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Industrial training work report
Technical Report · July 2019
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.32886.96329
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A TECHNICAL WORK REPORT
ON
STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME
(SIWES)
UNDERTAKEN AT
TRECONS & PARTNERS LIMITED
NO 41, IBIKUNLE AVENUE, BODIJA, IBADAN OYO STATE
BY
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN
200287
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.SC) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
FROM:
APRIL TO JUNE 2019
JULY 2019
SUBMISSION LETTER
Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Technology,
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria.
21st July, 2019.
The Director,
Industrial Training Coordinating Centre,
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria.
Dear Sir,
SUBMISSION LETTER FOR TIT 399 REPORT WORK
Having completed the -weeks training programme required by the Student Industrial
Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), which started on the 8th of April, 2019 and ended on the
30th June, 2019, I, AKINLOYE, Bukunmi Stephen with matric number 200287 of the
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology hereby write to inform you that the
report was compiled and completed by me. I therefore submit the report work as partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the student industrial work experience scheme of the
University of Ibadan.
I did the training at Trecons & Partners, No 41 Ibikunle Avenue, Bodija, Ibadan Oyo state.
I will like to thank you sir, for the placement and coordination during the period of the
SIWES and I would like to summit this report as requested by your office.
Thanks.
Please find attached here with a detailed copy of my report.
Yours faithfully,
Akinloye Bukunmi S.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I return all glory and honour to Almighty God; the father of light and giver of all wisdoms for
His inspiration and impartation of knowledge throughout the course of my industrial
programme, also for giving me the commitment and patience to pass various obstacles.
Also, the management of Trecons and Partner Limited starting from the chairman to all other
staff, for giving me the opportunity to be trained under an organization of high status
To the entire working staffs, my colleagues and the manager Engr. Oyedepo (MSc, FNSE,
MNISE) at trecons and partners consulting engineers I really want to appreciate you all for
your support.
I will like to appreciate the industrial training coordinating centre ( ITCC) for the privilege
given to me to explore the practical world of my career.
Department of civil engineering will also be remembered for their guidance and support
during the period of my industrial training.
Thank you all.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page iii
DEDICATION
This industrial training report is dedicated to my parents (Mr. & Mrs. Akinloye) for their
support and encouragement and also to my siblings for their unending love. I love you all
beyond all measures.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................vii
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1
1.1
STUDENTS‟ INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)............... 1
1.1.1
THE CONCEPT AND ITS MEANING .............................................................. 1
1.1.2
THE NEED FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING .................................................... 2
1.1.3
OBJECTIVES OF SIWES ................................................................................... 2
1.1.4
NATURE AND SCOPE OF STUDENTS‟ INDUSTRIAL WORK
EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES) ................................................................................... 3
1.2
COMPANY‟S PROFILE AND HISTORY ................................................................ 3
1.2.1
INTRODUCTION TO TRECONS & PARTNERS CONSULTING
ENGINEERS ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.5
COMPANY ORGANIZATION .......................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.0
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A BUILDING AND THEIR DIFFERENT TYPES
6
2.1
ROOF TRUSS ............................................................................................................. 6
2.2
SUSPENDED SLAB .................................................................................................. 7
2.3
STAIRCASE ............................................................................................................... 9
2.4
BEAM ....................................................................................................................... 10
2.5
COLUMN.................................................................................................................. 11
2.6
FOUNDATION ......................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 14
3.0
TRANSFER OF LOAD AND MOMENTS IN STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ........ 14
3.1
LOADING IN SLAB ................................................................................................ 14
3.2
LOADING OF BEAMS ............................................................................................ 16
3.3
MOMENT TRANSFER IN BEAMS ........................................................................ 20
3.4
LOAD AND MOMENT TRANSFER IN COLUMNS ............................................ 23
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page v
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 25
4.0
WORK EXPERIENCE ............................................................................................. 25
4.1.1
4.2
CONSULTING DEPARTMENT .......................................................................... 25
DESIGN .................................................................................................................... 25
4.2.1
SLAB DESIGN .................................................................................................. 27
4.2.2
BEAM DESIGN ................................................................................................ 30
4.2.3
COLUMN DESIGN........................................................................................... 33
4.2.4
COLUMN BASE DESIGN ............................................................................... 36
4.2.5
STAIR DESIGN ................................................................................................ 37
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 40
ROAD CONSTRUCTION ...................................................................................................... 40
5.1
PLANNING ROAD CONSTRUCTION .................................................................. 40
5.2
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS .............................................................................. 40
5.4
KEY ROLE PLAYERS IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION ........................................... 42
5.4.1 CLIENT ..................................................................................................................... 42
5.6
5.6.1
DESIGN VEHICLES SELECTION ......................................................................... 43
DESIGN SPEED ................................................................................................... 44
5.7
DRAINAGE .............................................................................................................. 44
5.8
MATERIALS USED IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION ............................................... 44
5.8.1
STONE AGGREGATE ......................................................................................... 44
5.8.2
BITUMEN ............................................................................................................. 45
5.9
ROAD CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT................................................................ 46
5.10 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................. 47
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................ 49
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 49
RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................................... 49
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 51
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page vi
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Company Organogram ............................................................................................... 5
Figure 2: The section of a storey building showing its structural members ............................ 6
Figure 3: Different types and shapes of trusses (from MSNBC, 2013) ..................................... 7
Figure 4: Different types of flat slab (from ARC 261, 2014) .................................................... 8
Figure 5: Solid slab (from ARC 261, 2014) .............................................................................. 8
Figure 6: Ribbed slab (from ARC 261, 2014) ........................................................................... 9
Figure 7: Waffle slab (from ARC 261, 2014) ............................................................................ 9
Figure 8: Column square section ............................................................................................. 12
Figure 9: Column circle section ............................................................................................... 12
Figure 10: One-way slab .......................................................................................................... 14
Figure 11: Two-way slab ......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 12: Cantilever slab ........................................................................................................ 15
Figure 13: Yield Line method of loading ................................................................................ 17
Figure 14: Coefficients for loading of beams supporting rectangular two-way panels (from
Reynolds and Steedman, 1988: p. 205) ................................................................................... 18
Figure 15: Shear force coefficients for uniformly loaded rectangular panels supported on four
sides with provision for torsion at corners (from BS8110-1:1997 p. 45) ................................ 19
Figure 16: statically determinate beam, bending (sagging) under a uniformly distributed load
.................................................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 17: Fixed beam and its bending pattern ........................................................................ 21
Figure 18: Continuous beam, and its bending pattern ............................................................. 21
Figure 19: Cantilever beam and its pattern of bending ............................................................ 22
Figure 20: A propped cantilever and its bending pattern ......................................................... 22
Figure 21: An overhang beam, and its bending pattern ........................................................... 23
Figure 22: Roadways Functional Classification Hierarchy………………………………….40
Figure 23: Pavement Components…………………………………………………………...48
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page vii
TABLE OF PLATES
Plate 1: Structural General Arrangement & Design Parameters .............................................. 27
Plate 2: Slab Design ................................................................................................................. 28
Plate 3: Beam Design ............................................................................................................... 33
Plate 4: rectangular column with rebar .................................................................................... 36
Plate 5: Stair Design………………………………………………………………………….39
Plate 6: Rural Arterial Road………………………………………………………………….41
Plate 7: Urban Arterial Road…………………………………………………………………41
Plate 8: Rural Collector Road………………………………………………………………...41
Plate 9: Urban Collector Road………………………………………………………………..41
Plate 10: Local Rural Road…………………………………………………………………..42
Plate 11: Local Urban Road…………………………………………………………………42
Plate 12: Grid Roller………………………………………………………………………….46
Plate 13: A Bulldozer………………………………………………………………………...46
Plate 14: A Grader………………………………………………………………………........46
Plate 15: Smooth Wheel Roller………………………………………………………………46
Plate 16: A Concrete Mixer…………………………………………………………………..46
Plate 17: A Scrapper……………………………………………………………………….....46
Plate 18: A Concrete Paver…………………………………………………………………..46
Plate 19: Bitumen Boiler……………………………………………………………………..46
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page viii
ABSTRACT
This work report contains a detailed overview of the mandatory 3months SIWES industrial
training programme for students in engineering and technology which they must undergo in a
relevant industry and a general account on the experienced gained during the training.
It describes the firm that the industrial training was undertaken, location of the firm, the
functions performed, the major work executed in the consulting firm, the challenges faced
and some solutions to the problems encountered.
An explicit report on the stages involved in the structural analysis, frames and beams and the
factors considered to give adequate stability for structural elements combined together to give
aesthetically and adequate structures manually and site visitation to various roads under
construction in Ibadan. Consequence upon this, the roads have been placed amongst one of
the poorest and yet the most expensive roads in the world, there is a belief in some quarters
that it cost more to build a kilometer road in the country than elsewhere. Some of the
prominent factors affecting construction cost of roads in Nigeria are; Cost of materials,
Change in Project design, High Cost of Machinery, Fraudulent practices and Kickbacks,
Wrong Method of Estimation to mention a few. Also, included are the challenges faced
during the industrial training and the appropriate measure taken to solve them.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page ix
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)
1.1.1 THE CONCEPT AND ITS MEANING
The Students‟ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a system imbues with the
ability to provide tertiary-level students with the opportunity of gaining practical-based
work experience in relation and addition to what they have learnt in school within the time
framework of their undergraduate tutelage. Sequel to the inception of SIWES in 1973, there
was glaring evidence that inadequate practical exposure of students in Universities and
Polytechnics posed serious challenges to both the quality and standard of Engineering and
Technology Education in our nation. This inadequacy became a serious threat to the
industrial and technological growth of the country as industries and establishment found
our graduates unsuitable for employment without undertaking industrial training.
It is in recognition of the Federal Government through the Industrial Training Fund (ITF)
which was established by decree 47 of 1971, introduced the Student Industrial Work
Experience Scheme (SIWES) in 1973. The scheme (SIWES) according to Mafe (2005a)
was established to bridge the gap between theories and the knowledge acquired by students
in institutions of higher learning on one hand and the practical industrial work on the other
hand. The scheme can therefore be seen as a practical supplement to the gap in skills
acquisition, as it provides the student with the opportunity of familiarizing their hand and
getting exposed to the needed experience in handling of machinery and equipment that are
usually not available in educational institutions.
The scheme is also aimed at minimizing the destructive handling of employers‟ machinery
and equipment during the student‟s early contact days in post-graduation employment as
well as promoting the much desired technological know-how for the advancement of the
nation. It is also meant to enlist and strengthen employers‟ involvement in the entire
educational process of preparing students for employment in industries.
In view of the aforementioned importance of SIWES, the Federal Government included it
in almost all professionally based courses in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. To accomplish
this, decree 16 of 1985 was promulgated which states that “All students of specialized
Engineering, Technology, Business, Applied Science or Applied Arts Program shall be
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 1
required to have compulsory supervised industrial attachment as part of their regular studies
in such manner as may be prescribed by collaborating agencies.
1.1.2 THE NEED FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
Theoretical knowledge alone would not usually prepare an educated person for the world of
work. The worker or productive individual must not only be knowledgeable but must also be
versatile in the application of skills to perform defined jobs or work.
The reality of the foregoing fact can be illustrated by using a simple analogy. While it is
possible for someone to learn and imbibe all the available information on driving a car in the
classroom, it is unlikely that the individual would, based on this knowledge alone, be able to
drive a car at the first opportunity. On the other hand, someone else without the theoretical
information on how to drive a car, on being told and shown what to do, followed by handson practice and supervision by an instructor, would at the end of the day be able to drive a
car successfully. Of course, someone who has been exposed to both the theoretical
underpinnings of driving a car and the hands-on experience of doing so would and should be
a better driver (Mafe, 2009).
The productive individual, particularly in this millennium, must be able to combine and
utilize the outcomes from the two forms of learning (Know-How Ability and Do-How
Capability) for the production of goods and services.
1.1.3 OBJECTIVES OF SIWES
The Industrial Training Fund‟s Policy Document No. 1 of 1973 (ITF, 1973) which
established SIWES outlined the objectives of the scheme. The objectives are to:
 Provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial
skills and experience during their courses of study
 Prepare students for industrial work situations that they are likely to meet after
graduation.
 Expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery
that may not be available in their institutions.
 Make the transition from school to the world of work easier and enhance students‟
contacts for later job placements.
 Provide students with the opportunities to apply their educational knowledge in real work
situations, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 2
 Enlist and strengthen employers‟ involvement in the entire educational process and
prepare students for employment in industry and commerce.
1.1.4 NATURE AND SCOPE OF STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE
SCHEME (SIWES)
Practical knowledge relates to doing. According to Ochiagha (1995) practical knowledge is
learning without which mastery of an area of knowledge may be too difficult to achieve.
Practical knowledge involves developing skills through the use of tools or equipment to
perform tasks that are related to a field of study. No society can achieve meaningful
progress without encouraging its youth to acquire necessary practical skills. Such skills
enable them to harness available resources to meet the needs of society. It was against this
background that SIWES, otherwise referred to as Industrial Training (IT), was introduced
in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Oyedele (1990) states that work experience is an
educational program in which students participate in work activities while attending
school. This work experience program gives students the opportunity to be part of an actual
work situation outside the classroom. SIWES is a cooperative industrial internship program
that involves institutions of higher learning, industries, and the federal government of
Nigeria, Industrial Training Fund (ITF), Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) and
NBTE/NCCE in Nigeria. Students that participate in this work experience program include
those studying engineering, environmental sciences, social sciences, and related courses in
institutions of higher learning. SIWES forms part of the approved minimum academic
standards in these institutions. SIWES is a core academic requirement carrying four credit
units.
1.2
COMPANY’S PROFILE AND HISTORY
1.2.1 INTRODUCTION TO TRECONS & PARTNERS CONSULTING
ENGINEERS
TRECONS & PARTNERS is a Nigerian based development, management and consulting
firm with a wide range of expertise. TRECONS & PARTNERS was primarily incorporated
to provide Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering and Project Management services. We
work with public and private sector entities to promote sustainable economic development by
combining industry-specific expertise with proven technologies, TRECONS & PARTNERS
provides solutions that addresses clients‟ needs to reduce costs, improve quality, and enhance
competitiveness. TRECONS & PARTNERS maintains a core technical staff of experienced
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 3
practitioners who are supported by internationally respected associates and consultants.
Collectively, the company brings several decades of experience to bear on each project.
We provide a full range of services from feasibility studies, thorough design and construction
supervision; cost planning, monitoring, control, operation and maintenance, institutional
strengthening, and training of our clients‟ staff. We are also involved with „build, operate and
transfer” projects, “design and build” and “turnkey” schemes.
1.2.3 SCOPE OF SERVICES

Structural Engineering

Water Resources Engineering

Highway Engineering

Infrastructure Development

Post Contract Services

Housing and Land Development

Facility Management

Project Management
TRECONS & PARTNERS has strong links with international associates. We are able to
leverage our links to assist both public and private sector entities in financing projects.
TRECONS & PARTNERS conducts and facilitates capital investment planning, feasibility
and costing studies, identification of procurement options, and sourcing of market and nonmarket based corporate and limited-recourse financing.
The infrastructure development practice is primarily focused on assisting agencies and
governments in improving utility and other services to the populace.
The housing and land development practice provides training, technical assistance, and
services related to affordable housing and community development to federal, provincial and
municipal agencies, developers, and non-profit organizations. The services provided aim to
assist in the design and implementation of programs that provide affordable, cost-effective
housing which promote community, business and economic development.
As the company focused on clients in Nigeria, we are sensitive to the cultural, political, and
social norms in all the geo-political zones of the Country and understands the need to foster
sustainability, promote local skill development and support local job growth. Trecons &
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 4
Partners is also dedicated to these principles and is working hard with clients, including
governments, to bring about development that is beneficial for all stakeholders.
1.2.4 MANAGEMENT
Our consultancy firm is organized on a partnership basis. The firm operates through
organized departments and one major partner heads each department. Every project is
classified and a project director/manager with full control of the management and
coordination of the assigned work. We have competent key staff and other technicians and
support staff. The principal partner is the founder and also the most senior engineer in the
firm. He manages and oversees the firm‟s major activities. He vets all major design and
modifications and also he is the Head consultant and deals with all issues that ensue with
clients. The operations board involves all the engineers that work in the firm and is chaired
by the principal partner. All day to day financial expenses for the smooth running of the firm
such activities include transport fares, fuel for the generator and so on. These are taken care
of by the finance/administrative section of the firm.
1.2.5 COMPANY ORGANIZATION
The company‟s organizational chart is as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1: Company Organogram
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A BUILDING AND THEIR DIFFERENT
TYPES
It has been made known earlier in this report that the job of a structural engineer is to ensure
the stability of a building structure by its ability to resist applied loads during its service
period without surpassing the acceptable limit of deformation. To ensure the stability of a
whole building, the structural engineer must first of all ensure the stability of the structural
members which make up this building being designed. Fig. 3 below shows structural
members in a building.
Figure 2: The section of a storey building showing its structural members
For more convenience, the structural members of a building are designed in order of their
elevation i.e. from the top at the roof truss down to the foundation bases. The reason for this
is obviously the direction of transfer of load, which is downwards under the influence of
gravity.
2.1
ROOF TRUSS
This is simply the truss carrying the roof of the building. It is mostly made of wood in small
or mid-sized residential buildings, and is such cases doesn‟t need to be designed. A steel truss
is needed for a roof covering a large area, and it needs to be designed. A steel truss can be
designed manually after using methods of statically determinate analysis to find the tensile
and compressive loads within its members. Such methods of analysis are:

Method of Joint Resolution

Method of Sections
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
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
Graphical Method
Below in Fig. 3.2 are different types of trusses and how they are shaped
Figure 3: Different types and shapes of trusses (from MSNBC, 2013)
2.2
SUSPENDED SLAB
A suspended slab is a flexural planar element, which is supported by beams and columns, and
is as a result subject to bending moments and shear forces. The following are different types
of slabs:

Flat slab

Solid slab

Ribbed slab

Waffle slab
2.2.1 Flat Slab: A flat slab (Fig. 3.3) is a suspended slab which has no support beams. It is
supported directly by the columns, which transfer its load down to the foundation. Flat slabs
are used in buildings with a large area, e.g. conference halls, and their usage makes the
building relatively cheaper to construct because of the elimination of the floor beams.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
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Figure 4: Different types of flat slab (from ARC 261, 2014)
2.2.3 Solid Slab: A solid slab (Fig. 3.4) is one which is supported by beams first, before the
columns. A solid slab is more stable, and is commonly used in buildings where there is a lot
of activity, e.g. institutional buildings and hospitals. Solid slabs are more stable because they
are restrained over the discontinuous edges.
Figure 5: Solid slab (from ARC 261, 2014)
2.2.4 Ribbed Slab: A ribbed slab (Fig. 3.5) is one which is composed of a thin slab
supported on reinforced concrete ribs which bear resemblance to beams. The thin slab is
referred to as the topping, while the ribs span across the longer sides of the slab. Ribbed slabs
are used for very large spaces because they are much less prone to deflection than flat or solid
slabs. This is due to the fact that a lot of concrete has been removed from the cross section of
a ribbed slab, and this is what gives it that ribbed shape. The removal of that amount of
concrete effects a drastic reduction in the deadweight of the slab, and in turn the moments it
would be subjected to.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 8
Figure 6: Ribbed slab (from ARC 261, 2014)
2.2.5 Waffle Slab: A waffle slab (Fig. 3.6) is like a two-way version of a ribbed slab. Its
ribs form a pattern of grids as they cross each other at regular intervals. Waffle slabs are of
two types; those with beams from column to column on all sides and the mushroom type
which has no beams but with capital around the columns (column heads). (Oyenuga, V.O.
2011)
Figure 7: Waffle slab (from ARC 261, 2014)
2.3
STAIRCASE
For a building with a suspended floor, or more, the means of moving between floors are the
stairs, and there are different types. Oyenuga (2011) defines a staircase as a set of steps or
flight leading from one floor to another. The following are the components of typical stairs:
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 9

The riser

The tread

The concrete waist
The riser is the vertical side of a step, while the tread or going is its horizontal side.
The concrete waist is the inclined reinforced concrete slab on which the riser and tread sit.
According to Oyenuga (2011), it has been found that for comfortable usage, the best
proportions of step are such that:
Going + (2
Rise) = 580mm to 600mm …….(1)
The following are types of stairs:

Straight fight stairs

Half turn stairs

Spiral stairs

Helical stairs

Cantilever stairs

Quarter turn stairs
A straight flight staircase runs from one floor to the next without any intermediate
landing. It is the simplest form of suspended stairs. The half turn staircase is composed of two
flights, with a landing in-between. This landing is known as a half landing. Spiral staircases
are very efficient in places with limited space. The spiral staircase consists of a central
column of circular cross-section, around which the flight of stairs cantilevers out radially.
The steps are usually tapered at the ends to reduce concrete mass, and hence deflection.
Quarter turn stairs, also referred to as open well stairs, are composed of shorter flights and
more landings than half turn stairs, and they also conserve space, though not as much as the
spiral stairs. A cantilever staircase is composed of short cantilevers which project out from a
reinforced wall or incline beam, and they serve very well for aesthetic purposes
2.4
BEAM
A beam is the structural member which receives load, usually from a suspended slab, and
transfers it to the columns. Beams are also flexural members i.e. they resist load by bending.
A beam‟s tension reinforcement is designed for using bending moments it is subjected to, and
its shear reinforcements are designed for using the shear forces applied on it. Beams also
serve as non-structural members in lintels, above openings in the building structure, but the
following are structural functions beams perform in buildings:
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 10

As roof beams

As floor beams

As raft beams
Roof beams are used in buildings with steel roof trusses that have substantial deadweight.
The roof beams act as support reactions for the steel trusses, and they transfer the deadweight
directly to the columns. Roof beams are not usually very deep because they are not subjected
to as much bending as floor or raft beams.
Floor beams are the ones that resist the weight of suspended slabs and transfer this weight
down to their columns. Floor beams are used for solid slabs, like the one in Fig. 3.1 above.
Floor slabs are sometimes required to be deep, especially those carrying deep solid slabs. The
minimum allowable depth for a floor slab is 450mm. However, floor beams as deep as
1200mm exist, and they usually carry solid slabs of about 200mm depth.
Raft beams are used for raft foundations. They perform a similar function to floor beams as
they resist bending moments from the upthrust of the soil upon which the foundation is laid.
The only difference between a raft beam and a floor beam is that whereas a floor beam resists
sagging moments along its span, a raft beam resists hogging moments along its own span.
2.5
COLUMN
The column is the structural member that receives load from the beam(s) and transfers it
down to the foundation. The columns are usually compression members, but are also
subjected to bending along their axes. Therefore, in columns that do not experience bending,
only nominal reinforcement is required as concrete is very good in resisting compression
without any assistance from steel. The nominal reinforcement just enables a factor of safety
and also prevents cracking due to stress. Columns are also subjected to shear, and as a result
require shear links. Column sections can be of different shapes and sizes, but the smallest size
for a square section is 225mm 225mm (Fig. 3.7), while for a circular section column, the
smallest recommended size is of diameter 300mm (Fig. 3.8). Both figures were drawn by me,
with the aid of AutoCAD 2010.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 11
Figure 8: Column square section
Figure 9: Column circle section
2.6
FOUNDATION
A foundation is the substructure on which the whole building rests. The following are types
of foundation:

Strip foundation

Pad foundation

Raft foundation

Pile foundation

Floating foundation
Strip foundation is mostly used in bungalows and does not really bear much weight. Pad
foundations are common for one storey houses which are situated on relatively good soil. The
function of the pad is to spread out the point load coming from the building over an area large
enough to make the applied pressure lower than the soil‟s load bearing capacity. As a result,
the size of the pad or base depends on the bearing capacity of the soil. For good soils, the
pads are always relatively small compared to those in low-bearing soils.
Raft foundation is usually used in areas with low bearing capacity, like swampy areas. A raft
foundation consists of a raft being supported by raft beams buried in the soil. The essence of
the raft foundation is to create a platform rigid enough to resist the weight of the building
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without being prone to settlement. The raft foundation can be referred to as an enlarged
version of the pad foundation, in which the whole raft acts a single base for the collective
load being transferred down to the soil from the entirety of the building. Just like in pad
foundation, the size of the raft is inversely proportional to the load bearing capacity of the
soil.
Pile foundation is exists mostly for slender structures like skyscrapers and high rises. The
load usually exerted on the soil by this class of buildings is usually enormous, and as such
need to be transferred to very strong and resistant strata of the soil. As a result, a pile
foundation consists of piles driven deep into the earth‟s crust, usually to the bedrock, pile
caps which are constructed at the top of the piles, and the base which is placed on the pile
caps. This base is the structure which experiences the immediate effect of the building‟s
weight, as it is the structure upon which the building is built.
Floating foundations are usually found in waterlogged areas, and are also mostly used for
houses with lightweight partitions i.e. wood. The base of the building is located a
considerable distance above the ground surface, and is supported by struts which are driven
deep into the soil to a stratum which is not saturated or submerged with water. Floating
foundations are commonly found in coastal dwellings, located in fishing villages and swampy
areas. They are not commonly used for large or public buildings.
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0
TRANSFER OF LOAD AND MOMENTS IN STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Load and moment transfer is very essential in the design of a building structure, as this can
affect the flexibility of the inter relationship between the structural elements, and the ability
to resist failure. Each structural member has various ways by which load and moments can be
transferred through it. This chapter shall explain these phenomena for the slab, beam, and
column
3.1
LOADING IN SLAB
The following explanation is done with an assumption of rectangular slabs. On the basis of
loading, slabs can be divided into three main types:

One-way slab

Two-way slab

Cantilever slab
3.1.1
One-way slab: A one-way slab (Fig 4.1) is one which transfers its load to the beams
on its longer sides only. As a result, it experiences bending in one direction only i.e. parallel
to its short span. Therefore, the main reinforcement bars are laid parallel to the short span
only to resist the bending moments.
Figure 10: One-way slab
3.1.2 Two-way slab: A two-way slab (Fig. 4.2) on the other hand transfers its load to all
the beams on its four sides. Therefore, it experiences bending in two directions, and as such
four main reinforcement bars are designed for to cater for all the moments. These bars are for
the:
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
Short span (mid span)

Short span (continuous edge)

Long span (mid span)

Long span (continuous edge)
Figure 11: Two-way slab
3.1.3 Cantilever slab: This is a slab (Fig. 4.3) that transfers all its load to only one beam,
and like the one-way slab, also bends in only one direction. The difference in their bending is
that the cantilever experiences only negative hogging moments, unlike the one-way slab
which is also subjected to positive sagging moments. For this reason, only top reinforcements
are provided for the cantilever slab.
Figure 12: Cantilever slab
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3.2
LOADING OF BEAMS
The following is the explanation of the loading of floor beams. A floor beam is loaded based
on the manner in which load is being transferred in the slab which it is supporting, and the
location of the beam in the building. The loads being carried by a beam are basically:

Its self-weight

Wall load

Slab load
The wall load can be gotten by multiplying the unit weight of a block by its height and the
deadweight factor of safety for concrete. The unit weight of a block wall is 3.47 KN/m2 while
the deadweight factor of safety is 1.4 (B.S 6399-(1996)).
The amount of slab load transferred to the floor beam depends on the way the load is
transferred within the slab itself. For a one-way slab, the load is assumed to be shared equally
between the two beams, while for a two-way slab, there are different methods for determining
the amount of load being transferred. They are three in number and are as follows:

Yield Line method

Reynolds‟ principle

British Standard table of shear coefficients
The yield line method assumes that the line of action of load transfer in a two-way slab is at
45 degrees to its corners, and the load transferred to a beam is proportional to the triangular
or trapezoidal area being supported by it. The yield line method is shown below in Fig. 4.4
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Figure 13: Yield Line method of loading
The Reynolds‟ principle however, is an extension of this yield line method. It assumes that
more loads are given to continuous sides of a slab panel than the discontinuous edges.
Reynolds makes this assumption due to the fixity that exists at the continuous edge, giving it
more rigidity and ability to resist more load than the discontinuous edge. A chart exists for
the Reynolds‟ method of loading, and this chart provides calculations for the load transfer
from rectangular slab to beam for all kinds of cases of continuity and discontinuity. Here is
the chart below:
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Figure 14: Coefficients for loading of beams supporting rectangular two-way panels
(from Reynolds and Steedman, 1988: p. 205)
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The British Standard table of shear coefficients is one which can be found in the design code
BS8110-1(1997). It contains coefficients for all cases of continuity, which can be substituted
into a formula to get the transferred load. According to the BS code, these formulas for
getting the loads on the supporting beams are:
Vsy = βvynlx …..(2)
Vsx = βvxnlx …..(3)
βvx and βvy are the shear coefficients for the short side and the long side respectively, and they
are found in Table below.
Figure 15: Shear force coefficients for uniformly loaded rectangular panels supported
on four sides with provision for torsion at corners (from BS8110-1:1997 p. 45)
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3.3
MOMENT TRANSFER IN BEAMS
Moments are transferred through beam based on the joints at its ends, or between its span.
The following are types of beams based on the joints

Simply supported beam

Fixed beam

Continuous beam

Cantilever beam

Propped cantilever beam

Overhang beam
A simply supported beam is one which has hinge joints at its ends. As a result, a simply
supported beam has no moments at its ends, but experiences maximum bending moments at
its mid-span. The value of this maximum bending moment is
⁄ Nm for a beam under the
influence of a uniformly distributed load w.
Figure 16: statically determinate beam, bending (sagging) under a uniformly
distributed load
A fixed beam on the other hand is one which has fixed ends. Unlike the hinged ends of the
simply supported beam, fixed ends resist moments, and these are called fixed end moments.
⁄
A fixed end moment has a value of
Nm for a fixed beam under the influence of a
uniformly distributed load w. These fixed moments reduce the maximum bending moment at
the mid-span from
⁄
Nm from
⁄ Nm to
⁄
Nm, and this is as a result of the subtraction of
⁄ Nm,
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Figure 17: Fixed beam and its bending pattern
A continuous beam is one which is broken into two or more spans by one or more
intermediate support(s). The combination of tensile moments in a continuous beam usually
alternates between sagging and hogging moments. A continuous beam distributes moments
between its spans, until stability is attained. This is the basis of analysis procedures like the
moment distribution method, which was developed by Professor Hardy Cross in the year
1930. The intermediate supports are taken to be fixed ends and as a result, the continuous
beam is assumed to be a combination of fixed beams with fixed end moments at each
support, and mostly sagging moments at the individual spans. The magnitude of the moment
being experienced by a span depends on the length of the span, and the applied load on it.
Figure 18: Continuous beam, and its bending pattern
A cantilever beam is one which has a fixed support at one end, while the other end hangs
freely. As a result, a cantilever beam transfers all its load to that fixed end, and experiences a
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fixed end moment only. The value of the fixed end moment is
⁄ Nm for a cantilever
beam under the influence of a uniformly distributed load w.
Figure 19: Cantilever beam and its pattern of bending
A propped cantilever beam is one which has a fixed support at one end, and a simply
supported end at the other. There are no moments at this simply supported end, but the fixed
end moment still exists at the fixed end. There is therefore a possibility of sagging moments
to occur somewhere in between the span of the beam, due to the zero moments at the simply
supported end.
Figure 20: A propped cantilever and its bending pattern
An overhang beam can be described as a continuous beam with a cantilever as the last span
on either or both of the ends. The behaviour of an overhang beam during moment transfer
depends on the number of overhangs it has, and also the intensity of the applied load on those
beams relative to the interior spans.
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Figure 21: An overhang beam, and its bending pattern
3.4
LOAD AND MOMENT TRANSFER IN COLUMNS
Columns are the structural members that transfer load from the superstructure to the
foundation. Columns can be loaded axially or in eccentricity, and there are different ways of
classifying columns.

Loading and moment transfer

Bracing

Height of column relative to the size of the column section
Using the basis of load and moment transfer, columns can be sub-divided into the following:

Axially loaded columns

Uniaxially bending columns

Biaxially bending columns
Axially loaded columns are those loaded without eccentricity, thereby avoiding any bending
moment in the section of the column. Axially loaded columns experience only compressive
forces, and as such may not need a lot of reinforcement, as concrete is good in resting
compression. Uniaxially bending columns are those that have the tendency to bend in only
axis. This may be as a result of the greater length of one of the beams being supported in that
axis, and it may also be as a result of the total absence of a beam on the other side of the axis,
which might serve as a counterbalance if present. Uniaxial bending can also be induced by
slenderness of a column in one axis. Examples of uniaxially bending columns are the edge
columns of a rectangular slab. Biaxially bending columns are those that are prone to bending
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in both axes, as a result of loading. A common example of biaxially bending columns are
columns found at the corners of a rectangular slab.
Considering bracing as a classification method, columns can be grouped into:

Braced columns

Unbraced columns
A braced column is one that possesses bracing against lateral loads, e.g. wind loads. This
bracing is offered to the column by means of walls on either side. As a result, braced columns
are therefore not designed against lateral loading. An unbraced column is one which does not
have bracing against lateral loading, i.e. it does not have walls on any of its sides, and
therefore is open to application of lateral loads at any point on its surface. As a result,
unbraced columns are designed against lateral loading, especially in cases where there is a
possibility of the building experiencing such, e.g. a tall building which is more prone to the
experience of wind load.
Using height in relation to the column section size for classification, columns can be subdivided into

Short columns

Slender columns
To determine whether a column is short or tall, a ratio referred to as slenderness ratio has to
be taken first. The slenderness ratio is equal to
⁄ or
⁄ where:
Lex = effective length of the column in the x-direction
Ley = effective length of the column in the y-direction
b = length of the shorter side of the column cross-section
h = length of the longer side of the column cross-section
The effective length of the column is measured from the top of the column base to the soffit
of the beam it is supporting.
For an unbraced column, a slenderness ratio less than 10 implies shortness, while a
slenderness ratio over 10 implies slenderness. For a braced column, a slenderness ratio of less
than 25 implies shortness, while the column is taken as slender if otherwise. Slender columns
are less stable than short ones, because the slenderness can lead to bending of a column along
its section. Therefore, by default, slender columns are designed against bending. Short
columns fail by crushing, while slender columns fail by buckling.
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
WORK EXPERIENCE
Overview In all, I have been trained as to be equipped in the consultancy and construction
industry as I was exposed to various facets of building profession and road constructions
which deals with general site concept and contractor/consultant interface. Construction
involves a lot of professions like Quantity Surveying, Architecture, Structural Engineering,
Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Surveying, etc. I was exposed to all of this
profession interfaces as far as building and highway construction is concerned. The details of
what I went through are subsequently explained as follows:
4.1
SITE INSPECTION
This is the act of the professionals on the project to check whether the conceived ideas put on
paper are translated into real structure. An engineer must ensure that the project is well
constructed according to the drawings, bill of quantities, and the specification with respect
the program of work to avoid cost overrun and maintain project budget.
4.1.1 CONSULTING DEPARTMENT
Consulting engineering is a professional service that provides independent expertise in
engineering, science and related areas to governments, industries, developers and
construction firms. Engineering consultants provide engineering related services such as
design, supervision, execution, repair, operation, creation of drawing. They are the driving
force behind the construction of roads, highways, bridges and other public facilities.
They make expert assessments of selected sites for construction, evaluating the structural,
environmental and commercial feasibility of projects. Once the project begins, they will be
making periodical monitoring of site activities to ensure that construction is progressing
according to planned schedules and budgets as well as ensuring quality control with respect
to design specifications.
Trecons & Partners Consulting Engineers renders its services to individuals, corporate
organisations and governmental organisations. The organization is divided into design,
detailing and supervision.
4.2
DESIGN
The aim of design is the achievement of an acceptable probability that structures being
designed will perform satisfactorily during their intended life. With an appropriate degree of
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safety, they should sustain all the loads and deformations of normal construction and use.
Adequate durability and resistance to the effects of misuse and fire should also be given an
adequate consideration.
We use BS8110 for design in our office, we use limit state design method. There are two
limit designs which are:
a. Ultimate limit state: This is also known as ULS, it is use to safeguard against collapse
of whole structure or its elements, overturn or buckle when subjected to the design
loads.
b. Serviceability limit state: This is also known as SLS, it is use to safeguard against any
deficiency that will affect the appearance of a building e.g. buckling, deflection,
cracking etc.
We use two (2) methods of design which are;

manual design,

Computer Aided Design (CAD).
With growth of computer usage increasing, engineers tend to use CAD for their work
because it is accurate and require less time. We didn‟t limit our knowledge to use of CAD;
we touch all the aspect of manual design in the design office.
EXAMPLE OF MANUAL DESIGN
I was given the plans, elevations and sections of the structure to design manually using the
knowledge I gained from school, studying of text books and guidance from supervision
engineer. The assignment was to be submitted in a month period. The concrete and steel
stresses given were 20N/mm² and 410N/mm² respectively. The general loading condition
was:

live load
1.50kN/m²

roof load (live and dead)
1.50kN/m²

floor finishes
1.20kN/m²

wall and rendering
3.47kN/m²

felting and screed
2.00kN/m²
I was given this assignment so as to know the basis of structural design which will help me
in using software for designing. The structural elements designed include 13 beams, 8
panels, 2 columns, 2 column bases and a half-turn stair case. The total dead load (G) was
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calculated by adding the concrete own load with finishes and partition allowances then the
ultimate load (U) was calculated using the formula; U= 1.4G+1.6Q where Q is the live load.
Also, the wall and roof loads were calculated. They are considered to be point loads on
beams and slabs on which they act. The structural general arrangement and the design
parameters are as shown in Plate.
Plate 1: Structural General Arrangement & Design Parameters
4.2.1 SLAB DESIGN
One-Way Slabs
The section of the slab panel to be designed is drawn indicating the span, the end supports
and all uniformly distributed loads (ultimate loads) and point loads (wall and roof loads)
acting on it, the moment (M) is then calculated followed by k, lever arm (la), As, then
reinforcements which area is greater than the required reinforcement is provided then
deflection is being checked for.
A typical manual slab design is shown in Plate 2.
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Plate 2: Slab Design
4.2.1.1 Two-Way Slabs
The ratio of long span to short span (ly/lx) is to determine the coefficients of their mid spans
and continuous edges. The moments, k, la and As are being calculated and reinforcements are
provided for the long and short spans‟ mid spans and continuous edges then the check for
deflection.
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a. For two-way spanning slab moments were determined using the equations obtained
from Clause 3.5, BS 8110-1 (1997) viz:
=
=
= maximum design ultimate moments either over supports at mid-span on strips
of unit width and span
= maximum design ultimate moments either over supports at mid-span on strips
of unit width and span
and
are moment coefficients obtained from Table 3.14, BS 8110-1(1997)
= total design ultimate load per unit area (1.4Gk+ 1.6Qk)
= shorter span
=longer span
Design
•
Estimate the effective depth from:
Effective depth= Overall depth – Cover - 1/2 bar size.
•
Calculate the K-value from:
≤ 0.156 (Tension Reinforcement only is required) otherwise
K=
(Tension and Compression Reinforcement is needed)
M = bending moment value of the slab
b= width of slab (1000mm)
d= effective depth of slab
Calculate area of steel from: As =
(mm2)
Where:
z = 0.5 + (0.25 - K/0.9)
≤
0.95d
•
Calculate distribution bars and choose appropriate reinforcements from Table 10.3
•
Check for deflection from:
Basic span/effective depth ratio which can be gotten depending on the type of support
fs =
and
where fs = service stress
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M.F. = 0.55+
–
≤ 2.0
Where M.F. = modification factor
Calculate the limiting span to depth ratio which is equal to M.f times basic span/depth ratio
Note:
If Actual Span / Effective depth < Limiting Basic Span / Depth, then Deflection is passed
otherwise failed.
•
Re-design if deflection is inadequate by increasing the reinforcement or depth of slab.
4.2.2 BEAM DESIGN
The beam own load, wall and roof loads and the loads of the slabs acting on the beam is
estimated then the beam is drawn indicating the span, supports and the loadings on it. The
moments, k, and As for the spans and supports of the beam are calculated then
reinforcements are provided. The shear links are also calculated and provided with their
spacing.
Design Procedures
(a)
Rectangular Beams: (for continuous edges)
•
Beam dimensions were chosen:
•
Dead and live loads were estimated: with the depth known, the dead (own) load and
its finishes can be estimated and other imposed loads. These loads were expressed as
uniformly distributed loads.
•
Analysis: The structure was analyzed to obtain the ultimate bending moments and
shear forces.
•
Calculate the k value using
≤ 0.156 this means tension reinforcement is not required
K=
z = d (0.5 + (0.25 - K/0.9)1/2),
As =
But If K > 0.156 then both tensile and compressive reinforcements are required.
A's =
As =
–
+ A's
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Shear Check
Stress was checked for and design for design for shear reinforcement where found
inadequate.
The design shear stress, v, at any cross section was calculated from:
v=
Where:
v=shear
stress
V=shear
force b=breadth of
section
d= effective depth
of the section
v ≤ 0.8fcu or √5.0 N/ mm2
The value of v must be checked against the design concrete shear stress, vc,
vc can be obtained from table 3.8 of Bs 8110, part 1 1997
Table 3.7 of BS8110, part 1: 1997 was consulted for the appropriate relationship to be used
for the link design.
Minimum links should be provided for structures of importance. A practical size being 10mm
at 300mm or 0.75d, or whichever is smaller.
Flange Beams:
Effective Width of Flanged Beams:
Since the flange, at the mid-span contributes to the compressive resistance of the beam, the
effective width of the flange is of paramount importance. A flanged beam presents itself in
building as Ell (L) or Tee (T) beam, in most cases. The code suggests the effective width of
the flange as follows:
For T- (Tee) beams:
Effective width = web width +
For L- (Ell) beams:
Effective width = web width +
Where lz is the distance between points of zero moment which for a continuous beam may be
taken as 0.7times the effective span
The above procedures can then be repeated to calculate the area of steel required.
•
Check for deflection from:
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Basic span/effective depth ratio which can be gotten depending on the type of support
fs =
and
M.f. = 0.55+
–
≤ 2.0
Calculate the limiting span to depth ratio which is equal to M.f times basic span/depth ratio
Note:
If Actual Span / Effective depth < Limiting Basic Span / Depth then Deflection is passed
otherwise failed.
•
Re-design if deflection is inadequate by increasing the reinforcement or depth of
beam.
Beams in reinforced concrete structure are designed to resist ultimate bending moment, shear
forces and torsional moments. beam sections are either singly reinforced beams, doubly
reinforced beams.
T and L-section or rectangular section Beams reinforced with tension steel only are referred
to as singly reinforced while Beams reinforced with tension and compression steel are termed
doubly reinforced. Beams are designed as doubly reinforced when the concrete in thee
compressive part cannot resist the compressive force hence compression reinforcement is
needed at the top to help increase its moment of resistance. Furthermore, beams may be
simply supported at their ends, continuous, or cantilever.
Plate 3 shows a typical example of manual beam design.
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Plate 3: Beam Design
4.2.3 COLUMN DESIGN
The column own load, slab area and all loads acting on the column which may include the
roof beams, roof load and the loads of column vertically on top of the column to be designed
are calculated and added to get the total load being carried by the column. As is calculated
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for and reinforcements are provided then shear failure is checked. A minimum of 4 and 6
numbers of bars are required for rectangular and round columns respectively.
Loading
Beam loads are borne by columns. To calculate axial loads acting on a column, shear forces
acting on the columns at each floor level and column self were progressively added up till
the ground level. This is referred to as „column chase down
Analysis

The hardy cross method of analysis was employed. It is summarized as follows:
D.F =
Where
∑
kcol = stiffness of column under consideration
∑
= total stiffness at joint

Fixed end moments and out of balance moments were calculated

Imposed moment of column was estimated from
Mcol = M x
∑
∑
Columns are compression members although some may be subjected to bending either due to
their slenderness or due to asymmetrical loading from beams. In a structure they carry the
loads from the beams and the slabs down to the foundations
•
Act as a vertical support to suspended members
•
Transmit loads from these members to the foundation below.
Column Classification
•
Short or Slender: When the effective length is not more than 15 times its least lateral
dimensions for braced columns. 10 times for unbraced columns. Slender columns in addition
to any axial load and moments are subjected to moment due to their slenderness.
Braced Columns as those laterally supported by wall, buttressing designed to resist all lateral
forces in that place, otherwise “unbraced”.
•
Axial, Uniaxial and Biaxial: Axial loaded column: is subjected to a concentric axial
load only. Moment in both x and y axes are practically insignificant. The total load is then
supported by the compressive action of both the concrete and steel counterpart of the column.
Uniaxially loaded column is subjected to an axial load and a moment in one direction.
Biaxially loaded column: is subjected to an axial load and moment in the two axes.
Design Procedure for Biaxially loaded column
•
Total axial load at the ultimate limit state was estimated.
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•
Imposed moment on column was estimated from:
Mcol = Mbeam l
Where Mbeam is the net fixed end moment from the beam
•
A trial size was chosen
•
Biaxially loaded columns were converted to uniaxially loaded column by
calculating increased moment from;
Mx' = Mxx + B
Myy
When Mxx / h' > Myy / b'
My' = Myy + B
or
(Mxx)
Where:
B = 1.0 – 1.1644Ø
Ø = N /fcubh
•
Columns were checked for if it was short or slender,
Check for slenderness
A column is classified as short if both lex/h and ley/b are:
Less than 15 for braced column
Less than 10 for an unbraced column otherwise slender column
Where lex and ley are the effective lengths relative to XX and YY axis
•
Madd was calculated for slender column, Madd was added to the appropriate
moment.
Madd = (1/2000) x Nh (le/b) 2
•
Calculated N /fcubh and M/ fcubh2
•
Column chart to pick area of steel reinforcement required.
•
Links were provided for as appropriate
•
Column design was detailed
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Plate 4: rectangular column with rebar
Plate 4 shows how the estimation of loads on columns are being calculated.
4.2.4 COLUMN BASE DESIGN
An assumed ground bearing pressure of 150kN/m² was used for the calculation; the total
load on the column the base is supporting was used to calculate the dimensions of the pad
base. M, la and As are calculated then reinforcement is provided and shear failure was
checked.
Design Procedure
The following are the steps to be followed in the design of pad footings, Prior to these steps,
the engineer should have made up his mind as to the shape of the base, that is, square or
rectangular,
a) The load and moment to be imposed on the base must be determined.
b) The area of base required is then calculated from I. I W/Pb
Where W= Total load on the base and
Pb=Soil permissible bearing pressure,
The factor 1.1 allows for the weight of the base, that is. 10% or the total load is assumed.
Engineers can cross-check the validity of this but for practical purposes, the value is
generally accepted, as being adequate. The base area is then chosen which should not be less
than the area of base calculated.
c) The net pressure at the ultimate limit state is calculated from:
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where
~--f net = pressure at ultimate limit state
Aprov= base area provided,
λf = U.L.S factor of safety, i.e. 1.4
h = Overall depth of base and
Pc = Concrete density, 24kN/m3
This net pressure is used as the uniformly loaded on the base. However, when moment is
involved
where M = Ultimate moment and
D =Length of the base.
The maximum fnet should be used for the design. The base depth, h, is 'chosen such that all
the Code's criteria of serviceability and ultimate are satisfied.
(d) The moment is calculated using the simple cantilever equation method of
2
Where, e =distance from the column face to the edge of the slab. Some practitioners simply
take e as one half of the slab length or width. This is done for both directions.
(e) The area of steel required is calculated using the same slab procedure of
≤ 0.156
K=
When K exceeds 0.56, the depth of the foundation slab should be increased. No attempt is
generally
made
to
design
for
reinforcement
at
the
other
face
(compression
reinforcement)except in continuous footings.
la =
(0.5 + (0.25 - K/0.9)1/2),
Where e exceeds 0.95, the limiting value of 0.95 is be used.
4.2.5 STAIR DESIGN
A half-turn stair was designed, the loading on the stair which include the stair own
load, finishes, steps and live loads were estimated then the waist, riser and tread dimensions
were used to calculated the slope factor which is used in calculating F, M, k, la and As, then
reinforcements are provided for the flights and landing. The stair case given by the architect
here is the half turn stair case with 18 risers. To design this type of stair, the total number of
risers was divided by the floor to floor height of the building which gives the height of each
risers and for comfortable usage, the best proportions of steps are such that:
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Going + 2 × Rise = 580 to 600mm
(Oyenuga, op. cit.).
From these calculations, we were able to arrive at a 250mm going. Then the remaining
part of this design was done using a reinforced concrete spreadsheet which is shown below
The following are the design procedures and formulas:
a. Estimate the effective depth from:
Effective depth= Overall depth – Cover - 1/2 bar size.
b. Estimate the dead and live load
c. Estimate the slope factor
√
Where R is the riser
T is the thread
S is the slope factor
d. Estimate step own load
e. Estimate the design load at the ultimate limit state
f. Factor the design load with the slope factor excluding step own load
g. Calculate the imposed bending moment for the step area with the factored design load
+ the step own load
h. Calculate the imposed bending moment for the landings with factored design load
only.
i. Calculate the K-value from:
≤ 0.156 (Tension Reinforcement only is required)
k=
If: k =
0.156 (Tension and compression reinforcement is required)
Where:
z=(
(
√ ))
j. Area of steel from: As =
≤ 0.95d
(mm2)
k. Calculate distribution bars and choose appropriate reinforcements from Table 10.3
l. Check for deflection from:
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Note:
If Actual Span / Effective depth < Limiting Basic Span / Depth then Deflection is
passed, but Re-design if deflection is inadequate by increasing the depth of waist.
Plate 6 shows the calculation of a half-turn stair case design.
Plate 5: Stair Design
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CHAPTER FIVE
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
5.1
PLANNING ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Gupta and Gupta (2010) stated that the following basic objective forms the basis of planning
in road construction.

A road network is plan to provide safe, efficient, economic, comfortable and speedy
movement of goods and people.

A road system is plan to provide maximum utility and could be constructed with
available resources during the plan period under considerations.

To plan for anticipated future development and social needs.

To phase the road development programme based on it utility and availability of funds.

To evolve a financial system and recommend changes in budget and tax procedure.
5.2
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Classification is the process by which streets and highways are grouped into classes, or
systems, according to the character of traffic service that they are intended to provide. There
are three highway functional classifications namely: arterial, collector, and local roads. All
streets and highways are grouped into one of these classes, depending on the character of the
traffic (i.e., local or long distance) and the degree of land access that they allow. These
classifications
are
described
in
Figure
1
(Federal
Highway
Authority,
2012).
Roads
Rural
Arterials
Principal
Urban
Collectors
Minor
Major
Minor
Local
Arterials
Principal
Collectors
Local
Minor
Figure 22: Roadways Functional Classification Hierarchy
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5.3
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Arterials: Provides the highest level of service at the greatest speed for the longest
uninterrupted distance, with some degree of access control. Arterials can either be principal
or minor both in rural and urban roads. An example of rural and urban arterial roads is shown
in plates 1 and 2 (FHWA, 2012).
Plate 6: Rural Arterial Road
Plate 7: Urban Arterial Road
Collectors: Provides a less highly developed level of service at a lower speed for shorter
distances by collecting traffic from local roads and connecting them with arterials as shown
in plates 3 and 4 (FHWA, 2012). Subclasses of collector are:

Major Collectors: Connect small towns to large towns not served by arterials, link
entities with nearby arterials, urban areas

Minor Collectors: Serve remaining small towns, link local traffic generators with rural
areas
Plate 8: Rural Collector Road
Plate 9: Urban Collector Road
Local: Consists of all roads not defined as arterials or collectors; primarily provides access to
land with little or no through movement plates 5 and 6 shows an example of local and urban
local roads.
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Plate 10: Local Rural Road
5.4
Plate 11: Local Urban Road
KEY ROLE PLAYERS IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Construction of road is a long process that may take up to several years to be completed
which requires a lot of construction crews such as: Site engineers, Construction workers,
Equipment operators, Iron benders, Truck drivers, and urban planners who work directly on a
road, while suppliers and others contribute to the project from off site. The key role players
in road construction are:
5.4.1 CLIENT: The Client is regarded as most important member of the construction team.
The client initiates and finances the project. He makes sure that adequate financial provision
is made towards the successful completion of the road project. It is also the client duty to set
cost limits of the project at the briefing (Omole, 1986).
5.4.2 CONSULTANT: Consulting Engineers are responsible for producing field survey,
design and proposed detail drawings for the proposed road. Cost considerations are among
the most important and basic considerations that Consultants must deal with. It is essential to
see that projects are contained within the client‟s budget and cost forecasts. Cost has the final
control over virtually every project. Accurate cost analysis and control is one of the necessary
services the client requires from the consultants (Omole, 1986).
5.4.3 CONTRACTOR: The Contractor organizes and allocates resources, equipment,
labour and materials in ensuring speedy delivery of the road project (Omole, 1986), while
maximizing profit for his company at maximum efficiency in terms of time, quality, and cost.
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5.5
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROAD
Geometric design of roads is the most important aspect of road construction. The geometric
design of a road provides maximum efficiency in traffic operation with maximum safety at
reasonable cost (Gupta and Gupta, 2010). Geometric design is the arrangement of the visible
elements of roads such as alignments, grades, sight distances, slopes etc. (FMW, 2006).
5.5.1 ALIGNMENTS
Horizontal Alignments: The primary control elements used to locate a highway in a
horizontal plane. Horizontal alignment defines the tangents and curvature of highway (FMW,
2006).
Vertical Alignment: The primary control elements used to locate a highway in a vertical
plane. It is define by the profile grade (FMW, 2006).
5.5.2 SIGHT DISTANCE
Two sight distances are considered in design: passing sight distance and stopping sight
distance.
Stopping Sight Distance: Is the minimum sight distance required for a driver of a vehicle
travelling at a given speed to bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the road becomes
visible, stopping sight distance is to be provided at all points on multilane and 2-lane roads. It
is also provided for all elements of interchanges and intersections at grade, including private
road connections (FMW, 2006).
Passing Sight Distance: Is the minimum sight distance that must be available to enable the
driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle, safety and comfortably, without interfering with
the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design speed. Passing sight distance is
considered only on two lane road (FMW, 2006). Table 5 shows minimum standards for sight
distances related to design speed.
5.6
DESIGN VEHICLES SELECTION
The physical characteristics of vehicles and the proportions of various size vehicles using the
roads are positive control in geometric design. Design vehicle are selected to represent
various classes of vehicles operating on road (See Table 6). The vehicle type which should be
used in the design for normal operations shall represent at least 60% of the total flow. Design
of intersections, however including ramps and turnarounds shall allow for the largest vehicle
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expected to negotiate the designated turns, especially where the pavement is kerbed (FMW,
2006).
5.6.1 DESIGN SPEED
Design speed is a speed selected to ensure efficient vehicle operation having regard to the
influence of the physical features of the road an example of design speed used in Nigeria is
shown in Table 7. Design speed is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of the road, when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the
road governs. Vertical and horizontal alignment, sight distance, and super elevation will vary
appreciably with design speed. Such features as pavement width, shoulder width, and side
clearance are usually not affected. The geometric standard should be established to obtain
safe stopping or passing sight distance and to secure the lowest gradient differential or
longest vertical curve possible within economic feasibility. (FMW, 2006)
5.7
DRAINAGE
Drainage is an important part of road construction that cannot be over emphasis. Drainage is
defined as a process of removing and controlling the excess surface and subsurface soil water
within the right of way (Gupta and Gupta, 2010). Water is the main contributor to the wear
and damage of low-volume rural roads. The water can be in the form of groundwater, surface
water or rain and it can damage the road in several ways:

By washing away the soil (Erosion and scouring)

By making the road body less resistant to traffic (i.e. weakening load bearing
capacity)
5.8

By depositing soils (silting) which may obstruct the passage of water

By washing away entire sections of the road or its structures.
MATERIALS USED IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION
5.8.1 STONE AGGREGATE
Aggregate is one prime ingredients used in pavement of road construction and forms a major
portion of the pavement structure. Aggregate are used in cement concrete, and bituminous
concrete, as granular base course etc. of pavement construction. Hence the properties of
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aggregate are of considerable importance to the highway engineer. Therefore the following
properties are desirable for aggregate used for pavement construction (Gupta and Gupta,
2010).

Strength: The aggregate to be used for road should be sufficiently strong to withstand
the stresses due to traffic wheel loads.

Hardness: The aggregate used in in surface courses are subjected to constant abrasion
due to moving vehicles. The rubbing of stones also causes wear in the aggregate. The
action of mutual rubbing of stones in called “Attrition”

Toughness: aggregate in pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel
loads.

Durability: Aggregate used in pavement have to withstand the adverse action of
whether such as physical and chemical actions of rain and ground water and effects of
atmosphere

Shape of aggregate: For cement pavement more than 45% of flaky and elongated
particles should not be used.

Adhesion with bitumen: Aggregate used in bituminous pavement should have more
affinity with bituminous materials than water else bituminous coating on aggregate
will be stripped off in the presence of water.

Cementation: In W.B.M (Water bound macadam) construction the binding action of
surface is imparted by the stone dust and water film.
5.8.2 BITUMEN
Bitumen is black or brown in color which may occur naturally or are obtained as end
products of from distillation of petroleum. Bituminous materials are mixture of hydrocarbon
of hydrocarbon of natural or hydrocarbon origin or a combination of both, found in gaseous,
liquid, semi-solid or solid form and completely soluble in carbon disulphide. When bitumen
contains some materials or inert materials, it is called asphalt. Asphalt is found as deposits in
the form of natural asphalt or rock asphalt (Gupta and Gupta, 2010).
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5.9
ROAD CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
There are different machinery and equipment used in road construction applicable to different
aspects of road construction stages. Work operation includes: Site clearing, formation of
subgrade, spreading of materials, rolling or compaction and surfacing
PLATES OF TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
Plate 12: A Grid Roller
Plate 14: A Grader
Plate 16: A Concrete Mixer
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Plate 13: A Bulldozer
Plate 15: Smooth Wheel Roller
Plate 17: A Scrapper
Page 46
Plate 18: Concrete Paver
5.10
Plate 19: Bitumen Boiler
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Pavement is a hard crust constructed over the natural soil for the purpose of providing a
stable and even surface for the vehicles. Pavement support and distributes wheel loads and
provides adequate wearing surface. Pavements are basically of two types namely: (1) Flexible
pavement and (2) Rigid pavement (Arora, 2008).
Flexible Pavement: A flexible pavement is built up in several layers, the natural soil beneath
the pavement is called the subgrade, sub-base is built over the sub-grade, and base is
constructed over the sub-base. And the top layer is known as the Surface or Wearing course
which is usually bitumen. Flexible pavement can resist only very small tensile stresses
because of limited rigidity (Arora, 2008).
Rigid Pavement: Rigid pavement is made up of cement concrete. Because the concrete is
quite strong, sub-base may not be required. Rigid pavements have high flexural strength and
can resist very high tensile stresses (Arora, 2008).
5.10.1 COMPONENTS OF PAVEMENT
Different components of pavement have the following characteristics and functions
Subgrade: Subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of the pavement
the subgrade should be strong enough take up the stress due to loads without shear failure or
excessive deformations. It is essential to evaluate the strength properties of the subgrade
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required. As the loads are ultimately received by the subgrade, if it is weak, it will fail. The
soil is generally treated to increase its strength and to improve its properties (Arora, 2008).
Sub-base and Base Courses: These courses provide a medium to spread the wheel loads to
the subgrade. The courses usually consist of broken stones, bricks or aggregates. Boulder
stones, bricks on edges and stabilized soils are also used for sub-bases. However it is
preferable to use small size graded aggregates because large stones and bricks have a
tendency to penetrate the wet soil and cause undulation and unevenness in the pavement
(Arora, 2008).
Surface Course: The purpose of the surface course, which is also known as the wearing
course, is to give a smooth riding surface and to resist pressure exerted by the wheels. The
surface course also provides a water-tight barrier against the infiltration of surface water
(Arora, 2008).
Figure 23: Pavement Components
Challenges On Site and Off-Site
Just like every other endeavour of man, the SIWES experiences came along with its
challenges too and below are a few of them:
1. The first major challenge faced by me during the internship was that of
familiarisation, i.e. getting to know the work environment and colleagues, knowing
their approach to work and ethics;
2. Another significant challenge that was faced by me was adhering to the resumption
time which was 8am. Considering the unavoidable traffic faced along my route:
3. Being able to cope with the harsh weather condition while going to site;
4. Ability to multitask.
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CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION
The industrial training over years has been found to be effective and efficient in closing the
gap between the scientific study and practical study. The Student Industrial Work Experience
Scheme (SIWES) has exposed me to practical works but also has opened me up in the way to
interact with senior colleagues in the field, which has exposed me to industry based skills
necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom to real-time practice of the profession
In summary this training has exposed me to the following important spheres of development:
1. How to deal and interact with other fellow engineers in the field of civil engineering.
2. Finding that team work is the most important element in every successful project.
3. Learn that the civil engineer is capable of a lot of work such as supervision,
implementation, the calculation of quantities and design of structures. Also, an
engineer can work as a consultant or contractor.
4. How to control and manage the site and how to behave when there is a problem by
taking a professional decision.
5. Plan must be clear and easy to read for those who will use it.
6. Successful engineer must design an economic structure without impairing the safety
of the structure and the project is implemented on time.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Truly this scheme can be described as an eye-opener for students in general. Based on the
knowledge and experience I acquired in the industrial attachment the following
recommendations are made with the aim of improving the scheme and upholding its
objectives;

The search for an internship position in a well-recognized establishment still remains
a huge problem for aspiring interns. The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) should look
into this and encourage industries to participate in training and equipping students
with relevant skills and knowledge.

The employers should endeavour to provide medical care for students within the
limits of the employers‟ condition of service during attachment.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 49

Tertiary educational institutions all over the country should make serious efforts to
secure quality industrial training placements for SIWES participants in their
respective fields.

While in school, students should be well exposed to the use of CAD software.
Generally, modern-day engineering has adopted the use of computer software for
quite a large number of functions. So therefore, it will be rather unfortunate if students
are lagging behind in the use of software in their respective fields.

The department of civil and environmental engineering should act as link between
students and organizations in order to help the former secure impactful attachments.
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REFERENCES

BSI (1997). Structural Use of Concrete, British Standards Institution, London..

Mosley, W. H. and Bungey, J. H (1990) Reinforced Concrete Design, 5th Edition,
Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire.

Arya, C. (2009). Design of Structural Elements, 3rd ed. Spon Press. London.

Oyenuga ,Victor O. (2011) “Simplified Reinforced Concrete Design”. Asros Limited,
Lagos, 2nd edition.

Mafe,O. A. T. 2009 Guide To Successful Participation in SIWES. Panaf
publishing Inc.. Abuja and Lagos :Panaf publishing Inc..

BS 8110. (1997). Structural use of concrete, part 1: code of practice for design and
construction. British Standards Institution, London.

COREN (1991). Supervised Industrial Training Scheme in Engineering (SITSIE).
Council of Registered Engineers of Nigeria.

Ekpenyong, L.E. (2011). Foundations of Technical and Vocational Education:
Evolution and Practice for Nigerian Students in TVE and Adult Education, Policy
Makers & Practitioners.

Ekwue, K.C. & Eluro, D.C. (2002). Business Education for industry. The SIWES
Experience. Business Education Journal, 11(5), 9-14.

ITF (1973). Policy Document No 1. Industrial Training Fund, Jos, Nigeria.

BS 8110 (1985). Structural use of concrete,Part 3: Design charts forsingly
reinforced beams, doubly reinforced beams and rectangular columns. British
Standards Institution, London.

RAYAO (2016) Structural Design. Accessed 15/03/2016.
http://www.rayao.com/index.php/rayao-myanmar-co-ltd-myanmar/8-services/5structural-design

Reynolds C.E. and Steedman J.C. 1988: Reinforced Concrete Designer’s Handbook
(Tenth Edition). London: 11 New Fetter Lane.

The Constructor (2016) Preparation of bar bending schedule. Accessed 16/03/2016.
AKINLOYE BUKUNMI STEPHEN 200287
Page 51
http://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/preparation-of-bar-bending-schedule/7629/

Wikipedia (11/03/2016) Civil Engineering. Accessed 14/03/2016.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering)
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APPENDIX
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