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Transformer:
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in any coil of the
transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which
induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) in any other coil wound around the
same core. Electrical energy is transferred between the coils by the alternating
current in the primary winding creating a magnetic field in the core, which in turn
induces a voltage in the secondary winding.
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Transformers are used to increase or decrease voltage and current in electrical
circuits. They are also used to isolate circuits from each other. Transformers are
essential components of the electrical grid and are used in a wide variety of
applications, including power transmission and distribution, industrial control, and
electronics.
Total Internal Reflection and Optical Fibers:
Total internal reflection (TIR) is a phenomenon that occurs when a light ray traveling
in a denser medium strikes an interface with a less dense medium at an angle
greater than the critical angle. At the critical angle, the light ray is bent so that it
travels parallel to the interface. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle, the light ray will be totally reflected back into the denser medium.
TIR is used in optical fibers to transmit light over long distances. Optical fibers are
thin, flexible strands of glass or plastic that are designed to guide light signals. The
light travels through the fiber by TIR, bouncing off the inner walls of the fiber. Optical
fibers are used in a wide variety of applications, including telecommunications,
medicine, and manufacturing.
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and Lenses:
Refraction is the bending of light rays as they pass from one medium to another.
The amount of refraction depends on the refractive indices of the two media and the
angle of incidence of the light ray.
Spherical lenses are lenses that have two spherical surfaces. Lenses can be
converging or diverging, depending on the shape of their surfaces. Converging
lenses bend light rays towards their focal point, while diverging lenses bend light
rays away from their focal point.
Lenses are used in a wide variety of applications, including eyeglasses, cameras,
and telescopes.
Lens Maker's Formula:
The lens maker's formula is an equation that relates the focal length of a thin lens to
its refractive index and the radii of curvature of its surfaces. The formula is given by:
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1/f = (n - 1) * (1/R_1 - 1/R_2)
where:
f is the focal length of the lens
n is the refractive index of the lens material
R_1 is the radius of curvature of the first surface of the lens
R_2 is the radius of curvature of the second surface of the lens
The lens maker's formula can be used to design lenses with specific focal lengths
for specific applications.
Refraction of Light Through a Prism:
A prism is a transparent object with two polished, non-parallel faces. When light
passes through a prism, it is refracted at both faces. The amount of refraction
depends on the angle of incidence of the light ray and the refractive index of the
prism material.
Prisms are used to disperse light into its constituent colors. This is because the
different colors of light have different refractive indices. Prisms are used in a variety
of applications, including spectroscopes, binoculars, and telescopes.
Huygen's Principle:
Huygen's principle is a method of predicting the propagation of wave fronts. The
principle states that every point on a wave front can be considered to be the source
of a secondary spherical wave. These secondary waves interfere with each other to
produce the new wave front.
Huygen's principle can be used to explain a variety of wave phenomena, including
reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference.
Proof of Laws of Reflection and Refraction Using Huygen's Principle:
Law of Reflection:
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To prove the law of reflection using Huygen's principle, consider a plane wave
incident on a reflecting surface. The secondary waves from each point on the wave
front will interfere with each other to produce a new wave front that is parallel to the
reflecting surface. This new wave front is the reflected wave.
Law of Refraction:
To prove the law of refraction using Huygen's principle, consider a plane wave
incident on a refracting surface. The secondary waves from each point on the wave
front will interfere with each other to produce a new wave front that is bent at the
refracting surface. The amount of bending depends on the refractive indices of the
two media. This new wave front is the refracted wave.
Binding Energy per Nucleon and Its Variation with Mass Number:
The binding energy per nucleon is the energy required to separate a nucleon from a
nucleus.
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