sense:
des causalites
of the Oriental
"...II
ne
historiques...
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vers le present qui se poursuit
Le passe s'ecoule
vers
modernes comme s'il
l'avenir...On
parle des artistes
des musiciens
a'agissait
venerds d'une cour de Calife,
on parle de ceux-ci
comme s'ils
et, inversement,
encore vivant."
etaient
of fundamental
to the persistence
5.
Referring
values in the music of the Old School Gerson-Kiwi
le musicien 4tait
concludes:
"L'estime dont jouissait
6tait
le gardien de traditions
lie' a la croyance qu'il
Il y avait un lien direct
entre la
cheries
de tous.
sociale
et l'image
reconnaissance
accordee a sa position
sociale."
rdpandue de la musique comme superstructure
III
born musician
About fifty
years ago, an Oriental
undertook the same
and composer who lived in Alexandria
The
conclusions.
comparison but reached quite opposite
Jewish musician who
late Alberto Hemsi, an Oriental
of
studied both Arabic and Western music, in a series
voiced the general
in the late twenties,
articles
written
In his
elite.
of a certain
and discomfort
feelings
en Egypte (Hemsi 1930), he
La Musique Orientale
booklet:
ten articles
collected
(1928-29),
previously
published
paper "La Reforme".
mainly in the French Alexandrian
The booklet
(36 pages) was issued by the newly founded
house owned by the author
Oriental
music publishing
the last two items concern
As a matter of fact,
himself.
In these items significant
house.
the new publishing
of the
the attitude
occur which reflect
statements
I quote two passages:
milieu towards art music.
author's
6tant encore a l'Vtat
"...La musique orientale
primitif
de
aux manifestations
associee
loin d'etre
et archaique,
a
la
creation
avons
et
pense
del'esprit...nous
l'ame
de musique..."
orientale
d'une edition
(Hemsi 1930:36).
6tat de choses continuant
"...Cet
encore, nous
de voir la musique orientale
ne nous 6tonnons nullement
dans le meme etat de jadis,
cinq, dix ou quinze siecles
avant, tout comme la musique europeenne des troubadours
du 12, 13 ou 14 siecle
et des chansonniers
" (Hemsi
1930:32).
the music concerned did
"Primitive,
stagnating",
the
not develop into a genuine art capable of elevating
and esthetic
"toward the beautiful
listener
equilibrium",
this description-as does the only musical art deserving
of the piano
Even the modifications
the Western.
introduced
by Neghib Nahas to enable the performance of
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to by Hemsi.
microtonal
tunes are objected
The point is,
he said,
that Egypt badly needs educational
institutions
at all levels
like those of the Europeans in order to
and composers able to write
prepare qualified
performers
oriental
polyphonic
compositions.
Some of Hemsi's views were common to many musicians
and enlightened
connoisseurs.
Curiously
enough, in
Section VII below, we shall encounter
similar
statements
pronounced some fifty
years later by young Arab musicians
in Israel.
But Hemsi's radical
conclusions
were
living
not generally
since they implied
fortunately
accepted,
a far-reaching
reform which would have led to the adoption
of Western compositional
and esthetical
values.
techniques
This would inevitably
have dealt a death blow to the
The main aspiration
of the new tendency
great tradition.
seems to have been to revitalize
the great tradition
rather than to reform it.
IV
Another important aspect which should be borne
in mind is the phenomenon of the infiltration
of traditional
art into folk and religious
music.
S. Blum,
(1978) in his study "Changing Roles of Performers in
Meshhed and Bojnurd" refers
to the repertory
of the
the naqqal and the Bakhshi in Khorasan.
Dervish,
Though
the material
he examined does not belong to the official
and traditional
art of Iran, one cannot help being
astonished
Blum points out
by its great complexity.
several
of which some are directly
particularities
related
to features
that usually
characterize
traditional
art music.
We observe,
for instance,
the custom of
formal study under older practitioners
of the art; the
demand for certain
skills
in manipulating
sounds, or
the personal
control
of other skills
of a social
character
achieved by dint of diligent
versus
effort;
authenticity
idealized
innovation;
past versus present realities;
versus popular,
etc.
The image offered
courtly
presents
an oscillation
between art and folk music; this to a
in studying
large extent parallels
my own observations
similar
material.
At this point,
and in the light of the preceding
remarks, I should like to proceed to some personal
observations.
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V
of Art Music into the Folk Repertoire.
Infiltration
in common use in the rural areas
The folk repertoire
of songs and dances, some of
comprises a wide variety
which are based on sophisticated
forms, deriving
poetical
and non-strophic
most probably from classical
strophic
texts of this sort are
In the creative
process,
poetry.
and are
melodies
linked with appropriate
intimately
who performs
said to be extemporised
by the individual
The predominance of the text over the melodic
them.
given
expressed
by the appellations
component is clearly
sh?'er
of the song.
to the creators
They are called
or haddgy (expert in
(poet),
qawwfl (the one who says),
and
forms involved),
the hid '-one of the many poetical
some of these people,
the like.
Moreover, in questioning
one gets the definite
opinion that to them the concept
of music applies
only to art music, that is, the typical
and not to their own
urban society,
product of the entire
them poetmusical activity.
Nevertheless,
by calling
the mere
as I do, I not only intend to stress
musicians,
of the musical component, but in fact to
occurrence
Among the widely accepted attributes
imply much more.
are a beautiful
of a poet-musician
voice,
corresponding
of vocal beauty in the society,
to the admitted criteria
and the
an excellent
memory, accuracy in transmission,
of spontaneously
combining "new" texts with
capacity
certain
This often requires
tunes.
pre-existent
usually
vocal
and
vocalises
to
recourse
including
adjustments,
have much in common with
which certainly
improvisations
in oriental
one of the basic concepts of composition
this concept concerns the
art music.
Roughly speaking,
which does not mean creation
of originality,
question
but mostly the expansion or improvement of
ex nihilo,
This is not the only point of
models.
pre-existent
To sum up, the
contact between art and folk music.
and
is a highly regarded specialist
poet-musician
professional.1
of folk songs, we may
In the rich repertoire
The first
between two major categories.
distinguish
with
melodies
have
which
includes
simple
group songs,
melodies are
The simplest
short repeated formulae.
The
or responsorially.
performed antiphonally
usually
to this category may have complex rhythmic
songs belonging
or marked
be interrupted
accompaniments and may frequently
includes
The
other
shouts.
exultant
fairly
category
by
a
songs, which show more complexity,
sophisticated
in pitch content
broader range, and a greater variety
are marked by the
than songs of the first
They
category.
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of art music and are essentially
soloistic.
influence
of musical imagination
and
They require a high quality
to the maqsm concept.2
to some extent relate
like the one
Here we come to a thorny question,
The informants
I have
about the chicken and the egg.
in this respect
from a rural
are originally
questioned
formal musical instrucarea, who at some stage received
tion in Western type institutions.3
Among these
the concept of maqam
those who understand
youngsters,
as synonymous with scale generally
give unqualified
and positive
answers concerning
the question
of the
between the concept of maqam and folk music.
relationship
A violin
for instance,
"were it not for
player stated,
the concept of maqam in folk music, there would be no
music at all."
In a more refined
argument, we find
the following
a maqam finds expression
element:
in just
a few notes.
A short melodic pattern,
characteristic
of the given maqam, is to be found in folk tunes, but
of limited
village
songs are composed of a series
which do not contain a complete maqam, nor
melodies,
are there transitions
from one maqam to another in the
framework of one song.
These simple songs have the
color of a maqam, discernible
to a well-trained
ear.
In other words, folk songs put forth a basic genre of
the maqam. They do not make use of the entire
system
and lack the developmental
aspect which includes
occasional
from the basic maqam. They also
deviation
lack part of its improvisatory
character.
I say "part"
because in some forms, such as the 'Ata-ba, one can find
long vocal improvisations.
Although in the remarks
there is something more than a mere reference
to
cited,
the maqam as being synonymous with scale,
we may still
wonder about the true kinship between the most developed
form of folk song and art music.
Are these folk songs to be considered
as residues
of archetypes
from which the maqam system also originated?
Or are we perhaps to opt for some simple conclusion
that
records this category of songs as the direct
of
result
the influence
of art music?
If we consider
the musical
of a wide area, we cannot help observing
that
heritage
this particular
with maqamic
category,
denoting affinity
art music, is limited
and quite exceptional.
However,
in the present
state of our knowledge,
I would rather
refrain
from adopting any dogmatic position.
In the light of what has been said, we may infer
that the village
is a highly regarded
poet-musician
and certainly
the most educated man in his
specialist
environment.
He preserves
in his memory thousands of
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verses from classical
urban poetry.
He knows much about
and politics,
so that he can comment on current
history
In nomadic society
or in remote rural areas,
events.
his specialization
and exposure to urban culture
are
much more restricted.
This also applies
to his degree
In circumstances
of professionalism.
of economic
the need for the specialist
expansion and prosperity,
as did his reward and, perhaps, his prestige.
increased,
or the enhancement of status
is
The seeking of prestige
This
expressed
today by having one's poems printed.
of the poems beyond the village,
leads towards diffusion
in urban centres,
and not only through their circulation
but also through their appearance on the radio and
the
television
All this helps to increase
programs.
them to
renown of the rural poet-singers
and encourages
The fee charged by the most
be much more demanding.
is as high as that of an
of these musicians
celebrated
urban artist.
and habits is of
The opening toward urban culture
In big villages,
however.
ambivalent
effect,
many
like the 'Ud (lute),
instruments
start playing
youngsters
or violin,
and they imitate
kanun (zither),
the mainstream of Arabic vocal music which is broadcast
daily on
ensembles
radio and television.
They also establish
toward enhancing
which are more and more directed
In
in their own villages.
festivities
and rejoicings
ceremonial
some cases,
they compete with the traditional
and actually
elements and the poet-musician,
supersede
with them, although
In other cases,
them.
they co-exist
in favor of
the balance created tends to be disrupted
music.
urban semi-art
where the singer is considered
In some societies
the instrumentalists
a specialist
but not a professional,
would be the expert professionals,
forming a separate
This is the
status.
lower in social
usually
category,
of Zurna (oboe) and Davol
case of the players
(drum)
in Kurdistan societies,
the members of the ensemble
known as fabl baladi in Egypt and the female Iraqian
in Kuwait.
ensemble known as dammamut and its counterpart
whose performance
These female drummers include a singer,
This ensemble,
is halfway between folk and art music.
by the way, performs in urban areas, while others are
active
in both rural and urban centres.
VI
When
and Art Music.
between Religious
Interaction
with
the interaction
we come to music in divine worship,
and should not be ignored in
art music becomes intense
Even if we take
art music.
of the so-called
any discussion
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form of cantillation,
the simplest
which is not considered
music at all by theologians
and religious
we
leaders,
the clear infiltration
encounter
of art music.
The sources
are full of references
the outraged reactions
indicating
of writers
of this most venerated
at the secularization
an important personality
form.
According to an old source,
convinced a
seeking to save a female singer from expulsion
her
pious governor to change his mind when she displayed
in performing
a chapter of the Koran.4
In
great talent
our present day, the foremost female singer,
the first
lady
of
song
- Umm Kulthum
- declared
that
in her
youth
she had studied Koran reading and that this constituted
her best training
as a singer.
This statement was published
in a kind of poll regarding
the possibility
of using the
Koranic text in art compositions,
like the setting
of
biblical
texts to art tunes
(see al-Hilal
1970).
the same holds true for solemn
In the Jewish context
biblical
cantillation
and prayers.
Expert cantors
their best talents
when reading,
for
(precentors)
display
the Decalogue.
Each
example, the chapter containing
commandment is performed in another maqam. The smooth
and rapid transition
a high degree of artistic
requires
The choice of maqamat is connected with the
ability.
affective
nature of the maqam. In the highly regarded
a similar
ceremony of Aleppan baqqashot,
rendering
extended by the technique
of the interpolation
of
additional
texts is applied to Psalm 92.
Indeed, in the
course of singing
this psalm, not only is the maqam
but other texts are introduced
changed in every verse,
in the corresponding
This is the only example
maqamat.
of the kind known to me which is reminiscent
of the tropes
in Western Music 5 (see Katz 1968, Shiloah EJ).
The singers
of baqqashot as well as the experts
in singing
religious
hymns (paytanim)
during Sabbatical
and festival
form a separate
and are
services,
category
from the class of precentors
distinguished
(hazzanim) or
those responsible
for the cantillation
of the Scriptures.
The former should possess
a beautiful
an innate
voice,
musical talent,
some knowledge of non-synagogal
music
and certain
creative
to those of the Arab
powers similar
Their function
extends to
poet-musician.
usually
such as circumcision
and
manifestations,
paraliturgical
there are two
wedding ceremonies.
Generally
speaking,
of singers
of religious
The
major categories
hymns.
individuals
who make their living
larger by far includes
as ordinary workers.
The financial
benefit
they get
from their art is not very significant.
They usually
have no systematic
or formal instruction
in music, but
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thanks to their natural
talent,
they absorb elements
from art music, much as many amateurs in the area under
is a
their music-making
As a result,
discussion.
of
mixture of art and folk music or, if you prefer,
to
and more recent features.
traditional
Similarly,
this category would belong the munshids in the Muslim
of hymns in Muslim religious
the singers
orders,
mystical
and the shammas or cantors in the Oriental
festivals,
churches.
Christian
in Jewish religious
A second category of performers
and instrumentalists,
includes
contexts
singers
professional
of secular
art music, wellactive performers
usually
in their field,
who are usually
trained and recognized
In Baghdad such
solemn occasions.
hired for specific
used to form the group known as Zammare-Shevahot
musicians
in
of religious
(the singers
hymns) and they participated
functions.
as well as in paraliturgical
regular services,
that prevailed
attitude
However, due to the reserved
whose moral behavior
toward the professional
musician,
was to
their participation
and reputation
were suspect,
when they
Some occasions,
a large extent restricted.
to instrumental
recourse
occurred on a weekday, permitted
manifestaOne of the most sophisticated
accompaniment.
tions of this kind is the performance of Moroccan
Apart from
baqqashot after the close of the Sabbath.
the Hebrew texts and their spiritual
content,
everything
in this manifestation
is anchored in the best Andalusian
in the
whose highest
form, the nu-ba survives
tradition,
Moroccan Jewish baqqashot.
Another example of the close links between art
is the dervish ceremony of the Mevlevi
music and religion
In this
centre is in Konya.
order, whose spiritual
Plateau is the tomb of the
Turkish town of the Anatolian
dervish,
founder of the Order of the so-called
whirling
Ritter
al-RUmi
the Mevlana Jalal al-din
1961).
(see, e.g.,
the high quality
All the sources are unanimous regarding
The
music.
and instrumental
of their dancing,
singing,
best instrumentalists,
namely the family of flute players,
used to be connected with the Order, although they played
descendants
The present-day
environment.
in a secular
of Ankara and
are connected with the radio stations
includes
Istanbul.
Moreover, the present-day
repertoire
compositions
by famous 17th and 18th century composers
Mustafa Itri
such as Mustafa Dede (1610-75);
(1640-1711);
The Mevlevi
and the Dervish "Ali Scirajani"
(d. 1714).
musical event
is a well-articulated
ceremony 'Ayn sharif
and a
of professional
singers
the participation
involving
ensemble which includes
fiddles,
flutes,
large instrumental
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frame drums, and cymbals.
kettledrums,
lutes,
long-necked
Here we have an example showing not only the strong
of art music into divine worship,
but a
infiltration
in the opposite
where the music
direction,
relationship
of certain mystical
brotherhoods
at certain
periods has
to the survival
and improvement
made a real contribution
of art music.
All the aforementioned
to religious
examples related
music show a common denominator that can be roughly defined
as the introduction
of art music by the back door.
It
was believed
art music would not
that, thus disguised,
the radical
of theologians
encounter
and
opposition
This attempt has been only partly
leaders.
religious
effective
because even today the radicals
refuse
to
as the same woman
accept what they consider metaphorically
with a different
dress;
they regard music, any music,
as the devil's
delusion
associated
But
with depravity.
the less extreme elements among religious
authorities
can
admit music only by assigning
different
spiritual
meanings
to "art music" in a religious
context and art music in a
secular
as though they were two different
context,
things.
on the level
of the musical language there
Nonetheless,
are many more similarities
than divergencies,
so that
we should,
in my opinion,
take into account all those
manifestations
which seem to be on the fringes
of urban
art music.
VII
Art Music in Urban Centres.
In the following
comments I refer to the situation
in Israel where I have
had the opportunity
to do some first-hand
work.
To begin with it should be remarked that, as far
as art music is concerned,
the Arabs living
in this area
do not, and did not possess
a local style.
In the first
decades of the twentieth
their music was mainly
century,
school.
dependent on the Turko-Syrian
Later, with the
development of the mass media, the new Lebanese and
have become the major source of influence.
Egyptian styles
Both varieties,
the old and the new, co-exist,
and are
of family rejoicings,
performed mostly on the occasion
rarely in concert form.
Among the groups of Jewish immigrants from diverse
Near Eastern countries,
one finds a whole gamut of styles
from their countries
of origin.
However, the official
Arabic music ensemble attached
to the national
broadservice
and comprising musicians
from Iraq, Egypt
casting
and Syria, as well as Israeli
Arabs, essentially
performs
a variety
which belongs to the mainstream Egyptian style.
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From my long contact with the musicians
of both
I have
to the information
groups, and with reference
it seems to me that the advent
gathered from my sources,
of a new type of virtuoso
constitutes
one of the
from Western impact; this
significent
changes resulting
seems to be true for all Near Eastern countries.
By
an ideal and perfect
musician was, first
past standards,
and foremost,
a singer possessing
vocal qualities,
specific
who was appreciated
whose
by the members of his culture,
itself
in improvisation
strong creative
power displayed
or in the embellishment
He also
of pre-existing
models.
usually
played the 'ud, on which he occasionally
he possessed,
as a result
Finally,
accompanied himself.
of long informal study and training,
a good command of
He performed with very small groups
the maqam tradition.
of instrumentalists
their high achievement,
who, despite
to him.
remained, in a way, subordinate
This ideal musician is in the process of disappearing.
the virtuoso
instrumentalist
Instead,
playing independently
or in large ensembles is becoming more and more fashionable.
more and more favor is shown
Also, in the name of novelty,
to short characteristic
rhythms which
pieces with lively
of the genres and performed
are composed by specialists
in
who also specialize
by rather mediocre artists
instrua skilled
characteristic
Consequently,
genres.
and be
can be admitted to an "orchestra"
mentalist
if he is not one
while a singer,
secure,
economically
of the stars in demand, has to content himself with a
and
are unionized
The instrumentalists
free-lance
job.
to those of symphony
which correspond
have salaries
increases
status
orchestra
Thus, even their social
players.
in prestige.
Much of what is happening in this respect
is due to contact with Western music and Western instituand
tions.
The permanent exposure to Western culture
for performance
values has led to new regular opportunities
context.
in modernized social
This, together with the
to the
contributed
has largely
movement of ethnicity,
and
musician's
of the instrumental
prestige
heightening
of instrumental
to the enhancement of the status
music,
to the category of
or belonging
whether traditional
mainstream.
to examine
it would be interesting
At this point,
think about Western
involved
what the musicians
briefly
to borrow
music, as well as what they are attempting
advanced
This also brings us back to statements
from it.
years ago (see above).
by Hemsi and others some fifty
referred
I have interviewed
Some of the informants
clearly
of studying Western music together with
to the necessity
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Eastern music, in order to be completely
educated.
In
the light of this statement
one is tempted to examine
the extent of our informants'
exposure to Western music;
with it, if they listen
whether they are familiar
to it,
if they like it, what can they learn from it, if it is
desirable
to learn from it?
Most of the informants
answered that they do not listen
to Western music, but
with it, and took it
they added that they "are familiar"
on the
to express definite
upon themselves
opinions
matters referred
It is clear to me that in most
to.
cases the opinions
in favor of a closer
approach to
Western music arise more out of a belief
in the superiority
of Western music than out of an identification
with it
based on real knowledge or liking.
And in fact,
most
of the elements which they attempt to appropriate,
or
have already adopted,
from Western music, are external
and not formal or idiomatic.
Let us see how this premise
is borne out in several
characteristic
We begin
replies.
with the more extreme assertions,
which do not represent
the views of the majority,
such as:
Western music is
on a higher plane; Arab
beautiful,
highly developed,
music is mediocre,
or the quotation
borrowed
impoverished;
by informant H. Sh. from the eminent musician Abd alWahhab: "We are very backward as compared to the West."
We find an emphasis on the superiority
of Western music
in the reasoned reply of another musician,
M.A.; but without self-depreciatory
declarations
of the type presented.
First of all,
he claims that it is possible
to learn
harmony from the West, but he does not add a word of
elaboration.
It seems to me that he is not speaking of
but as a balanced,
consummate
harmony as a language,
order.
He continues,
the example of Mozart, who
citing
works out and develops his themes, and adds:
"Eastern
music is also rich, but the musicians
do not know how
to vary it and work it out, aspiring
to create a concerto
or a symphony, as did Mozart and Beethoven.
With us, the
work is composed of many rich melodies,
while Mozart
takes one melody and develops
it.
The Arab musician does
not repeat a phrase until he has played it through to the
end.
He does not repeat a phrase in different
forms,
but adds another phrase,
and still
And even
another.
if the Arab musicians
were to desire
to do so, they would
not be able to, since this requires
an extended course
of study.
The truth is, that these musicians
interest
themselves
more in the material
and less in the
aspect,
artistic.
Arab music cannot be programmatic,
or pictorial,
or descriptive.
Can Arab music depict the sea?
The wind?
The answer is:
no."
this
This naive analysis
which we have quoted
embodies an expression
confession,
painful
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verbatim,
of the
of many young Arab musicians when faced with
frustration
This confrontathe "omnipotent" musical art of the West.
of a distion dazzles
them, and leads to the creation
of their own traditions.
torted picture
In addition
to the points made by M.A., we found
four others of great interest:
virtuosity,
especially
and orchestration
on the violin;
the orchestra
itself;
of writing
down works and
or the possibility
notation,
of playing from written music; and methods of teaching
In all four fields,
music.
attempts have been made to
intimate
The small,
revitalize
modern Arab music.
chamber ensemble of the past (the takht) has been replaced
The most widely used combination
by the large ensemble.
is:
8 - 10 violins,
2 double
4 celli,
basses,
kanun,
electric
electric
accordion,
flute,
saxophone,
guitar,
This
different
drums.
piano, and three drummers playing
of instruments
plays homophonic music in
agglomeration
tawzi-orchestration
(a method of which they are very
of
What they understand by this is the division
fond).
instruments
the melody between the various
playing solo
and the
The expansion of the orchestra
and in groups.
to be great achievements
are considered
orchestration
of Western music.
from the influence
resulting
times as
Notation was also mentioned several
was
The use of notation
one of the Western influences.
absolute
not mentioned as a general,
medium, but as an
in certain
aid to modern pedagogy and ensemble playing
cases.
Today there are Egyptian ensembles which use
of pieces with a
music in public performances
written
There are also ensembles which have
fixed rhythm.
and which play under
adopted the idea of conducting,
the baton of a conductor.
Besides these "innovations"
adopted under the
of Western music, we should mention the
influence
to reduce the number of maqamat,
tendency or the desire
This was specifically
those based on microtones.
especially
stated by H. Sh., who quoted an article
by an Egyptian
wonder at the large number of maqamat
writer expressing
that this number should
and proposing
based on microtones,
his agreement with this
H. Sh. indicated
be reduced.
point of view.
of the superiority
on these assertions
Following
of Western music, and of the clear tendency to look
towards
the aspiration
towards it in order to fulfil
we also posed
in the present generation,
modernization
Is there nothing that Western music can
the question:
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here to present
It will suffice
learn from Arab music?
in the
H. Sh. replied
answers.
two characteristic
but the examples he gave are not at all
affirmative,
One was the case of a certain
to the question.
relevant
he claims,
work by CAbd al wahab, which was performed,
in England, and the other
by the Shakespeare Orchestra
which
was a work by another composer, Farid al-Atrash,
It is almost certain
was performed in the Soviet Union.
value of Arab
of the artistic
that he meant recognition
works composed under Western influence.
SH, Sh.'s son,
"Since Western
and more uncompromising:
was clearer
it has nothing to learn
music is more highly developed,
from Eastern music, but Eastern music can learn from
the loftier
Western music."
above are the
presented
Although the opinions
who
informants
dominant ones, there were several
innovaor who even repudiated
reservations,
expressed
"I personally
The singer N.K. said:
tions.
prefer
of Eastern music, and object to ostentathe simplicity
and the introduction
of new instrutious performances
and
ments."
A. went even further
than his colleague,
music
his opinion that instrumental
after expressing
Western element,
stated his position
is an alien,
which have occurred in the
the developments
regarding
in these words:
"There has been
last few generations
On the contrary,
no progress.
the old music is more
The new music is a confusion:
It is neither
enduring.
Eastern nor Western.
(virtuosity)
Rapidity of playing
is conspicuous
In the past, music was slowtoday.
as opposed to modern music which
moving and dignified,
of instruments.
tends toward speed and proliferation
of today are simple (that is to say, commonThe melodies
themselves
value) and prettify
place and without artistic
of instruwith external
things:
speed, proliferation
These conflicting
attitudes
ments, orchestration."
on the one hand an avidity
towards art music reflect
of Western music,
for novelty based on the imitation
of a certain
and on the other,
the perplexity
minority
as to how to revitalize
the tradition
without violating
its basic nature.
To sum up, the long process of change that has
has
of Western influence
taken place under the pressure
in various
affected
times all
degrees and at different
and has been determined
the important musical centers,
of the art
that a certain
Westernization
by the belief
would contribute
to a regeneration
of the old tradition,
considered
and no longer corresponding
to
atrophied
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The supporters
of such a
modern life and spirit.
believed
that they would thus enhance
revitalization
status and esteem accorded to music by
the prestige,
To be sure, the
the greater part of their society.
is not considered
adoption of the new style
by most of
its initiators
as a total rejection
of the old, but as
a kind of successful
metamorphosis which, they believe,
of the old heritage.
will allow the survival
NOTES
1.
For further
details,
see
Shiloah
1974.
2.
For further
details,
see Shiloah
1980.
used in this section
as well
3.
Some of the materials
"The Maqam
as section
VII stem from a major project,
in Theory and Practice"
carried out by A.
Tradition
Ringer and A. Shiloah and sponsored by the Smithsonian
Institution.
of anecdotes,
occurs in a collection
This information
4.
of pearls concerning
Djam 'al-djawa-hir...("Collection
and rare sayings') by al-Husri
abu
anecdotes
pleasant
Ishaq, a North African writer who died in 1022.
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1978
Gerson-Kiwi,
1974
Hemsi,
Katz,
A.
1930
Ruth
1968
in Meshhed
Changing roles of performers
ed.
and Bojourd, Iran, in B. Nettl,
(Urbana:
Eight Urban Musical Cultures
Univ. of Illinois
19-95.
Press),
Edith
d'Orient
Le musicien dans la societe
Cultures I, #1 (Paris:
d'Occident,
175-204.
Unesco et la Baconniere),
en Egypte
La Musique Orientale
de musique).
Edition Orientale
The Singing of Baqqashot
40.
Acta Musicologica
(Alexandria:
by Aleppan
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et
Jews.
Ritter,
H.
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Shiloah,
A.
EJ
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1980
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Oriens XV, 249-70.
Die Mevlanafeier
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Judaica.
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