POTENTIAL OF SCLEROTIUM ROLFSII ISOLATE AS A
BIOCONTROL AGENT AGAINST ROOT-LESION
NEMATODES (PRATYLENCHUS SPP.) IN DIFFERENT
VARIETIES OF SUGARCANE PLANT.
SANUSI, MAJEED AJIBOLA
(14/10AC653)
B.AGRIC. (UNILORIN) 2019
A PRE-FIELD SEMINAR SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CROP
PROTECTION, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN,
NIGERIA, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE (MSc.) IN CROP
PROTECTION
JULY, 2023
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE .....................................................................Ошибка! Закладка не определена.
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ ii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1.1
Background of Study........................................................................................................ 1
1.2
Statement of Problem ....................................................................................................... 4
1.3
Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................................ 5
1.4 Justifications ......................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................. 6
3.1 Experimental Design ............................................................................................................. 7
3.1.1 In-vitro experiment ........................................................................................................ 7
3.1.2 Screenhouse experiment ................................................................................................ 7
3.1.3 Field trial ........................................................................................................................ 7
3.2 Site Description ..................................................................................................................... 6
3.2.1 In-vitro experiment ........................................................................................................ 6
3.2.2 Screenhouse experiment ................................................................................................ 6
3.2.3 Field trial ........................................................................................................................ 6
3.3 Materials to be Used and Source .......................................................................................... 7
3.3.1 In-vitro experiment ........................................................................................................ 7
3.3.2 Screenhouse experiment ................................................................................................ 8
3.3.3 Field trial ...................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 In-vitro Experiment..............................................................................................................11
3.5 Screen House Experiment ....................................................................................................11
3.5.1 Soil sterilization ............................................................................................................11
ii
3.5.2 Sugarcane cultivation ................................................................................................... 12
3.5.3 Nematode inoculation .................................................................................................. 12
3.5.4 Fungi inoculation ......................................................................................................... 12
3.6 Field Trial ............................................................................................................................ 12
3.6.1 Pre-planting soil analysis ............................................................................................. 12
3.6.2 Sugarcane cultivation ................................................................................................... 12
3.6.3 Nematode inoculation .........................................Ошибка! Закладка не определена.
3.6.4 Fungi inoculation ................................................Ошибка! Закладка не определена.
3.7 Treatments to be Used ......................................................................................................... 13
3.8 Data to be Collected ............................................................................................................ 13
3.8.1 In-vitro experiment ...................................................................................................... 13
3.8.2 Screenhouse experiment .............................................................................................. 13
3.8.3 Farm trial ...................................................................................................................... 13
3.9 Extraction of Nematode and Final Nematode Population .................................................. 14
3.10 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 14
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 15
iii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Sugarcane (Saccharum spp,) is a perennial grass belonging to the genus Saccharum L.
and comprising six different species (D'Hont et al., 1998). It originated from New Guinea
where the cultivation started 1,000 years ago (Wang et al., 2022), although it is now grown in
more than 100 different countries around the world with Brazil leading in the production
(FAO, 2022). Sugarcane serves as one of the major sources of global sugar (Voora et al.,
2020) also, the pressed cane juice can be used to produce diesel, jet fuel, and other high-value
products (Junior et al., 2019). Sugarcane by-products can also be used for direct-fired power
generation, field fertilizers, and culture substrate for fruit tree seedlings (Lu et al., 2020). As
reported by (Solomon and Li, 2016) the sugarcane industry is constantly working to sustain
the yield which is hindered by several stresses, climatic changes and disease outbreaks.
Climatic conditions influence sugarcane yield, with a rise in temperature having a negative
effect on productivity but a positive relationship with rainfall (Guo et al., 2021). According to
Rott, (1995) disease development often occurs during long periods of environmental stresses
such as drought, waterlogging, and low temperature, which result in yield losses of about
15%−20%.
Diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, virus and nematodes pose serious threat to
sugarcane cultivation (Viswanathan and Rao 2011). Leaf scald (also known as the leaf
burning disease), is a disease of sugarcane caused by bacterium Xanthomonas albilineans
which is capable of producing a gum (xanthan-like polymer) that destroys the xylem
elements, thus leading to desiccation and yellowing of the leaves (Legaz et al., 2018). Fungal
diseases such as red rot, wilt, smut and sett rot are the major fungal diseases causing
1
considerable loss to sugarcane production in the field (Viswanathan 2010), Red rot is caused
by Colletotrichum falcatum Went, Smut by Sporosorium scitamineuma while Wilt is caused
by Fusarium sacchari (Viswanathan and Rao 2011). Sugarcane is infected by different virus
species viz., Sugarcane yellow leaf virus (SCYLV), Sugarcane streak virus (SSV), Sugarcane
Fiji disease virus (SFDV), Sugarcane bacilliform virus (SCBV) (Braithwaite et al., 1995),
Sugarcane streak mosaic virus (SCSMV), and Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV)
(Viswanathan and Rao, 2011). The nematode genera Helicotylenchus, Hoplolaimus,
Meloidogyne, Paratylenchus, Pratylenchus, Rotylenchulus, Tylenchorhynchus and Xiphinema
are among the over 310 species of 48 genera of plant-parasitic nematodes that have been
reported in sugarcane (Cadet and Spaull, 2005). Sugarcane has greater nematode diversity
than most other farmed crops, although the most frequently listed species as extremely
harmful to the plant are Pratylenchus zeae, Meloidogyne incognita, and M. javanica
(Dinardo-Miranda and Gil, 2005). Species of Pratylenchus are common in tropical and
subtropical regions; they attack crops such as maize, sorghum, sugar cane, soybean, and
several vegetables (Castillo and Vovlas 2007).
Pratylenchus is a migratory endoparasite distributed globally and has been reported in
more than 400 hosts (Castillo and Vovlas, 2007; Handoo et al., 2008), also termed “rootlesion nematode” because of the damage caused when it enters the roots (Piedrahita et al.,
2012). The number of Pratylenchus species is estimated to be around 103 species according
to Nguyen et al., (2019). The presence of red, reddish purple or brown lesions on the roots of
sugarcane plants signifies an infestation of Pratylenchus spp. (Stirling and Blair, 2000). The
lesions turn purplish black, causing the root system to darken in color, hence becoming
necrotic (Ramouthar and Bhuiyan, 2018).
2
There is an increasing need to supply more food to the growing population nowadays
(FAO, 2017) hence, the need for controlling plant-parasitic nematodes is also growing at a
global demand. Given the high economic impact caused by parasitic nematodes, a large
number of strategies have been developed for nematode control in agriculture, including the
use of chemical nematicides (Zhang et al., 2017), cultural practices, biological control, host
resistance methods, and mechanical methods (Bakker 1993, Kratochvil et al. 2004, Dutta et
al. 2019). Carbofuran is one of the most often used pesticides for nematode control, and it is
widely utilized in many underdeveloped countries due to its potency. However, it has been
banned in many countries due to associated toxicities to humans and non-target organisms
(Seth et al. 2019). It is in most cases labeled as moderately toxic to highly toxic. In fact, the
World Health Organization has classified carbofuran as an extremely hazardous substance.
(WHO 2009). Strategies associated with biocontrol are proposed as a much safer alternative
and highly practicable for plant parasitic nematodes management (Xiang et al., 2018).
Numerous studies reported that fungal saprophytes such as Candida oleophila,
Clolostachys
rosea,
Epicoccum
purpurascens,
Metschnikowia
fructicola,
Pichia
guilliermondii, Rhodotorula glutinis, Trichoderma harzianum, and Ulocladium atrum are
effective Bio-Control Agents (Wszelaki and Mitcham, 2003; Zhang et al., 2007). Izuogu
(2013) reported that Trichoderma harzianum has biopesticidal potential in the management of
rootknot nematode pests that limit the production of Celosia argentea. Also, Meloidogyne
incognita affecting pepper varieties (F1 Nikita and Gianfranco Fuscello) was controlled using
Trichoderma harzianum as biopesticide (Izuogu et al., 2019).
Sclerotium rolfsii is a soil-borne fungus and a facultative parasite that occurs as a
saprotroph (Dwivedi and Prasard, 2016). There is scarcity of information on the
3
nematophagous properties of Sclerotium rolfsii, hence, the main objective of this research is
to determine the potential of Sclerotium rolfsii (a saprophytic fungi) as a biocontrol agent for
root-lesion nematode (Pratylenchus spp.) on the following sugarcane varieties DB8203,
RB1215211, SP80-1816, BR971001, M95/2732.
Statement of the Problem
Sustainable management of Plant Parasitic Nematodes (PPNs) is necessary in order to
meet the increasing demand for food (Coyne et al., 2018). In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA),
agricultural intensification has accelerated, although without consideration for sustainability
(Vanlauwe and Dobermann, 2020). Subsistence farmers, who contribute 90% of the
agricultural production in SSA (Wiggins, 2009) involve in practices such as; use of fertilizers,
herbicides, pesticides and tillage. These practices degrade soil health and have contributed to
declination of soil fertility in small-scale farms (Droppelmann et al., 2017), increase in the
incidence of PPN and associated crop yield losses (Herren et al., 2020).
Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) are a major constraint in sugarcane
cultivation, causing significant yield losses worldwide. Chemical control strategies have been
the primary method to manage the nematodes, but they have negative impacts on the
environment and human health. Biological control using Sclerotium rolfsii isolate is a
promising alternative strategy, but its efficacy against Pratylenchus spp. in sugarcane remains
unknown. Therefore, the problem is to determine the potential of Sclerotium rolfsii isolate as
a biocontrol agent against Pratylenchus spp. in different sugarcane varieties (DB8203,
RB1215211, SP80-1816, BR971001, M95/2732) and to evaluate its effectiveness in reducing
nematode populations and improving plant growth and yield.
4
Justifications of the Study
Root-lesion nematodes are a significant pest problem in sugarcane farming, causing
extensive damage to the roots and reducing the yield and quality of the crop. The use of
chemical pesticides to control nematodes is not always effective and can have adverse effects
on the environment and human health. Therefore, there is a need to find alternative methods
to control these pests.
Secondly, Sclerotium rolfsii is a fungal pathogen that has scarcity of information on the
biocontrol potential against nematodes. Therefore, investigating the potential of this isolate as
a biocontrol agent against Pratylenchus spp. in sugarcane plants is a promising area of
research.
Thirdly, the study aims to evaluate the efficacy of Sclerotium rolfsii isolate as a
biocontrol agent against Pratylenchus spp. in different varieties of sugarcane plants. This is
important because different varieties of sugarcane plants may have varying levels of
susceptibility to Pratylenchus spp., and the biocontrol agent's efficacy may also differ
depending on the variety.
Therefore, a control measure of biological origin is needed to combat the detrimental
effect of the PPNs without having negative effects on our health, ecosystem and other nontarget organisms in the soil.
5
Aims and Objectives
The main objective of this research is to determine the potential of Sclerotium rolfsii (a
saprophytic fungi) as a biocontrol agent for root-lesion nematode (Pratylenchus spp.) on the
following sugarcane varieties DB8203, RB1215211, SP80-1816, BR971001, M95/2732.
The specific objectives of this research are to:

determine the optimal application rate of Sclerotium rolfsii isolate for maximum
suppression of root-lesion nematodes in-vitro.

evaluate the efficacy of Sclerotium rolfsii isolate in controlling root-lesion nematodes
in different varieties of sugarcane plant.

investigate the impact of Sclerotium rolfsii isolate on the growth and development of
different sugarcane plant varieties.
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Site Description
3.1.1 In-vitro experiment
The In-vitro experiment will be carried out in the Department of Crop Protection laboratory,
located at Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin Kwara State, Nigeria.
3.1.2 Screenhouse experiment
The screenhouse experiment will be carried out in the Department of Crop Protection
screenhouse, located at Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin Kwara State, Nigeria. The
GPS of the location is latitude 8.486583, longitude 4.677332 (Google Map, n.d.).
3.1.3 Field trial
The field trial will be carried out on a nematode infested farm plot at the University of Ilorin
Research Farm, located at University of Ilorin Kwara State, Nigeria.
6
3.2 Experimental Design
3.2.1 In-vitro experiment
The In-vitro experiment will be conducted using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
with five (5) treatment combinations and five (5) replicates per treatment.
3.2.2 Screenhouse experiment
The screenhouse experiment will be conducted using a 5 X 5 factorial randomized
complete block design (RCBD) with five (5) varieties of sugarcanes and five (5) levels of
treatments, with each treatment combination having five (5) replicates.
3.2.3 Field trial
The field trial will be conducted using a 5 X 5 factorial randomized complete block design
(RCBD with five (5) varieties of sugarcanes and five (5) levels of treatments, with each
treatment combination having three (3) replicates.
3.3 Materials to be Used and Source
3.3.1 In-vitro experiment
The materials to be used for the in-vitro experiment includes:

Sclerotia inoculum.

Fungi culturing materials (petri dishes, PDA, ethanol, aluminium foil, etc).

Pratylenchus spp. inoculum.

Nematode inoculation materials (conical flask, micro pipette, etc).
Source of the materials to be used for the in-vitro experiment are as follows:

The Sclerotia inoculum will be harvested from sub-cultures of Sclerotium rolfsii
culture that will be obtained from International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
located at Idi-Ose, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
7

The Fungi culturing materials will be collected from the department’s laboratory,
while materials that are not available in the laboratory will be sourced for at SUNAF
laboratory equipment store located at Taiwo Rd., Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.

The Pratylenchus spp. inoculum will be obtained from International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (IITA) located at Idi-Ose, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

The nematode inoculation materials will be collected from the department’s
laboratory, while materials that isn’t available in the laboratory will be sourced for at
SUNAF laboratory equipment store located at Taiwo Rd., Ilorin, Kwara State,
Nigeria.
3.3.2 Screenhouse experiment
The materials to be used for the screenhouse experiment include:

Sclerotium rolfsii inoculum.

Pratylenchus spp. inoculum.

Five (5) varieties (DB8203, RB1215211, SP80-1816, BR971001, M95/2732) of
sugarcane stalks.

Farming tools (buckets, watering can, hand trowel etc).

Sterilized soil.

Nematode and Fungi inoculation materials (conical flask, micro pipette, etc).
Source of the materials to be used for the screenhouse experiment are as follows:

The Sclerotium rolfsii inoculum will be obtained from International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (IITA) located at Idi-Ose, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

The Pratylenchus spp. inoculum will be extracted from infested soil that will be taken
from the maize farm at University of Ilorin gate and then be sent to International
Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) located at Idi-Ose, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
for extraction.
8

The five (5) varieties (DB8203, RB1215211, SP80-1816, BR971001, M95/2732) of
sugarcane stalks will be obtained from Unilorin Sugar Research Institute which is
located at Idofian, Kwara State, Nigeria.

The farming tools will be purchased at Oke-Odo market, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.

Unsterilized soil will be taken from behind the Unilorin’s Department of Crop
Protection screenhouse, then I will sterilize it to kill all the pathogens present in the
soil.

The Nematode and Fungi inoculation materials will be collected from the
department’s laboratory, while materials that are not available in the laboratory will
be sourced for at SUNAF laboratory equipment store located at Taiwo Rd., Ilorin,
Kwara State, Nigeria.
9
3.3.3 Field trial
The materials to be used for the field trial includes:

Five (5) varieties (DB8203, RB1215211, SP80-1816, BR971001, M95/2732) of
sugarcane stalks.

Farming materials (hoe, cutlass, etc).
Source of the materials to be used for the field trial are as follows:

The five (5) varieties (DB8203, RB1215211, SP80-1816, BR971001, M95/2732) of
sugarcane stalks will be obtained from Unilorin Sugar Research Institute which is
located at Idofian, Kwara State, Nigeria.

The planting materials will be purchased at Oja-Oba market, Ilorin, Kwara State,
Nigeria.
3.4 Nematode Extraction
Soil sample will be mixed thoroughly to form a composite sample, juveniles and adult
Pratylenchus spp. Nematodes will them be extracted using the extraction tray method
explained by Coyne et al. (2018). Three (3) replicates of 100ml of the soil sample will be
taken from the composite sample, and poured into a setup of two (2) double-faced 2-ply
tissues placed into a plastic sieve and placed on an extraction plate (slightly larger than the
sieve). Water will then be added to the extraction plate gently between the edges of the plate
and sieve (not directly onto the tissue or soil). Enough water will be added to wet the soil but
not waterlogged, ensuring there is sufficient water to not dry out and more water will be
added if necessary.
The setup will be left undisturbed for a period of 48 hours allowing the nematodes to move
from the soil through the 2-ply tissue into the extraction plate. After the extraction period,
excess water will be drained from the sieve into the extraction plate, the sieve will be
removed and the soil will be disposed. The water in the extraction will be poured into a
labelled cup and the plate will be rinsed. The water will be left to settle and decanted after
some hours.
10
3.5 In-vitro Experiment
3.5.1 Preparation of Sclerotium rolfsii sub-culture
The culture of Sclerotium rolfsii collected will be sub-cultured onto multiple plates plates
each with potato dextrose agar (PDA). A potato dextrose broth will be prepared by adding
39g of PDA powder (purchased from a laboratory store) to 1 litre of distilled water and 1g of
streptomycin (a broad spectrum antibacterial) will be added to the mixture and autoclaved for
15 minutes at 121oC.
The resulting broth will be distributed into several petri dishes and inoculated each with,
Sclerotium rolfsii placed in the middle of each plate. The culture will then be incubated at
room temperature for 10 days after which the sclerotia from these cultures be harvested to be
used as the final inoculum.
3.5.2
3.6 Screen House Experiment
3.6.1 Soil sterilization
The soil to be used will be obtained from behind the Unilorin’s Department of Crop
Protection screenhouse. It will be sieved, moistened and heated at 121oC for 120mins, to kill
any pathogen or weed seed that may be present in the soil. This treatment is in line with
(Baker, 1957) method of soil sterilization.
After cooling for 72hrs, the soil will then be transferred to plastic buckets at the rate of 8kg
per bucket.
11
3.6.2 Sugarcane cultivation
The sugarcane varieties (DB8203, RB1215211, SP80-1816, BR971001, M95/2732) obtained
from Unilorin Sugar Research Institute will be cut into setts of one (1) bud per sett. The setts
will be planted into buckets of sterilized soils at the rate of two (2) setts per bucket. The
sugarcane seedling will be thinned after three (3) weeks of planting to one plant per pot.
Plants will be grown by following the usual practices (irrigation, weeding, thinning etc)
adopted by farmers.
3.6.3 Nematode inoculation
After four (4) weeks of planting, each sugarcane plant will be inoculated by pipetting a
mixture of 2,000 juvenile and adult Pratylenchus spp. Nematode (which will be added into
10ml of water) into a 2-3cm hole around the base of the plants.
3.6.4 Fungi inoculation
3.7 Field Trial
3.7.1 Pre-planting soil analysis
Soil samples will be taken from the nematode infested farm plot at University of Ilorin
Research Farm randomly using a zig-zag pattern. A soil auger will be used to take soil
samples at a 0-20cm depth. Fifteen (15) core samples will be taken and mixed together to
create a composite soil sample. The soil sample will then be taken to International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to identify the nematodes present on the farm plot and to estimate
their population.
3.7.2 Sugarcane cultivation
The farm plot will be ploughed, harrowed and ridged. After preparation of the plot, the
sugarcane varieties (DB8203, RB1215211, SP80-1816, BR971001, M95/2732) obtained from
Unilorin Sugar Research Institute will be cut into setts of two (2) buds per sett. The setts will
be planted in the ridges with a spacing of 75cm x 75cm at a depth of 8cm at the rate of two
setts per hole. Plants will be grown by following the usual farming practices (weeding, debris
12
removal etc.) adopted by farmers. Irrigation will not be carried out since the crop will be
planted during rainy season.
3.8 Treatments to be Used
Sclerotium rolfsii and Pratylenchus spp. inoculum will be used as treatment with three (3)
varying levels of concentrations, a negative control and a positive control. The treatments are
as follows:

Sclerotium rolfsii + Pratylenchus spp. Level One (L1)

Sclerotium rolfsii + Pratylenchus spp. Level Two (L2)

Sclerotium rolfsii + Pratylenchus spp. Level Three (L3)

Pratylenchus spp. only as Negative Control (C-)

No Sclerotium rolfsii or Pratylenchus spp. as Positive Control (C+)
3.9 Data to be Collected
3.9.1 In-vitro experiment
3.9.2 Screenhouse experiment
After four (4) weeks of planting, the following data will be collected bi-weekly; stalk height,
number of fully extended leaves, stalk diameter and number of tillers. At twelve (12) weeks
of planting, cane weight will also be recorded while soil and root samples will be taken to be
analyzed for the population of the nematodes present.
3.9.3 Farm trial
After four (4) weeks of planting, the following data will be collected bi-weekly; stalk height,
number of fully extended leaves, number of canes and number of tillers. At twelve (12)
weeks of planting, sugarcane yield will also be recorded while soil and root samples will be
taken to be analyzed for the population of the nematodes present.
13
3.10 Final Nematode Population
After extracting the nematodes as described in chapter 3.4, the extracted nematodes will be
viewed and counted using an Olympus compound microscope at International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (IITA). 2ml of the water containing the extracted nematode will be
pipetted into a nematode counting slide and viewed using a 40x magnification. A nematode
counter will be used to keep track of the number of nematodes viewed while moving topbottom from one end of the slide to the other.
3.11 Data Analysis
Data collected will be subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), comparison of means will
be done using the Tukey’s HSD at 5% level of significance. The analysis will be done using
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software (SPSS) 25.0 version.
14
REFERENCES
Bakker, J. (1993) Current state of nematicides. In: Zadoks JC (ed) Modern crop protection:
developments and perspectives. Wageningen Agric. Univ. Press, Wageningen, pp
21–26.
Braithwaite K. S., Egeskov N. M. & Smith G. R. (1995). Detection of Sugarcane bacilliform
virus using the polymerase chain reaction. Plant Dis. 9:792–796.
Cadet, P. & Spaull, V.W. (2005). Nematode parasites of sugarcane. In Plant Parasitic
Nematodes in Subtropical and Tropical Agriculture, 2nd ed.; Luc, M., Sikora, R.A.,
Bridge, J., Eds.; CAB International: Wallingford, UK. pp. 645–674.
Castillo, P. & Vovlas, N. (2007). Pratylenchus (Nematoda: Pratylenchidae): diagnosis,
biology, pathogenicity and management, nematology monographs and perspectives.
Boston: Brill Leiden.
Coyne, D.L., Cortada, L., Dalzell, J.J., Claudius-Cole, A.O., Haukeland, S., Luambano, N. &
Talwana, H. (2018). Plant-parasitic nematodes and food security in sub-saharan
Africa. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol., 56, pp. 381-403.
Coyne, D.L., Nicol, J.M. & Cladius-Cole, B. (2007). Practical plant nematology: a field and
laboratory guide. SP-IPM Secretariat, International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA), Coutonou, Benin.
D’Hont, A., Ison, D., Alix, K., Roux, C., & Glaszmann, J.C. (1998). Determination of basic
chromosome numbers in the genus Saccarum by physical mapping of ribosomal RNA
genes. Genome. 41, 221–225.
15
Dinardo-Miranda, L.L. & Gil, M.A. (2005). Effect of crop rotation with Crotalaria juncea on
sugarcane yield, treated or not with nematicides at planting. Nematologia Brasileira
29(1): 63-66.
Droppelmann, K.J., Snapp, S.S. & Waddington, S.R. (2017). Sustainable intensification
options for smallholder maize-based farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Food
Secur, 9, pp. 133-150.
Dutta, T.K., Khan, M.R. & Phani, V. (2019) Plant-parasitic nematode management via
biofumigation using brassica and non-brassica plants: current status and future
prospects. Curr Plant Biol 17:17–32.
Dwivedi, S. K., & Prasad, G. (2016). Integrated management of Sclerotium rolfsii: an
overview. European Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 3(11),
137-146.
FAO (2017). The Future of Food and Agriculture. Rome: Trends and challenges.
FAO (2022). The agricultural production indices. FAOSTAT, Food and Agricultural
Organisation
of
the
United
Nations
(FAO).
Online,
Available
http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=FAO&f=itemCode%3a156 (Accessed on July 12).
Guo, H., Huang, Z., Tan, M., Ruan, H., Awe, G. O., Are, K. S., et al. (2021). Crop resilience
to climate change: a study of spatio-temporal variability of sugarcane yield in a
subtropical region, China. Smart Agric. Technol..
Handoo, Z. A., Carta, L. K., & Skantar, A. M. (2008). Taxonomy, morphology and
phylogenetics of coffee-associated root lesion nematodes, Pratylenchus spp. In R. M.
Souza (Ed.), Plant-parasitic nematodes of coffee (pp. 29–50).
16
Herren, G.L., Habraken, J., Waeyenberge, L., Haegeman, A., Viaene, N., Cougnon, M.,
Reheul, D., Steel, H. & Bert, W. (2020). Effects of synthetic fertilizer and farm
compost on soil nematode community in long-term crop rotation plots: a
morphological and metabarcoding approach. PLoS One, 15.
Izuogu, N.B. (2013). Nematicidal Effect of Trichoderma harzianum T22 on Meloidogyne
incognita (Kofoid & White) Chitwood, Infecting Celosia argentea TLV8. Journal of
Agricultural Research and Development, 12(1), 35-43.
Izuogu, N.B., Baba, H.S., & Winjobi, E.O. (2019). Assessment of bio-agent (Trichoderma
Harzianum) in the management of two pepper varieties infected with root-knot
nematode (Meloidogyne Incognita).
Junior J.F., Palacio J.E., Leme R.C., Lora E.S., Eduardo L., Reyes A.M. & Olmo O.D.
(2019). Biorefineries productive alternatives optimization in the brazilian sugar and
alcohol industry. Appl. Energy. 259:113092.
Kratochvil, R.J., Sardanelli, S. & Everts, K.E. (2004) Gallagher evaluation of crop rotation
and other cultural practices for management of root-knot and lesion nematodes.
Agron J 96:1419–1428.
Lu, G., Wang, S., Lian, Y. & Wei, Y. (2020). Development and utilization of sugarcane byproducts in the sugar manufacturing process. Sugar Crop. China. 42:75–80.
Piedrahita, Ó.A.G., Zapata, J.C., & Estrada, B.V. (2012). Principales nematodos fitoparásitos
y síntomas ocasionados en cultivos de importancia económica. Agronomía, 1, 38–50.
17
Ramouthar, P.V. & Bhuiyan, S.A. (2018) Nematode parasites of sugarcane. In: Sikora, R.A.,
Coyne, D., Hallmann, J. & Timper, P. (eds) Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Subtropical
and Tropical Agriculture, 3rd edition. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 658–
686.
Seth, B., Yadav, A., Tandon, A., Shankar, J. & Kumar Chaturvedi, R. (2019). Carbofuran
hampers oligodendrocytes development leading to impaired myelination in the
hippocampus of rat brain. Neurotoxicology 70:161–179.
Solomon, S., & Li, Y.-R. (2016). The Sugar Industry of Asian Region. New York, NY:
Springer.
Stirling, G. & Blair, B. (2000) Nematodes. In: Rott, P., Bailey, R.A., Comstock, J.C., Croft,
B.J. and Saumtally, A.S. (eds) A Guide to Sugarcane Diseases. CIRAD and ISSCT.
CIRAD publications, Montpellier, France, pp. 299–305.
Vanlauwe, B. & Dobermann, A. (2020). Sustainable intensification of agriculture in subSaharan Africa: first things first. Front. Agric. Sci. Eng., 7, pp. 376-382.
Viswanathan, R. (2010). Plant Disease: Red Rot of Sugarcane. New Delhi: Anmol Publishers
Viswanathan, R., & G.P. Rao. (2011). Disease scenario and management of major sugarcane
diseases in India. Sugar Tech 13 (4): 336–353.
Voora, V., Bermúdez, S., & Larrea, C. (2020). Global Market Report: Sugar. New York, NY:
JSTOR.
Wang, T., Fang, J., & Zhang, J. (2022). Advances in sugarcane genomics and genetics. Sugar
Tech. 24, 354–368.
18
WHO (2009) The World Health Organization (WHO) recommended classification of
pesticides
by
hazard
and
guidelines
to
classification.
http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/pesticides_ haz ard/en/
Wiggins, S. (2009). Can the Smallholder Model Deliver Poverty Reduction and Food
Security for a Rapidly Growing Population in Africa? (Working Paper No. 8), How to
Feed the World in 2050. Institute of Development Studies, Brighton UK.
Wszelaki, A.L. & Mitcham, E.J. (2003). Effect of combinations of hot water dips, biological
control and controlled atmospheres for control of gray mold on harvested
strawberries. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 27, 255–264.
Xiang, N., Lawrence, K. S., and Donald, P. A. (2018). Biological control potential of plant
growth-promoting rhizobacteria suppression of Meloidogyne incognita on cotton and
Heterodera glycines on soybean: a review. J. Phytopathol. 166, 449–458.
Zhang, H., Zheng, X. & Yu, T. (2007). Biological control of postharvest diseases of peach
with Cryptococcus laurentii. Food Control, 18, 287–291.
Zhang, S., Gan, Y., Ji, W., Xu, B., Hou, B., and Liu, J. (2017). Mechanisms and
characterization of Trichoderma longibrachiatum T6 in suppressing nematodes
(Heterodera avenae) in wheat. Front. Plant Sci. 8:1491.
Google Maps. (n.d.) Google Maps. maps.google.com, retrieved July 25th, 2023.
19