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What are the 5 basic components of language?Phonology (basic units of sounds used in a given language and the rules for combining them) Morphology (structure and construction)Syntax 21-30 months (arrange word and phrases to form sentences)Semantics (meaning or content of words)Pragmatics (practical application of language for everyday communication)
What are phonemes?Basic units of sounds used in a given language
What are morphemesSmalest unit of language that has meaning
What are newborn infants naturally drawn to?Speech and a preference for their native language Primed to learn language
What is prelinguistic communication? 2-6 monthsCommunicating through crying, cooing, and babblingAs caregivers respond to infants’ babbling, infants restructure their babbling, changing the phonological pattern of sounds in response to their caregivers’ infant-directed speech
What is fast mapping? 16-24 monthsProcess of quickly acquiring and retaining a word after hearing it being applied a few timesConnect is with thier own mental categories
What is naming explosion or vocabulary spurt? 16-24 monthsA period of rapid vocabulary learning that occurs between 16 and 24 months of age Infants apply their word-learning strategies to learn multiple words of varying difficulty seemingly at once.
Mistake in learning words: What is under-extension in learning words? 16-24 monthsApplying a word more narrowly than its usual application, restricting its use to a single object.
What is over-extension in learning words? 16-24 monthsApplying a word too broadly, signifying a whole class of objects.
What are telegraphic speech? 21 monthsTwo-word utterances produced by toddlers that communicate only the essential words.
What are first words 1 yearThe initial meaningful word spoken by a child, marking the onset of language development.
What are holophrases in language development?Single words or short phrases used by toddlers to convey complex meanings.
What did scientists examine regarding infants' early use of gesture to communicate?Whether infants can be taught to communicate with symbolic gestures, sometimes referred to as 'baby signing'.
What are the reported improvements from baby signing, as per many caregivers?Improved ability to communicate, cognitive ability, and overall caregiver–infant interactions.
What can significantly enhance language development in deaf infants?Cochlear implants.Earlier implantation (around 6 months) is associated with better outcomes
What may impact brain development and the ability to detect and respond to speech signals?Early auditory deprivation.
What do interventions for deaf infants aim to achieve?Empower parents, improve parent-child relationships, and focus on improving communication skills.
How do children learn words more quickly in interactive contexts in early childhood?When the speaker interacts with them, such as through turn-taking, joint attention, and scaffolding experiences.
What is the logical extension word learning strategy used by children?Extending a new word to other objects in the same category.
What is the mutual exclusivity assumption in word learning?Young children assume that objects have only one label or name when learning new words.
What is private speech used for by children?Self-directed speech used to guide behavior.
What cognitive advantages are associated with individuals who master two or more languages?Scoring higher on measures of memory, selective attention, analytical reasoning, mathematics, and cognitive flexibility.
What is metalinguistic awareness?Increasing ability to analyze the acceptability of what is being said.
What is language development in adults?Hearing loss can impact communication.Deficits are to difficulty recalling specific words
Who proposed the Learning Theory of language development?B. F. Skinner (1957).
What does the Learning Theory propose about language acquisition?Language is acquired through imitation, conditioning, and reinforcement.
What is the criticism of the Learning Theory regarding language acquisition?Children construct phrases and words that have never been heard or formally taught before. Implies that language acquisition does not proceed solely through imitation.
Who proposed the Nativist Theory of language development?Noam Chomsky.
What does the Nativist Theory propose about language acquisition?Humans have an innate ability to acquire language, and there is universal grammar existing across all languages that is already present in the human brianBorn with language acquisiton device an innate facilitator of language that permits infants to analyze everyday speech and determine its rules, regardless of what their native language is.
What is the criticism of the Nativist Theory regarding language development?It ignores the diversity of languages with diverse grammatical structures and the variability in language development. children learn to string words together over time based on their experiences as well as on trial and error.
What is the basis of the Interactionist Perspective on language development?A synthesis of sociological and biological views about language development. language is derived via social interactions with persons in our environment. infants are equipped with biological propensities and information processing capacities that permit them to perceive and analyze speech and learn to speak.
What does the Broca's area do? Biological and cognitive influences on language developmentControls the ability to use langauge for expression
What is the function of Wernicke’s area? Biological and cognitive influences on language developmentLanguage comprehension.
What happens when there is damage to Wernicke’s area?Impairs ability to understand speech of others and may affect ability to speak coherently.
What are the environmental influences that heavily influence children’s vocabulary?Type and quality of caregiver verbal interactions.
What criticism is associated with interactionist theory?Overrepresentation of middle-class, white, and western families, implying that the data and findings may not be applicable to individuals from other classes or cultures.
What are the contextual influences on Language development?Caregivers are the primary influence on language development Use of Infant-directed speech
What is infant-directed speech?Uses repetition, short words and sentences, high and varied pitch, and long pauses.
What does SES (Socio-economic status) associate with in language development?Dramatic differences in language development, risk for malnutrition, slower growth, deficits in cognitive and language development.
What is attachment?A lasting emotional tie between two individuals who strive to maintain closeness and relationship continuation.
When does attachment begin?Shortly after birth.
What did Bowlby propose about attachment?proposed that attachment is an adaptive behavior that evolved to ensure the survival of the human species
What hormone plays a role in attachment?Oxytocin. Indicating a biological component to caregiver-infant attachment. Oxytocin levels rise in mothers and fathers during interactions characterized by sensitive caregiving and secure attachment
What are Bowlby’s phases of attachment?Pre-attachment (Birth to 6-8 weeks): Innate behaviours to attract caregiversAttachment in the Making (6-8 weeks to 6-8 months): Form preference for caregiver Clear-cut Attachment (6-8 to 18-24): Strong attachment to their primary caregiverFormation of Recpiprocal Relationships (18-24 onwards): Development of a complex, murtual relationship between the child and caregiver
Name Ainsworth's attachment styles.Secure: Aware that their needs are going to be met; engagement and internaction with environment is high Insecure avoidant: Distant/diengaged caregiver , emotionally distant Ambivalent (Insecure Resistant): Not a stable caregiver, makes the child angry, insecure Insecure Disorganised: Chilhood trauma, neglect, abuse. Inconsistent behaviour and trust issues
What are the characteristics of emotional development in infancy?Showing distress, experiencing interest, disgust, and contentment, and beginning to display additional emotions between 2-7 months.
What are basic emotions?Primary emotions such as happiness, sadness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, and disgust.Evolutionary
What is a social smile?A smile that emerges in response to seeing familiar people, occurring in an infant between 6 and 10 weeks after birth.
What are Secondary emtoions (self-conscious emotions)?Emotions that require cognitive development and an awareness of self.Shapes social behaviour, social interactions and relationships
What is emotion regulation?The ability to adjust and control one’s emotional state to influence how and when emotions are expressed.
What role does sensitive caregiving play in emotional development?respond to infants’ emotional reactions and try to satisfy their needs, attempt to elicit positive responses and minimize negative ones, and seek to maintain an optimal level of arousal
What is social referencing?Seeking information from caregivers about how to interpret unfamiliar or ambiguous events by observing their emotional expressions and reactions.
How do cultures influence infants' emotional development?Through beliefs about responsiveness when babies cry and expectations about infants' abilities to regulate their own emotions.Adaptive responsiveness takes can vary with culture and socialization goals,
What are emotional display rules?Unstated cultural guidelines for acceptable emotions and emotional expression
What is 'Stranger Wariness' in infants?An expression of fear of unfamiliar people.
What are the characterstics of Emotional development in Childhood?3-4 years old: Recognize name and emtions 4: External factors that impact emotions, predict a peer's emotion and behaviours
What is 'Theory of Mind' (ToM) in children?Awareness of their own and other people's mental processes and realization that others don't share their thoughts.Understanding that: Thoughts and desires can impact emotions and behaviour, and one can feel mixed emotions
How do children improve their understanding of emotions through pretend play?By enacting emotions and considering others' perspectives, implement self-control to imporve our understanding of emotions
What is emotion regulation linked to?Cognitive and language development.
What are the strategies for emotional regulation?Childhood: Limiting sensory input, talking to themselves, changing their goals. 6-7: Behaviour strategies 8: Psycholgical strategies, and reflect on their strategies School age: Redirect attention, reconceptualize the situation
How do caregivers model and foster emotional development?Through responsiveness, framing experiences, and explaining expectations and strategies for emotional development
What are emotional regulation skills associated with?It is associated with social competence and overall adjustment.
What are the contextual influences on emotions and emotional regulation?Impact on resilience Understand that emotions can be intentionally hidden using display rules.Acquire their culture's display rules which come from interactions Neighbourhood and Community Violence: Presents a constant threat to safety Linked with anxiety and PTSD symptoms
What are risk factors in the context of promoting resilience?Individual or contextual challenges that tax an individual’s coping capacities and can evoke psychological stress.
Give examples of risk factors that pose threats to healthy development and functioning.Divorce, bullying, sexual abuse, low SES, exposure to poverty-stricken and dangerous neighborhoods, anxiety.
What is resilience?The ability to adapt to serious adversityProsocial behaviour and proactive orientation shows greater resilience
What are protective factors in the context of promoting resilience?Variables that are thought to reduce the poor outcomes associated with adverse circumstances.
How do risk factors and protective factors interact to influence individual outcomes?Some children exposed to risk factors show more resilience, demonstrating less adverse effects due to the presence of protective factors.
What are the characterstics of emotional development in adolescence?Mood changes, interactions with their contexts Pubertal changesUse emotional regulation strategies and more proactive strategies
What is Cognitive ReprisalEmotion regulation strategy involving reconsidering a situation from a different perspective
What is the Socioemtional selectivity theory?oriented to goals, activities, and relationships that are most emotionally meaningful and relevant to their own identity adults’ emotional experience is influenced by two motives: information seeking and emotion regulation.
What does stress over a lifepspan look like?Younger adults are more likely to use maladaptive coping strategies such as rumination or avoidanceOlder adults are more likely to use acceptance.
What does Temperament over a lifepspan look like ?Appear early in life (generally not stable until about age 12 months) Relatively stable in infancy, becomes more consistent in early childhood and is predictive of later behaviour (even in adulthood) Cultural differences because of the cultural norms and how individuals are perceived
What are the 3 styles of temperament in childhood?Easy temperament: often in a positive mood, even-tempered, open, adaptable, Difficult temperament: active, irritable, and irregular in biological rhythms. Slow-to-warm-up temperament: slow-to-warm-up babies tend to be inactive, moody, and slow to adapt to new situations and people.
What is meant by 'goodness of fit' in the context of child temperament?The compatibility between a child’s temperament and their environment, especially the caregivers’ temperament and parenting methods. The better the match, the favourable the child's adjustment
Define self-concept.The set of attributes, attitudes, and characteristics that a person uses to describe and define themselves. Self-concept is an ever-changing process, becoming more complex over our lifespan
What is self-esteem?Evaluation of one’s own worth, involving feelings of self-worth, self-acceptance, and self-respect. Relies on cognitive development and a sense of self that emerges throughout childhood
What does self-concept in Infancy and Toddlerhood look like?Infant-self awareness: See themselves as physically separate from the world around them; understand their behavior can be described and evaluated by others Self Recognition: Ability to recognize or identify the self. Complex emotions: shame/ guilt (evaluative emotion) vs happy/sad Categorical Self: Self-Description based upon broad categories such as sex, age, and physical characteristics Begin to use personal pronouns and adjectives (“me or mine”)
What does self-concept in Childhood look like?Early Childhood: Good Parent-child relation= ^ Self-esteem Begin to recognize temporal and contextual factors that influence behaviours, abilities and experiencesLate Childhood: Self-concept shifts to trait-like psychological constructs ○ Personality ○ Funny, good friend, good student, etc ○ Includes positive and negative traits Use of Social Comparison External pressures place
What does self-concept in Adolescents look like?Primarily influenced by their relationships with parents, peers, and teachers Describe self in multiple ways that often are contradictoryIdeal Self: a self one aspires to beReal Self: one’s actual self
What does self-esteem in Infancy and Toddlerhood look like?High Self-esteem, any goal is achieveableContributes to the development of initiative and assist in learning new skills
What does self-esteem in Childhood look like?School-age children have a more accurate and comprehensive description of themselves Self-esteem increases but becomes more realistic and connected to abilities
What is self-confidenceBelief in our abilities and ourselves
What is subjective age?An individual's experienced age; the age one feels. Influenced by our perception of abilities in different domains. Adults constantly trying to identify with their younger self: a younger subjective age can help adults feel less old
What are the correlates of subjective age?Adults having a younger subjective age score higher on mental well-being, health, life- satisfaction, lower mortality, and experience lower chances of diseases Older perceived age= Cognitive decline, poor cognitive function, increased risk of dementia
What is perceived control?Individuals’ expectations about the extent to which they can bring about desired outcomes. Increase in early adulthood, peak and stable in midlife, and decline in late adulthood Gender, Socioeconomic Status, and Race: o High Education/income= ^ Perceived control o Low SES, Inferior race, women, less education/income= Less perceived control Greater perceived control= ^Physical health, low mortality, life satisfaction o Regulate emotions, adapt to changes
What are reminiscence and life review?Reminiscence: vocal or silent recall of events, natural phenomena Life Review: reflecting on past experiences and contemplating the meaning of those experiences and their role in shaping one’s life Affirming of self-concept happens through reminiscing and reviewing their life Help manage transitions, assigning meaning to life
What is identity?A sense of self that is coherent and consistent over time. Identity development is a process and its always ongoing: Fluid and Dynamic
Identity in AdolescentsPsychosocial moratorium: a period in which the individual is free to explore identity possibilities before committing to an identity. Unsuccessful resolution of identity search= confusion and isolation
What is emerging adulthood?Extended transitions to adulthood that take place from ages 18-25.
What is Identity Status?The degree to which individuals have explored possible selves and their commitment to a specific belief.
What does Identity Foreclosure refer to?Chosen an identity without engaging in exploration
What does Identity Moratorium involve?Time-out period providing more freedom and autonomy and responsibilities of adulthood
What does Identity Diffusion entail?Not having explored or committed to a sense of self
What does Identity Achievement signify?Establishing a coherent sense of self after exploring many possibilities
What are the domains of identity?Interpersonal (Friendships & dating) and Ideological (Occupation, religion, and politics).
What are the influences on idenitity development?Relationships with caregivers/parents Relationship with Peers Romantic relationships
Developmental shifts in idenity?In cultural, religious, sexual, career, family, passion, and interests, etc.
What are the outcomes of identity development?Identity achievement and identity foreclosure are associated with: o Positive functioning o Prosocial behaviour o Capacity for romantic attachments o An adaptive mature sense of self.
What are the factors affecting identity development?Socio-economic status, education, place of living, climatic conditions, cultural background, age, and ability/mobility.
What is Ethical-Racial Identity?A sense of membership to an ethnic or racial group with associated attitudes, values, and cultures.
How does one's ethnic identity develop over the years?Use of ethnic and racial group terms as self-descriptions, Influenced by parents peers, and teachers, discrimination can pose challenges to developing a positive ethnic identity.
What are the two main approaches to personality?Trait approach and psychosocial stages approach.
What are the Big 5 traits?Openness: Degree of openness to experience Conscientiousness: Tendency to be responsible and disciplined, hardworking Extroversion: Level of social outgoingness, dominant style Agreeableness: Inclination towards cooperation and helpfulness, than own’s agency. Neuroticism: Frequency of experiencing Negative emotionality
What are the main influences on personality stability?Inherited predispositions, genetic and experiential influences.
Personality in Childhood and AdolescenceEarliest trait is temperamentNeuroticism increasing in adolescence
Personality in AdulthoodEarly Adulthood: Shift in agreeableness and emotional stability, Maturity principle of personality development.Maturation: Individuals assume adult roles, influences their psychological and behavioural functioningMiddle Adulthood: Change subtly, agreeableness and conscientiousness increaseOlder adults: Traits mellow with age, decline in extroversion and openness, increase in conscientiousness and agreeableness.
Erikson's Psychosocial stages of personality developmentThroughout the lifespan, we all proceed through a series of psychosocial crises or developmental tasks How well each crisis is resolved influences psychosocial development
What is the significant task in Middle Adulthood according to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development?Generativity - concern for future generations and society.
What is the significant task in Late Adulthood according to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development?Ego integrity - reflecting on life experiences and finding meaning and coherence.
What does 'Life Structure' refer to in Levinson's Seasons of Life?The overall organization of a person's life, constructed, tested, and modified across seasons.
What are the key transitions in Levinson's Seasons of Life?Early adulthood involves creating and realizing a dream; the age 30 transition may involve reconsidering priorities, and middle adulthood often prompts a re-examination of life goals.
What is the critique of Levinson's model?It is based on a small, specific sample and may be influenced by social context.
What is sex?Biological categories determined by genetics, determined by physical characteristics; genital appearance Primary sex characteristics Secondary sex characteristics
What are persistent stereotypes?societal beliefs take time to catch up with actual changes in roles and behaviours, contributes to the persistence of stereotypical views.
What is gender?A social concept, roles, and behaviors individuals adopt through socialization.
What are gender role norm?Normative expectations for males and females applied to their everyday behaviour Females= more expressive role Males= more instrumental role
What are gender stereotypes?broad generalized judgements of the activities, attitudes, skills, and characteristics deemed appropriate for males or females in each culture
What is gender typing?The process where young children acquire the characteristics and attitudes that are considered appropriate
What are gender role norms?Normative expectations for males and females applied to their everyday behavior.
Define Gender Stereotypes.Broad generalized judgments of the activities, attitudes, skills, and characteristics deemed appropriate for males or females in each culture.
What is the Biological Explanation for Gender Typing?Evolution: Gender differences in behaviour are adaptive Genes: chromosomes, testosterone production Hormones: High levels of estrogen promote female-typical behaviour, High levels of testosterone promote male-typical behaviour
What is the Cognitive Explanation for Gender Typing?Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg) Gender Identity Awareness of being a boy or girl, Construction of gender roles based on this. Gender Stability: understand that gender does not change, increase in stereotype knowledge and rigid-gender related behaviour. Gender Constancy: realization that gender is constant, they will be same regardless of appearance activities or attitudeGender Schema Theory: Once one’s own sex is labelled, a mental structure is formed that organizes gender- related information, which guides their gender related behaviour, contributing to gender typing.
What is the Contextual Explanation for Gender Typing?Social Learning Theory: Modelling: Observing and imitating models (parents, peers, adults and characters) for gender typical behaviour. Feedback reinforces gender-types behaviour.Parents: Expectations & approvalPeers: Reinforcement of gender-typed behaviour, sex segregation while playingMedia: Representation of different gender roles
How does gender development over a life-span look like?Basic awareness of self- 18 months 2-2.5 years old select correct pictures in response to gender labels Actively seeking information about gender, expanding their knowledge of gender stereotypes Older children include personality traits/characteristics in their gender-stereotypes, gender rigidity Gender development becomes more fluid, and androgynous; gender identity high in both masculine and feminine characteristics)
What are the sex differences between men and women?Physical Differences Childhood: Boys are more physically active than girls Post-puberty: Men are typically taller, Weigh more, StrengthCognitive Differences Girls tend to talk earlier but then equal out by adulthood Boys and men have better spatial relations Socioemotional Differences Girls are better at expressing and identifying emotions; Emotional regulationMen are better at expressing anger; Estrogen v Testostorone
What is adrenarche?Maturation of the adrenal glands stimulating puberty hormones and strong sex drive.
What does sexual identity refer to?One’s sense of self regarding sexuality, including one's awareness and comfort regarding one's attitudes, interests, and behaviours
What does non-binary mean in terms of gender identity?Not identifying exclusively as male or female and defining oneself outside these binary terms.
What is the definition of cisgender?Gender identity is the same as biological sex.
What is sexual orientation?An enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction to opposite-sex partners, same-sex partners, or both sexes.
What is the meaning of Androgyny?Integrating masculine and feminine characteristics
What is transgender identity?Gender identity different from biological sex, not identifying with natal sex. Gender is fluid and a non-binary concept
What are the challenges faced by transgender individuals during puberty?Bodies undergo changes inconsistent with their gender identity, leading to high stress levels, mental health issues, and peer victimization.
What are Support and Gender-Affirming Health Care:o Biological Gender transition: hormone therapy & gender reassignment surgery. o Puberty suppressors: reversible intervention that delays puberty, more time explore their gender identity. o Gender-affirming policies in schools, social support by friends, family= Better mental health
Sexual activity in adolescence:Factors Affecting: Parents, peers, and economic factors in the neighborhood.Sex education is important: education programs Challenges faced by teens in the LGBTQ+ community include= discrimination, harassment, and mental health risk. Support from parents can buffer the negative effects
What is the frequency of sexual activity in Adults?Age Related Patterns: Peaks in mid 20s, declining in 40s, and complete decrease in 50s Marital Status: Sexual activity and marital status= strong positive correlation, but frequency decreases over time Variation in Midlife: Increase, decrease, or maintaining satisfaction Emotional Outcomes: Positive emotions, especially in romantic relationships, linked to sexual, emotional, and relationship satisfaction and overall happiness.
What are some characteristics of casual sex?Existence across all ages, more prominent in college students, and reports negative emotional reactions, especially in women.
What are some key characteristics of sexual coercion and assault?High incidence of underreporting, involvement of alcohol, and high risk of PTSD, anxiety, and depression for survivors. Self-blame increases
What are the factors influencing sexual activity in late adulthood?Physical problems, lack of interest, partner’s health, influence on sexual activity, lack of partner.
What are the components of consent as described in the 'Consent is as simple as fries' analogy?Freely given, Reversible, Informed, Enthusiastic, Specific.
What is moral reasoning?How people view and make judgements of their social world. Requires theory of mind Is socially constructed Involves justice and fairness
What are the two stages of moral development in Piaget’s theory?Heteronomous Morality (Till age 6): Morality of constraintrules as unalterable that are guided by authority figures Violating rules= inherently wrong and deserving punishment Autonomous Morality (7 and beyond): Morality of cooperation products of group agreement, to promote cooperationCan be altered based on shared agreements and have a purpose
What are the stages of moral reasoning in Kohlberg’s theory?Preconventional Reasoning (Age 9): Individualistic Children: Motivated by self-interest, morality is externally imposed Conventional Moral Reasoning (Adolescence): Community Children: Maintaining relationship, gain social approval, uphold rules to conform to society Post-conventional moral reasoning (Adolescence-Adulthood) Rational and Moral: Autonomous decision making, see that laws are flexible, have a universal perspective, human dignity comes first
What are the limitations of Kohlberg's studies on moral reasoning?Conducted only in samples of boys,Neglected the feminine mode of moral reasoningLack of evidence for distinct stagesJustice not necessarily the most fundamental moral principle.
What are the influences on Moral Reasoning?Social Interaction: Parental and Caregiver influence: Discussions about moral issues with diverse perspectives= Moral reasoning Peer interaction: Peer discussions, deep conversation with diverse perspectives= More moral reasoning Culture: Collectivistic cultures define moral dilemmas from the perspective of the community rather than the individual. Focus on care based reasoning, Conventional Western cultures emphasize the rights of the individuals. (Justice based reasoning, Post-Conventional) Gender Care orientation (Females): Characterized empathy, a desire to maintain relationships and a responsibility to not cause harmJustice Orientation (Males): Based on fairness and individualism by Kohlberg. However, both genders display similar reasoning Intuition: Make decisions in the moment than through careful contemplation Moral Reasoning occurs after the fact to justify decision
What correlations have been observed between advancing in moral reasoning and behavior in adolescents?Advancing in moral reasoning correlates with adolescents acting in line with their beliefs and engaging in more prosocial behavior.the degree to which moral reasoning is associated with behaviour varies with adolescents’ beliefs about whether the behaviour is a moral concern or simply a social convention or a personal choice
What is young chidren's conception of moral, social and personal issues?Intent-based judgements: Can recognise the difference between moral issues (less alterable, and less dependent on authority) and conventions based on the intent behind actions.Intent to harm is judged harshly= Early understanding of moral violations.Emerging sense of justice based on behaviour
What are the nuances in thinking observed in older school-age children regarding moral issues?Ability to distinguish among moral issues Tolerance of necessary harm by violation of moral rulesDiscrimination and evaluation of social conventions with purpose Consideration of intent and context in moral judgment.Conceptualization of moral development is culturally dependent
What is prosocial behavior?Voluntary behavior that aims to benefit someone else.
What drives prosocial behavior?Empathy: The capacity to understand someone’s feelings, involves emotional and cognitive development
What are the characteristics of early childhood prosocial behavior?Recognition of prosocial acts and engagement for egocentric motives.
What are the characteristics of young children's prosocial behavior?Instrumental assistance, tangible help, and situational factors.Influence of situational factors Theory of mind develops: Children become aware of others' perspectives.
What happens to prosocial behavior in adolescence?Improvement in moral reasoning and an increase in empathetic concern.Prosocial behaviour can decrease temporarily due to brain maturation which affects emotionsHigher pro-sociality= greater cortical thinning which is related to social cognition and behaviour control
Sharing in childrenChildren’s reasoning about sharing: Conceptualize fair sharing as strict quality, tends to favour themselves, but this decreases with age. Selectivity in Sharing: favour those who display prosocial behaviours, Sharing decisions influenced by observable characteristics, personal desires, and expectations of reciprocity. Cultural Influences: Shift from emphasizing self-interest to increasing fairness with age
What are the factors influencing prosocial behaviours?Biological Genetic factors lead to individual differences Temperament influences emotional regulation, Emotional Guilt and Pride influence prosocial behaviour Family Good interactions with caregivers= prosocial behaviour Parental modelling, encouragement, and warm parentingPeer and Sibling Positive peer and sibling relationships and interactions= prosocial behaviours Influence behaviour through modelling, communication of values, and feedback Cultural Collectivistic cultures= ^ prosocial values o Influences display of prosocial behaviour
What is antisocial behavior?Behavior intended to do harm or break rules. • Aggression, Bullying, Delinquency
What are the different types of aggression?Instrumental: Aggression oriented toward achieving a goal. Infancy and early childhood Physical: Displayed during play. Toddlerhood into early childhood Verbal: Increases as physical aggression declines around 4-5 years old. Relational aggression: Non-physical acts aimed at harming a person’s connections with others.
What are the factors influencing agression?Developmental factors: Decreases as development of self-control and language skills takes place Risk factors for high aggression levels: Coercive parenting, family dysfunction, low income, maternal history of antisocial behaviour
What are the characteristics and motivation of children who bully?Characteristics: Tend to be impulsive, aggressive, and may engage in physical or relational aggression. Motivation: Pursuit of high status and maintaining a powerful position in the peer group.
What are the characteristics and responses of victims of bullying?Characteristics: Often perceived as different, quiet, withdrawn, with emotional issues like anxiety and depression. Responses: Victims may respond by avoiding contact or, in some cases, becoming defensive and retaliating.
What are the characteristics and consequences of bully-victims?Characteristics: Display high levels of anxiety, depression, aggression, impulsivity, and poor self-control. Long-term Consequences: More likely to experience anxiety and depression into late adolescence, early adulthood, and even middle adulthood.
What is religiosity and what are the patterns of religiosity?Religious practices and strong religious beliefs. Children follow their parents Adolescents engage in religious metacognition Increases in adulthood
Influence in religious socialization?Parental Role: Important for religious socialization, influence children’s beliefs through religious practices Peer Influence: Affiliating with those who share similar religious beliefs.
How do children engage with religion?Through formal education and parental influences Active learning and participation: which influences their religious understanding as their cognitive abilities develop.
How do adolescents engage with religion?Complex Views: Religious practices decline in late adolescence. Abstract thinking= exploring metaphysical concepts and metacognition Shift to spirituality: External to internal, with one’s life’s meaning and personal beliefs.
How does religiosity change in adulthood?It increases with age, becomes stable over time, and intensifies. Religiosity and Health: Positively associated with physical activity, longevity, and overall health. Protective factor for mental health, promoting resilience.
What is spirituality?Personal search for answers to ultimate questions about life.
What is the importance of searching for meaning during mid-life?the sense of meaning increases with age: associated with well-being, life satisfaction, and happiness.
What is singlehood?Not living in a committed relationship or not living with a romantic partner. People single by choice:, Feel independent, A sense of control over romantic life, Enjoy Freedom and have increased social connections with other people compared to married people.
What is cohabitation, its reasons, and rates?The practice of unmarried couple living together Reasons: Changes in employment, housing, economic situations, convenience, response to pregnancy, or to assess romantic compatibility. Rates: Have increased, does not last long, associated with positive outcomes in late adulthood Baby boomer= seen as risky and rebellious, cohabitating couples show similar levels of relationship quality as married couples Millennials= More normalized and accepted,
What are some associated benefits of marriage, and its statistics?Benefits: Economic, physical and mental, and psychological benefits; living longer; more happiness; and being wealthier.Rates: Rates of marriage have declinedAge of first marriage has increased
What are some predictors of marital satisfaction and long-lasting marriages?Warmth, empathy, and respect; partners' chronological maturity, or age; similarity in SES, education, religion, and age; egalitarian partnerships.
What are the effects of raising and having children on marital life?Increased marital conflict, decline in marital satisfaction and intimacy, increased commitment.Financial pressures, increased responsibilities, disagreements over child rearing practices
What factors contribute to increased marital satisfaction in middle adulthood?Decrease in child rearing tasks, rise in family income, positive perception of partners, shared life experiences, and improved emotional regulation.
What are some predictors and affects of divorce?Predictors: Poor education, economic disadvantage, exposure to multiple stressors. Affects: Decreased life satisfaction, increased risk for illnesses and early mortality. More harmful to women's health due to greater economic loss.
How does divorce affect individuals?Decreased life satisfaction, increased risk for illnesses and early mortality. More harmful to women's health due to greater economic loss.
What are some challenges of becoming a parent?Transition difficulties, overwhelmed feelings, new responsibilities, financial demands, and sleep deprivation.Non-marital pregnancy is common in women with low SESBirthing persons’ age at first birth is increasing
What are the factors contributing to childlessness or being childfree?Infertility, choice, postponing parenthood, education, and career status.
What are the impacts of childlessness?It depends on cultural and societal perspectives, and can interfere with psychosocial development and personal adjustment.
What are the characteristics of single-parent families?The majority of children are well-adjusted, some may experience more challenges, and increased parenting stress.
What are the characteristics of cohabitating families?Less stable than married couples, children may experience more conflict and transitions, negative effects can be buffered by caring relationships of parents and their stable unions. Family stability
What are the characteristics of LGBTQAI+ families?Emotional development, gender identity, and gender role developments are similar to heterosexual homes, there can be a misconception that children raised in this type of family will become LGBTQAI+, and communication tends to be more open.
What are the characteristics of divorcing/divorced families?Triggers a reconfiguration of family roles, positive interactions with parents can buffer against the negative effects of divorce.
What are the characteristics of blended families?Stepparent-stepchild bonds can take an extremely long time to form.
What are the characteristics of oldest children in sibling and only children families?Higher academic achievement, stronger sense of responsibility and integrity, better leadership skills, more affection and attention, and higher expectations.
What are the characteristics of middle children in sibling and only children families?Cooperative, flexible, and social, able to make and maintain friendships easily, lesser academic achievement, and stricter in terms of leniency.
What are the characteristics of youngest children in sibling and only children families?Charming and likeable, possibly more creative, strong sense of security and confidence, less responsible and mature, and high leniency.
What are the characteristics of only children?Academically able, capable, and resourceful, mature, and responsible, hate disorder, love control, and high expectation.
What are the characteristics of authoritarian parenting style?Behavioural control and obedience over warmth, conform without questioning, and punishments lead to withdrawn, mistrustful, anxious, and angry children.
What are the characteristics of permissive parenting style?Warmth and acceptance, few rules and inconsistent enforcement lead to lack of self-regulation, rebellious, impulsive, and risk for poor achievement and behavior problems.
What are the characteristics of uninvolved parenting style?Lack of warmth and acceptance, neglectful, and low responsiveness to a child's needs.
What are the characteristics of the Authoritative Parenting Style?Balance between warmth and sensitivity, discussion with children about standards and grant autonomy, limited but appropriate punishments, positive outcomes in children, including confidence, self-esteem, curiosity.
What is Discipline?Methods a parent uses to teach and socialize children toward acceptable behavior.
What are the effects of Physical Punishment on children?Tends to increase compliance temporarily but leads to negative outcomes.
What is Inductive Discipline?A strategy to control children's behavior that relies on reasoning and discussion, effective in helping children internalize rules and adopt positive social skills.
How does Culture influence Parenting?Parenting strategies, beliefs about desirable child characteristics, and the effectiveness of disciplinary techniques vary across cultures.
How do Parenting strategies evolve with children's development?They evolve to match children's increased reasoning ability and desire for independence.
What leads to positive outcomes in Parent-child relationships?Parent monitoring and autonomy support.
What are some challenges middle-aged adults face when becoming parents with assisted reproduction technologies?Challenges in socializing with parents of similar age.
What challenges do grandparents raising grandchildren face?Challenges due to contextual and traumatic factors.Timing influences the experiences: Early grandparents juggle parenting and grandparenting roles.
What is the sandwhich generation and what types of assistance does the sandwich generation provide?Timing influences the experiences: Early grandparents juggle parenting and grandparenting roles. Emotional, financial, physical, healthcare, legal, housing, technology, transport.
What are different types of early life play?Unoccupied play (0 – 3 months): Making random movements, not engaged in any particular activitySolitary play (0 – 2 years): Play with toys on their own and do not concern themselves with othersSpectator/on looker play (2 years): not playing with them but just seeing what they are doing.Parallel play (2+ years): two kids might be playing with the exact same toy but they aren’t playing with it togetherAssociate play (3 – 4 years): Children show more interest in other children and interact others in their play world.Cooperative play (4+ years): shared goal, like for example how do we get the cookies
What is peer acceptance?The degree to which a child is viewed as a worthy social partner by peers.
What is peer rejection?Ongoing exclusion of a child by peers.
Who are withdrawn-rejected children?Children who isolate themselves from peers, rarely initiate contact, and speak less frequently than their peers.
Who are aggressive-rejected children?Children who display confrontational, hostile, impulsive, and hyperactive behavior and are rejected by peers.
What is rough-and-tumble play?Social interactions involving chasing and play fighting with no intent to harm.
What is sociodramatic play?Make-believe play in which children act out roles and themes.
What influences the way older children make friends?Increased self-consciousness and engagement in social comparison.
Is lacking close friends necessarily associated with maladjustment?No, lacking close friends is not necessarily associated with maladjustment, but social acceptance by peer groups influences children’s adjustment.
How does peer rejection affect children?Deprives children of opportunities to learn and practice social skills, and increases the risk of loneliness, anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem.
How do positive social competencies and prosocial behaviors affect peer relationships?They are reciprocal and have positive effects on peer relationships.
What are the characteristics of children at risk for peer rejection?Poor communication, language, emotional control, and social information skills.
What are some common characteristics of rejected children?Misinterpret other children’s behaviors and motives, have trouble regulating their emotions, and are less socially competent.
What does the disengagement theory suggest about older adults?That they withdraw from society (incorrect). Older adults prefer to remain active and engaged.
What does the activity theory explain about reductions in social interaction?Explains reductions in social interaction as a result of social barriers to engagement. strive to remain active, busy, and healthy by attempting to replace lost social roles.
What does the socioemotional selectivity theory suggest about aging individuals?They focus on deriving emotional meaning from life, leading to a pruning of relationships for emotional well-being.
How have causes of death changed over the years?Historically: InfectionsNow: Chronic Illness
What are the life expectancies for males and females born in Canada in 2019?Male: 80 years, Females: 84.2 years.
Why is there a 4.2 years discrepancy in life expectancy between males and females in Canada?Workplace/occupation, seeking support in healthcare and psychologically, socialization, and cultural differences.
What are the leading causes of death in Canada?1. Cancer, 2. Diseases of Heart, 3. Accidents.
What is clinical death?The heart stops beating, and blood and oxygen circulation cease.
What is whole brain death?Cessation of brain function, irreversible loss of functioning, occurs prior to clinical death.
What is persistent vegetative state?Permanent loss of activity in the cortex, when a person appears awake but is not.
What is advance care planning?Thinking about and writing down instructions for present or future health care treatment in the event of incapacity.
What is an Advance Directive in end-of-life care?Instructions given to healthcare providers for an individual's end-of-care when the individual becomes incapable of giving directives.
What does the term 'Dying with dignity' refer to?Ending one’s life in a way that is true to one’s preferences and controlling end-of-life-care.
What is the purpose of Palliative care?To provide an alternative to medical treatment where dying patients receive medications to control pain and related symptoms.
What is the objective of Medical Assistance in Dying (MAID)?To allow eligible Canadian adults to request assistance in dying if they meet specific criteria and give informed consent.
What are the reasons for seeking Medical Assistance in Dying (MAID)?1. Loss of ability to engage in meaningful life activities 2. Loss of ability to perform activities of daily living 3. Inadequate pain control (or concern) 4. Loss of Dignity.
What are the conditions for Medical Assistance in Dying (MAID)?Discussing options with a physician or nurse practitioner, independent decisions without coercion, undergoing medical assessments by two independent practitioners, written request, and the ability to withdraw consent at any time.
What are the four characteristics of a mature concept of death?Non-functionality: Functional capabilities of the body have ended Irreversibility: Transition from being alive to being dead cannot be undone Inevitability: death is univeral Biological causality: Caused by events that trigger a natural process
How do young children around 3-4 tend to view death?As temporary and reversible, and believe that beings can be spontaneously alive.
What influences children's understanding of death in late childhood?Exposure to death, parental communication, and culture.
How do young children around 5-7 tend to view death?death is irreversible, and inevitable advances in cognitive development Parents underestimate children’s understanding about death, they can pick up information through different forms of media, and through their different forms of environment
What does adolescents' understanding of death reflect?Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional development.
What abilities do adolescents have in understanding death?Understanding biological death, having cultural and religious beliefs about afterlife, and experiencing mixed emotions.
What changes occur in early adulthood regarding the conception of death?Application of mature understanding of death to themselves, decline in personal fable, and decline in risky activities.
What increases in middle adulthood regarding the awareness of death?An understanding of death through witnessing their own children develop an understanding of death a pursuit of generativity evaluate priorities and pursue a sense of generativity
What are the characteristics of older adults' understanding of death?More exposure to death, focus on aging and health, increased time thinking about dying, declining death anxiety, and experiencing anticipatory grief.
What are the variability in trajectories of the dying process?Abrupt-surprise death: Sudden, unexpected, and instaneousShort-term expected death: Stead predictable due to a terminal illnessEntry-re-entry death: Series of crisis and partial recoveries Expected lingering death: Anticipatory but prolonged
What are the emotional reactions often categorized into stages in response to impending death?Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance (Kübler-Ross model).
What is bereavement?A period of coping with loss that follows death.
What are the contextual influences on grief?Age of the deceased, nature of the death, age of the bereaved, and the relationship with the deceased.
What is the grief process?An active coping process involving coming to terms with the effects on environment, social interactions, and sense of self, acknowledging emotions, and continued attachment to the deceased.
What are the tasks of mourning?1. Acceptance of Reality: Acknowledge the loss and overcome denial.2. Experience Pain: Manage the emotional pain of grief. 3. Adjust to Life Without: Manage practical details, roles, and responsibilities. 4. Develop a New Life: Establish a new life while maintaining an enduring connection to the deceased.
What is the Widowhood effect?Increase in the probability of a person dying in a relatively short period after a long-time spouse has died.
What are the unique challenges for young adults in the context of grief?Loss of intimacy and unfulfilled developmental tasks, Fear of isolation and abandonment.
What are some concerns of midlife adults?Concerns about abandoning family and not completing life's journey.
What is the focus of older adults?Desire to close ties, make peace with family, and engage in legacy work.
What is the Direct Instruction approach characterized by?Teacher-centered, structured learning, academically centered.
What is the focus of the Constructivist Classroom approach?Active learning through play, problem solving, and peer interaction. Montessori approach
What is the goal of Developmentally Appropriate Practice?Tailoring instruction to the age of the child, recognizing individual differences, and using hands-on active teaching methods.
What does Project Head Start provide?Educational, health, and nutritional services to economically disadvantaged children.
What disparities exist in preschool enrollment?Children from low SES are disproportionately affected.
What are the two ways to teach vocabulary and grammar?Phonics Instructions: Bottom-up approach (letters and sounds) Language top-down approach: Top-down approach (words first)
What is the focus of Individualized Education Plans?Inclusion and placing children in the least restrictive environment while meeting their specific needs.
How do children learn in early childhood and elementary education?Through play, problem solving, socializing, and self-regulating.
What is social promotion?The practice of promoting children to the next grade even though they did not meet academic standards out if the benefit that it will foster self-esteem
What are the effects of grade retention on the development of children?Early school failure; decline in academic functioning, cognitive development, and socioemotional development
What is the match referred to in Stage-environment Fit?Match between the developing person’s needs and capacities and the characteristics of the school environment. Influences well-being
What affects academic achievement and students' adjustment in diverse schools?Social and emotional support from families, teachers, and peers.
What are first-generation students likely to struggle with in postsecondary education?Economic stress, working part-time, social stress, and struggle with forming connections.
What does attendance in postsecondary education associate with advances in?Moral reasoning, identity development, and social development.
What are non-traditional college students encouraged to do and what are the reasons?Extend support services. Reasons: ▪ Change In career paths ▪ Obtain higher paying and more satisfying careers ▪ Learn new skills ▪ Fulfil personal Goals
What influences vocational choice?Personality Traits and Abilities: Match between personality traits and occupational interests Contextual influence: interaction between individual factors (personality) and contextual factors (socialization, economic opportunities) Parental Influence: modelling, socialization, SES Transition to work: Early career dissatisfaction, mismatch between employer evaluation and self-rated skills
What is the glass ceiling that leads to a gender wage gap?The glass ceiling presents social barrier preventing women and people of color from career advancement
What is the effect of racial bias?Microaggressions: Subtle discrimination that communicates negative attitudes or insults towards vulnerable groups. Associated with poor physical and mental health
What is the concept of non-linear career development?Career development doesn't follow a universal pattern and adults often change careers multiple times.
What are the changing workplace expectations of Millennials and Generation Z?Seeking fulfilling work, autonomy, and balance.
What is role overload associated with?Poor health, high stress, and ineffective parenting.
What are the factors influencing retirement?Job, conditions, health, finances, and personal preference.
What are the effects of retirement?Increase in life satisfaction, positive outcomes, well-being
What is achievement motivation?The willingness to persist at challenging tasks and meet high standards of accomplishment.
What is mastery motivation and how does it change across children?The inherent drive which leads young children to explore and master their environment. Infants ▪ Show positive emotions with successes ▪ Not concerned with others’ reactions and evaluations ToddlersResponses to success and failure are oriented toward adults’ evaluation Impacts their: Emerging self-concept. Approach to challenges and responses to its outcomes Pre-schoolers:▪ Began to evaluate their own performance ▪ Show more intense reactions, experience pride and shame
What is the fixed mindset?Believing that characteristics are enduring and unchangeable.
What is the growth mindset?Viewing skills and characteristics as malleable or changeable.
What is mastery orientation characterized by?A belief that success comes from trying hard and that failures are influenced by factors that can be controlled, like effort. Involves adaptation and resiliency. Persist in the face of challenges. Internal attribution
What is learned helplessness orientation characterized by?Attributing success to outside and uncontrollable factors and believing that failure reflects a lack of ability. External attribution to factors
What is achievement motivation a predictor of?Academic success and classroom engagement. bidirectional relationship between attributions and achievement.
How do parents foster mastery orientation?By promoting autonomy, helping children recognize their worth, and encouraging exploration and problem solving.
What does SES motivate through in terms of achievement?Availability of opportunity and resources.
What influences parenting and family processes in terms of achievement?Cultural influences.
Define human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).A virus that attacks the body's immune system, leading to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
Explain human papillomavirus (HPV).A group of related viruses that can cause warts and cancer in humans.
What are puberty suppressors?Medications that delay the physical changes of puberty in adolescents.
What is sexting?Sending sexually explicit messages or images via electronic devices.
Explain sexual orientation.An individual's enduring physical, romantic, or emotional attraction to others.
Define social gender transition.The process by which a person socially aligns their gender identity with their gender expression.
What is autonomous morality?The stage of moral development where individuals base moral judgments on the intentions of the actor.
Explain bullying.Repeated aggressive behavior intended to cause harm or distress to another individual.
What is a bully-victim?An individual who both bullies and is bullied by others.
Define delinquency.Engaging in illegal or antisocial behaviors.
What is empathic concern?Feelings of sympathy and compassion for others in distress.
What is the definition of bereavement?Bereavement refers to the state of experiencing loss, especially through the death of a loved one.
Explain the dual-process model of grief.The dual-process model of grief suggests that individuals oscillate between facing the reality of loss and dealing with the practical consequences of the loss.
What is the purpose of durable power of attorney?Durable power of attorney is a legal document that designates an individual to make healthcare or financial decisions on behalf of another person if they become incapacitated.
What is the meaning of euthanasia?Euthanasia refers to the practice of intentionally ending a person's life to relieve suffering.
Define grief.Grief is the intense emotional suffering caused by the loss of a loved one or something of deep personal significance.
Explain the concept of hospice.Hospice provides specialized care for individuals facing a terminal illness, focusing on pain management and emotional support.
What is the purpose of a living will?A living will is a legal document that outlines a person's preferences for medical treatment in case they are unable to communicate their wishes.
What are holophrases?a one-word expression used to convey a complete thought Babies’ receptive language (what they can understand) exceeds their productive language (what they can produce themselves)
What is context based learningIf a word is used in context or explained with examples, most five-year- olds can learn it
What are overregulaization errors?grammatical mistakes that children make because they apply grammatical rules inaccurately
What is dual-language learning(also called two-way immersion), in which English- speaking and non-English-speaking students learn together in both languages and both languages are valued equally
What happens when there is damage to Broca's area?Inhibits the ability to speak fluently, errors in the production of language.
What did Harlow propose about attachment?"attachment bonds are not solely based on feeding but also on ""contact comfort” (warmth and love)"
What are emotional display rules?Socially desirable responses
What does self-esteem in Adoloscence look like?Beliefs about self become more closely related to behaviour and relationships Global Self-Esteem: Overall evaluation of self-worth, drop and then rises (puberty) Evaluate self with respect to multiple dimensions and relationships Social media: Access to social media that shows adolescents certain information that affects their Self-esteem.
What does self-concept and Self-esteem across adulthood look like?Middle Adulthood: more Autonomous increase in self-esteem since their competence in their social roles increases, living up to self-chosen ideals Late Adulthood Many roles decline or even disappear as people go through transitions: Eg. Retirement, widowhood, and empty nest (children going away). Loose valued social roles Possible self: Who we could be, involves negative aspects too. o Positive and Negative aspects both o It can guide our behaviour o Because we are aiming to work towards something or avoid something Older Adults: Adults’ self-evaluation becomes more positive during their lifetime Categorize positive and negative aspects of self as separate roles. Focus on their strengths • Self-esteem peaks around mid-60’s and then declines in late adulthoods.
What are Erikson's stages of psychosocial development?Trust v Mistrust: (Birth-1y) views the world as a safe place where basic needs will be met or not Autonomy v Shame and Doubt: (1 - 3y) Confident in ability to exploreInitiative v Guilt: (3 - 6y) Takes pride in accomplishmentsIndustry v Inferiority: (6 - 11y) Feeling competentIdentity v Role Confusion: (Adolescence) Figuring out who one is (Sense of self) Intimacy v Isolation: (early adulthood 20-40) Developing capacity for intimacy and making a permanent commitment to a romantic partner Generativity v Stagnation: (Middle adulthood 40-60) Concern and sense of responsibility for future generations and society Ego Integrity v Despair: (60y+) Find a sense of coherence in life experience; conclude their lives are meaningful and valuable
What are Family constellations?Each individual belongs to and is bonded in relationship to other members of his or her family system.
What is brain death?Brain arrest, or the final clinical expression of complete and irreversible neurological failure. Don’t have a particular definition. The type of medical practitioner may be able to provide different types of care
Euthanasia and Physician- Assisted Suicide and its typesPassive euthanasia involves withholding treatment Active; deliberately inducing death; Physician-assisted suicide allows terminally ill patients to end their lives with medical tools
What are the two types of MAID?Directly administers a substance that causes death: Clinician administered medical assistance in dying, injectionProvides or prescribes a drugs that the eligible person takes themselves in order to bring about their own death: Self-administered medical assistance in dying, orally