Reviewer in Ethics
September 26,2023
Fallacy
-error in reasoning
-flaw in logic
Factual Error
-wrong about facts
-factually incorrect
Logical Fallacy
-from the word “fallacia” (deceit, deception, etc.)
-false syllogism, invalid argumentation
2 Types of Logical Fallacy:
a) Inductive Fallacy
-simply arguments which appear to be inductive
arguments
-do not provide enough support for the
conclusion.
b) Deductive Fallacy
-argument with a deductive form but the
conclusion is invalid.
THE RED HERRING
-diverts attention away from a fact in dispute
rather than address it directly.
Subsets of Red Herring:
a) argumentum ad hominem (personal attack)
b) argumentum ad populum (popular sentiment)
c) argumentum ad baculum (fear)
d) argumentum ad verecundiam (appeal to
authority)
e) argumentum ad misericordiam (appeal to
emotion)
Gaslighting
-someone intentionally twists your perception of
reality for personal gain
SOME OF THE MOST COMMON INFORMAL
FALLACIES
1. Fallacy of Destroying the Exception
-or making a generalization that disregards
exceptions
Example: Cutting people is a crime. Surgeons cut
people. Therefore, surgeons are criminals.
2. Fallacy of Reverse Accident
-argues from a special case to a general rule
Example: Every swan I have seen is white, so it
must be true that all swans are white.
3. Argumentum ad Hominem / Attacking the
Person
-a claim or argument is rejected on the basis of
some irrelevant fact about the author or the
person presenting the claim or argument.
Example: “Furthermore, you’re all the same with
communist terrorists, so I can’t believe what you
say.”
4. Argumentum ad Baculum/ Appeal to Fear
-creating fear/threat in people does not
constitute proof/evidence for a claim.
Example: “You will suffer the same fate as those
who were killed.”
5. Argumentum ad Vericundiam/ Appeal to
Authority
- is committed when the person in question is not
a legitimate authority on the subject
Example: a media celebrity with no medical
expertise who endorses an extreme diet
6.Argumentum ad Populum/ Appeal to Common
Practice
- the fact that most people do x is used as
"evidence" to support the action or practice.
Example: But we all know that every poltician
does it. So,it's okay.
7. Argumentum ad Ignoratiam/ Burden of Proof
Fallacy
- a fallacy in which the burden of proof is placed
on the wrong side; when a lack of evidence for
side a is taken to be evidence for side b in cases
in which the burden of proof actually rests on side
b.
Example: someone who claims that ghosts exists,
but doesn't prove this, and instead shifts the
burden of proof to others, by stating that anyone
who disagrees should prove ghosts don't exist.
8. Affirming the Consequent
-draws a conclusion from premises that do not
support that conclusion by assuming Q implies P
on the basis that P implies Q.
Example: If I have the flu, then I have a sore
throat. I have a sore throat. Therefore, I have the
flu. Other illnesses may cause sore throat.
9. Denying the Antecedent
-draws a conclusion from premises that do not
support that conclusion by assuming Not P implies
Not Q on the basis that P implies Q.
Example: If I have the flu, then I have a sore
throat. I do not have the flu. Therefore, I do not
have a sore throat. Other illnesses may cause sore
throat.
15. Black and White Thinking/False Dilemma
- when you reason from an either-or position and
you haven't considered all relevant possibilities,
you commit the fallacy of false dilemma.
10. Begging the Question/Petitio Principii
-the premises include the claim that the
conclusion is true. (circular and doesn’t get you
anywhere.)
Example: You are either with us, or against us.
Example:
Jack: "Because the Bible says so."
Jill: "Why should I believe the Bible?"
Jack: "Because the Bible was written by God."
16. Appeal to Flattery/Apple-Polishing Fallacy
- flattery is presented in the place of evidence for
accepting a claim. this sort of "reasoning" is
fallacious because flattery is not, in fact, evidence
for a claim.
Example: You should certainly be the one who
washes the dishes -- you are just so good at it!
Or
My boyfriend must be telling the truth, because I
have heard him say the same thing many times
before.
11. Call to Perfection
-is committed when one argues to postpone
some action or policy until some unlikely event or
impossible change is achieved.
17. Confusing Cause and Effect
- is committed when a person assumes that one
event must cause another just because the
events occur together.
Example: Our classroom smells funny. Mr. Harris is
always in the classroom. Therefore, Mr. Harris is the
reason that the classroom smells funny.
Example:
I’ll give the workers full control of the operations
the day that pigs can fly.
18. Poisoning the Well
- involves trying to discredit what a person might
later claim by presenting unfavorable information
(be it true or false) about the person.
12. False Cause/ Fallacy Non Sequitur (It doesn’t
follow)
- incorrectly assumes one thing is the cause of
another
Example: a political campaign candidate who
reveals negative information about their
opponent to the public. The negative information
may be true or false, however, the goal of
presenting the information was to discredit the
opponent.
Example: a black cat crossed my path, and then
I got into a car accident. The black cat caused
the car accident.
13. The Bandwagon Fallacy
-a threat of rejection by one's peers is substituted
for evidence in an "argument."
Example: buying a product because of its
popularity or for the sake of gaining status in
society without considering the needs and abilities
to buy
14. Middle-ground Fallacy
- committed when it is assumed that the middle
position between two extremes must be correct
simply because it is the middle position.
Example: Andy thinks that Michigan is south of
Indiana, but Linda believes it is north of
Indiana. Thus, it must be west of Indiana.
19. Straw Man Fallacy
- is committed when a person simply ignores a
person's actual position and substitutes a
distorted, exaggerated or misrepresented version
of that position
Example:
“I like Chinese more than Pizza”,
and the respondent says “Well, you must hate
Pizza”
When a teacher proposes that the
class spend more time on math
exercises, a parent complains that
the teacher doesn't care about
reading and writing).
20. The Subjectivist Fallacy
- is committed when a person rejects a claim by
asserting that the claim might be true for others
but is not for him/her
Example: Smoking is unhealthy for most people,
but not for me.
“The earth is flat” is true for me and false for you.
21. Special Pleading
- a fallacy in which a person applies standards,
principles, rules, etc. to others while taking himself
to be exempt, without providing adequate
justification for the exemption
Example: Yes, I do think that all drunk drivers
should go to prison, but your honor, he is my
son! He is a good boy who just made a mistake!
22. Slippery Slope
– assumes that drastic consequences will follow a
certain action. it claims that a first step will lead to
a unavoidable and ultimate step towards
negative result.
Example: “If we allow women to have abortions,
then pretty soon nobody will give birth, and the
human race will die out.”
“To be a vegetarian is not good because it is selfdestructive. If we all become vegetarians, we
would eat all the trees and plants and we’ll all
die.”
23.Fallacy of Many Questions
- grouping more than one question in the form of
a single question as a trick.
Example: “Is it true that you are no longer a
member of the terrorist organization Kabataan
Party List?”
Summary of Notes
I. Theory of Good
A. Ethics as Spiritual Liberation
a) Hinduism - realization of truth and blissful reunification
*Vedas and Upanishads – canonical texts of Hinduism
*Ramayana & Mahabharata - rich resource of fundamental ethical concepts or "Darma"
*Dharma -carrying out one's duty
4 Goals of Life: (Purusharthas)
a. Dharma - moral nature path of righteousness and honesty
b.Artha - material wealth
c.Kama - pleasure
d.Moksha - spiritual Liberation from material desires
" The Unity of One-self ( Nothingness and Desire) in the Absolute Being (Brahman) via the release from illusion
(Maya)."
NO PLEASURE ACTION: Through SAMSARA Transmigration
b) Buddhism - absolute nothingness ; ultimate release from suffering
THE MIDDLE WAY (8-fold Path)
1. Right View -Cautions and Discriminating against: Greed, Ill-will, hostility, degeneration, dominance, envy, jealousy,
hypocrisy, fraud, obstinacy, presumption, conceit, arrogance, vanity and negligence
2.Right Intention -What to seek
3.Right Speech -Words of Honesty -Words of Kindness -Words of Comfort -Refraining from Gossip, Untruth and
Selfishness
4. Right Action -To do no harm
5. Right Livelihood -geared towards preservation and improvement of life
6. Right Effort -pursue Liberation through power from sensory world
7. Right Mindfulness
-awareness of one's deeds, thoughts and words
- Five hindrances : a) sensual desire ; b) ill-will; c) laziness; d) anxiety and ; e) doubt about state of mind
8. Right Concentration -not to waver from it
First Two Paths (Right View and Right Intention) -WISDOM needed to redirect one's life
The Succeeding Three (Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood) -cultivating VIRTUE -constitute ethical
way of life
Last Three (Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration) -geared towards MEDITATION
"Samsara" - human predicament
Disaster Capitalism -exploitation of disasters for profit
Theoretical Frameworks in Studying Indigenous and Filipino Cultures
a) Pantayong Pananaw (Salazar, 1997)
states that:
“ensiklopediya ay hindi pantayo kundi pangkami, sapagkat ang kinakausap ay mahihinuhang mga taga-labas
(o mga elite na medyo o lubusang tagalabas na ang batayang pangkaisipan) at hindi ang mga Pinoy mismo.”
Makikita ito sa mga sumusunod na pangyayari:
(1) ang wika ay banyaga at hindi naiintindihan ng nakararami sa lipunang Pilipino; at
(2) ang tendensiya ay tingnan ang ating bansa bilang obheto/paksain ng pag-aaral mula sa labas—
Ikaw – ibang tao o paniniwala ang pinatutungkulan. Halimbawa ay sa Racism o Orientalism ng mga Kanluraning akda.
Siya/ Sila – hindi rin kaisa ang kausap at idinidirekta din nito ang kausap sa iba pang banyagang grupo.
Kayo – malinaw na direktang tumutukoy sa grupo ng kausap na itinuturing na iba o other, banyaga o alien.
Tayo – magkakasama sa iisang form of life ang kausap at ang pinatutungkulan ng pag-uusap.
HOW IS COMMUNITY COHESION maintained?
a) common economic interest
b) kinship
c) marriage
d) shared rituals
Language, Writing and Literature
✓ oral tradition can be seen in our bugtungan, sawikain, epics, alamat, myths
✓ writings on barks of trees, bamboo slates, leaves using knives or daggers as pens and colored sap as ink
✓ mystical, distinctive, elegant; Austronesian family
✓ composed of 17 symbols, 3 vowels and 14 consonants.
Women’s Position
✓ occupied a high position as keepers of knowledge and tradition, healers, mediators, babaylan priestesses
✓ --they could inherit property and engage in trade
✓ --they decide their own sexuality
✓ --during courtship and marriage, the parents of the girl were given dowry of gold and property as well as
servitude
✓ --divorce was present on the grounds of sexual dissatisfaction, cruelty, etc;
Chieftains were Administrators not Rulers
✓ The village chief was the administrative leader;
✓ The village chief was not an absolute ruler.
✓ S/He is limited by tradition.
✓ The position is based on prowess and valor esteemed for the community’s survival.
✓ His/her strength lay in the ability to convince rather than command.
✓ He could be replaced.
✓ Therefore, it was not exclusive occupation.
b) Sikolohiyang Pilipino
- is based on assessing historical and socio-cultural realities, understanding the local language, unraveling Filipino
characteristics and explaining them through the eyes of a native Filipino.” (Pe-Puaat Marcelino, 51)
Kapwa means “the shared inner self”
Dalawang Kategorya ng Interaksyon
a) Kasama sa pakikipag-ugnay sa “ibang-tao”
-ang mga konsepto ng pakikitungo (civility), pakikisalamuha (mixing), pakikilahok (joining), pakikibagay
(conforming), at pakikisama (adjusting)
b) Habang sa “hindi ibang-tao”
-kabilang ang mga konsepto ng pakikipagpalagayang-loob (establishing mutual trust), pakikisangkot (getting
involved) at pakikiiisa (fusion, oneness, solidarity and full trust)
( Santiago at Enriquez, 1976).
The ako(ego) and the iba-sa-akin (others) are
one and the same in kapwa psychology.
suface values-Ang hiya at utang na loob ay mga karaniwang
nakikitang halagahin
confrontative surface values- kung saan kasama ang bahala na,
sama/lakas ng loob, at pakikibaka.
Four Components of Moral
Behavior
1. Moral Sensitivity -ability to see an ethical dilemma in
experience, including HOW our actions will affect others.
2. Moral Judgment-the ability to reason correctly about WHAT IS
OUGHT to be done/action in specific situation
3. Moral Motivation–personal commitment to moral action,
accepting responsibility for the outcome.
4. Moral character -a courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or
temptations to take the easy way out.
Practical Reason
- Refers to arguments, intelligence, insights;
- Directed to a practical and especially moral outcome.
ARISTOTLE
Practical syllogism
-concludes in an action, rather than proposition.
Phronesis
-is the ability to use intellect practically.
In discussions of motivation, appeals to PRACTICAL REASON
-may seek to counterclaim that only desire or inclination can ultimately prompt to action.
IMMANUEL KANT
To Kant, the bare notion of being subject to a moral law suffices to indicate how practical reason can operate.
The scope of practical reason is much wider.
For instance, PRACTICAL REASONING must include the critical comparison and sifting of alleged human goods and
ends, and the reflective establishment of their ranking and place in a life plan.
Practical Reason and Practical Reasoning
Practical reason
is characterized both as a capacity whose exercise is largely constituted by a kind of responsiveness to reasons and
as governed by certain normative principles
Reason
-is a general capacity to affect something.
Practical reasoning
-is described as a kind of mental process in which reasons figure as premises and, from those premises, a practical
conclusion is drawn
Reasoning
-is the exercise of that capacity.
3 overlapping kinds of reason for action:
1. Normative reasons –these are propositional. They are reasons for anyone to do certain things. These may be
possessed but are initially independent of what the agent wants, hence objective.
e.g. to make amends for wrong-doing or to fulfill a promise
They are person-relative or for a specific person.
2. Motivational reason –these are two (2) types: the internal possessed reasons (or subjective reasons that
someone has) such as the desire for warmth, hence to wear coat, and that both possessed and motivating
explanatory role for doing something. Normative reasons capable of being possessed become internal rather then
mere independent.
3. Explanatory reason –since we may possess reason but not be an actual basis for action, we need reason that is
not just motivational but motivating via explanatory role. This means it leads to a realization of the desired state
of affairs. These can be external yet motivate our doing something, hence the reason why an action occur;
reasons for which we do something.
Well, the bases of beliefs that determines rational action is
either CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE or INTRUMENTALISM.
3 Kinds of Theory of Practical Reason
-Subjective or objective
–Internalist or Externalist
–Cognivist or Noncognivist
*the most natural kind is OBJECTIVIST that recognizes rewarding and punishing as grounds of NORMATIVE
Basic Schema for Practical Reasoning
1. A purposive (roughly, end-expressive) premise (e.g., I want
[need, must achieve, have a duty to realize] G, where G is a
goal);
2. An instrumental premise (e.g., A-ingwill achieve G);
3. A practical conclusion (e.g., I should A).
Major premise –intention and desire
Minor premise –constitutive means
Criteria/Patterns for Assessing Practical Reasoning
1. Abstract (argumental) Dimension
- argument, viewed logically in terms of its validity or inductive
strength, and viewed materially
2. Inferential Dimension
- Governed by both psychological and epistemic criteria
3. Epistemic Dimension
- If the reasoning is suppositional, the justification
Stage 1 — Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust
In the first stage of human development, infants learn to trust based on how well their caregivers
meet their basic needs and respond when they cry. If an infant cries out to be fed, the parent can
either meet this need by feeding and comforting the infant or not meet this need by ignoring the
infant. When their needs are met, infants learn that relying on others is safe; when their needs go
unmet, infants grow up to be less trusting.
Stage 2 — Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
In addition to autonomy versus shame and doubt, another way to think of the second stage is
independence versus dependence. Like in the first stage, toddlers go through this stage
responding to their caregivers. If caregivers encourage them to be independent and explore the
world on their own, toddlers will grow up with a sense of self-efficacy. If the caregivers hover
excessively or encourage dependence, these toddlers grow up with less confidence in their
abilities.
For example, if a toddler wants to walk without assistance in a safe area, the caregiver should
encourage this autonomy by allowing the independent behavior. If the caregiver insists on holding
the toddler’s hand even when it’s not necessary, this attention can lead to doubt later in life.
Stage 3 — Preschool Years: Initiative vs. Guilt
During the preschool years, children learn to assert themselves and speak up when they need
something. Some children may state that they’re sad because a friend stole their toy. If this
assertiveness is greeted with a positive reaction, they learn that taking initiative is helpful behavior.
However, if they’re made to feel guilty or ashamed for their assertiveness, they may grow up to be
timid and less likely to take the lead.
Stage 4 — Early School Years: Industry vs. Inferiority
When children begin school, they start to compare themselves with peers. If children feel they’re
accomplished in relation to peers, they develop strong self-esteem. If, however, they notice that
other children have met milestones that they haven’t, they may struggle with self-esteem. For
example, a first grader may notice a consistently worse performance on spelling tests when
compared with peers. If this becomes a pattern, it can lead to feelings of inferiority.
Stage 5 — Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion
The adolescent stage is where the term “identity crisis” originated, and for good reason.
Adolescence is all about developing a sense of self. Adolescents who can clearly identify who they
are grow up with stronger goals and self-knowledge than teenagers who struggle to break free of
their parents’ or friends’ influences. Adolescents who still deeply depend on their parents for social
interaction and guidance may experience more role confusion than teenagers who pursue their
own interests.
Stage 6 — Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation
In young adulthood, which begins roughly at age 20, people begin to solidify their lifelong bonds;
many people enter committed relationships or marriages, while others form lifelong friendships.
People who can create and maintain these relationships reap the emotional benefits, while those
who struggle to maintain relationships may suffer from isolation. A young adult who develops
strong friendships in college may feel more intimacy than one who struggles to form and maintain
close friendships.
Stage 7 — Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation
In middle adulthood, people tend to struggle with their contributions to society. They may be busy
raising children or pursuing careers. Those who feel that they’re contributing experience
generativity, which is the sense of leaving a legacy. On the other hand, those who don’t feel that
their work or lives matter may experience feelings of stagnation. For example, a middle-aged adult
who’s raising a family and working in a career that presumably helps people may feel more fulfilled
than an adult who’s working at a day job that feels meaningless.
Stage 8 — Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair
As adults reach the end of life, they look back on their lives and reflect. Adults who feel fulfilled by
their lives, either through a successful family or a meaningful career, reach ego integrity, in which
they can face aging and dying with peace. If older adults don’t feel that they’ve lived a good life,
they risk falling into despair.