BUSINESS LOGIC
CHAPTER 1: MANAGERIAL JUDGEMENT
AND CRITICAL THINKING
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Validity of the values applied in the exercise of evaluative
judgement.
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Validity of the logic of processes involved in inference, generalization,
deduction, extrapolation, etc.
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Recognition of hidden assumptions, unfounded implications, dubious,
inferences, subjective orientations, prejudice, bias, slanting,
questionable, perspectives, etc.
CRITICAL THINKING - is the systematic evaluation of
information to make reasoned judgments.
WHY CRITICAL THINKING MATTERS?
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It requires skepticism, objectivity, and the ability to discern
connections between ideas.
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People exercise critical thinking by using rationality to determine
what to do or believe in a specific situation.
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through this process, thinkers challenge assumptions,
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Employees who can engage in critical thinking are reflective,
independent and competent.
recognize biases, and assess the validity of arguments or
solutions.
EXAMPLES:
▪
analyzing news sources: before accepting a news article's
claim, a critical thinker checks for biases and compares it to
other reports for accuracy.
▪
reassessing personal views: actively seeking opposing
viewpoints, assessing their merit, and adjusting your
perspective based on the evidence presented.
CRITICAL THINKING REQUIRES:
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Validity of the information (observations or data) that under- lies
the assumptions to which values and logical processes are applied.
Validity of the assumptions, both initial and sequential
•
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logically connect ideas, scrutinize and evaluate arguments
find inconsistencies and errors in work
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solve complex problems and engage in reflection.
A critical thinker doesn’t only accumulate information well, but they
also know how to use the information to deduce facts and
determine outcomes.
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By conceptualizing outcomes, critical thinkers tend to be better at
solving problems than people who simply memorize information.
o It helps to improve decision making
o Enhances problem-solving ability
o Refine your research skills
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Polishes your creativity
Stimulates Curiosity
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It helps you to think creatively – ‘outside the box’. It keeps you from
becoming narrow.
CHAPTER 2: TRUTH AND VALIDITY
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IMPORTANCE OF SOFT SKILLS LIKE CRITICAL THINKING IN
TODAY’S GLOBAL ECONOMY.
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Information and technology are the driving forces behind the
global knowledge economy. Due to the increasing exposure to
and availability of an endless amount of facts, information and
opinion, through digital, internet based medium a person’s abilities.
•
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Truth & validity are the two aspects that measure the worth of an
argument.
There are many possible combinations of true and false
premises and conclusions in both valid and invalid arguments
therefore, to filter out misinformation and irrelevant information;
to not take given propositions as gospel fact; and to have the
IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE RELATIONS BETWEEN
TRUTH AND VALIDITY
1. Some valid arguments contain only true propositions
o true premises and a true conclusion
EX.
strength of character to think independently and not be carried
away by fads or distractions, is now more even important than ever.
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Such thinking abilities are encouraged by good critical thinking,
which is crucial in the rapidly evolving workplace.
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As the world becomes increasingly interconnected and complex,
the ability to think critically equips individuals with the tools to
navigate uncertainty, make informed decisions, and contribute
meaningfully to society.
•
the digital revolution is causing rapid changes in employment,
sparking new opportunities while old jobs are also being lost. Being
able to quickly critically evaluated what the new opportunities are
and forge one’s path in this period is the new challenge.
All mammals have lungs.
All whales are mammals.
Therefore all whales have lungs
2. Some valid arguments contain only false propositions
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false premises and a false conclusion:
EX.
All four-legged creatures have wings.
All spiders have exactly four legs.
Therefore, all spiders have wings.
3. Some valid arguments have false premises and a true conclusion:
EX.
All fishes are mammals.
All whales are fishes.
Therefore, all whales are mammals.
4. Some invalid arguments contain only true propositions
o all their premises are true, and their conclusions are true as
well:
EX.
If I owned all the gold in Fort Knox, then I would be
wealthy.
I do not own all the gold in Fort Knox.
Therefore, I am not wealthy
5. Some invalid arguments contain only true premises and have a
false conclusion.
EX.
ARGUMENTS VS. EXPLANATION
An ARGUMENT is a rationale in which the reason presents evidence in
support of a claim made in the conclusion. Its purpose is to provide a
basis for believing the conclusion to be true.
If Bill Gates owned all the gold in Fort Knox, then Bill
Gates would be wealthy. Bill Gates does not own all the
gold in Fort Knox.
An EXPLANATION is a rationale in which the reason presents a cause of
some fact represented by the conclusion. Its purpose is to help us
understand how or why that fact occurs.
Therefore, Bill Gates is not wealthy
6. Some invalid arguments also have false premises and a true
conclusion:
EX.
All mammals have wings.
All whales have wings.
Therefore, all whales are mammals
7. Some invalid arguments, of course, contain all false propositions.
o false premises and a false conclusion:
EX.
All mammals have wings.
All whales have wings.
Therefore, all whales are mammals.
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there are valid arguments with false conclusions as well as invalid
arguments with true conclusions.
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Hence it is clear that the truth or falsity of an argument’s conclusion does
not by itself determine the validity or invalidity of that argument.
Invalid arguments can have every possible combination of true and
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false premises and conclusions.
EXAMPLES
ARGUMENT
1. The woman in the hat is not a witch since witches have long noses
and she doesn’t have a long nose.
2. Albert is angry with me so he probably won’t be willing to help me
wash the dishes.
3. Albert isn’t a fireman because Albert is a Greyhound, which is a
kind of dog, and dogs can’t be firemen.
EXPLANATION
1. The reason some people with schizophrenia hear voices in their
head is that the cognitive mechanism that monitors their own selftalk is malfunctioning and they attribute their own self-talk to some
external source.
2. Wanda rode the bus today because her car was in the shop.
3. Since Wanda doesn’t have enough money in her bank account, she
has not yet picked up her car from the shop.
CHAPTER 3: USES AND FUNCTIONS OF
LANGUAGE
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
3 MAJOR FUNCTIONS
1. INFORMATIVE
- The informative function affirms or denies propositions, as in
science or the statement of a fact.
- This function is used to describe the world or reason about it
(e.g.., whether a state of affairs has occurred or not or what might
have led to it)
- These sentences have a truth value; that is, the sentences are
either true or false (recognizing, of course, that we might not know
what that truth value is). Hence, they are important for logic.
2. EXPRESSIVE
reports feelings or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), or of the
subject, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener).
- 2 main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking
certain feelings and (2) expressing feelings.
3. DIRECTIVE
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language used for the purpose of causing (or preventing) overt
action.
LESS COMMON TYPES
4. CEREMONIAL LANGUAGE (as when we say, “How do you do?”
upon being introduced to a stranger), in which words may combine
expressive and other functions.
5. PERFORMATIVE LANGUAGE (as when we say, “I apologize for
my foolish remark”), in which words themselves serve, when
spoken or written, to perform the function they announce.
EX.
"I do" in the marriage ceremony and the use of performative
verbs such as "accept," "apologize," "congratulate," and "promise."
These words denote an action which is performed by using the verb in
the first person—nothing more need be done to accomplish the action.
“I congratulate you, . . .” “I accept your offer, . . .” “I promise you
that”
The uses of language must be distinguished from the forms of
language. The several uses of language are implemented using different
forms.
The grammatical forms of language are essentially four:
Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory.
2.
These broad categories of non-informative uses language will include the
following:
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Expressive
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Directive
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Performative
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Ritual (in Copi’s book–Ceremonial)
kingdoms and men, and to sadness at the thought of a vigorous
and rich life now departed . . . ? —G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the
Philosophy of History, 1823
- EXPRESSIVE AND INFORMATIVE
3. I was a child and she was a child,In this kingdom by the sea, But we
loved with a love that was more than love— I and my Annabel
Lee— —Edgar Allan Poe, “Annabel Lee, ” 1849
- EXPRESSIVE
CONTEXT often determines the purpose of an utterance.
"The room is cool" might be used in different contexts as:
✓ informative (an observation)
✓ expressive (how one feels at the moment)
✓ or directive (to turn on the heat).
DIRECTIVE
EXPRESSIVE
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The task is to get someone to do, or not to do some action.
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most commonly found in commands and requests
EX.
Don’t be misled by the use of “express” here, for while all uses of
language may be considered “expressions”, we are using the term
“expressive” in this context as roughly equivalent to the ideas of
venting, revealing, manifesting, evoking, or provoking feelings.
EX.
1.
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The speaker’s primary interest is not to inform, but to express his
or her emotions or feelings.
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What traveler among the ruins of Carthage, of Palmyra, Persepolis,
or Rome, has not been stimulated to reflections on the transiency of
‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;
All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe. —
Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking-Glass, 1871
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EXPRESSIVE.
1. Check the box on line 6a unless your parent (or someone else) can
claim you as a dependent on his or her tax return. —U.S. Internal
Revenue Service, “Instructions, ”Form 1040, 2006
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DIRECTIVE
PERFORMATIVE
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A special case of doing things with words. Some particular
action is accomplished in and by saying certain things in certain
circumstances.
language which performs the action it reports.
EX.
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For example, in saying the words of the pledge of allegiance
to the flag, we may well be doing something, namely, pledging
our allegiance to our country.
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There are countless such ritual uses of language, for example,
saying a prayer, saying "Good-bye," saying "Happy Birthday,"
toasting newlyweds, and so forth. Normally, when we say to
someone “How ya doing?” this is not an inquiry into his or her
well-being, but a ritual greeting. We engage in the act of
greeting someone by saying these words.
Consider the act of making a bet or a promise.
The way that we engage in these actions is by saying certain things in
certain circumstances with the appropriate sincerity, etc.
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For example, just saying the words, “I bet you,” is not sufficient
for engaging in the act of betting, for among other things, you
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must agree to enter the wager. Lots of things can go wrong. If
you do not agree, my attempt to bet you something fails: I said
the words, “I bet” but I did not bet you
The words, we might say, constitute a kind of handy formula for
greetings. Of course, we can greet each other differently, with
different words, but when we adopt commonly accepted
formulas, we are using language in its ritual function.
EX:
RITUAL
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Unlike performative, in its ritual function, words are not used
to bring something about.
o
As in the case of the performative, the ritual function may
involve the accomplishment of some deed by the use of
words
Prayer, saying "Good-bye, " saying "Happy Birthday, " toasting
newlyweds, and so forth…