Glossary
Abnormality a deviation from ideal mental health
Anti-social behaviour behaving in a way that
caused or was likely to cause harassment, alarm or
Abstract (part of report) a brief summary of the
distress to one or more people not of the same
research article used to help the reader quickly
household as the person acting in this way
understand the purpose of the paper
Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) a
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) an
challenging type of personality disorder
action-oriented approach to psychotherapy. Clients
characterised by impulsive, irresponsible and
learn to stop avoiding and struggling with their
sometimes criminal behaviour
emotions and accept that these feelings are
appropriate responses to certain situations and that
these should not prevent them from getting on with
Attachment a close, emotional, enduring bond
between child and caregiver
their lives. They then commit to making necessary
Attention how we selectively concentrate on a
change in their behaviour
distinct part of information while ignoring other
Adolescent Lifestyle Questionnaire (ALQ) an
perceivable information
instrument designed to measure healthy lifestyle in
Bar chart a chart or graph that presents categorical
adolescents, looking at seven dimensions to a
data with rectangular bars with heights that are
healthy lifestyle: identity awareness, nutrition,
proportional to the values that they represent
physical participation, safety, health awareness,
social support and stress management
Agency theory developed by Milgram, this theory
suggests that humans have two mental states:
autonomous (where they perceive themselves to be
Biological psychology the study of the
physiological bases of behaviour
Body clock (Internal pacemakers) your body's
natural need to sleep and eat at particular times
responsible for their own behaviour so they feel guilt
Body startle reflex a mostly unconscious defensive
for what they do) and agentic (where they perceive
response to sudden or threatening stimuli, such as
themselves to be the agent of someone else’s will;
sudden noise or movement, and is associated with
the authority figure commanding them is responsible
negative effects
for what they do, so they feel no guilt
Brain scan a research method that involves
Aggression refers to a range of behaviours that
examining the structure and functioning of the brain
can result in both physical and psychological harm
British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of
to yourself, others or objects
Ethics and Conduct (2009) a code designed to
Aim (part of report) the aim states the intent of the
guide members of the British Psychological
study in general terms
Society in their day-to-day professional conduct
Alternative hypothesis a statement that lays out
Capacity refers to the amount, or quantity, of
what a researcher predicts will be found. This is also
information that can be stored in memory
known as an experimental hypothesis when the
Caregiver sensitivity hypothesis Ainsworth’s
research methodology adopted is experimental
hypothesis that the type and quality
Amygdala centre in the brain responsible for
of attachment between mother and child is largely
emotions, emotional behaviour and motivation
dependent on the mother’s behaviour towards the
Animal experiments also known as animal
experimentation and animal research; the use of
non-human animals in experiments
Anorexia nervosa a type of eating disorder in
which an individual, despite being underweight,
fears that she or he might become overweight and
child. Mothers of securely attached infants tend to
be more sensitive to the child’s needs
Case study a research method that involves a
detailed study of a single individual or event. Case
studies provide a rich record of human experience,
but are hard to generalise from
therefore engages in self-starvation to prevent this
Cause and effect this is a combination of action
happening
and a reaction; it is the relationship between events
where one is the result of the other
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1
Glossary
Central executive this is a limited capacity
Conformity a change in belief or behaviour in order
component involved in general processing, in the
to fit in with a group
working memory model
Confounding variables a variable that affects the
Central nervous system (CNS) the set of nerve
findings of a study directly, so much that you are no
tissues that control the body’s activities. It
longer measuring what was intended
comprises the brain and spinal cord
Content analysis the analysis qualitative data,
Chi-squared test/distribution a statistical test that
using a technique that allows a researcher to
looks at the goodness of fit between a set of
transform it into quantitative data
observed values and the expected values
Circadian rhythm (also known as sleep-wake
cycle) physical, mental, and behavioural changes
that follow a daily cycle
Classical conditioning a form of learning based on
the association with an environmental event or
stimulus with an internal response
Clinical interview the process of evaluating a client
by gaining important personal information about
them regarding their health
Control groups a group of participants who do not
receive the experimental treatment
Coping strategies for stress the specific efforts,
both behavioural and psychological, that people
employ to tolerate or minimise stressful events
Correlation a research method that examines the
relationship between two co-variables
Cortisol a hormone responsible for blood glucose
regulation, immune functions and anti-stress
responses. It is made in the adrenal gland. Cortisol
Clinical psychology psychology concerned with
is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response when
the assessment and the treatment of mental illness
facing a threatening situation
as well as behavioural problems
Counter transference a situation during therapy in
Closed questions questions that can be answered
which a therapist develops positive or negative
by "yes" or "no"
feelings toward the patient
Cognition the mental process involved in learning,
Counterbalancing alternating the conditions of the
knowing and understanding
study for each participant in a repeated measures
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) a type of
design
talking treatment, focussing on how thoughts,
Covert observation a form of observation where
beliefs and attitudes affect behaviour and feelings
the participants do not know they are being
Cognitive interview a method of interviewing eyewitnesses and victims about what they remember
from a crime scene
Cognitive psychology the study of mental
processes such as attention, perception, memory,
problem-solving and language use
Conditioned emotional reaction an emotional
response that results from classical conditioning –
observed. For example, you making an observation
of behaviour in your student area, from simply sitting
in one of the seated areas
Credibility the believability and reliability of
information received from external sources
Criminological psychology the study of views,
thoughts, intentions, actions and reactions of
criminals and criminal behaviour
associating a neutral stimulus with a fear-inducing
Critical value a statistical cut-off point, it is a
stimulus. It may also be called a conditioned fear
number presented on a table of critical values that
response (CFR)
determines whether the result is significant enough
Conditioned response (CR) a behaviour that is
shown in response to a learned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS) a stimulus that has
been associated with an unconditioned stimulus so
that it now produces the same response
for the null hypothesis not to be accepted
Cross-cultural research looks at how cultural
factors influence human behaviour. Cultural
differences can lead to often surprising differences
in how people think, feel or act
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Glossary
CT (computed tomography) scan this builds up a
Duration (memory) how long a memory trace can
picture of using X-rays and a computer to create
be held before it is forgotten
detailed images of the inside of the body
Culture the sum of our world views or of our ways
of living
Ecological validity the extent to which the findings
still explain the behaviour in different situations
Emotion-focused coping aiming to reduce
Daily hassles these are relatively minor events that
negative emotional responses of stress, such as
arise during day-to-day living such as losing your
fear, anxiety, embarrassment and frustration
house keys or missing the train
Encoding in memory, the process of breaking down
Daily uplifts positive day-to-day events such as
information so that it is in a form that we
meeting a target or spending time with friends
understand. We recall information by decoding it
Decision making the cognitive process that results
Episodic buffer a subcomponent of the working
in choosing a belief or a course of action from
memory associated with interfacing with LTM and
several alternatives
integrating information from other subcomponents
Delusions beliefs that are contrary to fact
Ethics the correct rules of conduct that need to be
Demand characteristics participants behaving in a
way they think they should to fit what they perceive
to be the aim of the experiment
Dependent variable this is the variable being
measured or tested in an experiment
Descriptive statistics the analysis of data that
helps to describe, show or summarise that data in a
meaningful way
Developmental psychology a scientific approach
that looks at how thinking, feeling and behaviour
change throughout life
adhered to when carrying out psychological
research, to fulfil our moral responsibility to keep
participants safe
Event sampling in observational research, this is
the recording of how many times a particular
behaviour occurs
Experimental design design of study where
participants are allocated to experimental groups.
Designs include repeated measures, independent
groups and matched pairs
Experimental hypothesis a statement that lays out
what a researcher predicts will be found. This is also
Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts the
known as an alternative hypothesis when the
direction of difference or relationship that the result
research methodology adopted is not experimental
is likely to take
Experimenter/researcher effects the influence and
Disordered thinking patients are unable to make
errors that occur during an experiment that could
connections between their thoughts resulting in
affect the results
incomprehensible language and ideas that seem
loosely connected
Expert testimony a testimony made by a qualified
person about a particular issue in their area of
Dissent non-agreement with the majority of a group
expertise. They often have to testify in court due to
to which the dissenter belongs. The opposite of
their specialist training in the field
agreement
External (exogenous) zeitgebers environmental
Dream analysis a therapy, used in psychoanalysis,
events that help to reset the biological clock. They
where dreams are seen as unconscious material
can include social cues (meal times) and light
that can be analysed
(sunshine)
Drug therapy treatment of mental disorders with
Extraneous variable a variable that may have
prescription drugs
affected the dependent variable but that was not the
DSM (the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
independent variable
Mental Disorders) a manual of mental disorders
used by specialists to diagnose psychiatric illnesses
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Glossary
Eye-witness memory the account given of an
Generalised anxiety disorder excessive anxiety
event by a witness who saw it. The eye-witness
about two or more parts of life, such as work,
often has to give a description in court, including
relationships and finances
details of the crime scene or the perpetrator
Hallucinations perceptual experiences that occur in
Family therapy counselling where the whole family
the absence of external stimulation of the
work together with a psychologist or therapist to
corresponding sensory organ
improve communication and to resolve issues
Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) a
Field experiment a piece of research that takes
regulatory body of professionals from health and
place in the setting where the behaviour being
care professions in the UK
studied would naturally occur
Health psychology an area of psychology
Fitness to practise if a professional can
focussing on how health is affected by biological,
demonstrate the skills, knowledge and character
social and psychological factors
that are required to do their job effectively and
safely, then they are deemed fit to practise
fMRI (Functional magnetic resonance imaging) a
brain-scanning technique that measures blood flow
in the brain when a person performs a particular
task
Focus group a group of people are interviewed
about their opinions, beliefs and attitudes to a
concept, advert, idea, product or packaging
Free association a psychoanalytic therapy
technique used to help patients learn more about
what they are thinking and feeling. When patients
become aware of these unconscious thoughts or
feelings, they are better able to manage them
Hippocampus a structure of the brain responsible
for learning, emotion and memory
Histogram a chart or graph that presents data with
rectangular bars with areas that are proportional to
the frequency of the variable that they represent and
whose width is equal to the class interval
Holism theory that suggests that parts if a whole
are so connected that they cannot exist outside of
the whole and cannot be understood without
reference to the whole
Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale also known as the
social, readjustment rating scale. This is a list of 43
major stressful life events that can contribute to
illness. A total stress score is calculated using this
Frequency graph a type of bar graph showing
scale gives a rough estimate of how stress affects
the frequency an outcome occurs in a certain data
health
set
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis the
Freud’s psychosexual stages Freud’s proposed
complex set of interactions between the
stages of psychological development in childhood:
hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal gland
oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital
Imitation this is the copying of an act that has been
Gender the set of characteristics that are
seen by the imitator. For example, a child putting a
associated with a particular biological sex (either
toy car on his head after seeing another child doing
male or female)
this
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) a theory by
Independent groups design where only one group
Sale about the physiological changes that a body
of participants complete one condition of the
goes through when stressed. The process has three
experiment and a different group complete another
stages, according to Sayle: alarm, resistance and
condition
exhaustion
Independent variable a variable manipulated in a
Generalisability the ability to apply findings to other
study in order to investigate whether it leads to a
people, situations and contexts
change in another variable
Individual differences natural variation in human
characteristics
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Glossary
Inferential test a statistical test that is performed on
Light therapy a way to treat seasonal affective
data to establish whether or not the results found
disorder (SAD) by exposure to artificial light
were due to chance factors or whether there was
indeed a significant relationship or difference found
between the data
Information processing in a cognitive psychology
model, the process of thinking is compared it to how
a computer works. The mind takes in information
and processes it, organising and storing it for later
Infradian rhythms these are cycles that last longer
than 24 hours and occur weekly, monthly or even
annually. An example of a monthly infradian rhythm
is the female menstrual cycle
Interactionist language theory a theory explaining
language development. It focuses on the key role of
social interaction between the child who is still
Limbic system a set of structures in the brain
associated with drives, emotions and mood
Longitudinal research correlational research that
involves looking at variables over an extended
period of time – sometimes decades
Majority influence a type of social influence where
the behaviours/beliefs of a majority group of
individuals influences the behaviours/beliefs of a
smaller group
Matched pairs design where different participants
are allocated to only one experimental condition
(they do not do both) but are matched on important
characteristics
developing language and the adult with extensive
Maternal deprivation hypothesis this states that
language knowledge
continual disruption of the attachment between
Interference an explanation for forgetting in longterm memory. Interference occurs when information
in a similar format gets in the way of the information
that someone is trying to recall
Internal pacemakers the body’s internal biological
clocks
Internal reliability refers to the consistency of a
measure within itself
Internal validity the extent to which the outcome of
the study is the direct result of the manipulated
independent variable
International Classification of Diseases (ICD) the
international standard diagnostic tool for clinical
purposes
infant and primary caregiver could lead to long-term
cognitive, social and emotional difficulties for the
infant
Mean or ‘average’; a measure of central tendency. It
is equal to the sum of all the values in a data set
divided by the number of values in that data set
Measures of central tendency a typical value for a
probability distribution. The most common
measures are the mean, the median and the mode
Measures of dispersion the extent to which a
distribution is stretched or squeezed. Examples
include the variance, standard deviation and
interquartile range
Median a measure of central tendency; this is the
middle of a sorted list of numbers. To find the
Laboratory experiment an experiment conducted
median you need to place the numbers in value
in a controlled environment
order and then find the middle number
Language acquisition device (LAD) part of the
Memory how the mind stores and remembers
human mind that is hypothetically suggested to
information
account for the child’s instinctive language
acquisition abilities
Levels of measurement a classification that
describes the nature of information within the values
assigned to variables
Life events separate, distinct experiences (such as
Menstrual cycle the process of ovulation and
menstruation in female primates
Mental health disorders a range of problems, with
different symptoms, often characterised by
abnormal thoughts, emotions, behaviour and
relationships with others
marriage, illness, buying a house, changing jobs)
that disrupt a person’s usual activities, causing
major change or readjustment
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5
Glossary
Meta-analysis a research method where a
Neuroimaging images produced about the
researcher examines the results of several previous
structure or function of the brain, using scanners
studies rather than conducting new research with
such as an MRI or CAT
participants
Mindfulness the process of focusing your attention
on present moment experiences. Mindfulness can
be developed through meditation and other training
Minority influence a type of social influence where
the behaviours/beliefs of a minority group of
individuals influences the behaviours/beliefs of a
majority group
Mock jury a research group that allows researchers
to assess the possible reactions of jurors to
evidence and arguments before a trial
Mode a measure of central tendency; the number
that appears most often in a set of numbers
Modelling a way of learning by imitating the
behaviour of others
Neuron a cell within the nervous system
Neurotransmitters chemicals that pass messages
from one neuron to another
Neutral stimulus an environmental stimulus that
does not of itself (without association) produce a
response
Non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis predicts
that a difference or relationship will be found, but not
the direction that the difference or relationship will
take
Non-parametric test a statistical test that does not
make any assumptions about the parameters of the
population distribution from which the data are
drawn
Non-participant observation a form of observation
Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) also known
where the researcher observes behaviour of others
as the warrior gene, this is a gene that produces an
but does not form part of the group they study
enzyme that affects the neurotransmitters
dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin It is linked
to aggression
Motivation this is the internal process causes
someone to act in a certain way in order to move
towards a goal, such as drinking a glass of water to
cut thirst
Multi-store model of memory a proposed model of
memory that says memory is made up of three
separate stores: sensory register, short-term
memory and long-term memory
Naturalistic observation a type of observation
which occurs in a natural setting (and where the
Normal distribution a frequency distribution curve
that is bell-shaped. Most of the values in a normal
distribution tend to be close to the mean. The further
a value is from the mean, the less likely it is to occur
Null hypothesis predicts no difference/relationship
will be found or that any difference/relationship is
due to chance factors
Obedience complying with commands given by a
person in authority
Object relations school of thought a variation of
psychoanalytic theory, suggesting that humans are
mainly motivated by the need to form relationships
independent variable is not being manipulated by
Observation research where behaviour is
the experimenter)
systematically observed and recorded
Nature-nurture debate the debate as to whether
Observed value the value given by a statistical test,
human behaviour is determined by the environment
such as rho for Spearman’s. It is compared with the
or by a person's genes
relevant critical value to see if a null hypothesis
Negative correlation the relationship between two
should be retained or not
variables where as one variable increases so the
Observer bias where the observer knows what the
other decreases
study aims to find and this knowledge influences
Negative reinforcement a behaviour is
their observations
strengthened by stopping, removing or avoiding
Open questions questions that require thought and
a negative outcome
more than just a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer
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6
Glossary
Operant conditioning learning based on the
Positron-emission tomography (PET) a scanning
consequence for the operator of the action
technique used to look at metabolic processes in
performed, actions that are reinforced are repeated
the body to help diagnose disease
and learned
Operationalisation (of variables) defining the
variables specifically so that they are directly tested
Opportunity sampling participants are selected
from a target group (anyone free and willing to take
part in the study) to take part in a research study
Order effects the problem with presentation of
stimulus material. Participants may become
practiced at the test and so improve performance or
they may become tired so that performance
deteriorates
Overt observation a form of observation where
those being observed are aware of the presence of
an observer. For example, an inspector coming into
a classroom to observe the teacher and pupils
Parametric test a statistical test that makes
assumptions about the parameters or
Predictive validity the extent to which results from
a test or a study can predict future behaviour
Pre-frontal cortex the front area of the brain
situated just behind the forehead
Primary data data that is collected by a researcher
from original (primary) sources by using surveys,
interviews, or experiments
Problem-focused coping a stress reducing
strategy that looks at practical ways of tacking
stressful situations to reduce or remove the stressor
Prosocial behaviour behaviour that takes account
of the welfare of others and avoids harming
deliberately
Psychoanalysis theories and techniques related to
the study of the unconscious mind. These form a
method of treatment for mental-health disorders
defining properties of the population distribution
Psychodynamic approach theories that see
from which the data are drawn
human functioning as the interaction of drives and
Participant observation a form of observation
where the researcher takes an active role in the
situation being observed
Participant variables natural variation in human
characteristics
Pavlovian (classical) conditioning learning
through association, where two stimuli are linked
forces within the person, and between the different
parts of personality
Punishment in operant conditioning, this refers to
any change that occurs after an unwanted
behaviour that reduces the likelihood that the
behaviour will reoccur
Qualitative data descriptive data
together to produce a new learned response in a
Quantitative data numerical data
person or animal
Questionnaire a series of questions used to gather
Peer review the evaluation of work by one or more
information from respondents
people with similar skills as the creator of the work
Random sampling participants are allocated to
(peers)
conditions of the study at random (names drawn
Perception the process by which a person
from a hat)
translates sensory input into a clear view of the
Randomized controlled trial a type of scientific
world around them
experiment that tries to minimise bias when testing
Phonological loop a component of the working
a new treatment. The people taking part in the trial
memory model that deals with auditory information
are randomly allocated to either the group receiving
Positive correlation the relationship between two
variables where if one variable increases, so the
other one increases
Positive reinforcement a rewarding outcome for
behaviour
the treatment under investigation or to a group
receiving a standard treatment, used as a control
Reconstructive memory the idea that we alter
information we have stored when we recall it, based
on prior expectations/knowledge
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Glossary
Reductionism the explanation of complex human
Self-report data a method of gathering data where
behaviour in a simplistic way by focusing on just one
participants provide answers to questions about
factor
themselves, using questionnaires, interviews or
Reinforcement an operant conditioning term,
diaries
referring to anything that increases the possibility
Semi-structured interviews an interview in which
that a response will occur
the interviewer does not follow a set list of
Reliability the consistency of a research study or
measuring test
Repeated measures design where all participants
complete all conditions of the experiment
Retrieval the process by which information in your
memory can be recalled
questions; they ask more open-ended questions,
allowing for a discussion rather than a
straightforward question and answer format
Serotonin a chemical created by the body that
works as a neurotransmitter It is responsible for
managing moods
Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake
Risk management a structured approach to
inhibitors (SNRIs) a class of medications used to
managing uncertainty related to a threat
treat depression
Sampling the process of selecting a representative
Situational variables factors in the environment
group from the population being studied
(smells, sounds) that can inadvertently affect the
Scale/rank questions respondents are asked
results of a study
whether they agree or disagree with a number of
Social desirability bias the tendency for
statements, or are asked to rate items on a scale or
participants to respond in a manner that will be
rank items in order of importance or preference
viewed favourably as others
Scatter diagram a graph in which the values of two
Social learning theory a learning theory that
variables are plotted along two axes; the resultant
combines cognitive learning theory (learning is
pattern reveals any correlation
influenced by psychological factors) with
Schema core information and beliefs about how we
behavioural learning theory (learning is based on
think about the world
responses to environmental stimuli)
Schizophrenia a long-term mental disorder
Social power the amount of influence that an
involving a breakdown in the relationship between
individual has among their peers and within their
thought, emotion and behaviour
society
Season affective disorder (SAD) a type of
Social psychology psychology that deals with
depression related to the changes in seasons; it
social interactions, their origins and their effects on
starts and finishes at about the same times every
the individual
year
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient a
Secondary data data collected by someone other
measure of correlation that shows how closely two
than the user, such as censuses or governmental
sets of data are linked
records
Standard deviation measure of deviance from the
Selective attention the process of focusing on a
mean. It is calculated by finding the square of the
particular object for a certain period of time
variance
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) a
Standardised questionnaires a questionnaire that
type of antidepressant
is produced with the same questions in the same
Self-fulfilling prophecy a stereotype that leads
that all participants’ responses are recorded in the
someone to act in a manner consistent with the
stereotype
format and is then administered in the same way so
same way, to increase reliability
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8
Glossary
Statistical infrequency a definition of abnormality
Trauma a type of damage to the mind caused by
where a behaviour is seen as abnormal if it is
the stress of a distressing event
statistically uncommon
Twin studies a research method that examines the
Statistical significance the probability that the data
degree of similarity or difference between twins in a
is a result of an actual relationship existing between
particular characteristic
the variables rather than a coincidence
Type I error when the null hypothesis is rejected
Storage the process of placing newly acquired
and the alternative hypothesis supported when the
information into memory, which is then modified by
effect was not real
the brain
Type II error when the alternative hypothesis is
Strange situation a procedure devised
rejected and the null retained when there was
by Ainsworth to observe attachment relationships
actually a real effect
between caregiver and child
Unconditioned response (UCR) a response that
Stratified sampling a sampling technique where
occurs naturally without any form of learning (a
the researcher divides (stratifies) the target group
reflex action)
into sections, each representing a key characteristic
that should be present in the final sample
Structured interviews questions are asked in a set
or standardised way and the interviewer will not
stray from the interview schedule; they are inflexible
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) any stimulus
producing a natural, unlearned response
Unipolar depression also known as major
depression, this is the persistent feeling of sadness
or a lack of interest in life. It is called unipolar
Structured observation a data collecting method
depression to distinguish it from bipolar depression,
where researchers gather data without being
which is the oscillating state between depression and
directly involved with the participants and the
mania
collection technique is structured in a well-defined
way
Unstructured interview an interview that does not
have a set of predetermined questions, although
Synaptic transmission the process by which one
there will be particular topics that the interviewee
neuron communicates with another
has in mind. This type of interview should flow like a
Systematic desensitisation a type of therapy that
is based on classical conditioning. This behavioural
simple conversation, be informal and usually openended
therapy aims to remove the fear response part of a
Validity whether or not a measure actually
phobia using counter conditioning
measures what it claims it is measuring
Temporal lobe an area of the brain, called a lobe,
Variance the measure of how much the values in a
situated below the ear
particular data set differ from the mean
Thematic analysis recording themes, patterns or
Vicarious reinforcement learning through the
trends within data
consequence of another person’s behaviour
Thought insertion a feeling as though one’s
Visuo-spatial sketchpad the part of the working
thoughts belong to someone else and have been
memory that is responsible for handling visual and
inserted into one’s mind. Often associated with
spatial information
schizophrenia
Visuo-spatial working memory this manipulates
Time sampling in observational research, this is
the visual information stored in the brain to process
the recording of a behaviour at particular intervals
information. It involves the ability to recall colour and
Transference where the feelings, desires and
shape including their locations and movements
expectations of a particular person are redirected to
another person
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9
Glossary
Volunteer sampling a sampling technique where
participants volunteer to become part of a study
because they respond to an advert or volunteer
when asked
Weapons focus this is a factor affecting the
reliability of eye-witness testimony. When a witness
to a crime sees a weapon that the perpetrator is
holding, they divert their attention to the weapon and
focus less on the details of the scene. This leads to
memory impairments later when recalling the details
Wilcoxon signed rank test a non-parametric test
that compares the average of two related samples,
matched samples, or repeated measurements on a
single sample to assess for significant differences
Working memory model a theoretical threecompartment short-term memory system where the
structures and processes are used for temporarily
storing information
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) this refers to
the area between what a child can do on their own
without help and what they can do when stretched
by someone who is more knowledgeable
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