Cultural Diversity 1.1 Warm-up Sayings God gave to every people a cup, cup of clay, and from this cup they drank life… They all dipped in the water, but their cups were different. ---- R. Benedict 上帝给了每个人一个杯子、一杯粘土，并且人们从这个杯子里面啜饮人生...他们都是浸在水里 面的，只是他们的杯子不一样而已。 ----本尼迪克特 1.2 Warm-up Cases Case 1 ：Low vs. High Context Culture 1) President George Bush went to Japan. He made explicit and direct demands on Japanese leaders. To the Japanese, it is rude and a sign of ignorance or desperation. 2) A Japanese manager in an American company was told to give critical feedback to a subordinate. Question for discussion: Why did the Japanese think that Americans are barbarians? Why was it so difficult for the Japanese manager to tell his subordinate about his poor performance? 图片来源于网络，仅供教学使用 1.2 Warm-up Cases Case 2 ：A Refusal of an Offer of Coffee An American businessman refused a cup of coffee from a Saudi businessman. Such a rejection is considered very rude to the Saudis, and the business negotiations stalled. Question for discussion: Why did a refusal of coffee lead to the deadlock in the negotiations? 1.2 Warm-up Cases Case 3 ：Unhappy with the Money Paid 1) Dr. Huang, a Chinese Australian, asked Mr. Wang and Mr. Zheng if they could help her tear down the old fence and erect a new one. The two instantly agreed. 2) Huang asked how much money they wanted for the whole “project”. Wang shyly asked if one hundred dollars would be ok. Huang smiled and agreed. 3) Wang and Zheng complained about her being stingy. Question for discussion: Why were Mr. Zheng and Mr. Wang unhappy when they opened the envelope and saw the one hundred dollars? Cultural patterns 1. Ways of thinking Cultural patterns are shared mental programs that govern specific behavior choices.. 2. Ways of acting Cultural patterns are not so much consciously taught as unconsciously experienced as a by-product of day-to-day activities. Components of Cultural Patterns Beliefs A belief is an idea that people assume to be true about the world. For example: 1) a widely shared belief dates back to the time when Europeans believed that the earth was flat 2) a belief for many European Americans is that in “reality” there is a separation between the physical and spiritual worlds. Values Values involve what a culture regards as good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, just or unjust, beautiful or ugly, clean or dirty, valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel. Norms Norms are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors. Norms may change over a period of time, whereas beliefs and values tend to be much more enduring. Social Practices Social practices are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically follow. Thus, social practices are the outward manifestations of beliefs, values, and norms. Edward T. Hall’s Context-culture theory 1）The definition of context: “the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably bound up with the meaning of the event.” 2）Categorization of high-context culture and low-context culture depending on the degree to which meaning comes from the settings or from the words being exchanged. High-context culture High context (HC) cultures prefer to use high-context messages in which most of the meaning is either implied by the physical setting or presumed to be part of the individual’s internalized beliefs, values, norms and social practices; very little is provided in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message. High-context culture An example of high-context communication is interactions that take place in a long-term relationship between two people who are often able to interpret even the slightest gesture or the briefest comment. The message does not need to be stated explicitly because it is carried in the shared understanding about the relationship. Low-context culture Low context (LC) cultures prefer to use low-context messages, in which the majority of the information is vested in the explicit code. Low-context culture An example of low-context communication is now experienced by more and more people as they interact with computers. For computers to “understand” a message, every statement must be precise. Many computers will not accept or respond to instructions that do not have every space, period, letter and number in precisely the right location. The message must be overt and very explicit. Cultures Arranged Along the High-Context and Low-Context Dimension What’s the values reflected in the following proverbs? Blood is thicker than water. Time is money. A man’s house is his castle. The early bird catches the worm. 人之初，性本善。 天人感应。 一人得道，鸡犬升天。 以人为鉴，可以明得失；以史为鉴，可以知兴替。 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientation 1. Human-nature orientation 2. Person-nature orientation 3. Time orientation 4. Activity orientation 5. Relational orientation 1. Human nature orientation (1) Humans are evil but changeable, (2) humans are evil and unchangeable, (3) humans are neutral with respect to good and evil, (4) humans are a mixture of good and evil, (5) humans are good but changeable, and (6) humans are good and unchangeable. 2. Person-nature orientation (1) mastery with nature（注：图片为愚公移山） (2) harmony with nature（注：图片为中药材） (3) subjugation to nature （注：图片为印尼海啸） Subjugation to nature Harmony with nature Mastery with nature 3. Time orientation a. Value - Past Orientation Value tradition, worship ancestors, emphasize strong family ties, favor aristocratic origin. b. Value - Present Orientation The past is seen as unimportant and the future is seen as unpredictable. Only here and now is real. c. Value - Future Orientation Change is valued highly. Future is viewed as better, while past being oldfashioned. Ranking of Time Orientation Dimension 4. Activity orientation a. Value - Doing Orientation Focusing on those activities which have outcomes. What did he do? What has he accomplished? b. Value - Being Orientation Who is he? c. Value - Being-in-Becoming Orientation Striving for an integrated whole in the development of the self. 5. Relational orientation a. Value - Individualism Orientation Focusing on individual goals and objectives b. Value - Linearity Orientation Focusing on the groups and the group extend through time c. Value - Collaterality Orientation Focusing on an individual’s most immediate group memberships Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientation Hofstede’s cultural dimensions 1. Individualism versus collectivism 2. Uncertainty avoidance 3. Power distance 4. Masculinity versus femininity 1. Individualism versus collectivism The characteristics of cultures that value individualism People’s personal goals take priority over their groups like the family or the employer. The loyalty of individualists to a given group is very weak. People feel they belong to many groups and are apt to change their membership as it suits them, switching churches, for example, or leaving one employer for another. ----Daniel Goleman Ranking of Individualism 2. Uncertainty avoidance Uncertainty avoidance deals with the degree to which members of a culture try to avoid uncertainty. Hofstede summarizes the view of people in high uncertainty avoidance cultures as “what is different, is dangerous,” and the belief of people in low uncertainty avoidance cultures as “what is different, is curious”. 2. Uncertainty avoidance High uncertainty avoidance cultures think of the uncertainty inherent in life as a continuous hazard that must be avoided. (a higher level of anxiety and stress) Low uncertainty avoidance cultures more easily accept the uncertainty inherent in life and are not as threatened by people and ideas, so they tolerate the unusual. (less tense, more relaxed) Ranking of Uncertainty Avoidance 3. Power Distance Power distance is “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally”. How do you interpret the relationship between the following pairs in both high and low power distance culture ? parents-children teacher-student boss-employee Power Distance High PD Culture: People who hold power and people who are affected by power are significantly far apart Vertical, hierarchical (everybody has a rightful place) Low PD Culture: The power holders and people affected by the power holders are significantly closer Horizontal (inequality in society should be minimized) Ranking of Power Distance 4. Masculinity and femininity In masculine cultures both man and women are relatively tough, and social gender roles are clearly distinct. Men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success, whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender and concerned with the quality of life. In feminine cultures social gender roles overlap. In these cultures, no one should fight and no one should be too ambitious. Everyone should be concerned with maintaining good relationships with others. Both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. Ranking of Masculinity Cultural Variations in Conducting Business Negotiation atmosphere Detail Communication style 2.1 2.2 2.3 Negotiation Atmosphere American:“American professionalism”, prestige French: distrust, formal, hospitality Japanese: socializing is integral. Chinese: mutual interests, friendships, socialization Middle East: personal relationships, hospitality Detail: Depth vs. Breadth American: many small agreements, the facts French: written agreements or contracts, quantity Japanese: brief and general written style, “principle” Chinese: written agreements Middle East: oral obligation Communication Style American: warmth, sincerity, confidence, positive, bluntly; ready to bargain or compromise, logical arguments; threats, warnings, continual pushiness. British: more silence, less interrupt, polite yet indistinct; kind, friendly, sociable, agreeable, flexible, responsive. French: own language, the most “difficult”, long-winded; rationalize, debate, dissent; confrontational, competitive. German: bidding stage, no compromise; clear, firm, assertive. Communication Style Japanese: passive manner, little reaction, long pauses; 10% verbal, 90% personal meaning; silence, harmony; standoffish, inscrutable, positive communication. Chinese: no openly conflict, make concessions slowly, refrain from small talk, no hypothetical examples Mexican: rhetoric, grand idea; the weaker side, physical contact; deductive approach, contemplation, intuition. Brazilian: aggressive, high frequency of “no’s” and “you’s”; compete with each other. Cultural Variations in Selecting Negotiators Talktive Technical expertise American Mexico Sex/ age Social status French American Japanese British Middle East Chinese Middle East Problem-solving Process American: negotiations, rational thinking, concrete data; a factual inductive style French: debate, less flexible, long-range view; conservative, safe decision-makers Japanese: level expertise, a consensus-building process; slow in conclusion, fast in implementation Middle East: an intuitive-affective approach, highest ranking representatives (Saudis) Mexicans: a centralized decision-making process Organizational Structure American: task-related stage French: a lateral style Japanese: slowly and cautiously Chinese: state proposition in the beginning Middle East: pre-negotiation, a comfortable climate Mexicans: social discourse, trust Exercises: case study During the American Civil War, a very hungry young man fell down in front of a farm gate. The farmer gave him food but in return he asked the young man to move a pile of wood in his yard – in fact it was not at all necessary to move the wood. When the young man left, the farmer moved the wood back to its original place. Seeing all this, the farmer’s son was confused. Case study At the negotiating table, differences in this dimension can clearly cause serious conflict. Americans too often expect their Japanese counterparts to make decisions right at the negotiating table, and the Japanese are constantly surprised to find individual members of the American team promoting their own positions, decisions, and ideas, sometimes openly contradicting one another. Have a good day!