CHAPTER 2.
DISEASES OF THE NEWBORN
 INTRODUCTION
 Newborn farm animals are more susceptible to infection than adults for
some important reasons.
 The calf, piglet, lamb and foal are borne without significant levels of
gamma-globulin and posses almost no resistance to infection until they
have ingested colostrum and absorb sufficient quantities of lacto-globulins
from the colostrum.
 The immune system of the newborn animal is also less mature than its
adult counterpart.
Cont…
Definitions
Neonatology
Considers diseases that occur during the first month of life in animals born
alive at term.
Perinatal disease
morbidity or mortality that occurs at birth and in the first 24 hours of life
Postnatal diseaseb
morbidity or mortality between birth and 14 days.
3
Cont…
Neonatal infection:
 Attention is currently devoted to both the virulence of the pathogens and the
resistance of the host,
 But some of non-pathogenic microorganisms can cause the diseases if the
immunological status of the animal is not at an optimum level.
 Etiology: The common neonatal infections are pathogens among the
domestic farm animals:
Cont…
 Cattle: Bacteremia or septicemia caused by E. coli, listeria monoytogenes, pasteurella
spp., Streptococcus., salmonella spp.
 Enteritis caused by pathogenic E. coli, salmonella spp, clostridium.
 Horses: Septicemia with localization especially in joints, caused by E. coli, Salmonella
typhimurium, Sterpt. Pyogenes.
 Septicemia with localization particularly in lungs caused by C. equi.
 Enteritis caused by Clostridium perfringens and rotavirus.
 Sheep:
 Bacteremia with localization in joints caused by Strept. micrococci
 Gas gangrene of the navel caused by C. septicum, C. edematus.
 Lamb dysentery caused by C. Perfringens type B.
Cont…
 Epidemiology:
 Portal of infection: It could be intrauterine or postnatal.
 If it is intrauterine the infection gains entrance via the placenta, and probably by means of
placentitis due to a blood born infection or an existing endometritis.
 If the disease is postnatal the portal of infection may be through the navel or by ingestion.
 Contamination of the environment can occur from soiling of the udder or bedding by
uterine discharges from the dam, from previous parturition, or from discharge of other
affected neonates.
 Thus disinfections of the uterus is so important and disinfections of the environment
may have little effect on the incident of the disease.
Cont…
 Resistance to infection:
 All newborn farm animals are more susceptible to infection than adults due to:
 They are a possess no resistance to infection until after they have ingested
colostrums.
 The immune system of the newborn animal is less mature than adult and dose
not respond effectively to antigens as the adult.
Cont…
There are many important factors which influence the level of serum
immunoglobulins achieved by the newborn and they are:
Insufficient ingestion of immunoglobulins due to:
 Insufficient amount of colostrums produced by dam for many reasons as poor
husbandry, malnutrition.
 Low concentration of immunoglobulin in the colostrums.
 Insufficient amount of colostrums ingested by the newborn.
Cont…
Insufficient amount of colostrums ingested by the newborn due to:
 i. Poor mothering behaviour which may prevent newborn from sucking.
 ii. Poor udder or teat conformation.
 iii. Weak and traumatized calf.
 iv. Failure to allow the newborn to ingestion.
Cont…
Clinical finding of newborn infection:
 The clinical finding depend on the rapidity of infection.
Slow spreading: fever, depression, anorexia, leucocytosis/leukemia and signs
referable to the localization as :
 Endocarditis with heart murmur.
 meningitis with rigidity, pain and convulsions.
 polyarthritis with lameness and swollen joints.
Cont …
When the spread is more rapid: Fever, prostration/ collapes, coma,
petechiation of mucosa, dehydration, acidosis and finally death.
Diagnosis:
 History
 Clinical signs.
 Laboratory findings.
Cont…
Prognosis
Good if
neonate delivered without obvious complications
able to stand for period of time after delivery
 a normal immunoglobulin concentration
poor if
Concurrent septicemia
severe, recurrent seizures
General classification
 Perinatal diseases
 Postnatal diseases
Cont…
I) Prenatal disease:
1) Fetal diseases: Diseases of the fetus during intrauterine life,
e.g. prolonged gestation, congenital defects, abortion, fetal deaths with
resorption or mummification.
2) Parturient diseases: diseases associated with dystocia causing cerebral anoxia,
injuries of skeleton and soft tissues.
Cont…
Perinatal asphyxia
Decreased tissue oxygenation and can be caused by hypoxemia (decreased
blood oxygen content) or ischemia (decreased blood flow).
Etiology
A variety of fetal
maternal conditions
schemic-hypoxemic conditions
15
Cont…
 A. Fetal factors
 twinning,
 meconium aspiration,
 sepsis and severe anemia.
 B. Maternal factors
 conditions that cause hypotension or impaired tissue oxygenation;
endotoxemia, anemia, hemorrhagic shock
 maternal surgery or cesarean section and
 placental abnormalities
Cont…
 Clinical findings
produces an array of clinical abnormalities
 Neurologic signs
 Loss of dam recognition, loss of suckle reflex, Dysphasia, nystagmus,
 Respiratory signs
varying degrees of tachypnea and dyspnea
 Cardiovascular signs
tachycardia, signs of hypotension
 Gastrointestinal signs
colic, abdominal distention and diarrhea
17
Cont…
Diagnostic plan
Physical examination, recumbency
Clinico-pathologic information
 Complete Blood Count and blood culture
Specific assessments
Neurologic assessment=Cerebrospinal fluid analysis, imaging
techniques
Respiratory assessment= Arterial blood gas analysis
18
Cont…
 Differential diagnosis
Neonatal sepsis, prematurity, and hypoglycemia can mimic perinatal
asphyxia
 Therapeutic plan
 Treatment of CNS dysfunction
Diazepam (0.11-0.44 mg/kg intravenously) = seizure control
Treatment of respiratory dysfunction
Humidified oxygen (3-10 L/min) via nasal insufflations = Treatment of hypoxia
.
19
Cont
…
II) Postnatal diseases:
 (A) Early postnatal diseases: within 48 hours e.g. malnutrition due to poor
mothering, hypothermia due to exposure to cold, low vigor in neonates due to
malnutrition, special disease (Navel ill and Colibacillosis).
 (B) delayed postnatal diseases: within 2 -7 days after parturition
 e.g. mammary incompetence resulting in starvation, increased susceptibility to
infection due to hypoglobulinemia such as lamb dysentery and foal septicemia.
 (C) late postnatal disease: within 1 - 4 week of life e.g. white muscle disease,
enetrotoxemia.
Cont…
 Infection of the umbilicus and its associated structures occurs commonly in
newborn farm animals and appears common in calves.
 The umblical cord consists of:
 The amniotic membrane
 The umbilical veins
 The umbilical arteries
 The urachus( a remnant of a channel b/n the bladder and the umbilichus)
Cont…
 Normally the umbilicus dries up with in one week after births.
 Infection of the umbilicus occurs soon after birth and may result
in
omphalitis ,omhpalophlebitis ,omphaloarteritis or infection of the urachus
with possible extension to the bladder causing cystitis.
 The common mixed bacterial flora identified in navel-ill:
 E. Coli
 Proteus spp.
 Staphylococcus spp.
 Actinomyces pyogens
Cont…
 Omphalitis : is inflammation of the external aspects of the umbilicus and
occurs commonly in calves within 2-5 days after birth.
 Omphalophlebitis : is inflammation of the umbilical veins. Large abscesses
may develop along the course of the umbilical vein and spread to the liver
with the development of a large hepatic abscess.
 Affected calves are usually 1-3 months of age and are unthrifty because of
chronic toxemia.
 Omphaloarterities: is the inflammation of the umbilical arteries but it is
less common than omphalophlebitis.
Cont…
 Clinical signs
 Clinical signs of navel ill includes the followings;
 The umblicus is enlarged ,painful on palpation with purulent discharge
 Depression and inappeatance
 Fever in cases of chronic toxemia
Cont…
 Treatment and control
 Surgical excision and dressing of the affected umbilicus and removal of the
abscess
 Large hepatic abscess are usually incurable but the provision of drain to the
exterior and daily irrigation may be good
 Parental therapy with broad-spectrum antibiotic may be attempted after
the abscess is effectively drained
 The control of umbilical infection depends primary on good sanitation and
hygiene at the time of birth.
Cont…
Special investigation of any neonatal deaths (illness):
 1. Determination of pregnancy duration to ensure that the newborn animal
was born at term.
 2. Collect epidemiological information on prevalence in a group, maternal,
paternal, nutritional, vaccination etc.
 3. Conduct a postmortem examination of all available dead neonates.
 4. Laboratory examination of specimens of fetal tissues and placenta.
 5. Investigate management practices operating at the time.
Cont…
Principles of treatment of infectious diseases in newborn animals:
 Obtaining of etiological diagnosis if it is possible.
 Drug sensitivity of the causative microorganisms. Should be obtained before
treatment.
 Individual treatment is necessary to maximize survival rate.
 Supportive treatment is usually necessary.
 Good nursing care is also necessary.
Cont…
Principles of control and prevention of Infectious diseases of newborn
animals
(1) Removal of the cause of diseases from the environment:
 The newborn should be born in an environment which is clean, dry
 Then swabbing of the navel with tincture iodine to prevent the enter of infection.
 Disinfections of the uterus before conception is necessary.
 Examination of swabs from the uterine contents before and after treatment in
suspected animals.
Cont…
(2) Removal of the newborn from the infected environment:
 Transfer the newborn to a non-infected environment either temporary or
permanently in cases of over crowded barn.
 Removal of the newborn away from the main calving ground.
 Diseased calf should be transferred with his dam to hospital for further
investigation.
Cont…
(3) Increasing and maintaining the non-specific resistance of the newborn:
 Ingestion of colostrums from dam is so important as the only one source of
immunoglobulin to newborn.
 Calf fed about 80 ml / kg body weight of colostrums at 6 hours of age.
 Special nutritional and housing requirements.
 Isolation of newborn calf in calf – rearing unit within few days after birth.
 Provision of suitable environment.
(4) Increasing the specific resistance of the newborn:
 Vaccination of dam before parturition to stimulate the production of specific
antibodies
CHAPTER 3
DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY TRACT
Cont…
Introduction
 The primary functions of the alimentary tract are
 prehension
 digestion
 absorption of food & water
 maintenance of amount & nature of materials absorbed
 Excretion of waste
Cont…
 four major modes of alimentary dysfunction
 abnormality of motility
 abnormality of secretion
 abnormality of digestion
 abnormality of absorption
 procedure in diagnosis of alimentary tract dysfunction should determine
which mode or modes of function are disturbed before determining site &
nature of lesion & ultimately of specific cause.
Cont…
 Stomatitis,
 Pharyngitis,
 Esophagitis and
 Esophageal obstruction, paralysis
Cont…
Stomatitis
 Is inflammation of the oral mucosa includes
 Glossitis : inflammation of the tongue
 Palatitis : inflammation of the palate
 Gingivitis: inflammation of the mucosa of the gums
 Cheilitis: inflammation of the mucosa of the lips
 Clinically characterized by partial or complete loss of appetite, smacking
of lips & profuse salivation
 commonly an accompaniment of systemic disease
Cont…
Etiology: physical, chemical or infectious agents; infection being largest
group of causes
 Physical Agents
 Trauma while dosing orally with a balling gun or similar instruments
 Laceration of the tongue
 Foreign body injury
 Malocclusion of teeth
 Sharp awns or spines on plants
Cont…
 Chemical Agents
 Irritant drugs, e.g., chloral hydrate administered in excessive concentrations
 Counterirritants applied to skin including mercury licked by the animal.
 Irritant substances administered by mistake; acids, alkalis & phenolic
compounds.
 Manifestation of systemic poisoning, e.g., chronic mercury, bracken,
furazolidone & some fungi (Stachybotrys, Fusarium spp., & mushrooms)
cause focal hemorrhages & necrotic ulcers or erosions.
Cont…
 Infectious Agents
 Cattle
 Oral necrobacillosis associated with Fusobacterium necrophorum
 Actinobacillosis of bovine tongue is not stomatitis, but one or two ulcers on dorsum &
sides of tongue & lips initially acute diffuse myositis followed by multiple granulomas &
subsequently fibrosis & shrinkage
 Actinomycosis, Ulcerative, granulomatous lesions may occur on the gum
 FMD & vesicular stomatitis (VS) Stomatitis with vesicles
 Rhinosporidiosis & papillomatosis papular stomatitis, proliferative stomatitis
 Bovine sweating sickness Oral mucosal necrosis
Cont…
 Sheep
 Bluetongue, rinder pest & peste de petits ruminantes; Erosive lesions
 foot and mouth disease (FMD); Vesicular lesions
 contagious ecthyma (orf) rarely in Granulomatous lesions
 sheep pox, ulcerative dermatosis, & mycotic dermatitis oral lesions occur in bad cases
 Horses
 plant awns: Cheilitis & gingivitis (inflammatory nodules of lips & gums)
 Vesicular Stomatitis Vesicular lesions
 Actinobacillus spp inflammation of the mucosa of Lingual abscess
Cont…
Pigs
– vesicular diseases: Foot & Mouth Disease , Vesicular Stomatitis and
swine vesicular disease
Pathogenesis:
1. primary :applied directly to mucosa or gaining entrance by way of minor
abrasions
2. Secondary: localization in mucosa from viremia/systemic disease
Cont…
 Clinical findings
 partial or complete anorexia & slow, painful mastication,
 Difficult Chewing movements & smacking of lips are accompanied by
salivation
 saliva may contain pus or shreds of epithelial tissue
 A fetid odor is present on breath only if bacterial invasion of the lesion
 Enlargement of local lymph nodes occur if bacteria invade the lesions
 Swelling of the face in cases where cellulitis or phlegmon involve soft
tissues
 Lesions
Cont…
 Erosions : are shallow discrete, areas of necrosis not readily seen in early stages
 Vesicles : thin-walled swellings 1 - 2 cm in diameter filled with clear serous fluid very
painful & rupture readily to leave sharp-edged, shallow ulcers
 Ulcerative lesions: penetrate more deeply to lamina propria & painful, such as necrotic
stomatitis in calves associated with F. necrophorum
 Proliferative lesions: abnormality raised above the surface of mucous membrane such as
in oral papillomatosis
 Laceration of the tongue can result in complete or partial severance of the organ, with
severed portion protruding from oral cavity
Cont…
 Clinical pathology:
 Material collected from lesions of stomatitis should be examined for presence
of pathogenic bacteria & fungi
 Transmission experiments undertaken with filtrates of swabs or scrapings if
the disease is thought to be caused by a viral agent
 Necropsy findings:
 complete necropsy examinations performed on to determine primary or
secondary (local manifestations of a systemic disease)
 Treatment :
Cont…
 if infectious agent is suspected animals be isolated & fed & watered individual.
 Specific treatments based on individual diseases
 Nonspecific treatment includes frequent application of mild antiseptic such as
 2% solution of copper sulfate
 2% suspension of borax
 1% suspension of a sulfonamide in glycerin
 In stomatitis caused by trauma teeth might need attention.
 soft, appetizing food should be provided by stomach tube or intravenous in severe,
prolonged cases.
Cont…
PHARYNGITIS
 inflammation of pharynx characterized clinically by coughing, painful
swallowing & variable appetite.
 Regurgitation through nostrils & drooling of saliva may occur in severe
cases.
Etiology: in farm animals is usually traumatic, Infectious pharyngitis is
often part of a syndrome with other more obvious signs.
 Physical Causes
 Injury with balling or drenching gun or following endotracheal intubation
 Accidental administration or ingestion of irritant or hot or cold substances
 Foreign bodies including grass & cereal awns, wire, bones & gelatin
capsules lodged in pharynx.
Cont…
 Infectious Causes
 Cattle
 Oral necrobacillosis & actinobacillosis as granuloma than lymphadenitis
 Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
 Pharyngeal phlegmon or intermandibular cellulitis is severe often fatal necrosis of
wall of pharynx
 Horses
 strangles or anthrax
 Viral infections of upper respiratory tract: equine herpesvirus-1, parainfluenza
virus, adenovirus, rhinovirus,
 Chronic follicular pharyngitis with hyperplasia of lymphoid tissue in pharyngeal
mucosa with granular, nodular appearance & whitish tips on lymphoid follicles
 Pigs
 anthrax & Aujeszky’s disease (Pseudorabies)
Cont…
Pathogenesis:
 Inflammation is accompanied by painful swallowing & disinclination to eat.
 If swelling of mucosa & wall is severe obstruction of pharynx or
retropharyngeal lymph node is enlarged as in equine viral infections such
as rhinovirus.
 Balling gun induced trauma perforations of pharynx & esophagus with
accumulations of ruminal ingesta & cellulitis and local abscess.
 Pharyngeal lymphoid hyperplasia in horses.
 Clinical findings :
Cont…
 refuse to eat or drink or swallow reluctantly with evident pain.
 Opening of jaws is difficult & manual compression of throat from exterior causes
paroxysmal coughing.
 mucopurulent nasal discharge sometimes containing blood, spontaneous cough & severe
cases, regurgitation of fluid & food through nostrils.
 Oral medication in such cases may be impossible.
 Affected animals stand with head extended, drool saliva & frequent tentative jaw
movements.
 If local swelling is severe, obstruction of respiration & visible swelling of throat,
retropharyngeal & parotid lymph nodes are commonly enlarged.
Cont…
 In “pharyngeal phlegmon‖ in cattle acute onset with high fever (41–
41.5°C), rapid heart rate, profound depression & severe swelling of soft
tissues & posterior to the mandible to the point where dyspnea is
pronounced.
 Death usually occurs 36 to 48 hours after first signs of illness.
 In traumatic pharyngitis in cattle visual examination of pharynx through
oral cavity reveals hyperemia, lymphoid hyperplasia & erosions covered by
diphtheritic membranes.
Cont…
Clinical pathology:
 Nasal discharge or swabs taken from accompanying oral lesions may assist in
the identification of the causative agent.
 Moraxella spp. and Streptococcus zooepidemicus isolated in large numbers
from horses with lymphoid follicular hyperplasia.
Necropsy findings:
 Deaths are rare in primary pharyngitis & necropsy examinations are
usually undertaken only in those animals dying of specific diseases.
 In pharyngeal phlegmon there is edema, hemorrhage & abscessation of
affected area & on incision of the area foul-smelling liquid & some gas
usually escape
Treatment:
Cont…
 primary disease must be treated usually parenterally by the use of
antimicrobials .
 Pharyngeal phlegmon in cattle is frequently fatal & early intensive
antimicrobial treatment is indicated.
 Pharyngeal lymphoid hyperplasia is not generally susceptible to
antimicrobials or medical therapy & resolves as young horses age.
 PHARYNGEAL OBSTRUCTION
Cont…
• Obstruction of the pharynx is accompanied by stertorous(sounding) respiration,
coughing, and difficult swallowing.
 Etiology : Foreign bodies or tissue swellings are the usual causes.
 Foreign bodies include bones, corn cobs & pieces of wire.
 horses are considered discriminating eaters in comparison to cattle, but
occasionally pick up pieces of metal while eating.
 Cattle:
 Retropharyngeal lymphadenopathy or abscess caused by tuberculosis,
actinobacillosis or bovine viral leukosis.
 Fibrous or mucoid polyps cause intermittent obstruction of air & food intake.
 Clinical findings:
Cont…
 Difficulty in swallowing & animals are hungry to eat, food is coughed up through
mouth.
 no dilatation of esophagus & little or no regurgitation through nostrils
 snoring inspiration, often loud enough to be heard some yards away
 inspiration is prolonged and accompanied by marked abdominal effort.
 Clinical pathology:
 tuberculin test in bovine cases in areas where bovine tuberculosis is endemic
 Nasal swabs contain S. equi when there is streptococcal lymphadenitis in horses
 Necropsy findings:
• Death occurs rarely and in fatal cases physical lesion is apparent
Treatment:
Cont…
 Removal of foreign body can be accomplished through the mouth.
 Actinobacillary lymphadenitis treated with iodides is usually successful &
some reduction in size often occurs in tuberculous enlargement of glands, but
complete recovery is unlikely to occur.
 Parenteral treatment of strangles abscesses with penicillin can affect a cure.
 Surgical treatment is highly successful in medial retropharyngeal abscess.
PHARYNGEAL PARALYSIS
ESOPHAGITIS
Cont…
 Inflammation of esophagus is accompanied initially by clinical findings of
spasm & obstruction, pain on swallowing & palpation & regurgitation of
bloodstained slimy material.
Etiology:
Primary esophagitis caused by ingestion of chemical or physical irritants.
 Laceration of mucosa by
foreign body or complications of nasogastric
intubation.
 Nasogastric intubation cause pharyngeal & esophageal injury when
performed in horses examined for colic.
Cont…
 Pathogenesis: Inflammation of esophagus combined with local edema & swelling
results in functional obstruction & difficulty in swallowing.
 Clinical findings:
 acute esophagitis: salivation & attempts to swallow with severe pain in horses.
 In some cases, attempts at swallowing are followed by regurgitation & coughing,
pain, retching activities & vigorous contractions of cervical & abdominal
muscles.
 Clinical pathology: severe esophagitis of traumatic origin marked neutrophilia
suggesting active inflammation
Cont…
 Necropsy findings:
 Pathologic findings are restricted to various specific diseases.
 In traumatic lesions or those caused by irritant substances there is gross edema,
inflammation & in some cases perforation.
 Treatment:
 Feed should be withheld.
 fluid & electrolyte therapy can be necessary for several days.
 Parenteral antimicrobials are indicated in case of laceration or perforation.
 Reintroduction to feed should be monitored carefully & all feed should be
moistened to avoid possible accumulation of dry feed in the esophagus.
Cont…
 ESOPHAGEAL OBSTRUCTION
 can be acute or chronic & is characterized clinically by inability to swallow,
regurgitation of feed & water, continuous drooling of saliva & bloat in
ruminants
 Acute cases : accompanied by signs of distress including retching &
extension of head
 Horses with choke commonly regurgitate mixture of saliva, feed & water
through nostrils because of anatomic characteristics of equine soft palate.
Cont…
Etiology:
 intraluminal caused by swallowed material.
 extraluminal caused by pressure on esophagus by surrounding organs or
tissues.
 Intraluminal Obstructions: ingestion of materials of inappropriate size &
lodged in esophagus:
Solid obstructions, especially in cattle by onions, potatoes, apples, oranges
Feedstuffs are common cause of obstruction in horses &occasionally other
spp
• Improperly soaked sugar beet pulp, inadvertent access to dry sugar beet pulp, cubed &
pelleted feed can cause the disease in horses when eaten quickly.
 Foreign bodies in horses are wood, antimicrobial boluses & fragments of nasogastric
tubes
Extraluminal Obstructions
Cont…
Enlarged lymph nodes in mediastinum (tuberculosis, neoplasia,
Rhodococcus equi, Corynebacterium spp., strangles & secondary to
pleuritis)
Abscess: around Cervical
Pathogenesis:
 esophageal obstruction results in physical inability to swallow.
 in cattle inability to eructate with resulting bloat.
Cont…
Clinical findings:
 Acute Obstruction or Choke
 The animal suddenly stops eating & shows anxiety & restlessness.
 forceful attempts to swallow & regurgitate, salivation, coughing, &
continuous chewing movements.
 If obstruction is complete, bloating occurs rapidly.
 Ruminal movements are continuous & forceful & systolic murmur audible
on auscultation of the heart.
Cont…
 Treatment:
 Conservative Approach
 Many obstructions resolve spontaneously & careful conservative approach is
recommended
 In prolonged choke with considerable nasal reflux animal should be examined
carefully for evidence of foreign material in upper respiratory tract & risk of
aspiration pneumonia.
 It can require several hours of monitoring, reexamination & repeated sedation
before obstruction is resolved.
 During this time the animal should not have access to feed & water.
 Sedation: In acute obstruction, if there is marked anxiety & distress the animal
should be sedated before start of specific treatment.
 Administration of sedative such as α-2 receptor agonist with or without opiod, help
relax esophageal spasm & allow passage of impacted material
Cont…
 Drugs for sedation & esophageal relaxation of horse
 Acepromazine 0.05 mg/kg BW intravenously
 Xylazine 0.5 to 1.0 mg/kg BW intravenously
 Detomidine 0.01 to 0.02 mg/kg BW intravenously
 Romifidine 0.04 to 0.12 mg/kg intravenously.
 Drugs for analgesia & antiinflammatory effect flunixin meglumine 1.1 mg/kg BW
intravenously or phenylbutazone 2 to 4 mg/ kg intravenously
 Drugs for analgesia butorphanol 0.02 to 0.1 mg/kg intravenously
Cont…
 Manual Removal
 If specific foreign body such as piece of wood can be removed by endoscopy.
 foreign body must be visible endoscopically & suitable forceps/ snare is required.
 Pass a Stomach Tube &Allow Object to Move Into Stomach
 passage of nasogastric tube is always necessary to locate obstruction.
 Gentle attempts to push obstruction caudal but care must be taken to avoid damage
to esophageal mucosa.
Cont…
 Esophageal Lavage in the Horse
 Accumulations of feedstuffs most common in horse can be removed by careful
lavage or flushing of obstructed esophagus.
 Lavage performed in standing horse or lateral recumbency under general
anesthesia.
 Small quantities of warm water 0.5 to 1 L each time pumped through nasogastric
tube passed to point of obstruction.
 Return of fluid through oral cavity & nostrils is minimized by ensuring that the
tube is not plugged by returning material & using only small quantities of fluid for
each input of the lavage.
Cont…
Surgical Removal of Foreign Bodies
 esophagostomy can be necessary if other measures fail.
 Gastrostomy or rumenotomy to relieve obstructions of caudal portion of esophagus.
Gastritis
Cont…
Gastritis
 Inflammation of stomach is manifested clinically by vomiting is commonly
associated with gastroenteritis.
Etiology
 Gastritis may be acute or chronic both forms caused by same etiologic
agents acting with varying degrees of severity & varying periods
 may be associated with physical, chemical, bacterial, viral etc
Cont…
 Cattle
 Physical Agents
• frosted feeds
• In calves gross overeating & ingestion of foreign materials may cause
abomasitis
• In adults half the cases are associated with traumatic reticulitis .
Cont…
 Chemical Agents
• irritant & caustic poisons (arsenic, mercury, copper, phosphorus, lead) cause
abomasitis.
• Fungal toxins cause abomasal irritation Fusarium spp. & Stachybotrys alternans
• carbohydrate-rich food causes rumenitis some abomasitis/enteritis
 Infectious Agents
 Only viruses of rinder pest, bovine virus diarrhea & bovine malignant
catarrh fever, cause abomasal erosions.
 Bacterial causes are very rare & include sporadic cases of extension from oral
necrobacillosis & hemorrhagic enterotoxemia caused by Clostridium
perfringens Types A, B, C, rarely Colibacillosis & its enteric lesion in calves
 Fungi, e.g., Mucor spp. & Aspergillus spp. causes the complicate abomasal
ulcers
Cont…
 Metazoan Agents include nematodes such as Trichostrongylus axei, Ostertagia
spp., Haemonchus spp., and larval paramphistomes migrating to the rumen.
 Horses
 Physical and chemical agents causes gastritis
 Infectious causes of gastritis
 emphysematous gastritis associated with C. perfringens;
 Metazoan agents causing gastritis in horses include
• massive infestation with botfly larvae (Gasterophilus spp.)
• Habronema muscae & H. microstoma infestation
• H. megastoma causes granulomatous, ulcerative lesions, perforation &
peritonitis
 Pigs
Cont…
• Most often lesions are associated with ulceration of the pars esophagea (PE)
 Physical Agents
• Foreign bodies
• frosted feeds
• In older pigs sows, presence of stones is a common feature
 Chemical Agents
• Those listed under cattle are also possible causes of gastritis in pigs.
• Bitter weed will also cause gastritis in pigs.
 Infectious Agents
Cont…
• salmonellosis, swine dysentery & acute colibacillosis
• classical swine fever, African swine fever & swine influenza
 Metazoan Agents
• red stomach worm, Hyostrongylus rubidus & thick stomach worms
• Ascarops strongylina and Physocephalus sexalatus
• Simondsia spp. found in Europe, Asia, and Australia and cause nodular
gastritis
• Gnathostoma spp. occur in Asia and produce cysts in the submucosa
 PATHOGENESIS
Cont…
 Gastritis often occur with involvement of other parts of alimentary tract.
 Even in nematode infestations where they are relatively selective in their habitat
 Inflammation of stomach lead to increased motility & increased secretion.
 an increase in secretion of mucus protects mucosa to some extent but also delays
digestion & allow putrefactive breakdown of ingesta.
 This abnormal digestion cause further inflammation & favors spread of inflammation to
intestines.
 In acute gastritis major effect is on motility.
 increase in motility causing abdominal pain & more rapid emptying of stomach either
by vomiting or via pylorus in animals unable to vomit.
 CLINICAL FINDINGS
Cont…
 Acute Gastritis
 When inflammation is severe pigs & rarely horses & ruminants vomit (or ruminants
regurgitate excessive quantities of rumen contents)
 In monogastric animals such as pigs vomitus contains a great deal of mucus, sometimes
blood small in amount, vomiting is repeated with forceful retching.
 appetite is always reduced & often absent, but thirst is usually excessive.
 breath has offensive odor &there may be abdominal pain.
 Diarrhea is not marked unless accompanying enteritis, feces are pasty & soft.
 Dehydration & alkalosis with tetany & rapid breathing develop if vomiting is excessive.
Cont…
 Chronic Gastritis
 is much less severe.
 appetite is depressed or depraved.
 vomiting occurs only sporadically after feeding, vomitus contains much viscid
mucus.
 Abdominal pain is minor & dehydration is unlikely to occur.
 animal becomes emaciated through lack of food intake & incomplete digestion.
 Anorexia, tympanites, pyloric stenosis & gastric ulcers are the clinical
manifestations of abomasal foreign body in cattle.
 CLINICAL PATHOLOGY
 Specimens for laboratory examination are for identifying the causative agent.
 Estimations of gastric acidity are not usually undertaken, but samples of vomitus
should be collected if chemical poison is suspected.
Cont…
NECROPSY FINDINGS
 signs of inflammation vary in severity from diffuse catarrhal gastritis to
severe hemorrhagic and ulcerative erosion of the mucosa.
 mucosal diseases there are discrete erosive lesions.
 parasitic gastritis there is usually marked thickening & edema of the wall.
 In severe cases the stomach contents may be hemorrhagic.
 In chronic cases the wall is thickened & contain much mucus & rancid
odor.
Cont…
 DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
 Gastritis & gastric dilatation have many similarities but in the latter vomitus is
more profuse & more projectile nature.
 Gastritis in horse is not usually accompanied by vomiting but may occur in gastric
dilatation.
 Intestinal obstruction may be accompanied by vomiting & although vomitus is
alkaline & contain bile or even fecal material.
 Vomiting of central origin is extremely rare in farm animals.
 Determination of cause of gastritis may be difficult but presence of signs of
specific diseases & history of access to poisons or physical agents listed under
etiology may provide the necessary clues.
 Analysis of vomitus or food materials may have diagnostic value if chemical
poisoning is suspected.
Cont…
 TREATMENT:
 Treatment of primary disease is the first principle & requires a specific diagnosis
 Ancillary treatment includes
 withholding of feed.
 administration of electrolyte solutions to replace fluids & electrolytes lost by
vomiting.
 stimulation of normal stomach motility in convalescent period.
 gastric lavage: In horses & pigs may be attempted to remove irritant chemicals.
 Gastric sedatives usually contain insoluble magnesium hydroxide or carbonate,
kaolin, pectin, or charcoal Frequent dosing at intervals of 2 to 3 hours is
advisable.
 soft, palatable, highly nutritious foods should be offered during convalescence.
Cont…
 Simple indigestion
 Etiology:
 Indigestion is common in dairy & stall-fed beef cattle because of variability in
quality & large amounts of feed consumed.
 not common in pastured beef cattle or sheep because they are less heavily fed
 common causes are dietary abnormalities including;
 indigestible roughage particularly when protein intake is low.
 Moldy feed.
 overeaten and frosted feeds.
Cont…
 excesses of grain and concentrate intake
 sudden change in feed.
 Prolonged or heavy oral dosing with antimicrobials cause indigestion from
inhibition of normal ruminal flora.
 sudden change to new source of grain, especially from oats to wheat/
barley.
 Indigestible roughage feeds and limitation of drinking water contribute to
the occurrence during dry seasons.
 Pathogenesis:
Cont…
 Primary atony caused by dietary abnormality.
 Changes in pH : overeating of grain increase in acidity& markedly affect motility
of rumen.
 Feeding of excessively large quantities of legumes or urea increase in alkalinity &
depress motility.
 simple accumulation of indigestible food may physically impede ruminal activity.
 toxic amides & amines (histamine) cause ruminal atony when given intravenously.
 Histamine in allergy or after heavy grain feeding may contribute to ruminal atony,
but absorption of histamine from fore stomach is probably very limited.
 Clinical findings:
Cont…
 A reduction in appetite is first clinical finding, mild depression and dullness.
 anorexia may be partial or complete but fall in milk yield is relatively slight.
 Rumination ceases & ruminal movements are depressed in frequency & amplitude &
sometimes absent.
 rumen may be larger than normal if the cause is sudden access to an unlimited supply
of palatable feed.
 moderate tympany with frozen or damaged feeds or allergy but usually firm, doughy
rumen, no obvious distension.
 feces are usually reduced in quantity & drier than normal on the first day.
 24 - 48 hours later animals commonly have softer & voluminous feces than normal &
commonly malodorous.
Cont…
Clinical pathology:
 Examination of urine for ketone bodies is necessary to differentiate
indigestion from acetonemia
Rumen fluid can be examined for pH using wide-range indicator paper
Values b/n 6.5 - 7.0 are considered normal
In cattle on grain diets pH may range from 5.5 - 6.0 normally
in cattle on roughage diets ruminal pH of 6 -7 normally
 Treatment:
Cont…
 Small quantities of fresh, good-quality, palatable hay should be provided several
times daily to encourage eating & stimulate reticulorumen motility.
 stimulate both appetite & motility:
 Reduced feed intake reduces two primary drives for reticulorumen activity:
 moderate fore stomach distension.
 chewing activity.
 A wide variety of oral preparations containing rumenatorics are available & administered
to “stimulate” reticulorumen motility & stimulate appetite.
 These preparations contained nux vomica, ginger & tartar emetic in powder form to be
added to water & pumped into rumen.
 Parasympathomimetics:
Cont…
 stimulate reticulorumen activity but disadvantage of inducing undesirable side
effects & uncoordinated & transitory in effect.
 Large doses depress reticulorumen activity
 major limitations of injectable parasympathomimetics as rumenatorics is that they do not
provide synchronized movements; thus minimal effective movement of ingesta.
 Carbamyl choline chloride, physostigmine & neostigmine most commonly administered to
ruminants.
 These drugs are not without danger especially in very sick animals or peritonitis & are
specifically contraindicated during late pregnancy.
Cont…
 Acidifying Agents:
 Acetic acid or vinegar 5 to 10 L is used when rumen contents are alkaline.
 Reconstitution of Ruminal Microflora (Rumen Transfaunation):
 Reconstitution of the flora by rumen fluid transfers from healthy cows is highly
effective.
 An abattoir is the best source of rumen contents (especially rumen fluid).
 Sufficient quantities of rumen fluid cannot be obtained from live animals by
reaching into their mouth during rumination (regurgitated) “stealing the cud.”
 Rumen fluid may also be removed from healthy animals by siphoning from rumen
with stomach tube or by vacuum withdrawal with a special pump.
 rumen lavage :
Cont…
 Best results are obtained if 20 to 30 L of water is pumped into rumen & allowed to
siphon by gravity flow.
 rumen fluid to be transferred should be strained & administered as an oral
drench or preferably by stomach tube.
 Repeated daily dosing is advisable & rumen fluid will keep for several days at
room temperature.
 Commercial products comprising dried rumen solids available & provide some
bacteria & substrate for their activity when reconstituted with warm water at 37°C.
 Good-quality alfalfa (lucerne) or clover hay, green feed, and concentrate may be
added to the diet as the appetite improves.
Acute carbohydrate engorgement:(ruminal lactic acidosis/
rumen overload)
cont…
Acute
carbohydrate
engorgement:(ruminal
lactic
acidosis/
rumen
overload)
Etiology:
 Acute ruminal acidosis is most commonly caused by sudden ingestion of
toxic doses of carbohydrate-rich feed such as grain.
 Less common causes include engorgement with apples, grapes, bread,
baker’s dough, sugar beet, sour wet brewers’ grain incompletely
fermented in brewery & concentrated sucrose solutions used in apiculture
 Epidemiology Occurrence:
Cont…
 Acute ruminal acidosis most common in feedlot cattle but all types of ruminant; sheep,
goats, wild deer, &farmed ungulate are susceptible
 Previous Diet and Change of Ration:
 type & level of ration consumed affects numbers & species of bacteria & protozoa in
rumen.
 change from one ration to another requires period of microbial adaptation with variable
interval of time before stabilization occurs.
 Accidental Consumption of Excess Carbohydrates:
 accidental consumption of large quantities of grain by cattle
Cont…
The factor that cause acute illness depends on
 Type of grain
 previous experience of the animal with the grain
 nutritional status and body condition score.
 nature of ruminal microflora .
Type of grain
 Wheat, barley & corn grains are most toxic when ingested in large
quantities
 Oats & grain sorghum are least toxic
Cont…
 previous experience of the animal with the grain
 Dairy cattle accustomed to high level grain diets consume 15 - 20 kg of grain & develop
only moderate illness
 Beef cows or feedlot cattle may be acutely ill &die after eating 10 kg of grain to which they
are unaccustomed.
 nutritional status and body condition score
 in undernourished sheep lethal dose of crushed wheat range from 50 - 60 g/Kg BW of to
75 - 80 g/kg BW in well-nourished sheep
 in cattle dosing of 25 - 62 g/kg BW of ground cereal grain or corn cause severe acidosis
 Pathogenesis:
Cont…
 Changes in Rumen Microflora:
 ingestion of excessive quantities of highly fermentable feeds is followed within 2-6 hrs by
marked change in microbial population in the rumen
 increase in number of Streptococcus bovis which use carbohydrate to produce large
quantities of lactic acid
 In presence of sufficient amount of carbohydrate (toxic or a lethal amount) the
organism produce lactic acid which decreases rumen pH to 5 or less & results in
destruction of cellulolytic bacteria & protozoa
 In severe cases of lactic acidosis
 reserves of plasma bicarbonate are reduced
 blood pH declines steadily
 blood pressure & renal blood flow decline
 causing a decrease in perfusion pressure & oxygen supply to peripheral tissues.
Cont…
 Chemical and Mycotic Ruminitis:
 high concentration of lactic acid in rumen causes chemical ruminitis precursor for mycotic
rumenitis in survivors this occurs about 4 -6 days later
 Low pH of rumen favors growth of Mucor, Rhizopus & Absidia spp invading ruminal
vessels causing thrombosis & infarction, Severe bacterial rumenitis also occurs
 Widespread necrosis & gangrene affect entire ventral half of ruminal walls & lead to
development of acute peritonitis
 Hepatic Abscesses :
 occur as complication of combination of rumenitis caused by lactic acidosis &
Fusobacterium
necrophorum
&
Trueperella
(formerly
Arcanobacterium
Corynebacterium), pyogenes to enter directly into ruminal vessels &spread to liver
or
Laminitis:
Cont…
 depending on severity ruminal acidosis cause acute, subclinical & chronic
forms
 Acute laminitis :A rapid onset of recumbency suggests unfavorable
prognosis & necessity urgent treatment, because death may occur in 24
 Chronic laminitis may occur several weeks or months later
 Abortions occur 10 days to 2 weeks later in pregnant cattle surviving severe
form of disease.
Cont…
Clinical findings:
 severity increases with amount of feed eaten.
 Depression,
 dehydration,
 inactivity,
 weakness,
 abdominal distension,
 diarrhea, & anorexia are typical.
Cont…
 Clinical pathology:
 severity of disease can usually be determined by
 clinical examination
 laboratory tests
 ruminal fluid must be examined immediately as pH increase on exposure to air
• Microscopic examination of few drops of ruminal fluid on glass slide at low power reveal
absence of ruminal protozoa particularly medium & large-sized protozoa which is reliable
indicator of abnormal state of rumen acidosis
 Fecal pH: It would appear logical that fecal pH should be directly & positively correlated
with rumen pH, because of fermentation & buffering of ingesta in large intestine, there is
generally poor correlation between fecal pH & ruminal pH
 unless large amounts of starch escape rumen undegraded & fermented in large intestine.
 Urine pH; urine pH falls to 4.5 to 5.0 in advanced cases of acute ruminal acidosis &
becomes progressively more concentrated as the animal becomes more dehydrated; terminally
there is anuria.
Cont…
Necropsy findings:
 Abomasitis & enteritis are evident & abomasum contain large quantities of
grain
 thickening & darkening of blood &visceral veins stand out prominently
 In cases persisted for 3-4 days the wall of reticulum & rumen may be
gangrenous
 In affected areas the wall may be 3 or 4 times the normal thickness show a
soft black mucosal surface raised above surrounding normal areas& have
dark red appearance visible through the serous surface
 A fungal hepatitis is common in those with fungal rumenitis
Differential diagnosis
 Simple indigestion.
 Parturient paresis.
 Toxemias:
Cont…
 Treatment:
The following are principles of treatment:
 Correct ruminal & systemic acidosis and prevent further production of lactic acid
 Restore fluid & electrolyte losses & maintain circulating blood volumes
 Restore fore stomach & intestinal motility to normal.
 Triage:
 medically with alkalinizing agents orally & systemically or do rumenotomy
 Intravenous Sodium Bicarbonate and Fluid Therapy:
 Systemic acidosis & dehydration are treated with intravenous solutions of 5%
sodium bicarbonate at the rate of 5 L for 450-kg
 Cattle that respond favorably to rumenotomy & fluid therapy show improved
muscular strength, begin to urinate within 1 hour & attempt to stand within 6 to
12 hours
Cont…
 Intraruminal Alkalinizing Agents:
 In moderately affected cases use of 500 g of magnesium hydroxide per 450 kg BW
or magnesium oxide in 10 L of warm water pumped into
 Magnesium hydroxide is a potent alkalinizing agent for use in ruminants as an
antacid and mild laxative.
 Rumen Lavage:
 A large 25- 28 mm inside-diameter rubber tube is passed into the rumen & warm
water is pumped in until there is an obvious distension of left paralumbar fossa.
 rumen is then allowed to empty by gravity flow after creating a siphon
 Ruminal Transfaunation:
 animals with acute ruminal acidosis benefit from rumen transfaunation
 General recommendations are to transfer at least 5 L of fresh rumen fluid from
healthy animal to adult cattle with acute ruminal acidosis.
Cont…
Control and prevention
 Cattle can be started, grown & finished on high-level grain rations
successfully, if allowed a gradual period of adaptation during critical period
of introduction
 important principle of prevention is ruminant can adapt to all-concentrate
ration.
 length of adaptation period required depend on immediate nutritional
history of animals their appetite & composition of ration to be used
 Dietary management should emphasize ensuring adequate fiber sufficiently
long daily chewing time & “grazing” eating behavior rather than ―slug”
feeding.
Cont…
 Total Mixed Rations:
 the safest procedures is to feed milled mixed ration consisting of 50-60% roughage & 4050% grain, as the starting ration for 7 to 10 days and monitor the response.
 Feedlot Starter Rations:
 Feedlot starter rations consisting of a mixture of roughage & grain offered free choice
along with hay & gradually replaced by a finishing ration successfully adapted cattle in
10 days
 Dietary Buffers:
 incorporation of buffers such as sodium bicarbonate into ration of feedlot cattle
 A level of 2% dietary sodium bicarbonate, sodium bentonite or limestone provided some
protection from acidosis during early adaptation phase of high-concentrate feeding but
were no more effective than 10% alfalfa hay.
 Buffers are most effective in reducing acidosis early in feeding period.
Bloat (Ruminal tympany)
Cont…
 Bloat (Ruminal tympany)
 over distention of rumenoreticulum with gases of fermentation,
 primary or frothy bloat in the form of persistent foam mixed with ruminal contents
 secondary or free-gas bloatin the form of free gas separated from ingesta
 It is predominantly a disorder of cattle but may also be seen in sheep
 Etiology
 Soluble leaf proteins, saponins, hemicelluloses are primary foaming agents
 Bloat is most common in animals grazing legume or legume-dominant pastures (alfalfa
& clover or young green cereal crops, rape,& legume vegetable crops) have higher
percentage of protein & digested more quickly.
 Other legumes, such as crown vetch, milk vetch & birds foot trefoil, are high in protein
but do not cause bloat, contain condensed tannins, which precipitate protein & digested
more slowly than alfalfa or clover
 Leguminous bloat is most common when cattle are placed on lush pastures, dominated by
rapidly growing leguminous plants in vegetative & early bud stages.
Cont…
Cont…
 Clinical sign
 Bloat is a common cause of sudden death.
 rumen obviously distended suddenly, left flank distended contour of paralumbar
fossa protrudes above the vertebral column; the entire abdomen is enlarged.
 Dyspnea & grunting are marked accompanied by mouth breathing, protrusion of
tongue, extension of head, frequent urination, vomiting.
 Rumen motility does not decrease until bloat is severe
 If the tympany continues to worsen, the animal will collapse and die
 Bloat can be a significant cause of mortality in feedlot cattle
Cont…
 Lesions: Necropsy findings are characteristic.
• Congestion & hemorrhage of lymph nodes of head & neck, epicardium, & upper
respiratory tract, lungs are compressed & intrabronchial hemorrhage present
• congested and hemorrhagic of cervical esophagus
• rumen is distended but contents are much less frothy than before death
• liver is pale due to expulsion of blood from the organ
 Diagnosis
• clinical diagnosis of frothy bloat is obvious
• causes of secondary bloat must be ascertained by clinical examination to determine the
cause of the failure of eructation
 Treatment
Cont…
 life-threatening cases, emergency rumenotomy release of ruminal contents
 A trocar & cannula used for emergency relief, standard-sized instrument is not large
enough to allow viscous, stable foam in peracute cases to escape quickly
 A larger bore instrument (2.5 cm in diameter) after incising skin inserted through the
muscle layers and into the rumen
 If the cannula provides some relief, an antifoaming agent administered through the
cannula remain in place until the animal returns to normal, usually within several hours
 passing stomach tube of largest bore when animal’s life is not immediately threatened
 In frothy bloat, it may be impossible to reduce pressure with tube, & antifoaming agent
should be administered while the tube is in place
 Control and Prevention:
Cont…
 Management practices to reduce the risk of bloat feeding hay before turning cattle on
pasture, maintaining grass dominance pasture, , or strip grazing to restrict intake, with
movement of animals to a new strip in the afternoon, not the early morning
 For hay to be effective, must be at least one-third of the diet
 Feeding hay or strip grazing is reliable when pasture is only moderately dangerous, but
less reliable when the pasture is in prebloom stage & bloat potential is high
 Mature pastures are less likely to cause bloat than immature or rapidly growing pastures
 administration of an antifoaming agent during risk period.
 most reliable method is drenching twice daily (eg, at milking times) with an antifoaming
agent.
Enteritis, Diarrhea and Vomiting
Cont…
 ENTERITIS (INCLUDING MALABSORPTION, ENTEROPATHY, AND DIARRHEA)
 ENTERITIS refers to inflammation of the intestinal mucosa resulting in diarrhea &
sometimes dysentery, abdominal pain occasionally, and varying degrees of dehydration
&acid-base imbalance.
 In many cases, gastritis also occurs together with enteritis
 There are several diseases of intestines of farm animals in which diarrhea & dehydration
are major clinical findings,
 The best example is enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) which elaborates an enterotoxin that
causes large net increase of secretion of fluids into lumen of gut, with very minor, if any,
structural changes in the intestinal mucosa
 This suggests that enteritis describe alterations in intestinal secretory & absorptive
mechanisms that result in diarrhea
 for convenience, the term enteritis is used to describe those diseases in which diarrhea is a
major clinical finding caused by malabsorption in the intestinal tract
Cont…
Etiology and epidemiology:
 There are many causes of enteritis or malabsorption in farm animals and the
disease varies considerably in its severity depending on the causative agent
Enteropathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and helminths
Many chemicals & toxins can also cause enteritis
newborn calves & piglets deficient in colostral immunoglobulins are much
more susceptible to diarrhea, and have a higher case–fatality rate from
diarrhea than animals with adequate levels.
 Enteric salmonellosis is commonly precipitated by the stressors of
transportation or deprivation of feed & water
 prolonged use of antimicrobials orally in all species may alter the intestinal
microflora and allow the development of a superinfection by organisms that
would not normally cause disease.
Bacteria
Cont…
 Enterotoxigenic E. coli
 Salmonella spp.
 Clostridium perfringens types B and C
 Mycobacterium avium subsp.
 paratuberculosis (johns disease)
 Proteus spp. and
 Pseudomonas spp.
 Rhodococcus equi
Fungi
 Candida spp.
Cont…
Viruses
 Rotavirus and coronavirus Winter dysentery ( Corona virus)
 Bovine virus diarrhea (mucosal disease)
 Rinderpest
 Bovine malignant catarrh
 Transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE) pig
 Classical swine fever
Helminths
 Strongyle, Ascaris, Trichuris , Cyathostomes and large strongyles
Protozoa
 Eimeria spp.
 Cryptosporidium spp
Cont…
Chemical agents
 Arsenic, fluorine, copper, sodium chloride, mercury, molybdenum,
nitrates, poisonous plants, mycotoxicoses
Physical agents
 Sand, soil, silage, feed containing lactic acid (sour brewers' grains)
Nutritional deficiency
 Copper deficiency, conditioned by excess molybdenum, Iron deficiency in
pig
Dietary
 Overfeeding, Simple indigestion, Inferior milk replacers
Miscellaneous or uncertain etiology Intestinal disaccharidase deficiency,
Congestive heart failure, Toxemia (peracute coliform mastitis)
Cont…
 Pathogenesis:
 Normal Intestinal Absorption
 Under normal conditions, a large quantity of fluid enters the small intestine from saliva,
stomach, pancreas, liver, and intestinal mucosa
 This fluid and its electrolytes and other nutrients must be absorbed, mainly by small
intestines,
 brush border membrane of villous epithelial cells is of paramount importance for the
absorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients
 enteric nervous system is a critical component of the mechanism regulating fluid secretion
in normal intestine & key element in the pathophysiology of diarrhea.
 Neural reflex pathways increase epithelial fluid secretion in response to several enteric
pathogens of veterinary importance such as Salmonella spp., Cryptosporidium parvum,
rotavirus, and C. difficile.
 Dehydration, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Imbalance
 fluid that is lost consists primarily of water; electrolytes sodium, chloride, potassium, &
bicarbonate; and varying quantities of protein.
Cont…
TREATMENT
 The principles of treatment of enteritis include the following:
Removal of the causative agent
Alteration of the diet
Fluids and electrolytes
Intestinal protectants and adsorbents
Antidiarrheal drugs
 Control:
Cont…
 The control and prevention of enteritis in farm animals is a major topic and activity of
large-animal practice.
 The principles of control include the following:
 Reduce infection pressure by controlling population density.
 Ensure adequate nonspecific resistance by adequate colostrum intake of neonatal
farm animals and maintaining adequate nutritional status.
 Vaccinate for those diseases for which there is an effective vaccine
 Minimize managerial and environmental stressors.
 Monitor morbidity and mortality and ensure that a diagnosis is obtained so that control
measures for newly introduced disease into a herd can be instituted.
Equine colic
Equine colic
Cont…
Abdominal pain in equine evident as constellation of clinical & behavioral
signs
 Colic is most often caused by gastrointestinal disease, although it can
manifest as a result of disease in any intra abdominal organ .
Colic cases can also be classified on the basis of duration of the disease:
 acute (24–36 hours)
 recurrent (multiple episodes separated by periods of >2 days of normality)
Cont…
Etiology: Risk factors for colic can be categorized as
 intrinsic horse characteristics
 those associated with feeding practices
 Management
 medical history
 parasite control
 Season
Cont…
 Occurrence : worldwide, although there are regional differences in types of colic (for
example, enterolithiasis), and is a common and important disease of horses.
 Age
 However, each age group has particular set of diseases unique or common to it
 Newborn foals can have congenital colon or anal atresia or meconium impaction
diseases that do not affect older horses, whereas strangulating or obstructive lesions
caused by pedunculated lipomas are found only in older horses
 Sex
 no overall effect of gender on risk of colic, but certain diseases are restricted by gender
 For instance, inguinal hernias occur only in males,
 whereas entrapment of intestine in the mesometrium is restricted to mares.
 Mares that have had foal are at increased risk of developing volvulus of large colon .
Cont…
 Diet and Feeding Practices
 Changes to horse’s diet through changes in quantity &quality of feed, feeding frequency,
or time of feeding increase the risk of colic by two to five times.
 Management
 Watering
 Horses without constant access to water are at increased risk of developing colic, whereas
horses with access to ponds or dams have reduced risk of colic compared with horses
provided with water from buckets or troughs
 Exercise
 Overall, there appears to be an increased risk of colic among horses undertaking physical
activity or that have a recent change in the amount of physical activity.
 considere in the context of active & inactive horses, such as in feeding practices, housing
(stabling versus pasture), and transportation.
 Increased stabling is associated with an increased risk of large-colon volvulus
 Pathogenesis:
Cont…
 pathogenesis of equine colic is variable depending on the cause & severity of the inciting
disease.
 Although equine colic often involves changes in many body systems, notably
gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, metabolic & endocrine systems, there are several
features & mechanisms common to most causes of colic depending only on severity of
disease for magnitude of their change.
 features common to severe colic & often present to lesser degree in milder colic, are pain,
gastrointestinal dysfunction, intestinal ischemia, endotoxemia or toxemia, compromised
cardiovascular function (shock), and metabolic abnormalities.
Cont…
 Clinical findings
 The bulk of the following description is generally applicable to severe acute colic
 The purposes of the clinical examination are diagnostic—to determine whether pain is caused
gastrointestinal tract disease and, if so, to determine nature of lesion & prognostic to
provide some estimate of the likely outcome of the disease.
Veterinary clinicians are able to accurately predict the
 site of lesions (small intestine versus large intestine),
 type of lesion (simple obstructive versus strangulating or infarctive)
 outcome
 The ability to predict these events increases with training and experience.
 Accurate diagnosis of cause of colic has some prognostic usefulness, but assessment of
horse’s physiologic state by measurement of heart & respiratory rates, mucous membrane
color & refill time, arterial blood pressure, hematocrit & serum total protein
concentration, as well as other measures, allows more accurate prognostication.
 cause of colic is determined in only approximately 20% of field cases
Cont…
 Visual Examination
 Behavior :
 Pain is manifested by pawing, stamping, or kicking of belly or restlessness evident as
pacing in small circles & repeatedly getting up & lying down, often with exaggerated
care.
 Other signs are looking or nipping at the flank, rolling, and lying on the back
 Often penis is protruded without urinating or with frequent urination of small volumes
 Continuous playing with water without actually drinking is common
 Vomiting:
 Projectile vomiting or regurgitation of intestinal contents through nose is very unusual in
horses & is serious sign suggesting severe gastric distension & impending rupture
 Abdomen Size:
 Distension of abdomen is uncommon but important diagnostic sign
 Symmetric, severe distension is usually caused by distension of colon, sometimes including
cecum, secondary to colon torsion, or impaction of large or small colon & subsequent fluid
& gas accumulation
Ancillary Diagnostic Techniques
Cont…
 Ultrasonography : Ultrasonographic examination of the abdomen of adult
horses is useful in identifying a number of abnormalities, including
 small intestinal distension
 ileocecal intussusception
 gastric distension
 gastric squamous cell carcinoma
 diaphragmatic hernia
 peritoneal effusion, and other conditions
Cont…
 Ultrasonographic examination is useful for detecting
 small-intestinal distension (such as anterior enteritis or small-intestinal accidents),
 reduced motility (anterior enteritis, enteritis, and obstruction),
 thickening of intestinal wall (>4 mm, enteritis, right dorsal colitis),
 volume and characteristics of peritoneal fluid (peritonitis and hemoperitoneum),
 abnormalities in intestinal contents (presence of sand or excessively fluid ingesta),
 presence of sacculations of the ventral colon (absence indicates distension),
 abnormalities in intestinal architecture (intussusceptions)
 presence of abnormal structures (neoplasia and abscess).
 Clinical pathology:
 Examination of various clinical pathology variables is useful in assessing
the severity of the changes occurring as a consequence of the disease rather
than in providing a definitive diagnosis.
Cont…
 Differential diagnostic
The following diseases may be mistaken for colic:
 Laminitis
Pleuritis
 Enterocolitis
Rhabdomyolysis
 Obstructive urolithiasis
Uroperitoneum
 Foaling and dystocia
Uterine torsion
 Peritonitis
Cholelithiasis
 Ovulation and ovarian pain
Esophageal obstruction
 Duodenitis-proximal jejunitis Testicular torsion
 Gastric ulceration
Lactation tetany
 Anthrax
Rabies
 Tetanus
Botulism
 Grass sickness
Purpura hemorrhagica
 Psychogenic colic
Cont…
Treatment
 Medical Treatment: specific treatment of each case of colic varies & depends
on nature of the lesion & severity of the disease.
• several principles are common to the treatment of most colic:
Provision of analgesia
Correction of fluid, electrolyte, acid base and hemostatic abnormalities
Gastrointestinal lubrication or administration of fecal softeners
Treatment of underlying disease
 Analgesia is important in that it relieves horse’s discomfort; minimizes
physiologic consequences of pain, including pain-induced reduction in
gastrointestinal motility; permits a thorough clinical examination; and reduces
self inflicted injuring while rolling or thrashing.
Cont…
 Trocharization:
 Occasionally in severe cases of flatulent (gas) colic or cases of colon torsion
in which distension is impairing respiration necessary to relieve gas distension
of colon or cecum by trocarization.
 Trocarization is usually performed through right paralumbar fossa
immediately caudal to the last rib
 exact place for trocarization located by simultaneously flicking of body wall
with a finger & listening with stethoscope area of loudest ping will indicate
point of insertion of the trocar
 A suitable trocar is 12.5 - to 15-cm 14- to 16-gauge needle
 The needle is inserted through the skin & advanced into the abdomen until
there is an audible expulsion of gas through the trocar.
 It is advisable to administer systemic antibiotics to trocarized horses
Cont…
 Management of Field Colic:

Initial treatment of field cases of colic that do not have signs indicative of need for
referral or surgery includes administration of an analgesic & intestinal lubricant.
 Analgesics suitable for initial treatment of colic in the field are an α-2 agonist, such as
xylazine, hyoscine butylbromide, dipyrone, butorphanol, or phenylbutazone
 If there is no reflux through nasogastric tube, mineral oil should be administered.
 Fluids should be administered intravenously if there are signs of dehydration,
cardiovascular compromise, or electrolyte imbalance
 Further doses of analgesic given as required, & horse should be monitored for any
evidence of deterioration.
Cont…
 Surgery:
 only definitive treatment for many causes of equine colic is surgical correction or
removal of the lesion.
 availability of surgical facilities staffed by appropriately trained personnel with specialist
training.
 Gastrointestinal surgery should not be attempted by those untrained or inexperienced or
without the facilities to provide postoperative care.
 decision to perform an exploratory laparotomy on a horse with colic is based on a number
of factors, including provisional diagnosis, findings on physical &laboratory examination
&degree of pain.
 survival rate for horses undergoing surgical correction of lesions depends on nature &
location of underlying disease & its duration.
 survival rates range from 50% to 75%, with approximately two-thirds of horses
returning to their intended use.
 survival rate of horses with small-intestinal lesions is less than that of horses with largeintestinal disease
Cont…
Prevention:
 Minimization of colic episodes depends on management factors, including
ensuring
 adequate parasite control
 feeding large quantities of forage
 minimizing amount of concentrate fed
cont…
Intussusception:
It is telescoping of intestine means a portion of intestine enters in caudal
segment due to violent peristaltic movement.
 It causes obstruction, passive congestion and oedema.
cont…
Volvulus: In volvulus, the loop of intestine passes through a tear in mesentry.
 It causes obstruction at both ends of loop.
cont…
Torsion: Torsion is twisting of intestine upon itself causing obstruction.
Enterolith: Concretions in intestines particularly in horses are responsible for
obstruction of intestinal tract and are responsible for "colic in horse" and
enterocolitis.
cont…