Journal of Adolescence 68 (2018) 32–39
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Journal of Adolescence
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adolescence
Direct and indirect effects of father-daughter relationship on
adolescent girls’ psychological outcomes: The role of basic
psychological need satisfaction
T
Ali Serdar Sağkal∗, Yalçın Özdemir, Nermin Koruklu
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Education, Department of Counseling and Guidance, Central Campus, 09100 Aydın, Turkey
A R T IC LE I N F O
ABS TRA CT
Keywords:
Father-daughter relationship
Basic psychological need satisfaction
Well-being
Ill-being
Adolescents
Fathers play a salient role in the children's development, especially in daughters. In this study, we
examined the direct and indirect effects of father-daughter relationship on psychological outcomes of adolescent girls. A total of 310 adolescent girls aged between 14 and 18 (M = 15.88,
SD = 0.89) of a Turkish population-based sample completed a battery of self-report surveys
measuring perceptions related to father-daughter relationship, basic psychological need satisfaction, well-being, and ill-being. Structural equation modelling results indicated that fatherdaughter relationship is directly related to higher levels of well-being and lower levels of illbeing. Besides, results demonstrated that indirect effects of basic psychological need satisfaction
on the link between father-daughter relationship and psychological outcomes were significant.
These findings suggest that father-daughter relationship significantly influences mental health of
adolescent girls and this effect is mediated by basic psychological need satisfaction. Implications
for counseling interventions and recommendations for future research are discussed.
1. Introduction
Parenting practices and parent-child relationships have long been associated with a number of psychological outcomes for
children and adolescents (see O'Connor & Scott, 2007; for a review). To date, the vast majority of research in this field has been
primarily conducted with the participation of mothers and children. Father's role on child development, especially on daughters, was
largely ignored (Flouri, 2005a; Lamb, 2010; Nielson, 2012, 2014). However, over the past two decades, there has been growing
scholarly interest in fathering research (Adamsons & Palkovitz, 2014; Marsiglio, Amato, Day, & Lamb, 2000). Researchers are investigating how father-child relationships influence social, cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and physical outcomes of children (Day
& Padilla-Walker, 2009; Flouri, 2005a). Preliminary evidences from western countries indicate that there is a positive relationship
between nurturant father-daughter relationship and positive child adjustment (Nielson, 2012, 2014). It is also importantly emphasized that father-child relationship explains a large amount of variance in child outcomes, over and above the mother-child relationship (e.g., Flouri & Buchanan, 2003a; Flouri, 2005a; Nielson, 2014; Rohner, 1998; Videon, 2005). Nevertheless, although there
are some evidences regarding the association between father-daughter relationship and child adjustment in western cultures, it is not
known yet whether these associations are replicated across cultures. Additionally, it is also needed to explore through which pathway
father-daughter relationship influence child outcomes. To this aim, the present study first aims to investigate how father-daughter
∗
Corresponding author.Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Education, Department of Counseling and Guidance, Central Campus, 09100,
Aydın, Turkey.
E-mail addresses: aliserdarsagkal@gmail.com (A.S. Sağkal), yalcin.ozdemir@adu.edu.tr (Y. Özdemir), nonerkoruklu@gmail.com (N. Koruklu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.07.001
Received 29 April 2018; Accepted 2 July 2018
0140-1971/ © 2018 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Journal of Adolescence 68 (2018) 32–39
A.S. Sağkal et al.
relationship is directly related to adolescent girls' psychological outcomes, namely, well-being and ill-being in a non-western culture.
Secondly, indirect effects of father-daughter relationship on adolescent girls' psychological outcomes via the mechanism of basic
psychological need satisfaction were tested.
1.1. Father-child relationships and children's adjustment
Although mothers still tend to spend more time and build more close relationships with their children, compared to previous
decades, fathers now tend to involve more actively in the child-rearing processes (Cabrera, Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley, Hofferth, &
Lamb, 2000; Lewis & Lamb, 2003; Nielson, 2012, 2014). Today, breadwinner role in the family is commonly shared by both partners
and fathers are expected to spend more time with their children, to be more accessible for them, and to conduct child-care responsibilities in the family system (Cabrera et al., 2000; Lamb, 2000; Marsiglio et al., 2000). Therefore, in recent years, researchers
changed their focus from father's moral leadership, gender role modelling, and his absence or presence in the family structure to
nature and process of fatherhood. Current social, cultural, and legal shifts lead today's parents to reconstruct the fatherhood not only
in western societies but also in eastern cultures. New set of living conditions push today's fathers to commit more on parenting as
opposed to just being a helper to mother in child-care process (Nielson, 2014). Even such progresses related to status of contemporary
fatherhood, it must be also acknowledged that there is still a significant distance that must be traversed by twenty-first-century
fathers (Lewis & Lamb, 2007). Nevertheless, evidence suggests that from infancy to adulthood, warm, close, and responsive fatherchild relationships have diverse and significant influences on children's adjustment, especially on daughters. During adolescence,
positive father-child communication is associated with greater self-esteem, better school adjustment, lower depression, and substance
use (Bireda & Pillay, 2018). Cross-sectional research results also demonstrate that increased father involvement is associated with
higher levels of psychological well-being (Flouri & Buchanan, 2003a; Kuzucu & Özdemir, 2013; Videon, 2005), lower levels of
emotional (Flouri, 2005b; Kuzucu & Özdemir, 2013), and behavioral problems (Flouri & Buchanan, 2003b; Flouri, 2005b; Kuzucu &
Özdemir, 2013). Longitudinal research results also confirm the salient role of fathers on child development. For example, research
using 16-year data from the Bielefeld Longitudinal Study has demonstrated that father-infant relationship qualities predict children's
attachment patterns at ages 10 and 16 (Grossman et al., 2002). In another longitudinal study, it was shown that parent-adolescent
bond is associated with greater well-being, lower ill-being, and suicidal thoughts, especially in daughters (van Wel, Linssen, & Abma,
2000). Furthermore, it was also revealed that emotionally close parent-child relationships during adolescence and early adulthood
years longitudinally predicted greater self-esteem 17 and 20 years later for both sons and daughters (Roberts & Bengtson, 1996).
Apart from adolescence, it is also emphasized that the quality of father-daughter relationship is linked with a number of adult
daughter outcomes, such as higher academic and vocational success, higher levels of secure partner attachment, greater romantic
relationship satisfaction, more self-esteem, making healthful sexual decisions, as well as lower levels of depression, anxiety, stress,
and eating disorders (see Nielson, 2014, for a review). Overall, it can be clearly concluded that the quality of father-child relationships contributes importantly to children's adjustment in multiple domains, especially for daughters.
1.2. Basic psychological need satisfaction as a potential mediating mechanism
One possible mechanism accounting the links between father-daughter relationship and adolescent girls' adjustment might be
basic psychological need satisfaction. Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT) as a one of the mini theories of Self-Determination
Theory (SDT) posits that there are three innate basic psychological needs for growth, functioning, and well-being regardless of gender
and culture (Deci & Ryan, 2012). These three basic psychological human needs are namely, autonomy, relatedness, and competence.
The need for autonomy refers to the experience of volition, feeling of freedom, to be able to choose from among choices, and make
one's own decisions. The need for relatedness refers to having significant, genuine, warm, responsive, caring, intimate, and reciprocal
relationships with important others. The need for competence refers to the experience of efficacy in one's pursuits, tasks, and outcomes. It is proposed that while satisfaction of these three basic needs improves optimal psychological growth, integrity, and wellbeing, frustration of basic needs leads to psychological ill-being and even psychopathology (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000,
2017; Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). BPNT suggests that social context, particularly parents, play crucial role on either in supporting
or thwarting these basic psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Recent research in BPNT (e.g., Costa, Cuzzocrea, Gugliandolo, &
Larcan, 2016; Costa, Soenens, Gugliandolo, Cuzzocrea, & Larcan, 2015; van der Kaap-Deeder, Vansteenkiste, Soenens, & Mabbe,
2017) has revealed that while supportive parental behaviors are associated with need satisfaction, psychologically controlling parental behaviors are linked with need frustration in offspring. Further, empirical evidences also demonstrate that basic psychological
need satisfaction is associated with positive adjustment outcomes (e.g., Costa et al., 2016, 2015; van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2017).
Regarding the link between supportive social contexts and need satisfaction and the link between need satisfaction and adjustment, it
is possible that basic psychological need satisfaction might act as a mediating mechanism accounting the association between fatherdaughter relationship and adolescent girls' psychological adjustment. In accordance with BPNT, in this study, it is expected that
father-daughter relationship improves adolescent girls' basic psychological need satisfaction, which in turn leads to higher levels of
well-being and lower levels of ill-being.
1.3. The present study
While there has been growing scholarly interest in fatherhood for nearly two decades, there are still several gaps in understanding
how father-child relationships, especially with daughters, is linked with child adjustment beyond western countries. So, further
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A.S. Sağkal et al.
research is needed whether the links between father-daughter relationship and adolescent girls' adjustment would be generalized to
non-western cultures, such as Turkey. Although Turkish cultural values and parenting practices differ from western cultures, socioeconomic developments and urbanization over the past three decades has led to crucial changes in Turkish family dynamics
(Kağıtçıbaşı, 2007). For instance, findings from the Turkish Value of Children Study showed that compared to 1970s, in the 2000s
patriarchal family patterns weakened, psychological value of the child increased, and daughter preference strengthened in the
Turkish society (Kağıtçıbaşı & Ataca, 2005). However, it is also stressed that although urbanization lead today's Turkish fathers to
involve more in childcare processes, fathers' breadwinner and being a helper to mother roles still persist in the society (Metindoğan,
2015). For example, a recent research report of Mother Child Education Foundation (MCEF) on involved fatherhood demonstrate that
while majority of Turkish fathers show affectionate and warm parenting behaviors towards their children, very small percentage of
fathers actually conduct the childcare responsibilities in the families (Mother Child Education Foundation [MCEF], 2017). In this
respect, investigating the links between father-daughter relationship and adolescent girls' adjustment in a non-western culture will
further contribute to fathering research. Besides, it remains largely unknown that through which mechanism father-child relationship
influences child outcomes. Thus, addressing this gap in the fathering research, the present study examines the role of basic psychological need satisfaction in the association between father-daughter relationship and adolescent girls' adjustment outcomes. To
the best of our knowledge, this will be the first study that examine indirect effects of father-daughter relationship on adolescent girls'
adjustment via the mechanism of basic psychological need satisfaction. Informed by fathering research and BPNT, we first hypothesize that father-daughter relationship is directly and positively related with well-being and directly and negatively with illbeing. Secondly, it is hypothesized that father-daughter relationship is indirectly related to well-being and ill-being via basic psychological need satisfaction.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
The participants consisted of 310 adolescent girls between 14 and 18 years of age (M = 15.88, SD = 0.89) who were recruited
from several high schools in a western city of Turkey. Fathers' ages ranged between 36 and 66 (M = 44.17, SD = 5.78) and mothers'
ages ranged between 31 and 58 (M = 39.97, SD = 4.88). In terms of parents’ education, 60% of fathers and 74.2% of mothers had a
secondary school degree or less. In terms of monthly average family income, 28.7% reported making less than $400, 49.4% made
between $400 and $800, and 21.9% made more than $800. All the participants were coming from intact families.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Father-daughter relationship
Father-daughter relationship was assessed using the Father-Daughter Relationship Rating Scale (FDRRS; Brown, Thompson, &
Trafimow, 2002). The FDRRS includes 9 items measuring amount of time spent together (5 items) and closeness of the relationship (4
items). Cronbach alpha coefficients were 0.91, 0.89, and 0.93 for closeness of the relationship, amount of time spent together
subdimensions, and total scale, respectively. In this study, Turkish validation of FDRRS was carried out. Forward and back-translation
method with an expert panel was used for the adaptation. A second-order factor model of the FDRRS with one modification (a
covariance between item 5 and item 7) showed adequate fit to the data based on most fit indices: χ2 (25) = 102.802, p < .001, χ2/
df = 4.11, CFI = 0.96, and RMSEA = 0.10 CI [0.08, 0.13]. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients were 0.89, 0.89, and 0.92 for closeness
of the relationship, amount of time spent together, and total scale. Higher scores on the scales indicate higher degree of closeness in
the relationship and more amount of time spent together.
2.2.2. Basic psychological need satisfaction
Basic psychological need satisfaction was assessed by the psychological need satisfaction dimension of the Basic Psychological
Need Satisfaction and Need Frustration Scale (BPNSFS; Chen et al., 2015). Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale is composed of three
subdimensions, namely, autonomy, relatedness, and competence. It includes 4 items for per scale and 12 items in total. Items are
rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Completely untrue, 5 = Completely true). Both the original (Chen et al., 2015) and Turkish validation study (Sağkal & Özdemir, 2018) demonstrates that the BPNSFS has good validity and reliability indices. In the current study,
second-order factor model of the 12-item Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale with autonomy, relatedness, and competence as firstorder factors was tested for construct validity. Confirmatory factor analysis result indicated that the original factor structure of the
Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale provided a good fit to the data: χ2 (51) = 150.456, p < .001, χ2/df = 2.95, CFI = 0.93, and
RMSEA = 0.08 CI [0.07, 0.10]. In this study, Cronbach's alpha coefficients were calculated to be 0.81, 0.64, 0.89, and 0.85 for
autonomy, relatedness, competence subdimensions, and total scale, respectively. Higher scores on the scales demonstrate higher
degree of autonomy, relatedness, and competence needs satisfaction.
2.2.3. Well-being
Well-being was assessed using Flourishing Scale (FS; Diener et al., 2010). Flourishing Scale consists of 8 items and responses are
given on a 7-point Likert scale. In this study, Flourishing Scale was adapted into Turkish and its' psychometric properties were
investigated. Forward and back-translation method with an expert panel was conducted for the adaptation. In Turkish version of the
Flourishing Scale, the 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree) was used instead of a 7-point Likert scale in order
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A.S. Sağkal et al.
to increase understanding and usefulness in adolescent sample. In the research, one-factor original structure of the Flourishing Scale
showed good fit to the data: χ2 (20) = 55.674, p < .001, χ2/df = 2.78, CFI = 0.95, and RMSEA = 0.08 CI [0.06, 0.10]. Cronbach's
alpha coefficient was 0.84. Higher scores represent greater well-being.
2.2.4. Ill-being
Ill-being was assessed using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10, Kessler et al., 2002). The Kessler Psychological Distress
Scale consists of 10 items and responses are given on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = None of the time, 5 = All of the time). The original onefactor structure of the K10 has good validity and reliability (Kessler et al., 2002). In Turkish validation study (Sağkal & Özdemir,
2017), one-factor structure of the scale was confirmed, Cronbach's alpha and 4-week interval test-retest reliability coefficients were
calculated to be 0.93 and 0.75, respectively, in a sample group of university students. In the present study, one-factor model with two
modifications indicated adequate fit to the data based on most fit indices: χ2 (33) = 105.331, p < .001, χ2/df = 3.192, CFI = 0.96,
and RMSEA = 0.087 CI [0.07, 0.11]. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.93. Higher scores represent greater psychological distress.
2.3. Procedure
After getting approval from Adnan Menderes University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit and local educational
authorities, battery of questionnaires were administered to the adolescent girls. Informed consent of the students was received prior
to the administration, and voluntariness of the participants were emphasized. The administrations were conducted by trained undergraduate students. The study was conducted in compliance with the American Psychological Association ethical principles.
2.4. Data analysis
In this study, using SPSS 25.0, we first conducted preliminary analyses to test the assumptions regarding statistical methods used
were satisfied and to determine that the measures demonstrate adequate validity and reliability. Also, descriptive statistics related to
study variables were presented. In order to test hypothesized model, measurement and structural model was tested via the maximum
likelihood estimation in the AMOS 24.0 program. In order to evaluate the significance of the indirect effects and to produce biascorrected (BC) percentile confidence intervals (CI), bootstrapping (with 5000 bootstrap samples and a CI of 95%) which does not
presume multivariate normality was performed.
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary analyses
Prior to the main analyses, preliminary analyses were performed to check data and test assumptions. As Little's MCAR test
(χ2 = 352.950, df = 423, p = .994) indicated that data were missing completely at random, 9 cases with missing values were listwise deleted. Furthermore, 5 multivariate outliers (Mahalanobis distance at p < .001) and 7 univariate outliers (standardized z-score
greater than ±3.29) were omitted, leaving 289 participants for the analyses (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Absolute values of skewness < 3.0 and absolute values of kurtosis < 10 indicated that the univariate normality was satisfied (Kline, 2011). The multivariate
kurtosis critical ratio (7.889) bigger than the threshold of 5 showed that multivariate normality assumption was violated (Byrne,
2010). Therefore, bootstrapping method was used to test the hypothesized structural model (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). DurbinWatson value of 1.537 indicated that there is no autocorrelation. Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values (range between 1.38 and
2.11) of < 5, Tolerance Index values (range from 0.47 to 0.73) of > 0.20, and condition index (24.921) of < 30 were interpreted as
no indication for multicollinearity problem. Exploratory factor analysis revealed that there are three factors and no factor account
more than 50% of the variance. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that single factor model led to poor fit: χ2 (44) = 753.398,
p < .001, χ2/df = 17.123, CFI = 0.62, and RMSEA = 0.24 CI [0.22, 0.25]. Thus, common method variance is not a concern in the
present study (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003).
3.2. Descriptive statistics
Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations between father-daughter relationship, basic psychological need
Table 1
Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among study variables (N = 289).
Measures
M
SD
1
2
3
4
1.
2.
3.
4.
34.67
45.82
28.93
30.44
11.77
6.64
5.24
9.08
1
0.27∗∗
0.41∗∗
-0.32∗∗
1
0.64∗∗
-0.33∗∗
1
-0.51∗∗
1
Father-daughter relationship
Basic psychological need satisfaction
Well-being
Ill-being
Note.
∗∗
p < .01.
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A.S. Sağkal et al.
satisfaction, well-being, and ill-being are presented in Table 1. Father-daughter relationship was positively correlated with basic
psychological need satisfaction (r = 0.27) and well-being (r = 0.41), and negatively correlated with ill-being (r = −0.32). Basic
psychological need satisfaction was positively associated with well-being (r = 0.64) and negatively correlated with ill-being
(r = −0.33).
3.3. Measurement model
Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to assess measurement model. Father-daughter relationship, basic psychological need
satisfaction, well-being, and ill-being were included as latent variables. Father-daughter relationship was indicated by two observed
variables, closeness of the relationship and amount of time spent together subscales. Basic psychological need satisfaction was
indicated by three observed variables, autonomy, relatedness, and competence subscales. Well-being and ill-being were indicated by
three parcels each. The parcels were constructed by using item-to-construct balance approach (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, &
Widaman, 2002). An initial test of the measurement model yielded good fit indices: χ2 (38) = 73.192, p < .01, χ2/df = 1.93,
CFI = 0.98, and RMSEA = 0.06 CI [0.04, 0.08]. Standardized factor loadings for observed variables ranged from 0.81 to 0.88 for
father-daughter relationship, 0.58 to 0.70 for basic psychological need satisfaction, 0.76 to 0.90 for well-being, and 0.88 to 0.95 for
ill-being. All the standardized factor loadings were significant at p < .001, indicating that all the latent factors are well represented
by their associated observed variables.
3.4. Structural model
The structural model included father-daughter relationship as exogenous variable, and basic psychological need satisfaction, wellbeing, and ill-being as endogenous variables. The results of structural equation modelling showed that the proposed model had an
acceptable model fit: χ2 (39) = 83.335, p < .001, χ2/df = 2.14, CFI = 0.98, and RMSEA = 0.06 CI [0.04, 0.08]. Direct effects are
depicted in Fig. 1 and indirect effects of the mediation model are presented in Table 2. In the model, father-daughter relationship was
positively and significantly linked to basic psychological need satisfaction (β = 0.35, p < .001) and well-being (β = 0.19, p < .01),
and negatively and significantly linked to ill-being (β = −0.21, p < .01). That is, adolescent girls who reported increased fatherdaughter relationship had higher levels of basic psychological need satisfaction and well-being, and lower levels of ill-being. The
results of the structural model also indicated that basic psychological need satisfaction was significantly and positively associated
with well-being (β = 0.83, p < .001) and significantly and negatively associated with ill-being (β = −0.44, p < .001). That is,
adolescent girls who reported higher levels of basic psychological need satisfaction had higher levels of well-being and lower levels of
ill-being. Father-daughter relationship and basic psychological need satisfaction explained 84% of the variance in well-being and
30% of the variance in the ill-being. In order to test the hypothesis that basic psychological need satisfaction provide an indirect effect
on the association between father-daughter relationship and well-being and ill-being, a bootstrapping method generating 5000
Fig. 1. Model of relationship among father-daughter relationship, basic psychological need satisfaction, well-being, and ill-being. Note. W1-W3 are
three parcels of well-being; I1-I3 are three parcels of ill-being; all the coefficients are standardized and significant at the 0.01 level.
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A.S. Sağkal et al.
Table 2
Indirect effects of father-daughter relationship on well-being and ill-being through basic psychological need satisfaction (N = 289).
Indirect effects
Estimate
Father-daughter relationship → Basic psychological need satisfaction → Well-being
Father-daughter relationship → Basic psychological need satisfaction → Ill-being
0.29
-0.15
SE
0.09
0.06
BC 95% CI
p
Low
Up
0.13
-0.30
0.50
-0.07
0.001
0.001
Note. Bootstrap samples = 5000; bias corrected confidence interval = 95%; BC = Bias corrected; CI = Confidence Interval.
bootstrap resamples from the original data set was employed and bias-corrected 95% bootstrap confidence intervals for the indirect
effects were estimated. As shown in Table 2, father-daughter relationship had significant indirect effects on both well-being
(β = 0.29, 95% CI [0.13, 0.50]) and ill-being (β = −0.15, 95% CI [-0.30, −0.07]) via basic psychological need satisfaction. These
results demonstrate that increased father-daughter relationship is related to higher levels of need satisfaction, which in turn is related
to higher levels of well-being and lower levels of ill-being. Hence, hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported. After accounting for the
mediating effect of need satisfaction, the path coefficients from father-daughter relationship to well-being (β = 0.19, p < .01) and
ill-being (β = −0.21, p < .01) were still significant. This implies that basic psychological need satisfaction only partially mediated
the associations between father-daughter relationship and well-being and ill-being.
4. Discussion
The aim of the present study was to examine the direct and indirect effects of father-daughter relationship on adolescent girls'
psychological outcomes in a non-western culture. In the study, increased father-daughter relationship predicted greater psychological
need satisfaction, greater well-being, and lower ill-being in adolescent girls. We also found that adolescent girls higher in psychological need satisfaction were more likely to experience higher levels of well-being and lower levels of ill-being. In terms of indirect
effects, experiencing greater father-daughter relationship leads to higher psychological need satisfaction, which in turn increases
well-being and decreases ill-being in Turkish adolescent girls. Overall, these results thus support for the role of father-daughter
relationship on adolescent girls’ psychological outcomes, namely, well-being and ill-being. Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that revealed father-daughter relationship is linked to psychological outcomes of adolescent girls through
the mechanism of basic psychological need satisfaction.
The first hypothesis of the study was that father-daughter relationship is directly and positively related to well-being; directly and
negatively related to ill-being. The structural model analysis supported the hypothesis in that high levels of father-daughter relationship was directly related to greater well-being and lower ill-being. These findings are consistent with previous research that
reports father involvement is associated with greater well-being (Bireda & Pillay, 2018; Flouri & Buchanan, 2003a; Kuzucu &
Özdemir, 2013; Videon, 2005) and lower emotional (Bireda & Pillay, 2018; Flouri, 2005b; Kuzucu & Özdemir, 2013) and behavioral
adjustment problems in adolescents (Flouri & Buchanan, 2003b; Flouri, 2005b; Kuzucu & Özdemir, 2013). Our findings also build
upon previous longitudinal researches that reported good quality of parent-child relationships is linked with greater well-being and
lower ill-being, especially in daughters (e.g., van Wel et al., 2000). The present findings also concur with theoretical assertations that
fulfilling father-daughter relationships bring crucial and long-lasting benefits for children in many developmental areas (e.g., Lamb,
2010; Nielson, 2012). Overall, these results further emphasize the importance of father-daughter relationship on the psychological
outcomes and add to the literature that father-daughter relationships and its' effects on adolescent girls’ adjustment may extend to
non-western cultures.
The second hypothesis of the study was that father-daughter relationship is indirectly related to well-being and ill-being through
the mechanism of basic psychological need satisfaction. The findings from the current study indicated that father-daughter relationship was indirectly related to both well-being and ill-being via basic psychological need satisfaction, supporting hypothesis 2.
These findings suggest that father-daughter relationship may be related to adolescent girls' adjustment because it increases basic
psychological need satisfaction and which, in turn, is likely to result in greater well-being and lower ill-being. Indeed, from BPNT's
point of view, contextual factors supporting basic needs facilitate human growth and well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2012; Ryan &
Deci, 2000, 2017; Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). In line with BPNT's notion, the present study highlights that increased fatherdaughter relationship fulfills adolescent girls' basic psychological need satisfaction, which subsequently relates to greater well-being
and lower ill-being. To our knowledge, this research is the first to reveal that basic psychological need satisfaction functions as a
mediating variable between father-daughter relationship and adolescent girls' psychological outcomes. However, further research is
needed to replicate and extend these findings.
There are some limitations as well worth noting. As this study tested hypothetical associations in a structural equation modelling
with a cross-sectional data set, it is limiting the ability to draw causal inferences. Future studies would be designed longitudinally to
explore more clearly about how father-daughter relationship is linked with children's social, emotional, behavioral, and academic
development in the long-term. Second limitation of the study was that the participants were all adolescent girls coming from intact
families and living in Turkish culture. So further research is needed to replicate and expand the present findings across cultures and
developmental age groups. Future studies may aim to explore the link between father-daughter relationship and adolescent girls'
psychological outcomes in diverse family structures as well. Moreover, in this study, data were collected from only adolescent girls
via a battery of self-report questionnaires. In future studies, researchers may also gather data from fathers and use qualitative
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measurement tools to get in-depth knowledge about the dynamics of father-daughter relationships. Furthermore, as direct effects
between father-daughter relationship and well-being and father-daughter relationship and ill-being were still significant even after
accounting need satisfaction (indicating partial mediation), there might be other mechanisms at work.
Despite these limitations, present findings provide new insights and understanding regarding effects of fathering on adolescent
girls' psychological development. As in previous studies (e.g., Bireda & Pillay, 2018; Flouri & Buchanan, 2003a, 2003b; Videon,
2005), father-daughter relationship is significantly related with adolescent girls' psychological health. Since the quality of fatherdaughter relationship is a significant predictor of adolescent girls’ psychological outcomes, it is imperative that school counselors and
clinicians working with adolescent girls on psychological issues might focus on strengthening father-daughter relationships. Practitioners might also encourage fathers to spend more time, to be more accessible, and involve in childcare process not as a helper to
mother but as a coparent in the family system. To this end, improving father-daughter relationship may increase basic psychological
need satisfaction of adolescent girls, which, in turn, may produce better mental health outcomes.
As a conclusion, the present study highlights unique contributions of father-daughter relationship on adolescent girls' mental
health. The research results reveal that basic psychological need satisfaction is a crucial mediating mechanism in the link between
father-daughter relationships and psychological outcomes. Notably, indicating how father-daughter relationship is significantly associated with adolescent girls' psychological outcomes and revealing through which mechanism this association occurs, the present
study fills a crucial gap in fathering research and provides preliminary evidences from a non-western culture. This study increases our
understanding of how it is important for today's and tomorrow's fathers to build better relationships with their offspring to promote
positive mental health outcomes.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Adnan Menderes University Scientific Research Projects Unit [Project No. EĞF-17035].
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