CURRICULUM GRADE 10 -12 DIRECTORATE
NCS (CAPS)
REVISION DOCUMENT GRADE 12
GEOGRAPHY
2023
LEARNER DOCUMENT
1
This support document serves to assist Geography Grade 12 learners in dealing with
curriculum content gaps and learning losses because of the impact of COVID-19 in
2021. It also addresses the challenging topics in the Grade 12 curriculum in
Term 1-3.
Activities serve as a guide on how various topics are assessed at different cognitive
levels and prepare learners for informal and formal tasks in Geography. It covers the
following topics:
No.
Topic
Page
1
CLIMATE AND WEATHER
3 - 27
2
GEOMORPHOLOGY
27 - 54
3
RURAL AND URBAN SETTLEMENT
55 - 99
4
ECONOMIIC GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AFRICA
99 - 126
2
CLIMATE AND WEATHER
MID LATITUDE CYCLONES:
Summary of concepts:


Mid-latitude cyclone: a large, low-pressure weather system made up of
warm and cold fronts; also called an extra-tropical cyclone, temperate
depression, or frontal system.
Air mass: a huge/large body of air, extending for hundreds of kilometres, with
similar characteristics such as temperature and humidity.

Backing – the anticlockwise change in wind direction, this occurs as a cold
front pass over in the southern hemisphere.

Cold front: the border zone between a cold air mass and a warm air mass.

Cold front occlusion: an occlusion occurs where the overtaking cold air is
colder than the cold air ahead of it. The overtaking cold front lifts warm air off
the ground.

Cold sector: the area on the ground affected by cold air in a mid-latitude
cyclone.

Front: the boundary between two different air masses.

Cyclogenesis: the development of weather systems such as mid-latitude
cyclone and tropical cyclones.

Jet stream: a band of very strong westerly winds high in the atmosphere
(troposphere) which partly controls the development of mid-latitude cyclones.

Occluded front: a front formed when a cold front overtakes and replaces a
warm air mass.

Occlusion: a late stage in the development of a mid-latitude cyclone where
the cold front to the rear catches up with the leading warm front, lifts the warm
air off the ground and meets the cold air ahead of the warm front.

Polar front: a zone where the cold polar air mass (easterlies) and warm
tropical air mass (westerlies) meet.

Veering: a clockwise change in wind direction, this occurs when a cold front
passes in the northern hemisphere.
3

Warm front: – the border zone between a warm air mass and a cold air
mass.

Warm front occlusion: an occlusion where the overtaking cold air is warmer
than the cold air ahead of it.

Warm sector: the area on the ground affected by warm air in a mid-latitude
cyclone.
IMPACTS OF MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE
Humans – Positive

Winter rainfall
determined type of
crops that are
cultivated.
 Rain replenish water
in dams.
 Snow in mountains
replenish water when
it melts.
Humans – Negative
 Snow that fall is
dangerous for
people.
 Extreme cold can
result in power cuts
and disruption of
human activities.
 Bergwinds that
develop in warm
sector is hot and dry
and can cause veld
fires.
 Gale force winds
behind cold front
results in stormy
conditions over
ocean and is a
danger to ships.
 Heavy rain from cold
front leads to poor
visibility and traffic
accidents
 Mountain passes
may be closed if
there is snow.
Environment Positive


Winter rainfall is
necessary for winter
crops.
Production of winter
crops results in food
security.
Environment - Negative
 Snow fall is
dangerous for
livestock.
 Extreme cold
damage crops and
livestock
 Bergwinds damage
vegetation because
of dry warm
conditions
 Gale force winds
damage crops
 Heavy rain cause
floods and crops and
livestock are
damaged
4
Economy - Positive

Production of winter
crops benefits the
GDP.
Economy - Negative
 Expensive for
farmers to protect
crops and livestock.
 Floods can damage
crops and impact the
economy negative





STRATEGIES TO MINIMISE THE IMPACT OF MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES
Monitoring the development of Mid-Latitude cyclones
Early warning and communication for people to prepare.
Evacuate low lying areas to protect against floods.
Keep livestock in barns to protect them against the cold plant winter crops that can
resist cold.
People should stay indoors to protect them against the cold, wind, and rain.
MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES ACTIVITIES
Refer to the extract below on cold fronts and answer the questions that follow
TWO COLD FRONTS TO HIT WESTERN CAPE THIS WEEKEND –'HEAVY RAINFALL'
TO FOLLOW
Date: 10 June 2022
A According to the South African Weather Service (SAWS), two cold fronts are expected to bring
rain, strong winds, high waves, and a significant drop in temperatures to South Africa.
The first cold front is expected to hit the Western Cape on Sunday evening12 June. Ahead of
this first cold front, strong north-westerly to westerly winds between 50–60 km/h, gusting up to 70–
80 km/h, are expected over the southern parts of the Northern Cape and the interior of the Western
and Eastern Cape from Sunday.
T The second cold front is expected to reach the Western Cape by Monday evening 13 June,
bringing continued high
amounts of rainfall mainly to the south-western parts of the Western Cape, especially from Monday
to Wednesday afternoon.
T The wind direction associated with the cold front will change from north-west to south-west as the
front moves over the Western Cape.
[Adapted from http//www.First cold front to hit Western Cape this weekend –'heavy rainfall' to follow
(thesouthafrican.com)]
1.1.1 In which season do cold fronts mentioned in the extract influence
the Western Cape?
(1 x 1) 1)
1.1.2 Give evidence from the extract to support your answer to
QUESTION 1.1.1.
(1 x 2) (2)
1.1.3 Why do cold fronts have a greater impact in the Western cape
during this season (answer to question 1.1.1)
5
(1 x 2) (2)
1.1.4 The change in the wind direction mentioned in the extract is known
as (veering/backing) in the southern hemisphere.
(1 x 1) (1)
1.1.5 Give a reason from the extract for your answer to QUESTION 1.1.4.
(1 x 2) (2)
1.1.6 In a paragraph of approximately eight lines, suggest the positive
and negative impacts of heavy rainfall associated with cold fronts on
the physical (natural) environment of the Western Cape.
(4 x 2) (8)
1.2
Refer to the extract on mid-latitude cyclones.
MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES OVER THE WESTERN CAPE
South Africa is among a handful of countries that experience winter rainfall in some
areas and summer rainfall in others. The south-western tip of the country has a
Mediterranean climate, with hot dry summers and cool wet winters. This is because
mid-latitude cyclones migrate further north during winter, allowing the edge of the
cold front arm to sweep across the southernmost part of the country. This results in
frontal winter rainfall over the Western Cape. The movement of the cold front over
theWestern Cape is generally associated with a variety of weather changes. These
cyclones can have a positive or negative impact on tourism.
1.2.1 Name the type of climate found in the south-western tip of the
(1 x 1) (1)
country.
1.2.2 Describe the climate experienced in the south-western tip of the
country during winter as indicated in the extract.
1.2.3 Why do mid-latitude cyclones migrate (move) Further north in winter.
(1 x 1) (1)
(1 x 2) (2)
1.2.4 Describe the changes in the weather associated with the passing of a
cold front over Cape Town.
(2 x 2) (4)
1.2.5 In a paragraph of approximately eight lines, explain the negative
impacts of on tourism in Cape Town.
6
(4 x 2) (8)
1.3 Refer to the South African synoptic weather map.
1.3.1 Name the low-pressure cell at A
(1 x 1) (1)
1.3.2 Why is the pressure cell A known as a travelling disturbance.
(1 x 2) (2)
1.3.3 Why is there a greater possibility of precipitation at B than at C.
(2 x 2) (4)
1.3.4 Give evidence that this synoptic weather map represents typical
summer conditions.
1.3.5 (a) Which anticyclone has a greater subsidence D or E (descending)
of air.
(b) Use the pressure reading of the synoptic weather map to support
your answer QUESTION 1.4.5 (a).
7
(2 x 2) (4)
(1 x 2) (2)
1.4 TROPICAL CYCLONES
Over warm ocean with 26,50 C
or more.
1.Moves from east to
west.
Between 50and 250 N&S of the
equator
2.Intense low-pressure
system with 1000hPa at
the centre (Eye).
4.Destructive winds of
300km/hr
6. High cumulus clouds
2.Early warning system. Stock up water
and canned food. Keep first aid kit.
3.Tracking the storm and keeping the
public informed.
3.Occurs late summer
and late Autumn.
5.Named in alphabetical
order
1.Evacuation routes and procedures.
Where?
4.Keeping the livestock in barns.
Area of
development
5.Avoid low lying areas prone to
flooding
What?
(Management)
General
Characteristi
cs


Strategies for
reducing impact
TROPICAL
CYCLONE
(What
Happened?)
Impact of a
Development
Stages
cyclone
Tropical
(What does it look
like?)
Satellite images
Synoptic weather
representation
Staying indoors.
Physical
Destruction
of
ecosystems
&biodiversity
Storm surges
Erosion and
removal of
topsoil
Flooding and
rise in river
levels
Economic
Airports are
closed
Social
Damage to
infrastructure.
Closing of
businesses
Damage to
harbour
facilities
Costly
insurance
claims
Loss of lives.
Outbreak of
diseases.
Starvation, lack
of food – food
insecurity
TROPICAL CYCLONES
1.4
The sketch shows a cross-section through a tropical cyclone in the
Southern Hemisphere. Choose the word/term from COLUMN B that
completes the statement in COLUMN A. Write only Y or Z next to the
question numbers.
(1.4.1 to 1.4.7) in the ANSWER BOOK, e.g. 1.4.8 Z.
[Adapted from https://maritimesa.org/grade-11/2016/09/23/influence-ofweather]
COLUMN A
1.4.1
COLUMN B
1.4.2
Wind 1 that steers the tropical cyclone is
known as the …
2 is known as the …
1.4.3
Circulation of air around 2
1.4.4
The air pressure at 2 …
1.4.5
The air at 3 is …
1.4.6
The cloud type at 4 is …
1.4.7
The type of precipitation associated with
cloud type 4 is …
is …
Y westerlies
Z easterlies
Y eye
Z
centre
Y clockwise
Z anticlockwise
Y decreases
Z increases
Y ascending
Z descending
Y cumulonimbus
Z stratus
Y drizzle
Z thunderstorms
(7 x 1) (7)
9
1.5 TROPICAL CYCLONES
DESCRIPTION OF THE DISASTER
ELOISE IN NUMBERS
Tropical Cyclone Eloise made landfall on
23 January 2021, 20 km south of Beira in
Mozambique, as a category 2 tropical
cyclone. Wind speeds of up to 160 km/h
were recorded. Tropical Cyclone Eloise
also caused heavy rainfall with 250 mm of
rain in 24 hours. Other areas were
already flooded ahead of Eloise's landfall,
resulting in thousands of displaced
people.
1.5.1 Give ONE piece of evidence in the infographic that the tropical cyclone is in the
Southern Hemisphere.
(1 x 1) (1)
1.5.2. State TWO weather conditions associated with tropical cyclones indicated in the
infographic.
(2 x 1) (2)
1.5.3 Give ONE reason for the decrease in wind speed from 19 January to
20 January 2021.
1.5.4 Account for the increase in wind speed of Tropical Cyclone Eloise from
the 20 January to 22 January 2021.
1.5.5 According to the infographic the negative impact of Tropical Cyclone
Eloise was devastating. Suggest THREE strategies that could be put in
place to reduce this impact.
10
(1 x 2) (2)
(2 x 2) (4)
(3 x 2) (6)
1.6. TROPICAL CYCLONE
Satellite image of Tropical Cyclone
Batsiria
Path of Tropical Cyclone Batsiria
[Adapted from https://twitter.com/kwang/poon/status]
Tropical Cyclone Batsirai –
February 2022
[Source: Examiner's own sketch]
Wind speed associated with Tropical Cyclone Batsirai
Tropical Cyclone Batsirai intensified and moved
westward across the South Indian Ocean. The
forward movement was approximately 19
kilometres per hour (km/h). Batsirai made landfall
on Saturday night. Tropical Cyclone Batsirai’s
wind and rains caused considerable damage to
roads and transport links, leaving some of the
hardesthit areas inaccessible. In addition,
Tropical Cyclone Batsirai caused storm surges.
[Adapted from https://reliefweb.int/disaster/tc-2022000160-mdg]
[Source: Examiner's own sketch]
1.6.1 Give the date on which Tropical Cyclone Batsirai reached the mature stage. (1 x 1) (1)
1.6.2 According to the infographic, Tropical Cyclone Batsirai moved westward across
the South Indian Ocean. Give ONE reason for this movement.
(1 x 2) (2)
1.6.3 Suggest TWO reasons for the large decrease in wind speed between
20 and 25 February 2022.
(2 x 2) (4)
1.6.4 How could storm surges negatively impact the physical environment on the
east coast of Madagascar?
(2 X 2) (4)
1.6.5 Explain the importance of monitoring tropical cyclones like Batsirai for
Madagascar.
(2 x 2) (4)
11
1.7. TROPICAL CYCLONES
CROSS-SECTION OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE
[Adapted from https://www.meteo.physik.unimuenchen.de/~roger/TCLecs/Tropical%20Cyclone]
GRAPH ASSOCIATED WITH
A TROPICAL CYCLONE
ISOBARIC REPRESENTATION OF
A TROPICAL CYCLONE
[Source: Examiner's own drawing] [Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=isobars]
1.7.1 What evidence indicates that the tropical cyclone developed in the
Southern Hemisphere?
(1 x 1) (1)
1.7.2 Give TWO reasons from the infographic to indicate that the tropical cyclone is in its
mature stage.
(2 x 1) (2)
1.7.3 How will the descending air at A influence the cloud cover in the eye?
(1 x 2) (2)
1.7.4 Give a reason for your answer to QUESTION 1.8.3.
(1 x 2) (2)
1.7.5 What is the relationship between the wind speed and air pressure as indicated on the
graph?
(a)
Ahead of the eye
(1 x 2) (2)
(b)
Within the eye
(1 x 2) (2)
1.7.6 Why is area B on the sketch of the isobaric representation referred to as the
leading left quadrant (dangerous semicircle)?
(1 x 2) (2)
1.7.7 How does the leading left quadrant (dangerous semicircle) develop in
tropical cyclones?
(1 x 2) (2)
12
R
1.8 Refer to the South African synoptic weather map.
[Source: Examiner's own sketch]
1.4.1.8.1
Identify low-pressure system A on the synoptic weather map.
(1 x 1)
(1)
1.4.1.8.2
Give a reason for the formation of this low-pressure system over the
interior.
(1 x 2)
(2)
Give evidence from the synoptic weather map that the South Atlantic
high is ridging.
(1 x 2)
(2)
Why does the ridging of the South Atlantic high result in
onshorewinds?
(2 x 2)
(4)
Describe the weather conditions at Port Elizabeth as a result of theonshore
winds.
(3 x 2)
(6)
1.4.1.8.3
1.4 1.8.4
1.8.5
13
1.9 Refer to the infographic on the South African Berg wind.
Record-breaking
East London
heatwave
hits
Matthew Field
18 March 2021
East London residents were subject to
sweltering heat last Saturday after a recordbreaking heatwave resulted in a peak
temperature of 43,9 °C. According to the
South African Weather Service (SAWS), the
heatwave was a result of berg wind
conditions, when hot dry winds blow down to
the coast from the country's high central
plateau.
Hours
A graph tracking the temperature in East London over the course of Saturday 13 March
Picture: SA Weather Service
14
1.9.1
Name two pressure systems that are necessary for berg winds to
develop
(1 x 2)
(2)
1.9.2
Determine the highest temperature recorded on 13 March 2021
(1 x 1)
(1)
1.9.3
What role did the escarpment play in increasing the temperature of the
berg wind between 10:00 and 14:00?
1.9.4
(2 x 2) (4)
In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, explain the impact of
berg winds on the physical environment.
(4 x 2) (8)
1.10 Refer to the sketch below on Line Thunderstorms
[Source: Examiner's own sketch]
1.10.1
Identify high pressure cells A and B
(2 x 1)
(2)
1.10.2
Which season is represented by the sketch?
(1 x 1)
(1)
1.10.3
Give one reason from the sketch for your answer to
QUESTION 1.101.2
(1 x 2)
(2)
1.10.4
What is a moisture front?
(1 x 2)
(2)
1.10.5
Name two forms of precipitation associated with the
(2 x 1)
(2)
(3 x 2)
(6)
line thunderstorms.
1.10.6
Describe the processes involved in the formation of
line thunderstorms.
15
1.11
Valley climates and urban climates
Slope aspect: refers to the direction that the slope faces in relation to the sun’s rays.




Slopes facing the equator are warmer since they receive direct rays of the sun.
Slopes facing the poles are cooler since they receive oblique rays of the sun.
In the southern hemisphere the warmer slope is the north facing slope and the cooler slope
is the north facing slope.
In the northern hemisphere the warmer slope is the south facing slope and the cooler slope
is the north facing slope
[Source: https://online.htseden.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Geography-Grade-12-Term-1-Week-4_2021-1.pdf]
Influence of aspect:
Economic:


The warmer north facing slopes used for deciduous fruit farming.
The cooler south facing slope is used for forestry.
Settlement:


Warmer north facing slopes have higher land values.
The cooler south facing slope has cheaper land values.
Vegetation


The north facing slope is warm, dry, and sparsely vegetated.
The south facing slope is cool, moist, and densely vegetated.
16
Valley winds
Anabatic winds:


Warm upslope winds that blow during the day.
Occurs during the day when slopes are heated causing warm air to rise.
Significance:

Smoke (pollution) released during the day is carried away by anabatic winds.
[Source: https://online.htseden.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Geography-Grade-12-Term-1-Week-4_2021-1.pdf]
Katabatic winds:

Down slope movement of air in a valley at night.
Development of katabatic winds:

Occur at night when the valley slopes cool through terrestrial radiation.

The air contact with the slope cools faster and sinks under the influence of gravity.

The cold air forces warm air inside the valley to rise to middle-slope, this causes
temperature inversion.

The zone of accumulated warm air is called the thermal belt.

Temperature of the cold air at the bottom of the valley drops below freezing point to form
frost.

When the temperature of the air cools below dew point it forms radiation fog.
17
[Source: https://online.htseden.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Geography-Grade-12-Term-1-Week4_2021-1.pdf]
Influence of katabatic winds on:
Farming:



Frost resistant crops planted on the valley floor.
Citrus farms located on the valley floor for maturation of fruit.
Deciduous fruit planted on the middle slope as warm temperatures are ideal for ripening.
Settlement:



High land values on the middle slope since it is located within the thermal belt.
Low land values on the valley floor since it is called.
Katabatic winds (thermal belt) traps pollutants released by industries at night, and this
leads to respiratory problems.
[Source: https://online.htseden.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Geography-Grade-12-Term-1Week-4_2021-1.pdf]
18
Transport:

Fog reduces visibility which may increase the rate of car accidents.
[source: https://www.northjersey.com/story/news/transportation/2017/08/16/fog-reduces-visibility-over-much-new-jersey/571755001/]
Urban climate
Differences between rural and urban climates:





Cloud cover:
o More clouds in urban areas.
o Pollutants act as condensation nuclei.
Precipitation:
o More precipitation in urban areas.
o More clouds result in more precipitation.
Humidity:
o More humidity in rural areas.
o More vegetation and water bodies encourage evaporation.
Wind speeds:
o Higher wind speeds in rural areas.
o In urban areas tall buildings close to each other obstruct air flow thus reducing wind
speed.
Temperature:
o Higher in urban areas.
o Artificial surfaces such as concrete absorb heat and glass reflects sunrays.
o Gas emissions from cars and industries of gases that absorb heat.
o Geometric shape of buildings cause reflections and absorption of heat.
o Urban activities generate heat and pollution.
19
o Building density reduces air flow and heat distribution.
o Efficient drainage- less water for evaporation.
Urban heat island



Region of higher temperatures in urban areas surrounded lower temperatures in rural
areas.
Occurs during the day.
Isotherms: are used use to join areas of equal temperatures.
[Source: https://www.metlink.org/fieldwork-resource/urban-heat-island-introduction/]

Factors that can influence heat island:
o Rivers and dams
o Vegetation
o Decentralisation (industrial and commercial)
Pollution dome




Polluted air above an urban area trapped by subsiding air.
Dominant at night due to cooler temperatures and subsiding air.
Strongly developed in winter due to the strong subsidence from the Kalahari high and
lower temperatures.
It can be dispersed by strong winds.
20


Effects of pollution dome and heat island:
o Reduced visibility
o Acid rain
o Smog
o Respiratory problems
o Quality of life is reduced.
o Global warming
Strategies to reduce effects of urban heat island and pollution dome:
o Plant trees
o Create rooftop gardens.
o Use reflective paints.
o Decentralisation (commercial and industrial)
VALLEY CLIMATE: ACTIVITIES
1.11
Various options are provided as possible answers to the following
questions. Choose the answer and write the letters (A-D) next to the
question numbers (1.2.1-1.2.8) e.g., 1.1.9 C
1.11.1 Climate of a very small area is known as.
A.
B.
C.
D.
City climate
Microclimate
Macroclimate
Valley climate
21
1.11.2 The slope in the diagram that receives direct rays of the sun is …. facing.
A.
B.
C.
D.
South
East
North
West
1.11.3 South facing slopes in the southern hemisphere can be describes as
…natural vegetation.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Dry with sparse
Wet with moist.
Moist with sparse
Dry with dense
1.11.4 The air movement shown in the sketch can result in…
A.
B.
C.
D.
Solar radiation
Reflection
Terrestrial radiation
Insolation
22
1.11.5 The down slope movement of air occurs because of cooling due to
A.
B.
C.
D.
Solar radiation
Reflection
Terrestrial radiation
Insolation
1.11.6 Precipitation that forms due to terrestrial cooling at night.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Radiation fog
Drizzle
Snow
Advection fog
1.11.7 The wind associated with a temperature inversion in a valley is
a/an…wind.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Anabatic
Offshore
Onshore
Katabatic
1.11.8 The correct sequence in which a temperature inversion develops.
(i)
Mountain slopes cool.
(ii)
Warm air is displaced and rises from the valley floor.
(iii) Cold air sinks due to the force of gravity.
(iv) Temperature increases with height.
A. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv).
B. (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
C. (i), (iii), (ii), (iv)
D. (i), (ii), (iv), (iii)
(8 x 1) (8)
23
1.12
Choose the correct word(s) from those given in the brackets. Write only the
word(s) next to the question number (1.12.1 - 1.12.7)
[Source: November 2021 Examiner's own sketch]
1.12.1 Air at A cools because of (solar/terrestrial) radiation.
1.12.2 Downward movement of air along the valley slopes occurs during the
(night/day).
1.12.3 Air movement from A to B results in a/an (katabatic/anabatic) wind.
1.12.4 Dew point temperature drops below freezing point at (A/B) at night.
1.12.5 Precipitation that forms at B when the dew point temperature drops below
0℃ is (frost/radiation fog).
1.12.1 Displaced air from the valley results in a/an (inversion layer/thermal belt)
developing at C.
1.12.7 Layer C is more developed during the (day/night).
24
(7 x 1) (7)
1.13
Refer to the figure below showing slope aspect.
[Adapted from https://www.pmfias.com/temperature-distribution-earth-heatbudget-heat-ba}
1.13.1 Define the concept of slope aspect.
(1x2) (2)
1.13.2 Does A or B represent the Southern Hemisphere?
(1 x 1) (1)
1.13.3 Give a reason evident from the sketch for your answer to QUESTION 1.4.2 (1x2) (2)
1.13.4 How does microclimate influence climate of valley slopes with regards to:
(a) Temperature
(1 x 2) (2)
(b) Evaporation
1.13.5 Explain the influence of slope aspect in the Southern Hemisphere on the
following.
(1 x 2) (2)
(1 x 2) (2)
(a) Farming
(2 x 2) (4)
(b) Human activities
25
1.14
Refer to the graph showing the difference between rural and urban
temperatures.
[Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%environment%2F2021-heatisland]
1.14.1 Define the concept of urban heat island.
(1x2) (2)
1.14.2 Give the highest temperature recorded.
(1x1) (1)
1.14.3 Explain two ways in which the buildings at Z contribute to the higher
temperatures.
1.14.4 In a paragraph of approximately eight lines, suggest sustainable building
strategies to reduce urban heat island effect.
(2x2) (2)
1.15
Refer to the sketch below to answer questions that follow.
26
(4x2) (8)
1.15.1 Reflects the highest temperatures in urban heat island.
1.15.2 Pollution is dispersed over a greater area.
1.15.3 Artificial heat is at its lowest.
1.15.4 Increased human discomfort due to high temperatures.
1.15.5 Greater difference between air and surface temperatures
1.15.6 Limited multiple reflections of heat
1.15.7 Fewer human activities generating heat.
(7x1) (7)
2.
GEOMORPHOLOGY
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN SOUTH AFRICA
The following topics will be covered:
1. Important concepts
2. Types of rivers
3. Drainage density
4. Drainage patterns
5. Stream order
6. Laminar and turbulent flow
27
DRAINAGE BASIN
Remember not only must you know how to define a concept you must also know how to
identify on a sketch or topographical map.
28
Identify a high and low drainage density on diagrams and topographic maps. Discuss the
factors that cause high and low drainage densities.
DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Identify the drainage patterns in the diagrams below and describe the underlying rock
structures that caused each of the drainage patterns
29
Factor
Rock and soil
type
FACTORS AFFECTING DRAINAGE DENSITY
High Density
Low density
Impermeable rock leads more run-off
Permeable rock allows for
and a higher density. Example: granite,
infiltration and a lower
sandstone, basalt and shale
drainage density.
Examples: Chalk, limestone
and sand.
Amount of
rainfall
Vegetation
cover
Basins in area of high rainfall will have
Areas of low rainfall will
more water available for the rivers and
have less water available
the basin will have a high drainage
and basins will have a low
density.
drainage density.
Where vegetation is removed by
Lots of vegetation cover
erosion nothing will hold the soil and a
allows for infiltration by the
network of gullies will form.
loose soil and roots of
plants.
Gradient
The steeper the gradient the greater the The gentler the land, the
run-off and the higher the density.
greater the infiltration and
lower the density.
30
STREAM ORDER
First order streams: Small
stream at source Second
order streams: Where two
first order streams join.
Third order stream: where
two second order streams
join, and so on.
See diagram and
topographic map.
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
Distinguish between laminar and turbulent flow.
Describe the river bed at laminar and turbulent flow
In which course of the river would you find
a.
laminar and
b.
turbulent flow
31
LAMINAR
TURBULENT
River profiles

There are two types of river profiles and they include cross profile and longitudinal
profile .

Transverse/cross profile shows a view of a river from bank to the opposite bank.

The cross profile will show depth and width of the river.

Longitudinal profile; The side view of a river from its source to its mouth.

Longitudinal profile will show: length of the river and height above sea level.
Longitudinal profile of a river
Relationship of profiles with stages of river and characteristics:
32
Upper course:

V- shaped valley

Slope is STEEP – river flows fast

Turbulent flow

Low volume

Vertical erosion

Erosion is the main process here

Waterfalls and rapids
Middle course:

Valley now has a wide U – shape

Slope is less steep – and the river flows slower

Less turbulent, becoming laminar

Volume and load increases

Erosion still dominant, but deposition also occurs at a smaller rate

More lateral erosion

River begins to meander
33
Lower course:

Wide opened river valley .

Slope is gentle and the river flows very slowly.

Large volume of water.

Slow flow of the river leads to DEPOSITION on a large scale.

River channel is very wide.

River meanders.

Many depositional landforms occur e.g. Ox-bow lakes, meander scars, floodplains, braided
streams, levees, deltas etc.
Transportation of a river’s load
•
The material that has been eroded by the river and then carried in the water is called load
of the river
•
Type of river load:
•
Flotation load – made up of leaves and twigs
•
Solution load – dissolved in water – invisible
•
Suspension load – carried in suspension
•
Saltation load – carried up and down
•
Traction/ bed load – rolled, pushed along river bed
34
Identification, description, formation significance and impact of fluvial landforms/features:
Meanders
(Source: www.hotcore.ifo)

A meander is a bend along the course of a river

After heavy rainfall the water is fast flowing and cuts/erodes into the outer bank (undercut
slope) of a river

Meander neck is reduced.

Water is slow moving on the inner bank (slip-off) resulting in deposition

After a period of time when the river cannot negotiate the bend, it will cut through the
meander neck (cut off the loop), forming an ox-bow lake.

Stream will now follow a straight path.

River will start to meander again.
35
(www.hotcore.info)
Ox-bow lake:
 Form from meanders

Meander neck becomes narrow over time

During periods of high rainfall, water flows straight, avoiding the meander

Meander scar: dried up ox-bow lake due to no water supply
Flood plain:
(www.flexiprep.com)
Flat land on banks of river made up of layers of silt.
Natural levees:

(esomake.co.ke)
Forms on riverbanks subjected to repeated flooding

After water recedes, a raised bank is left behind (higher than flood plain)

Tributaries that cannot join the main river due to the obstruction of levees
Activity 2.1
FIGURE below illustrates fluvial landforms.
2.1.1
Which stage (course) of the river is illustrated in the above FIGURE? 1x1(1)
2.1.2
What role did the gradual gradient play in the formation of the
1x2(2)
meander evident in the sketch?
2.1.3
Explain the formation of the undercut (outer bank) and slip-off slope
2x2(4)
(inner bank).
2.1.4
In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, explain how a
meander develops into an oxbow lake.
37
4x2(8)
Waterfalls:
(www.wanderlustmovement.org/waterfalls-in-south-africa)
Upper course of river
Hard rock overlies soft rock
Plunge pool forms base of waterfall
Rapids:
(www.golearngeography.wordpress.com)
Sections of turbulent water
Upper course
Alternating hard and soft rock causes riverbed to become uneven resulting in turbulent flow
38
Delta:
Mississippi river delta (bird’s foot)
•
River enters the sea and deposits its load
•
Sediments are kept in suspension in fresh water but flocculate in salt water
•
Conditions necessary for deltas to form
•
The river must have a large amount of sediment
•
The sea must have weak currents and a small tidal range
•
The sea must be shallow at the river’s mouth
•
River flows over level ground close to coastline
•
River loses energy and slows down
•
Heavier material of the bed load is dumped causing sediments to build up on the sea floor.
•
Main stream splits into small distributaries as it flows through deposited material
•
Weak ocean currents
Braided stream:
39
•
Seasonal river with abundant bed-load deposited in the lower course
•
Gentle gradient and decreased river flow forces deposition of sand islands
•
Sand islands obstruct the river’s own path and branches into distributaries
River Grading:
Ungraded profile
•
The profile can also be ungraded if there are obstructions and irregularities e.g. dam wall,
lake, waterfall
•
Sometimes there is a sharp break in gradient along the graded profile. This is known as a
knick-point
•
A knick-point may lead to a knick-point waterfall.
•
The knick-point indicates the spot where new erosion level intersects the old one.
Graded profile:
•
When the gradient is just enough for the transportation of the load under existing volume
and channel shape.
•
Characteristics:
•
Concave profile
40
•
Decreasing angle towards the mouth
How a river is graded (changes from ungraded to graded)
• The rate of erosion exceeds deposition in the upper course.
•
This causes the features in the middle course to retreat (waterfall) and disappear.
•
There is a balance between deposition and erosion in the middle course.
•
The rate of deposition exceeds erosion in the lower course.
•
The rate of equilibrium is reached (Balance between erosion and deposition)
•
The river becomes graded.
Base levels of erosion:
•
Temporary: features that prevent a river from further vertical erosion
•
Permanent: the lowest level to which a river can erode (sea level)
Activity 2.2
Refer to the sketches showing the profile and grading of a river.
41
2.2.1
Refer to sketch A.
Define the concept longitudinal profile
1x2(2)
2.2.2
State TWO characteristics of the longitudinal profile evident in
2x1(2)
sketch A
2.2.3
Does sketch A represent a graded or an ungraded river?
1x1(1)
2.2.4
Give a reason for your answer to QUESTION 2.2.3
1x2(2)
Refer to sketches B and C.
2.2.5
Identify a temporary and a permanent base level of erosion in
2x1(2)
sketch B.
2.2.6
Describe the processes that the river in sketches B and C would
3x2(6)
undergo to reach a graded state
River Rejuvenation:
The process whereby a river which has reached a base level, regains energy and begins to erode
vertically once again
Reasons for rejuvenation:
•
Uplift of land
•
Increase in volume of water by river capture or high rainfall
•
Increase of gradient because of drop in sea level
•
Increase in runoff
42
Features of rejuvenation
Knick point: A sharp change in slope of a river
Terraces:
(https://geographyas.info/rivers/rejuvenation/)
Old valley floor forms a terrace on either side of the river due to down cutting.
Valley in a valley: new valley is carved into old valley
(www.codingtag.com)
Entrenched meander:
Meander formed that cut a deep
valley into the bedrock
(en.m.wikipedia.org)
43
Activity 2.3
Refer to the sketch below on river rejuvenation
2.3.1
What is river rejuvenation?
1x2(2)
2.3.2
State TWO possible causes of river rejuvenation
2x1(2)
2.3.3
Draw a labelled free-hand cross-section from A to B of the illustrated
river rejuvenation
Marks will be allocated for:
1x1(1)
(a) Shape of the rejuvenated valley
1x1(1)
(b) Indication of the new flood plain
1x1(1)
(c )Indication of terraces
2.3.4
How did the river terraces (illustrated in the sketch) form?
2x2(4)
2.3.5
Explain how the illustrated landscape will negatively impact on
2x2(4)
infrastructure development.
44
River capture/ Stream piracy
One river captures the headwater of another river thereby increasing the size of its own drainage
basin.
Abstraction:
Abstraction is a process whereby watershed changes its position due to uneven steepness on
either side.
Conditions necessary for river capture:
•
One river flows on the steeper side of a watershed, and it will erode faster
•
Greater rainfall on one side of the watershed- greater velocity and greater erosive power
•
Soft rock- one river flows on the side that has less resistant rock (soft) erodes faster
•
Captor stream is flowing at lower altitude.
(telematics 2016)
45
Headward erosion:
Is erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin to move back away from the
direction of the stream flow, so causes the stream channel to lengthens.
Features of river capture:
Captor stream
River that has captured the headwater of another river
Captured stream
River that has its water diverted into another river
Misfit stream
Stream that has too little water for the valley in which it flows
Elbow of capture
Right angled bend indicating the point where one river captures the water of another
Wind gap
Dry river valley found immediately after the elbow of capture
Impact of river capture:
Captor stream:
•
Drainage basin increases
•
Volume increases
•
Flows faster
•
Erosive ability increases
•
River could be rejuvenated
•
Captured stream: opposite to captor stream
46
Implications of river capture:
Captured stream:
•
Less water for agriculture
•
Hydroelectric power cannot be sustained
•
Less water for domestic and industrial use
•
Water quality will decrease
•
Aquatic organisms die resulting in disrupted food chains
•
Captor stream: opposite to captured stream
Activity 2.4
Refer to FIGURE below showing river capture (stream piracy).
2.4.1
Is river X or Y the captured river?
1x1(1)
2.4.2
Give TWO pieces of evidence in diagram B that shows that river
2x1(2)
capture has taken place
2.4.3
What influence does the underlying rock have on river capture?
1x2(2)
2.4.4
How does river capture rejuvenate the captor stream?
1x2(2)
47
ANTECEDENT AND SUPERIMPOSED STREAMS
Antecedent stream
(http/www.eurekalert.org)
•
Stream was present before deformation.
•
Is a stream that maintains its original course and pattern despite the changes in underlying
rock topography.
•
The river is older than the structure.
Superimposed stream
(https.//slideplayer.com/amp/4951725)
•
The stream whose valley and direction of flow were developed much later than the
underlying structure and the river possessed sufficient stream power to cut through these
underlying structures.
48
•
The river is younger than the structure
•
There is no relationship between the stream and the underlying structure.
RIVER MANAGEMENT
IMPORTANCE OF RIVER MANAGEMENT:
•
Transport of goods using rivers
•
Hydroelectric power needs rivers
•
Ecosystems in rivers
•
Flood control
•
Farming uses rivers
•
Leisure activities in rivers
Leisure activity at Olifants River
[https://siyavaya Adventures - Olifants River Rafting in Hoedspruit (activitar.com]
•
Sustainable use of water from rivers
•
Tourist attraction
•
Domestic and industrial use of rivers
49
IMPACT OF PEOPLE ON DRAINAGE BASINS:
Waste disposal- pollution affects water quality
Waste disposal at Umgeni River bank
[https://www.zigzag.co.za/news/environment/corona-coastal-clean-up/day-1-umgeni-riverbank-cleanup-ft-the-litterboom-project/]
•
Wetlands- being destroyed by human activities (farming, alienation, pollution) o Water
transfer schemes- affect river flow and aquatic ecosystems
•
Irrigation- reduces water downstream
•
Dams- affects river flow
•
Overgrazing- removal of vegetation reduces infiltration
•
Mining- acid level in water increases
•
Embankment- holds back sediment which prevents delta formation
•
Afforestation- reduces stream discharge and encourages infiltration
•
Urbanisation- artificial substances encourage runoff
50
River pollution:
•
Domestic sewage
•
Agricultural wastes (herbicides and pesticides)
•
Industrial wastes (including heated water)
Impact of river pollution:
•
Loss of oxygen in rivers due to excessive decomposition of pollution
•
Eutrophication
Management strategies:
•
Buffer zones
•
Awareness campaigns
Cleaning up Umgeni River Mouth
[https://www.iol.co.za/dailynews/news/pics-umgeni-river-mouth-clean-up-underway-afterheavy-rain-dd196115-373d-4a3f-9e5f-db4a2a615960]
•
Recycling
•
Fines
•
Testing of water quality
•
Vegetate
•
Educate farmers
•
Wetlands must be conserved
51
CASE STUDY : CATCHMENT AREA AND RIVER MANAGEMENT
65 percent of South Africa receives less than 500 mm average annual rainfall,
meaning that drought is an ever-present risk. Projections indicate that by 2015 the
country’s water requirements will outstrip supply unless urgent steps are taken to
manage the resources more sustainably. The growing water crisis is made worse
by the fact that about half of South Africa’s wetlands have been lost. Poverty levels
are also extremely high.
It is against this background that the South African government, working in
partnership with WWF and others, has initiated catchment management
programmes. This includes the control of alien plant that use a lot of water, and
wetland restoration, across the country under the banners “Working for Water”
and “Working for Wetlands”.
There are currently 50 wetland rehabilitation projects under way, employing 2 230
previously disadvantaged people. At Rietvlei, a fresh-water wetland close to
Pretoria, 255 people are employed in rehabilitating a degraded peatland that was
drained in the 1960’s for peat mining, dryland cropping and irrigation purposes.
Upstream urban townships and industrial areas contribute to serious pollution.
Rietvlei supplies nearly 20 percent of Pretoria’s water and is owned by the
municipality. Since the remaining 80 percent of water has to be bought in, there
is a strong economic drive to manage water wisely. To restore the former flow of
water through the wetland that will be purified naturally. This will save the
municipality in purification costs.
SOURCE: http://www.naturalresorces.nsw gav.au
52
ACTIVITY 2.5
RIVER MANAGEMENT
1.1. Refer to the extract below on catchment and river management.
RIVER TURNS BLACK AFTER COAL MINE DAM COLLAPSES NEXT TO
RURAL COMMUNITIES AND HLUHLUWE-IMFOLOZI GAME RESERVE
By Tony Carie, 11 January 2022
Large volumes of potentially toxic coal mine effluent (waste) have spilled into
rivers flowing through rural communities and the Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Game
Reserve.
According to the US-based Union of Concerned Scientists, mining and coal
washing operations produce high water pollution which can also contain toxic
heavy metals such as arsenic copper, lead, and manganese.
When the slurry dam* wall collapsed on 24 December, the residents of the
affected communities were not warned about the potential hazards until two
weeks later. Conservation managers in the neighbouring Hluhluwe-Imfolozi
Game Reserve were also led to believe that the spill was under control, only
to discover pitch-black water flowing through the reserve several days later.
By this stage, the black water had reached the confluence of the Black and
White Imfolozi Rivers.
*Slurry dam – a dam that is used to store by-products of mining operations
after separating the ore
[Adapted from dailymaverick.co.za]
2.5.1 What caused the river to change its colour to black?
(1x1) (1)
2.5.2 State TWO toxic heavy metals in the extract that could be found in
polluted mine water.
(2x1) (2)
2.5.3 Quote ONE phrase from the extract that indicates that the mining
company did NOT disclose (make known) the pollution of the river.
(1x2) (2)
2.5.4 What could have been the negative economic impact of nondisclosure (answer to QUESTION 2.5.3) on the community?
53
(1x2) (2)
2.5.5 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, describe the
environmental importance of managing the Imfolozi drainage basin (4x2) (8)
and suggest measures that the local municipality could implement to
maintain the future quality of water.
ACTIVITY 2.6
RIVER MANAGEMENT
2.6 Refer to the picture below on catchment and river management.
https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/envirobiology/chapter/7
2.6.1 Define the concept catchment area.
(1x2)
(2)
(1x1)
(1)
(2x2)
(4)
2.6.2 Identify ONE human activity that impacts negatively to
catchment areas, from the picture.
2.6.3 Explain how cultivated land and industries impact negatively
to our catchment areas.
2.6.4 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines suggest ways
that need to be taken by the government and non- 4x2)
governmental organisations (NGOs) to manage catchment
areas that are at risk.
54
(8)
RURAL AND URBAN SETTLEMENT
RURAL SETTLEMENT
Study of Settlements

Settlement: a place where people live which includes buildings, economic activities and
transport networks

Site: the exact physical land on which a settlement is placed

Situation: the location of a settlement in relation to its surrounding area

Rural: farmsteads, villages or hamlets where there is limited development and technology

Urban: densely populated settlements with a lot of manmade structures and a few open
spaces such as towns or cities.
Factors influencing the site:
Availability of drinking water, Relief, Soil, Climate, Accessibility, Tradition and Natural resources,
Factors influencing the situation:
Transport and accessibility
Influence of site and situation on rural settlements:
Wet point settlement:

found where there is a shortage of water

located near a water source
Dry point settlement:

found where water is a threat

located on higher ground to avoid flooding
Defence:

located on high ground or in meander loop or between mountains

for safety reasons
55
Accessibility:

bridging point: located near the shallow point of a river for easy crossing

gateway: in gap hills
CLASSIFICATION OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS ACCORDING TO PATTERNS AND
SHAPES:
CROSS ROADS
Disperse /isolated
Houses or farms are far apart or scattered and isolated
Advantages:

farmers can experiment with new machinery

larger profit capability

privacy
Disadvantages:

lack of social life

easy target for criminals

services far
56
Nucleated / clustered
Houses or farms found close together
Advantages:

ability to share equipment

social advantages

safety higher
Disadvantages:

lack of privacy

small profits

smaller plots of land
Linear/ ribbon

Houses located in a line along a road, narrow valley or river
Planned

houses are grouped around a specific feature e.g. Market
Crossroads

Accessibility to transport causes settlements to develop along meeting roads
Semi-circular

settlement found along the coast

sea acts as a physical barrier
Classification of rural settlements according to function:

rural areas are unifunctional

associated with primary activities

dispersed or nucleated

farmsteads, hamlets or villages
57
58
Land use in rural areas:

subsistence farming definition: farmer grows crops to meet his family’s needs

small scale and traditional methods

variety of crops planted in small quantities

no contribution to economy
59
Commercial farming
Farmer grows the crops in order to sell the products to get the profit

large farms that are capital intensive

main purpose is to make profits

one main crop planted on a large scale

uses modern equipment and farming methods
INTENSIVE FARMING

EXTENSIVE FARMING
every available piece of land is used

occurs over a large area

yield per hectare is comparatively
for farming

high yield per hectare
lower


labour and capital intensive
occurs where land is less fertile
Rural settlement issues
Definitions
Rural-urban migration: movement of people from farms to urban areas
Rural depopulation: decreasing number of people that live in rural areas due to rural-urban
migration
Push factors are the factors that force the people to leave rural areas
Pull factors are the factors that attract the people in the urban areas
CAUSES OF RURAL DEPOPULATION:

hard work, long hours and low pay

poor quality housing

basic services are far away
PEOPLE WANT TO MOVE TO CITIES BECAUSE OF:

greater variety of jobs and higher pay

improved housing and services

access to basic services
60

efficient transportation

food security
Consequences of rural depopulation
In rural areas:
In urban areas:

Basic services will close down

growth of informal settlements

Production in rural areas decreases

crime increases

arising of ghost settlements

traffic congestion

brain drain

insufficient services

resources under-utilised

waste management uncontrollable

diseases spread as hygiene decreases
Strategies to address rural depopulation:

improve roads and transport facilities

create more job opportunities through decentralisation

improve salaries and working conditions

improve basic services

increase capital for farmers

provide training courses
Reasons to manage rural depopulation:

rural areas provide food for the country

rural areas influence GDP

rural areas provide the country with raw materials o employment can be found in rural
areas
61
Social justice issues in rural areas
Access to resources
Water
Reasons for water shortages
How to conserve water

low rainfall

farmers should use drip irrigation

few lakes

mix fertilisers with water

rivers are non-perennial

use treated wastewater

high evaporation

use tanks to catch and store rainwater

dams dry up

use boreholes

domestic wastage

farmers should use drip irrigation

pollution of clean water

mix fertilisers with water
Soil
Reasons for soil
Soil management strategies

deforestation

afforestation on steep slopes

overgrazing

terracing

over-cropping and monoculture

contour ploughing

high rainfall

use of natural manure
Land reform:
Land restitution:

compensating people for the land they lost due to forced removals

compensation by money or land
Land tenure reform:

provides security to South Africans regarding land ownership

prevents unfair eviction
62
Land redistribution:

Providing land to previously disadvantaged people for housing or farming
Purpose of land reform:

redresses injustice of apartheid

promotes economic growth and alleviates poverty
Challenges with land reform:

Willing buyer/seller clause delays negotiating prices o costly

Lack of training given to new owners
Rural settlement activity
Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Choose the answer
and write only the letter (A–D) next to the question numbers (3.1.1 to 3.1.8) in the ANSWER
BOOK, e.g. 3.1.9 D
3.1.1 The actual ground that is occupied by a farm is known as the …
A
situation
B
location
C
site
D
space
3.1.2 The choice of site for the location of a farm is influenced by …
A
population size
B
topography
C
finance
D
markets
63
3.1.3 The situation of a farm is influenced by …
A
soil fertility
B
water sources
C
distance to markets
D
steepness of land
Refer to the patterns of rural settlements (X and Y) to answer QUESTIONS 1.1.4 to 1.1.6.
3.1.4 The social advantage of settlement X is …
A
safety and security
B
using technology
C
that a local market is available
D
making more profit
3.1.5 Settlement pattern Y is classified as a dispersed settlement due to the …
A
farm plots being far apart
B
distance away from the market
C
farmsteads being far apart
D
availability of flat land
3.1.6 An economic advantage of settlement Y is …
A
greater privacy
B
the potential for large profits
C
the high cost of buying equipment
D
independence
64
Refer to the sketch of the settlement to answer QUESTIONS 1.1.7 and 1.1.8.
[Source: Examiner 's own sketch]
3.1.7 The shape of the settlement is …
A
Linear
B
Dispersed
C
Crossroads
D
Round
3.1.8 The main reason for the development of the settlement is ...
A
access to a road
B
a gap in the mountain
C
access to water
D
defence from enemies
ACTIVITY 3.2
3.2 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Choose the
answer and write only the letter (A–D) next to the question numbers (3.2.1 to 3.2.8) in the
ANSWER BOOK, e.g. 3.2.9 D.
3.2.1 Rural settlements are associated with … activities
A
primary
B
secondary
C
tertiary
D
quaternary
65
3.2.2 A dispersed settlement pattern develops when there is …
A
one dominant water source
B
an abundance of water
C
a narrow river valley
D
communal ownership of land
3.2.3 An advantage of a rural nucleated settlement:
A
Sharing of farm equipment
B
Large, commercial plots of land
C
Making independent decisions
D
Making large profits
3.2.4 A … is the location of a settlement in relation to the surrounding area
A
gap
B
site
C
bridging point
D
situation
3.2.5 A dry-point settlement is located … water because water is …
A
far from; scarce
B
far from; a threat
C
near; a threat
D
near; scarce
3.2.6 The sketch below refers to a … shaped settlement
[Adapted from https://www.google.com/search?q=types+of+settlements]
A
round
B
semi-circular
C
crossroad
D
linear
66
3.2.7 The circular shape of the settlement below is influenced by the …
A
lake
B
coastline
C
terrain
D
roads
3.2.8 The following physical factors determine the site of a settlement:
i.
ii.
Accessibility to transport
Distance to market
iii.
iv.
Relief
Fertile soil
A
(i) and (ii)
B
(ii) and (iii)
C
(ii) and (iv)
D
(iii) and (iv)
(8  1)
67
(8)
ACTIVITY 3.3
3.3 Choose the word/term from COLUMN B that matches the statement in COLUMN A. Write
only Y or Z next to the question numbers (3.3.1 to 3.3.7) in the ANSWER BOOK,
e.g. 3.3.8 Y.
COLUMN A
3.3.1
COLUMN B
Process whereby an increasing percentage Y
Urbanisation
of the country's population is concentrated
in urban areas
3..3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5
3.3.6
3.3.7
Z
Level of urbanisation
Increase in the number of people living in Y
Rate of urbanisation
urban areas
Z
Urban growth
Process whereby people move from urban Y
Centralisation
areas into surrounding rural areas
Counter-urbanisation
Z
Increase in the actual physical size of an Y
Urban expansion
urban area
Z
Urban hierarchy
Unplanned spread of urban areas
Y
Urban sprawl
Z
Urban decay
Decreasing number of people living in rural Y
Rural urban migration
areas
Rural depopulation
Z
Arrangement of settlements in an area from Y
Hierarchy
the smallest to the largest
Metropolis
Z
(7  1) (7)
68
ACTIVITY 3.4
Choose ONE word/term from the list below that matches a description of settlement patterns or
shapes. Write only the word/term next to the question numbers (3.4.1 to 3.4.8) in the ANSWER
BOOK.
linear;
T-shaped;
cross-shaped;
stellar;
dispersed;
semi-circular;
cobweb;
circular;
nucleated
3.4.1 Shape of settlements located along a narrow canal
3.4.2 Settlement shape that develops along many main roads which radiate in different
directions from a central point
3.4.3 Shape of settlement located along a harbour
3.4.4 Settlement shape that resulted from houses that are grouped around a market square
3.4.5 Settlement pattern that resulted from houses being close together
3.4.6 Settlement shape where two major roads intersect.
3.4.7 Settlement pattern that resulted when houses are far apart from each other.
3.4.8 Settlement shape where a secondary road meets with a main road
(8  1) (8)
ACTIVITY 3.5
3.5.1
Refer to the infographic based on rural depopulation.
POPULATION IN RURAL AREAS FROM 2017 TO 2020
Rural depopulation is mainly caused by the migration of people from rural areas to urban areas.
These people search for employment and a better quality of life. The movement of people to
urban areas creates various economic and social challenges for the rural area, e.g. reducing the
standard of living. Strategies need to be put in place to limit the number of people leaving the rural
areas and also encouraging people to return.
Year
2017
2018
2019
2020
Population
(in
thousands)
19 479
18 465
17 439
16 408
69
(1  2) (2)
3.5.1
Define the concept rural depopulation.
3.5.2
Give evidence from the sketch that rural depopulation has
(1  2) (2)
occurred
3.5.3
Refer to the table and give evidence that indicates that rural
(1  2) (2)
depopulation took place between 2017 and 2020.
3.5.4
What is the social importance of discouraging (limiting) rural
(1  2) (2)
depopulation?
3.5.5
In a paragraph of approximately eight lines, suggest FOUR
strategies
that
can
be
implemented
to
reduce
rural
(4  2) (8)
depopulation
3.6
Refer to the sketch below on rural urban migration
3.6.1
Define the concept rural-urban migration.
3.6.2
Identify ONE social push factor in A that causes rural-urban
(1  2) (2)
(1  1) (1)
migration.
3.6.3
State TWO basic services that are more accessible in urban
(2  1) (2)
areas than in rural areas.
3.6.4
How can rural-urban migration create challenges for the
(2  2) (4)
provision of housing in B?
3.6.5
Suggest
THREE
intervention
strategies
that
implemented to decrease rural-urban migration.
70
can
be
(3  2) (6)
Activity 3.7
3.7
Refer to the sources below on land reform in South Africa.
A FRESH APPROACH TO LAND REFORM
South Africa currently faces a problem as the process of land reform has advanced too slowly and
much of the land that has been transferred has become economically inactive.
Conflicting (different) views cause South Africans to have questions about land reform. What is the
future of land reform in South Africa? Can the process be accelerated? Will it produce equal
outcomes? Whose interests will be served?
At a South African agricultural congress, a panel discussion on the future of land reform agreed that,
when it comes to successful land reform, intense negotiations and compromises are necessary. This
is in keeping with the three pillars of land reform, namely redistribution, tenure and restitution. Land
restitution provides a challenge as funding needs to be allocated to compensate dispossessed
communities for land previously lost. Well-managed land reform can create assets for the poor,
stabilise relationships and promote development. On the other hand, if it is poorly managed, it
destroys assets, causes poverty to communities and weakens the economy.
Poorly managed
Well managed
(1  2) (2)
3.7.1
What is land reform?
3.7.2.
According to the extract, what is the benefit of well-managed
3.7.3.
land reform?
(1  2) (2)
a)
Why land restitution is considered a challenge?
(1  2) (2)
b)
How does B illustrate the successful process of land
(1  2) (2)
restitution?
3.7.4.
Which factors have caused the 'process of land reform' to
(1  2) (2)
advance too slowly?
3.7.5.
Explain the social benefits of well-managed land reform for
people living in rural areas.
71
(2  2) (4)
Urban settlements
Related concepts:
Urbanisation: process whereby an increased percentage of people live in
urban areas.
Urban growth: increase in the absolute number of people in urban areas.
Urban expansion: the physical growth of an urban settlement.
Urban sprawl: formless uncontrolled growth of urban areas.
Rate of urbanisation: percentage by which an urban population increases.
Level of urbanisation: percentage of people that live in urban areas.
72
Classification of urban settlements (according to function)
Central places: provide goods and services to the surrounding rural
population.
Trade and transport towns: (develop where transport routes meet)
Break-of-bulk points- town where one mode of transport is replaced by
another mode of transport e.g. Durban
Gap/gateway towns- originate due to physical barriers; transport routes
converge e.g. Worcester
Junction towns- located at transport junctions e.g. De Aar
Specialised towns: settlements with one dominant function. Examples include;
mining towns, resort towns, military towns, and industrial towns.
73
Urban hierarchies
 An urban hierarchy is a ranking of urban settlements from smallest to largest
MEGALOPOLIS
CONURBATION
METROPOLIS
CITY
TOWN
VILLAGE
HAMLET
ISOLATED FARMSTEAD
Central place theory

Central place is an urban settlement that provides goods and services to
surrounding rural communities.
According to central place theory

The number of functions increase as one moves up the urban hierarchy

The actual number of urban settlements decrease as one moves up the urban
hierarchy
Types of goods
Low order or Convenience goods

Goods that are relatively cheap,
easy to obtain and required on
regular basis
High order or comparative goods

Specialised goods that require some
decision making before obtaining them.
They are not required on daily basis
74

High order centres are urban settlements that offer both high order goods and low order
goods.
Low order centres are urban settlements that offer only low order goods.

Range of goods and services
 Range is the maximum distance a customer is prepared to travel to obtain
goods and services
500 km
CAR
1 km
BREAD

Range (distance) of lower order (convenience) goods is small.

Range (distance) for higher order (comparative) goods is great or large
Threshold population

Minimum number of customers needed to make a business profitable

Businesses that are selling lower order goods need a low threshold population
to remain profitable since these goods are required on daily basis.

Businesses that offer higher order goods need large threshold population to be
profitable since these goods are not required on daily basis
Sphere of influence

This is an area where the business draws its customers
CAR DEALERSHIP
TUCK SHOP

Businesses offering higher order goods have large sphere of influence because
customers are prepared to travel great distances to buy these goods.

Businesses offering lower order goods have small sphere of influence since
custombers are not prepared to travel long distances to buy lower order goods.
Some Businesses have global sphere of influence because even people from
other countries require their goods and services.

75
Low and high order functions/services
Low order functions/services

Services that are required on
daily basis
High order functions/services

Services that are required
infrequently
Low and high order centres
Low order centre





Small urban settlements such
as service centres and minor
country towns
Offer lower order services and
functions
Small threshold population
Small sphere of influence
Small range
High order centres





These are large urban settlements
such as major towns and cities
They offer variety of services
including specialised services
They have large threshold population
They have large sphere of influence
They have large range
ACTIVITY 3.8
3.8 Choose the word/term from COLUMN B that completes the statement in COLUMN A.
Write only Y or Z next to the question numbers (3.8.1 to 3.8.7) in the ANSWER BOOK e.g.
3.8.8 Z.
COLUMN A
COLUMN B
3.8.1 The process where people move from urban Y urbanization
areas to rural areas is known as …
Z counter urbanisation
3.8.2 The pace (speed) at which urbanization occurs is Y rate of urbanization
known as …
Z level of urbanisation
3.8.3 The formless expansion of urban areas is referred Y urban sprawl
to as…
Z natural growth
3.8.4 The physical growth of an urban settlement.
Y urban blight
Z urban growth
3.8.5
The process where the percentage of the Y rural-urban migration
population living in the urban areas increases is …
Z urbanisation
3.8.6 The increase in the number of people in urban Y urban expansion
areas …
Z urban growth
3.8.7 The movement of people from rural areas to urban Y urban growth
areas…
Z
rural-urban migration
ACTIVITY 3.9
3.9 Refer to the bar graphs indicating the level and rate of urbanisation in South Africa
between 2006 and 2016.
3.9.1
Differentiate between the terms urbanisation and counter
urbanisation.
3.9.2
(4)
(2x2)
(4)
(4x2)
(8)
State the relationship between the level and the rate of
urbanisation between 2006 and 2016.
3.9.3
(2x2)
Write a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines discussing the
reasons why the rate and level of urbanisation has led to
increased protests against service delivery in urban areas,
78
ACTIVITY 3.10
3.10 Choose a term in COLUMN B that matches the description in COLUMN A.
Write only the letter (A–I) next to the question numbers (3.10.1 to 3.10.8) in the
ANSWER BOOK, e.g. 3.10.9 J.
COLUMN A
COLUMN B
3.10.1 Place where goods are transferred from A
one form of transport to another
B
3.10.2 Settlements that develop where
a number of routes converge
C
mining towns
3.10.3 Settlements that are located in
mountain passes
D
junction towns
E
specialized towns
F
resort towns
G
gap towns
H
satellite towns
I
military towns
3.10.4 The main function of these
settlements is to protect South Africa
during times of war
3.10.5 Urban settlements that have one
dominant function
3.10.6 Settlements that provide urban goods
and services to the surrounding rural
population
central places
break-of-bulk point
3.10.7 The main function of these
settlements is to attract holiday-makers
3.10.8 The extraction of minerals resulted in
the formation of these type of
settlements
(8x1) (8)
79
Activity 3.11
3.11.1 Select ONE term/concept for each of the following descriptions on the classification
of settlements. Write only the term/concept next to the question numbers (3.11.1 to
3.11.7) in the ANSWER BOOK, e.g. 3.11.8 large city.
hamlet; town; megalopolis; isolated farmstead; conurbation; village; city; metropolis
3.11.1 A settlement that is the smallest in a hierarchy
3.11.2 A settlement that is a continuous urban area made up of towns and cities
3.11.3 A settlement that consists of a loose grouping of a few farmsteads
3.11.4 A settlement that consists of a major city with satellite towns
3.11.5 A settlement that offers a large variety of services and specialised functions
3.11.6 A small urban settlement that provides urban functions to the surrounding rural area
3.11.7 A settlement consisting of many conurbations
(7  1) (7)
Activity 3.12
3.12
Complete the statements in COLUMN A with the options in COLUMN B. Write down
only Y or Z next to the question numbers (3.12.1 to 3.12.5) in the ANSWER BOOK,
for example 3.12.6 Y.
Refer to the sketches below based on central place theory.
Food stores
Motor vehicle dealers
COLUMN A
COLUMN B
3.12.1 The ranking of urban areas according to
Y: settlements
size, function, and degree of specialisation.
3.12.2 The range of the food stores are shorter
than that of the vehicle dealers because …
Z: hierarchy
Y: there are more food stores.
Z: there are more motor vehicle
dealers.
3.12.3 The threshold population of the motor
vehicle shops is/are … than that of the food
Y: more
Z: less
stores.
3.12.4 Illustrates the sphere of influence of the food
stores
Y:
Z:
3.12.5 Type of goods found when there are fewer
urban centres
Y: lower
Z: higher
(5  1) (5)
ACTIVITY 3.13
3.13
Refer to the hierarchy of urban settlements in the sketch.
81
(1  2) (2)
3.13.1 Define the concept urban hierarchy.
3.13.2 What will hinder (prevent) the town from expanding in a northerly
(1  1) (1)
direction?
3.13.3 Will more specialised goods be found at city A, rather than city B?
(1  1) (1)
3.13.4 Explain your answer to QUESTION 1.13.3.
(1  2) (2)
3.13.5 Refer to the shopping centre.
a)
Is the new shopping centre a regional or neighbourhood
(1  1) (1)
shopping centre?
b)
Comment on the suitability of the location for the shopping
centre (answer to QUESTION 3.13.5 (a)).
c)
(2  2) (4)
Explain the impact of this shopping centre (answer to
QUESTION 3.13.5 (a)) on the threshold population of CITY A.
(2  2) (4)
Structure and patterns
A: Street patterns
Grid iron
Streets intersect at
right angles
Found on land that is
flat
Hampers traffic flow
Does not work on
steep land
Radial
Roads radiate away
from central point
Joined by ring roads
Unplanned/irregular
Maze of streets with no
order
Associated with broken
relief
Maze of streets with no
order
Associated with broken
relief
Traffic congestion at
the centre
Ring roads allow for
traffic bypass
Planned irregular
New urban
developments
Ensures a smooth
flow of traffic
Hilly relief
B: Building Density
o number of buildings per unit area
o density decreases from city centre outwards
o due to high land values in the city centre, buildings are close together and tall
C: Urban Profile
o the side view of a city showing building density and building height
o land value influences the shape of an urban profile
o building density and height is greatest where land value is highest
82
D: Land Use Zones
Factors influencing location of urban land use zones:
o accessibility:
 the ease with which a place can be reached
 CBD has greatest accessibility
 Heavy industries locate near transport routes
o Compatibility:
 Degree to which functions attract each other
 Recreational areas are found near residential areas- high compatibility
o Specialised requirements:
 Some land use zones require special features to develop e.g. a water source
o Land values
o Centrifugal force (push factors)
o Centripetal forces (pull factors):
 Functional magnetism: functions that benefit each other
 Functional convenience: CBD highly convenient since close to work
 Functional prestige: a certain area becomes well known for a Specific function
offered.
1. CBD (central business district)
o Found in city centre
o High degree of accessibility
o Tallest buildings and highest building density
o Combination of high and low order goods offered
o Grid iron street pattern
o High traffic congestion
o Commercial decentralization:
 City is invaded by illegal immigrants, becomes dilapidated
 Forms:
Isolated store cluster (low order centre)
Commercial ribbon development (along main roads)
Outlying business centres (high and low order centre located in densely
populated area)
Planned neighbourhood shopping centre (found in residential area)
Planned regional shopping centre
Informal trading (low order goods sold by unlicensed businesses)
2. Transition Zone
o Located on the edge of CBD
o Mixed land use zone
o Buildings are old and dilapidated
o Characteristics:
 Informal traders on pavements
 Lots of street children
 High crime rate
83
3. Residential Zone
o Occupies the most amount of urban land
o Wealth segregates this zone:
 High income residential
Away from CBD and heavy industries
Good views
Well maintained
High land value
Many recreational facilities
 Middle income residential
Medium size houses
Location varies, but approximately 15-20min from CBD
Mostly occupied by government workers
 Low income residential
Located near industrial areas
Close to CBD
Small houses found close together
Little to no recreational facilities
Houses are old and neglected
Informal settlements found in LEDC
 Unplanned, built with various materials, lack of basic services, no
proper roads and poor hygiene
Ghettos or slums found in MEDC
 Found in transition zone
 Old and densely populated buildings
4. Industrial Zone
o Heavy industrial zones
 Pollution
 Far from high income residential zones
 Found on outskirts of urban areas due to requirement of large spaces
 Close to transport facilities
 Produce heavy goods
o Light industrial zones
 Occupies small spaces
 Little pollution
 Locate near to customers
 Produce small and comparatively lighter goods
5. Green Belts
o Piece of land found within a city that has natural vegetation
o Protects natural environments
o Improves air quality
6. Rural-urban Fringe
o Outskirts of city
o Mixture of rural and urban functions
o Land here is cheap
o Sewage, cemeteries, airports etc. found here
84
3. Models of Urban Structure
Harris and Ullman- multiple nuclei model:
o cellular pattern allowing for growth into each other
o caters for decentralisation, relief and all land use zones
o shows the true complexity of cities
Third world City
Land use zones are mixed
Modern American City
multi-centered
Lots of informal trading
CBD called downtown
City centers are compact
High level of commuting
Poor infrastructure
Decentralization
Social problems in excess
Sharply defined land use
zones
85
South African City
Influenced by colonialism
and apartheid
Land use zones
influenced by group areas
act
Post-apartheid- income
determines where people
live, not race
LXL_Gr12Geography_16_Structure & Patterns of Urban Settlement
86
Activity 3.14
Refer to the cross-section on urban land-use ones.
[Source: Adapted from https://www.google.com/search?q=land-use/]
3.14.1
Identify the land-use zone at A.
3.14.2
How would
the decreasing accessibility to
negatively impact commuters?
3.14.3
3.14.4
3.14.5
(1 x 1)
(1)
land-use zone A
(1 x 2)
(2)
Give TWO reasons for the irregular shape of the land-use zone at B.
(2 x 2)
(4)
Why are buildings in land-use zone B in a dilapidated (poor) state?
(2 x 2)
(4)
Why will new high-income residential developments be attracted to
area C?
(2 x 2)
(4)
87
Activity 3.15
Refer to the photographs showing buildings in two land-use zones.
[Source: https://www.dreamstime.com/illustration/factory-sketch.html
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fimage.shutterstock.com%]
Refer to photograph A.
3.15.1 Classify the residential area shown in the photograph as either
high income or low income.
(1 x 1)
(1)
3.15.2 Give evidence from the photograph to support your answer to
QUESTION 3.15.1
(1 x 2)
(2)
3.15.3 Why is the type of residential area (answer to QUESTION 3 . 1 5 . 1
often located close to an industrial area?
(2 x 2)
(4)
3.15.4 Give TWO social injustices that are experienced by people in this
residential area due to the industrial activity at B.
(2 x 2)
(4)
3.15.5 Explain TWO measures that can be implemented by the industries
at B to reduce the impact of the social injustices.
(2 x 2)
(4)
88
Activity 3.16
Refer to the infographic below on the central business district (CBD)
of Johannesburg as a land-use zone.
The CBD of Johannesburg has
experienced a decline in
economic
investment over the past 20 years. This
has been due to problems such as
crime, inefficient public transport,
decay, decreased accessibility, etc.
These
factors
force businesses
to relocate to outlying business districts,
giving rise to commercial decentralisation. In spite of this, the land values remain high in the
CBD. The transition zone is generally dilapidated but maintains high land values.
[Adapted from businesstech.co.za]
[Adapted from The Journal of the Helen Suzman Foundation, Issue 69, June 2013]
3.16.1 State TWO characteristics of the Johannesburg CBD that is
evident in the photograph.
(2 x 1)
(2)
3.16.2 Which land-use zone has the highest land value, as indicated on the
graph?
(1 x 1)
(1)
3.16.3 How does the land value (answer to QUESTION 3.16.2) influence
the building density of the CBD?
(1 x 2)
(2)
3.16.4 Why is the transition zone generally dilapidated despite high land
values?
(2 x 2)
(4)
3.16.5 Why is the outlying business district (OBD) attractive for the
relocation of businesses?
(3 x 2)
(6)
89
Urban settlements issues
A: Urban issues related to rapid urbanisation
Inner-city problems:
Rise of squatter settlements
a. Industrial expansion is slower than the rate of urbanisation
b. Unequal provision of services
c. Poverty and unemployment
d. Environmental pollution
e. Crime and violence
Urban blight:
f. Deterioration of parts of an urban area
g. Area of decay is transition zone
h. Owners do not maintain buildings in this area
i.
Solutions:
i. Slum clearance- demolishing old buildings and starting from scratch.
Housing provided for residents
ii. Regeneration- improving physical environment by renovating old
buildings, creating employment and improve quality of life
iii.
Invasion and succession- replacing the original function with a new function
iv.
Gentrification- low cost housing bought by wealthy people and are modernized
v. Façadism- front of building preserved for heritage remembrance but
the rest of the building is renovated
Lack of planning:
j.
Low income residential areas found on outskirts
k. Results in high rate of commuting putting pressure on transport
l.
Poor service provision results in protests
Traffic congestion:
m. Build-up of vehicles on roads occurring mostly during peak hours
Causes:
Solutions:
People live far from work
Monitoring of public
transport
Introduce rapid and safe
transport
Decentralisation
Cycle lanes
Ring roads
Park and ride facilities
Inefficient public transport
Poor road safety
Excessive use of private vehicles
Expensive parking
Grid iron street patterns
Overcrowding and housing shortages:
n. Shortage of living space due to rapid urbanisation
Service provision:
o. Municipalities are struggling to provide basic services due to rapid urbanisation
p. Resulting in protests for better service delivery
B: Informal Settlements
i. Illegally built settlements due to lack of housing by poor people
ii. Lack basic services
iii.
Mostly found in LEDCs
iv.
Problems:
Vulnerable to elements
Susceptible to wild fires
Spread of diseases
Crime, drugs, poverty
Unhygienic
v.
Solutions:
Relocation
Self-help schemes
Provision of basic services
C: Justice Issues in Urban Areas
Social injustices:
q. Causes of unequal access to resources and services
i. Greed and corruption
ii. Nepotism
iii.
Lack of public participation
91
r. Impact
i. Xenophobia
ii. Violent protests
iii.
Crime
Economic injustices:
s. Poverty
i. Causes
Lack of education
Wages in primary sector too low
Unemployment
ii. Solutions
Basic income grant
Increase support to farmers
Skills programmes
iii.
Impact
Increased crime
Malnutrition
Increased illness
Low standard of living
t. Poor public transport
i. Impact
Frequent accidents
Pollution
Traffic congestion
ii. Solutions
Improve bus routing
Upgrade taxi ranks
Dedicated public transport lanes
Introduce eco-friendly transport systems
Subsidies for public transport improvement Environmental
injustices:
Type
cause
Air pollution
CO
Sulphur
Power stations
Domestic
activiti
es
Noise pollution
Destruction of
ecosystems
Industries
Airplanes
Traffic
Fire crackers
o
o
Population
growth
Settlem
ent
expansi
on
effect
Health problems
Acid rain
Destruction of
ecosystems
Global warming
solution
Electricity saving
campaigns
Strict control of
pollution by
government
Use ozone
friendly
products
Extend green
belts
Noise barriers
Hypertension
Altering flight
and hearing loss
paths
Reduces
Restrict times
quality of life
of day for
certain noise
levels
o Soil erosion
o Legislation
o Education
o Pollution
of
92 freshwat
er
93
94
Activity 3.17
Refer to the infographic on informal settlements.
[Source:
https://www.google.com/search?q=infographic+shack+dwellers&tbm=isch&ved]
3.17.1 How many people in South Africa, according to the infographic, live in
shacks?
(1 x 1)
(1)
3.17.2 State TWO advantages of living in a backyard shack compared to an
informal settlement according to the infographic.
(2 x 1)
(2)
3.17.3 Why do a larger number of people still choose to live in informal
settlements compared to backyard shacks?
(1 x 2)
(2)
3.17.4 How does the building material of informal settlements increase
(1 x 2)
(2)
3.17.5 Identify and explain ONE social issue that developed due to the
growth of informal settlements.
(2 x 2)
(4)
3.17.6 How can local municipalities reduce the challenges associated with the
growth of informal settlements?
(2 x 2)
(4)
vulnerability (more at risk) to extreme weather conditions?
3.18 Refer to the extract below on informal settlements.
FLOODS CAUSE DESTRUCTION TO INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS IN
ETHEKWINI MUNICIPALITY
18 April 2022
12:45
The recent flooding in Ethekwini
and surrounding areas has
claimed hundreds of lives.
Families were displaced from
informal settlements, worsening
the housing problem many
already face.
Rapid
urbanisation
and
government failure to deliver
sufficient formal housing are
among the driving forces behind the increased number of informal settlements. The
unavailability of suitable land for housing is due to limited progress made with regard to
land policies. This, in turn, is slowing down the ability of local governments to provide
sufficient housing in areas that are not prone to disasters like flooding.
The result is that a quarter of South Africa's urban population is living in informal
settlements built wherever people find open spaces that are prone to disasters. They
lack basic amenities and infrastructure, such as proper roads and storm-water drainage
systems.Many informal settlements are situated near water sources and low- lying areas
which increases the flood risk.
[Adapted from ewn.co.za]
3.18.1 What is an informal settlement?
(1 x 2)
96
(2)
3.18.2 Quote a reason from the extract for the increase in the number of
informal settlements in Ethekwini.
(1 x 1)
3.18.3 Why are informal settlements in Ethekwini at risk of flooding?
(1)
(1 x 2)
(2)
3.18.4 How would the lack of proper roads negatively impact on emergency
services to reach informal settlements in times of disasters,
like floods?
(1 x 2)
(2)
3.18.5 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, suggest measures to
prevent flood-related disasters in informal settlements in the Ethekwini
Municipality.
(4 x 2)
(8)
97
Activity 3.19
Refer to the photographs showing an urban settlement issue.
COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF VEHICLES IN
1960 AND IN 2021
[Adapted from https://www.google.com/traffic-index-globaltraffic-congestion]
3.19.1
What is the trend shown in the photographs concerning the number
of vehicles between 1960 and 2021?
3.19.2
3.19.3
Give TWO possible
QUESTION 3.19.1).
reasons
(1 x 1)
for
this
trend
How does traffic congestion impact the daily traveller?
98
(answer to
(2 x 2)
(2 x 2)
(1)
(4)
(4)
3.19.4
Suggest THREE strategies that could be implemented to reduce
traffic congestion in urban areas.
(3 x 2)
(6)
4. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AFRICA
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY IN SOUTH AFRICA
Four Economic sectors
1.
2.
3.
4.
Primary sector
Secondary sector
Tertiary sector
Quaternary sector
Primary sector
 The sector that deals with the extraction of raw materials from nature
 Consists of the five basic activities
1. Farming
2. Forestry
3. Mining
4. Fishing
5. Hunting
Secondary sector
 The sector that processes raw materials into useful goods. e.g. construction, industries,
manufacturing, food canning
Tertiary sector/Service sector
 The sector that deals with the provision of services. e.g transport, education, banks, doctors,
lawyers
Quaternary sector
 The sector that provides research, collection, analysis and transmission of information. e.g.
medical researchers, technical specialists
99
Refer to figure 4.1 below showing the percentage of employment in each sector to answer
the questions. Write only the answer next to the question number 4.1.1 - 4.1.8. Example 4.1.1
Primary.
Activity 4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.1.7
4.1.8
Which economic sector employs the largest labour force?
Which primary activity employs the largest percentage?
Which sector employs the lowest percentage of labour force?
What percentage of the labour force does the construction activity
employ?
To which sector does construction belong?
Give the economic activity that employs largest number of people
in secondary sector.
Which economic activity employs lowest number of people?
Which economic sector that has transport and communications?
Primary sector
Agriculture
 Agriculture is the growing of crops and rearing of livestock
Contribution of Agriculture to the economy
 Creates job opportunities
 Contributes to the GDP
 Earns foreign exchange through exports
100
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
 Provides raw materials to industries
 Ensures food security Promotes transport sector
 Is a market for other sectors that sell products needed in agricultural sector.
Small-scale farming






It is the production of crops and livestock on a small piece of land to make profit
Produces low yield.
Has limited use of fertilizers.
Uses intensive labour.
Contributes to the GDP.
Uses traditional methods of farming/manual labour.
Large-scale farming





It is the production of crops and livestock on a large piece land to make profit
Contributes to the GDP
Uses large machinery and modern technology
Uses fertilizers
Produces high yield
The photographs below show two types of farming. Match the descriptions in questions
4.2.1- 4.2.6 with the photograph A or B. Write only the letter, (A or B) next to the question
numbers e.g. 4.2.7 B
101
Activity 4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
Farming that produces a low yield per hectare
Farming that focuses on food security in local communities
Farming that is capital – intensive and uses advanced technology
Farming associated with monoculture
Products for the home and export market
Associated with extensive farming practices
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
Main agricultural products for home market and export market
 Maize (for 2023)
Other examples: sugarcane, wheat, cotton, tea, barley, nuts, grapes, vegetables, beef, sheep,
goats, poultry, dairy products etc.
Factors that favour Agriculture in South Africa
1. Climate
 South Africa has a wide range of climate that allows a variety of crops to be grown
2. Soil
 Soil on the east allows for shrubs and trees to be cultivated with success
 Soil on the plateau is suitable for the cereal type of crops
3. Ownership of land
 Commercial farming is productive because farms are privately owned
4. Trade opportunities
 South African products are attractive to foreign countries
5. Large labour force
 Availability of skilled and unskilled workers
6. Relief
 Flat relief in South Africa allows for crop farming
Factors that hinder Agriculture in South Africa
1. Climate
 Drought and floods are common in South Africa
 Rainfall is unreliable and unevenly distributed
 Frost is common in winter restricting some crops
2. Soil
 Fertile soil is lost due to soil erosion
 Soil is thin and overused
102
3. Veld fires
 Burn down crops and kills livestock
4. Labour strikes
 Have a negative impact on production
5. Crime
 Livestock theft has a negative impact on agriculture
MAIZE PRODUCTION
Factors that favour Maize production in South Africa





Temperatures are moderate
South Africa receives rainfall of up to 1000mm per year
Relief is flat in areas within the Maize Triangle
Availability of large labour force
Use of high technology and research in agriculture production
Factors that hinder Maize production in South Africa





Infertile soil due to soil erosion
Three quarters of the country receives annual rainfall of below 500mm
Prevalence of pests and insects
Labour strikes and protests
Cheaper imports from other countries
Contribution of Maize production to the South African economy





Provides jobs to rural communities
Earns foreign exchange through exports
Stimulates economic growth
Used in production of other products
Contributes to the GDP
103
Study figure 4.3 below that provides detail of maize production over a period from 2010 to 2017 in
South Africa and answer the questions that follow.
Activity 4.3
4.3.1 Which year was most Maize produced
4.3.2 Maize production Is very important in South Africa because it
provides food to most South Africans. Describe a possible reason
for the low production in 2016
4.3.3 Food security is an important factor for South Africa. Explain how
small-scale farmers may contribute for food security
4.3.4 Maize farming is one of the major contributors to the primary
sector in South Africa. Discuss THREE factors that favour
agriculture in South Africa
1x1 (1)
1x2 (2)
2x2 (4)
3x2 (6)
Food security and food insecurity
 Food security: when people have access to enough nutritious food
 Food insecurity: when people have no access to enough nutritious food
104
Importance of food security




Alleviates poverty
Maintains good health of people
Prevents hunger and famine
Prevents malnutrition
Positive factors that favour food security in South Africa





A variety of crops can be grown in South Africa
Government incentives to small-scale farmers
Genetically modified seeds
Land reform programme
Land redistribution
Negative factors that hinder food security in South Africa







Infertile soil in most regions
Drought and floods
Pests and diseases
Soil erosion
Lack of capital
Poor roads affecting the transportation of food
Load-shedding affects food production
105
Refer figure 4.4 on the extract on Food Security in South Africa and answer the questions that
follow.
Activity 4.4
4.4.1 Quote TWO reasons from the extract for food insecurity at a
household level.
4.4.2 State the importance of ensuring a country is food secure
4.4.3 Why are poverty-stricken households more vulnerable (at risk) to
negative economic shocks?
4.4.4 Explain why households in rural areas are less vulnerable (less at
risk) to hunger compared to urban households
4.4.5 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, suggest strategies
to improve food security for households in South Africa
106
2x1 (2)
1x2 (2)
1x2 (2)
1x2 (2)
4x2 (8)
MINING
Types of mining
1. Open cast mining
 Surface mining technique that extracts minerals from an open pit in the ground
2. Shaft mining
 Accessing of underground minerals through a vertical opening called a shaft
Minerals mined in South Africa







Platinum (for 2023)
Gold
Coal
Diamond
Iron ore
Chromium
Manganese
PLATINUM PRODUCTION
Contribution of Platinum production to the South African economy








Contributes to job creation in South Africa
Contributes to the GDP
Contributes to the JSE
Earns foreign exchange from exports
Stimulates economic growth
Attracts foreign investors
Multiplier effect leads to the development of other industries
Contributes to the development of infrastructure
Factors that favour Platinum production in South Africa





Large mineral deposits
Good transport infrastructure
Large labour force (skilled and unskilled)
Access to cheap labour
Large market and high demand
107
Factors that hinder Platinum production in South Africa










High taxes
Fluctuation of platinum prices
Labour strikes and protests
Mine disasters
Foreign investor’s concern about labour unrest
Impact of load-shedding/power cuts
Hard lockdown during pandemics
Power struggle between unions
Long transport routes to harbours increases transportation costs
Mining destroys the environment
4.5. Study the infographic on platinum mining and answer the questions that follow
Activity 4.5
4.5.1 To which economic activity does platinum mining belong to?
1x1 (1)
4.5.2 In which year did platinum mining reach its highest sales?
1x1 (1)
4.5.3 Identify a link industry to platinum mining mentioned in the 1x1 (1)
infographic.
108
4.5.4 Name two countries besides South Africa that are largest 2x1 (2)
producers of platinum.
4.5.5 South Africa is said to be the world’s primary source of platinum, 2x2 (4)
how will this have an impact on the economy of the country?
4.5.6 Discuss the challenges faced by platinum mining in South Africa
3x2 (6)
THE SECONDARY SECTOR
The importance of the Secondary sector in South Africa






Contributes to the creation of jobs
Contributes to the GDP
Earns foreign exchange
Attracts foreign investors
Is a market for raw materials produced in the primary sector
Multiplier effect leads to the development of other industries
Types of industries
1. Heavy industry
 Large industry that processes large volumes of raw materials and produces large
products
 Occupies large area
 Uses large machinery
 Uses large quantities of raw materials
 Produces bulky end products
 Located on the outskirts far from the CBD
 Located close to bulk transport facilities
 Produces a lot of pollution
2. Light industry
 Industry that uses less raw materials and produces small products
 Occupies small area
 Located close to the CBD
 Produces small end products
 Produces less or no pollution
3. Raw material-orientated industry
 Located close to the source of raw materials
4. Market-orientated industry
 Located close to the market or customers
5. Footloose industry
 Not tied to any specific location e.g. software companies
109
6. Ubiquitous industry
 Located at any geographic location e.g. telecommunication companies
7. Bridge industry/Break-of bulk point industries
 Located in between raw materials and the market/customers
Activity 4.6
Choose the correct word(s) from those given in brackets. Write only the word(s) next to the question
numbers
4.6.1
(Light/Heavy) industries cover large areas and tend to cause 1x1 (1)
more air pollution.
4.6.2
A power station is an example of a (market-/raw material) 1x1 (1)
oriented industry.
4.6.3
The location of (footloose/ubiquitous) industries is not 1x1 (1)
determined by locational factors such as raw materials,
transport and market.
4.6.4
(Light/Heavy) industries can be located around the CBD.
1x1 (1)
4.6.5
(Market-/Raw material) oriented industries generally
produce low order and perishable goods.
1x1 (1)
4.6.6
(Bridge/Raw material oriented) industries are located near 1x1 (1)
harbours where raw materials are imported.
4.6.7
(Ubiquitous/Market-oriented) industries, like
telecommunications, are not determined by any specific
locational requirements.
4.6.8
(Market-oriented/Heavy) industries are located close to bulk 1x1 (1)
transport facilities.
1x1 (1)
Factors that favour industrial development in South Africa





Availability of a variety of raw materials
Availability of water
Large labour force (skilled and unskilled)
Large coal reserves leading to easy access of electricity
Well-developed transport infrastructure (roads, railway, international airports and
harbours)
110
 South Africa sell to local, regional and foreign market
 Government incentives to industries in rural areas
Factors that hinder industrial development in South Africa
 Over-concentration of industries in core areas leads to traffic congestion, high rentals and lack
of space
 It is costly for companies to exports goods
 Brain drain has led to shortage of skilled workers
 Heavy industries produce a lot of air and noise pollution
 When industries use imported raw materials, products become expensive
 Shortage of water
 High electricity costs, load shedding and cable theft
 Cheap imports and counterfeit goods
THE FOUR CORE INDUSTRIAL REGIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA
1.
2.
3.
4.
PWV (for 2023)
Durban-Pinetown
South Western Cape
Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage (for 2023)
PWV (Pretoria Witwatersrand and Vereeniging)
 Located in Gauteng
 It is the largest core industrial region in South Africa
Main industries in PWV








Gold mining
Automotive industry
Iron and steel production
Chemical products
Engineering products
Cosmetics products
Glass production
Clothing
111
Factors that favour the location of PWV









Large market
Abundant raw materials
Large labour force (skilled and unskilled)
Well-developed transport networks
Well-developed infrastructure
Availability of water
Relatively flat land
Many tertiary institutions for skills development
Large power stations in Gauteng
Factors that hinder the location of PWV








High electricity costs
Overconcentration of industries leading to traffic congestion
Strain on resources
Labour strikes and protests
Load shedding impacting negatively on production
Hard lock down during pandemics
PWV is far from harbours increasing transportation costs
Heavy industries create a lot of pollution
Economic impact of PWV







Contributes to the GDP
Earns foreign exchange
Creates job opportunities
Attracts foreign investors
Multiplier effect leads to the development of other industries
Earning potential increases
Buying power increases
Social impact of PWV





Poverty is reduced
Improved standard of living
Social responsibility (companies re-invest by providing bursaries)
Earning potential increases
Buying power increases
112
Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage
 Located in the Eastern Cape
 It is the smallest core industrial region in South Africa
Main industries in Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage






Automotive industry
Metal production
Textiles
Clothing
Footwear
Fruit canning and food canning
Factors that influence the location of Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage








Presence of a harbour
Large market
Large labour force (skilled and unskilled)
Abundant raw materials
Relatively flat land
Availability of water
Good transport network
Well-developed infrastructure
Factors the influence the location of Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage





Labour strikes and protests
Located far from coal mines resulting in high electricity costs
Load shedding results in loss of production
Hard lockdown during pandemics results in loss of production
The region is often stricken by drought
Economic impact of Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage





Contributes to the GDP
Contributes to the creation of jobs
Earns foreign exchange
Attracts foreign investors
Multiplier effect leads to the development of other industries
126
Social impact of Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage





Alleviates poverty
Improved standard of living
Social responsibility through provision of bursaries
Earning potential increases
Buying power increases
Refer to figure 4.7 below on industrial regions and answer the questions that follow.
Activity 4.7
4.7.1
4.7.2
4.7.3
4.7.4
4.7.5
4.7.6
4.7.7
Identify the industrial region shown in the map
In which province is this industrial region located?
Along which ocean is the industrial region located?
Name the SDI found in the industrial region shown on the map?
List two factors favouring development of industries in this region
List two main industries found in this industrial region.
Why is this industrial region important to the economy of the
province?
4.7.8 How has advancement in technology made industries more
competitive in this core industrial region?
114
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
1x1 (1)
2x1 (2)
2x1 (2)
2x2 (4)
2x2 (4)
Industrial Development Zones (IDZ)
 Industrial zones that have been identified for export driven industries
Aims of IDZ





To develop and upgrade infrastructure
To create jobs
To boost the country’s economy
To alleviate poverty
To attract foreign investors
What do IDZ offer?




Direct links to international ports or airports
World-class infrastructure
Reduced tax
Government incentive schemes
COEGA IDZ
Where is Coega IDZ?
 It is located in Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape
Aims of the Coega IDZ






To create jobs
To improve infrastructure
To develop the economic potential of underdeveloped areas
To attract local and foreign investors
To reduce imports
To use local resources to manufacture goods
Main activities of Coega IDZ





Automotive industry
Agro-processing
Chemicals
Energy
General manufacturing
115
Factors that favour Coega IDZ






Presence of a harbor
Large market
Large labour force
Good communication networks
Good transport networks
Access to international markets
Factors that hinder Coega IDZ
 Poor supply of electricity
 Shortage of skilled labour force
 Government not providing enough investment incentives
Impact of Coega IDZ on the economy







Creation of jobs
Contributes to the GDP
Promotes economic development
Contributes to infrastructure development
Promote exports
Attracts foreign investors
Multiplier effect leads to the development of other industries
Social impact of Coega IDZ





Alleviates poverty
Improves standard of living
Skills development
Earning potential for local people increases
Buying power for local people increases
116
4.8 Refer to the extract Coega IDZ and answer the questions that follow.
Jobs bonanza for Bay as new companies
invest R49m at Coega IDZ
Activity 4.8
4.8.1
4.8.2
4.8.3
4.8.4
4.8.5
What do the Industrial Development Zones aim to achieve?
How many construction jobs were created in the Coega IDZ?
What was the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the Coega
IDZ?
Discuss the factors that favour the development of the Coega
IDZ
How will the people of Nelson Mandela Bay benefit from the
investment made by companies?
1x2 (2)
1x1 (1)
2x2 (4)
2x2 (4)
2x2 (4)
Spatial development index (SDI)
 SDIs are areas that have been identified as having potential for economic growth. It is
developed along the major transport routes.
WILD COAST SDI
Where is Wild Coast SDI?
 Located in the Eastern Cape
117
Aims of Wild Coast SDI





Creation of long term and substantial jobs
Infrastructure development
To generate sustainable economic growth
To promote small businesses in tourism and agriculture
To conserve and manage natural resources to ensure sustainability
Main activities of Wild Coast SDI
 Agriculture
 Tourism
Factors that favour Wild Coast SDI
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Abundant raw materials
A variety of agricultural products can be developed in this area
Scenic beauty, cultural heritage and biodiversity of the area attracts tourists
Attractive geographical location
Government support
Factors that hinder Wild Coast SDI
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Limited infrastructure
Weak rural economy
High unemployment rate
Conflicts over land ownership
Limited financial resources
Economic impact of Wild Coast SDI
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Creation of employment
Generate economic growth
Upgrades local infrastructure
Generates greater income for local communities
Promote growth of small businesses
Development of community projects
Multiplier effect leads to the development of other industries
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Social impact of Wild Coast SDI
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Alleviates poverty
Improved standard of living
Skills development
Earning potential of people increases
Buying power of local people increases
Improvement in services and facilities
4.9 Proposed toll road along WILD COAST SDI
The government and a major road-building consortium have proposed a new toll road, which will
carve through impressive gorges, and indigenous forests and pass close to the new Pondo Park. It
shortens the route by 90km between Durban and East London. This project seems to have little
concern for the environment.
[Source: T. Carnie, African Wildlife,2003]
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Activity 4.9
4.9.1 Write the acronym SDI in full.
4.9.2 Give TWO areas which could attract tourists.
4.9.3 Explain why this part of the Eastern Cape is one of the poorest
areas in South Africa.
4.9.4 Suggest a reason why local government feels the need to build
this road.
4.9.5 Discuss the impact road will have on the local towns and the
People.
Industrial centralization and industrial decentralization
Industrial centralization
 It is an overconcentration of industries in a few core areas
Advantages of industrial centralization
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Four major industrial areas are highly developed
Large labour force
Well-developed infrastructure and communication networks
Multiplier effect
Disadvantages of industrial centralization
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Housing shortages in core areas
High levels of pollution and environmental degradation
Traffic congestion
Water shortages
Industrial decentralization
 Movement of industries to outlying areas that are under developed
Reasons for industrial decentralization
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Job opportunities are not evenly within the country
Uneven spread of financial resources and services
Depletion of resources
The product is no longer in demand
To stimulate growth in outlying rural areas
To reduce transport costs by moving closer to the market
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1x1(1)
2x1 (2)
2x2 (4)
1x2 (2)
3x2 (6)
Advantages of industrial decentralization
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Improved infrastructure
Creation of jobs in outlying areas
Keeps people in outlying areas
Brings balance in levels of development between different regions
Disadvantages of industrial decentralization
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Job losses when companies close down
Industries are far from markets
Transport costs may be high
Industries are isolated
TERTIARY SECTOR/SERVICE SECTOR
Trade (local and international)
 The tertiary sector has higher earnings than other sectors combined
The role of trade in economic development
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Improves standard of living
When the country exports more and imports less the GDP will be higher
A positive balance of trade is important to end global poverty
Countries that engage in international trade grow faster
The role of transport in economic development
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Good transport infrastructure promotes the transportation of goods
Bad transport infrastructure delays goods from reaching the market on time
Good public transport assist workers to reach their workplaces on time
When too many people use their own vehicles to work, it results in traffic congestion and
delays
Impact of trade in economic development
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Creation of jobs
Exports earn foreign exchange
Contributes to the GDP
Improves standard of living
Improves infrastructure
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Disadvantages of international trade
 Imported goods are sometimes cheaper
 Job losses and closure of local industries
 Local production may decrease because the market is flooded by imported goods.
Favourable balance of trade
 It is when the value of exports is greater than the value of imports.
Unfavourable balance of trade
 It is when the value of imports is greater than the value of exports.
Advantages of a favourable balance of trade
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Foreign capital flows into the country.
Job creation.
Economic growth is stimulated.
Standard of living improves.
Disadvantages of an unfavourable balance of trade
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Capital flows out of the country.
Economic growth slows down.
Workers lose job.
Standard of living declines.
Ways to improve unfavourable balance of trade
 Promote exports and import less
 Protectionism
Informal sector (informal trading)
 Informal sector refers to small businesses that are unregistered and provide goods and
services without licenses and don’t pay tax
Examples of informal trading
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Street vending
Flea market
Street barber shop
Street hairdressers
Car guards
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 Street car washers
Reasons for the development of informal trading
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Unemployment
Job losses/retrenchments
Lack of skills
Lack of education
Characteristics of the informal sector
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Workers are self-employed
Does not contribute to the GDP as it does not pay tax
Employs unskilled and semi-skilled workers
Unsafe and unhealthy working conditions
Profit is low
Limited access to infrastructure
Lack of access to financial services
Importance of the informal sector
 Goods and services can be purchased at lower prices
 Creates employment
 Provides a source of income to those who can’t find jobs
Problems/challenges facing the informal sector
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Informal traders are harassed by local authorities
No access to proper trading facilities
Informal traders lack skills and education
Banks are reluctant to grant informal traders with loans
Measures to improve the informal sector
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Provide informal traders with infrastructure
Provide informal traders with storage facilities
Provide informal traders with easy access to bank loans
Introduce trading permits to regulate the sector
Why informal traders don’t want trade permits?
 They don’t want to pay tax
 It is expensive to apply for trade permits
 They don’t want to comply with regulations
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 Many informal traders are illegal immigrants and don’t want to be caught
Advantages of trade permits
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Informal traders will be protected
They will pay tax
They can get bank loans
They can have access to infrastructure
Trade permits allows for planning by local government
Activity 4.10
4.10 Refer to the graph on the informal sector and answer the questions that follow.
4.10.1
Explain what the informal sector is.
1x2(2)
4.10.2
Provide a reason for the development of the informal sector.
1x1(1)
4.10.3
What was the percentage of the people who earned between R1 - 1x2(2)
R500 a month?
4.10.4
Explain why only 1% of the people employed in the informal
sector earn R8000 a month.
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1x2(2)
4.10.5
According to the graph above 16% of people in the informal sector 4x2(8)
could not earn an income in a month. In a paragraph of not more
than eight lines provide reasons that could have led to the people
not to have earned an income.
4.11. Refer to the cartoon and extract below on informal trading and answer the
questions that follow
Activity 4.11
4.11.1
Give another name for the informal sector from the extract.
1x1(1)
4.11.2
Why does the trader in the cartoon not have a permit?
1x1(1)
4.11.3
Quote ONE consequence from the extract for the trader who does
1x1(1)
not have a permit.
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4.11.4
Why are people in the informal sector mistakenly referred to as 1x2(2)
unemployed?
4.11.5
How does the economy benefit from the informal sector?
4.11.6
Suggest THREE incentives that the government can provide to 3x2(6)
regulate the informal sector
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2x2(4)