BIOL 131 - FINAL EXAM

#separator:tab #html:true #tags column:7 AnatomyHuman anatomy: the scientific study of the body's structures Gross anatomy: the study of the larger structures of the body Microscopic anatomy: the stufy of structures observed by using a microscope Approach's of anatomyRegional anatomy: the study of the interrelationships of all the structures in a specific region of the body     e.g.  abdomen Systemic anatomy: the study of structures that make up a body system (work together to perform a function)     e.g.   muscular system --> all skeletal muscles PhysiologyHuman physiology: the study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the way they work together (tendencies towards homeostasis) Homeostasisstate of steady internal conditions maintained by living things What are the 6 levels of organization?chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal Chemical level of organizationatoms bond to form molecules with 3 dimensional structures Cellular level of organizationa variety of molecules combine to form the fluid and organelles of a body cell Tisse level of OrganizationA community of similar cells that form a body tissue Organ level of organization2 or more different tissues combine to form an organ Organ system level of organization2 or more organs work closely together to perform the functions of a body sytem Organismal level of organizationmany organ systems work harmoniously together to perform the functions of an independent organism Integumentary system- encloses internal body structures - site of many sensory receptors --> hair, skin, nails Skeletal system- supports the body - enables movement (with muscular system) --> cartilage, bones, joints Muscular system- enables movement (with the skeletal system) - helps maintain body temperature --> skeletal muscles, tendons Nervous system- detects and processes sensory info - activates bodily responses --> brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves Endocrine system- secretes hormones - regulates bodily processes --> pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal gland, testes, ovaries Cardiovascular system- delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues - equalizes temperature in the body --> heart, blood vessels Lymphatic system- returns fluid to blood - defends against pathogens --> thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessels Respiratory system- removes carbon dioxide from the body - delivers oxygen to the blood --> nasal passage, trachea, lungs Digestive system- processes food for use by the body - removes wastes from undigested food --> stomach, liver, gall bladder, large intestine, small intestine Urinary system- controls water balance in the body - removes wastes from the blood and excretes them --> kidneys, urinary bladder Male reproductive system- produces sex hormones and gametes - delivers gametes to female --> epididymis, testes Female reproductive system- produces sex hormones and gametes - supports embryo/fetus until birth - produces milk for infant --> mammary glands, ovaries, uterus Anabolismassembly of more complex molecules from simpler molecules --> the body uses energy to assemblee the complec chemicals it needs by taking the small molecules from food ingested Catabolismbreaking down of more complex molecules into simpler molecules --> by releasing energy the complex molecules from food is broken down in order for the body to use their parts to create the structures needed for life Metabolismthe sum of all anabolic and catabolic reactions that take place --> they occur simultaneously and continuously Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)a chemical compound used to store and release energy - stores energy in the synthesis of ATP (anabolism) - releases energy in the breaking down of ATP (catabolism) Responsivenessthe organisms ability to adjust to changes in the external or internal environment Developmentall the changes the body goes through in life *includes differentiation process- so do growth and repair Differentiationthe process of an unspecialized cell becoming specialized to perform a specific function Growththe increase in body size: - size of cell - number of cells Reproductionformation of a new organism from parent organisms - carried out by male and female reproductive systems Nutrienta substance in foods and beverages that is essential to human survival Atmospheric pressureforce exerted by a substance in contact with another substance - constantly pushing down on our body and keeps blood gases dissolved, helps with the ability to breathe Set pointthe physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates Normal rangethe restricted set of values that is optimally healthful and stable (set point is within this range) Negative feedbacka homeostatic process done by the body that reverses any change outside of the normal range/set point. - sensor, control center, effector Sensora receptor or sensor is a part of the feedback system that monitors a physiological value Control centercompares the physiologic value to the normal range - if its too deviated than it makes the effector work Effectorcauses a change to reverse the situation and return to the normal range Positive feedbacka system that intensifies the deviation from the normal range, instead of reversing it - only normal with a definite endpoint   e.g. childbirth Anatomical position- standing up right facing forward - toes point forward, and feet shoulder width apart and parallel - arms out to the side at a 45 degree angle, palms up Pronea face-down orientation Supinea face-up orientation Anterior (ventral)front of the body Posterior (dorsal)back of the body Superior (cranial)above another body part in anatomical position Inferior (caudal)delow another body part in anatomical position Lateraltowards the side of the body Medialtowards the middle of the body Proximalcloser to the point of attachment (limbs) Distalfurther from the point of attachment (limbs) Superficialcloser to the surface of the body Deepfarther from the surface of the body Frontal (coronal) planedivides the body into anterior and posterior sections Sagittal planedivides the body into left and right halves Transverse planedivides the body into upper and lower portions Dorsal cavitycontain the: - cranial cavity: houses the brain - vertebral cavity: encloses the spinal cord Ventral cavitycontains the: - thoracic cavity: contain the lungs and heart --located in the mediastinum -abdominopelvic cavity: contain the pelvic and abdominal cavity which houses the digestive and reproductive organs Abdominal regionsRight hypochondriac region      Epigastric region      Left hypochondriac region Right lumbar region           Umbilical region       Left lumbar region Right iliac region        Hypogastic region          Left iliac region Abdominal quadrantsRight Upper Quadrant              Left Upper Quadrant Right Lower Quadrant              Left Lower Quadrant Serous Membraneone of the thin membranes that covers the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities - parietal: lines the walls of the body cavity - visceral: covers the organs Serous Cavities- pleura: serous membrane that encloses the pleural cavity around the lungs - pericardium: serous membrane that encloses the pericardial cavity around the heat - peritoneum; serous membrane the encloses the peritoneal cavity around the organs in the abdominopelvic cavity X-rayshigh energy electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength, capable of penetrating solids - best used for hard body structures (teeth/bones) - can cause cancer by damaging cells Computed Tomography (CT)"uses computers to analyze several cross sectional x-ray scans to reveal tiny details about structures in the body CAT"" scanner rotates 360 degrees around the patient - used for soft tissue scanning (brain, thoracic, abdomical cavities) - increased amount of radiation, increasing cancer risk" Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)matter is exposed to magnetic fields/radio waves and then it emits radio signals   *cancerous tissue gives off different signals then normal tissue - patients are not exposed to radiation - loud and long (inconvienient) - iron containign impants can become dislodged  Positron Emission Tomography (PET)involving substances that emit short lived raditation - illustrate physiologic activity -blood flow,etc- of the organ(s) being targeted - used to diagnose heart disease, cancer spread, bone/thyroid disease, brain abnormalities Ultrasonographyuses transmission of high frequency sound waves into the body to create an echo signal -- forming a real time image - least invasive and used in sensitive situations (pregnancy) - used to study heart function, blood flow, gallbladder disease, etc - operator dependent Mattersubstance of the universe, grain of sand to a star Elementpure substance that cannot be created or broken down by ordinary chemical means Compounda group of 2 or more elements together joined by chemical bonds   e.g. glucose composed of C, H, O Subatomic Particles"Proton: positively charged in the nucleus     # of protons = atomic # Neutron: neutral or no charge in the nucleus    # of neutrons added to protons = mass # Electron: negatively charged and orbits outside the nucleus" IsotopeAn element that contains the same number of protons but different number of neutrons e.g.  Carbon-12, Carbon-13, Carbon-14 Radioactive Isotopean isotope whose nuclei are readily decaying giving off subatomic particles and electromagnetic energy Electron shella layer of electrons that circle the nucleus at distics energy levels *valence shell is the outermost electron shell Bonda weak or strong electrical attraction that hold atoms in the same vicinity Moleculemore or less stable group of 2+ atoms held together by chemical bonds Ionan atom with an electrical charge Cationwhen an atom loses an electron and becomes postively charged Anionwhen an atom gains an electron and becomes negatively charged Ionic bondan ongoing, close association between ions of separate charges NaCl - forms crystal lattice structure with their bond Covalent bondshare electrons unequally in a mutually stabalizing relationship - do not lose or gain electrons completely Non polara molecule that deos not have charges present as the electrons are finely distributed and symmetrical Polara molecule that contains regions that have opposite electrical charges - shared unequally Hydrogen bondformed when a weak positive hydrogen atom that is already bonded to an electronegative atom is attracted to another electronegative atom from another molecule Kinetic energythe form of energy powering any type of matter in motion - lifting bricks: amount of energy Potential Energythe energy of position or energy matter posesses because of the postioning or structure - brick wall falls, stored potential energy is released as kinetic energy Chemical energythe form of potential energy in which energy is stored in chemical bonds Mechanical energystored in physical systems (machines, human body) that directly power the movement of matter Radiant eneryenergy emitted and transmitted as waves rather than matter Electrical Energysupplied by electrolytes in cells/body fluids, contributes to voltages that transmit impulses in nerve and muscle cells Synthesis reactionjoing components that were separated A + B --> AB Decomposition reactionbreaks down something large into parts AB --> A + B Exchange reaction (SD and DD)both synthesis and decomposition occur A + BC --> AC + B AB + CD --> AD + CB Factors that influence chemical reactions"properties of reactants: greater surface area temperature: higher temp = fast particles = higher # of collisions concentration/pressure: high concen. = more collisions, dec. volume (inc. pressure) = more collisions enzyme/catalyst: inc. rate of collisons, lowers activation energy required" Concentrationnumber of particles in a given space Catalystssubstances that increases rate of a chemical reaction without being changes itself Enzymea protein or RNA that catalyzes chemical reactions Activation energythe 'threshold' level of energy needed to break the bonds in the reactants Inorganic compoundssubstance that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen Organic compoundsa substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen Water as a lubricant/cushionwater in synoial fluid lubricatces the body joints, protetcs cells and organs from physical trauma, and cushions the brain Water as a heat sinkwater absorbs heat generated by chemical reactions without increasing temperature, as you sweat warm water is released - cooling you down Water in liquid mixturescells can only survive in a water based liquid solution, all the bodys chemical reactions occur among compounds that are dissolved in water - is the worlds solvent Water and the concentration of solutescolloid: mixture that is a heavy solution - thyroid hormone, suspension - a liquid mixture that is heavier and temperature suspended in liquid that settles out Dehydration synthesisone reactiant gives up an atom of hydrogen and another atom gives up a hydroxyl group in the synthesis of a new product.  water is a byproduct Hydrolysismolecule of water is added to a compound, splitting it into smaller parts, water itself is split as well Salts- formed when ions form ionic bonds - when dissolved in water, salt dissociate into H+ and OH- - typical salts dissociate completely in water - NaCl - these ions ae electrolytes and carry an electrical current - prompts muscle contraction Acidsa substance that releases H+ in solution strong: release all H+ and ionize completely weak: only some H+ is released and does not ionize completely Basesa substance that releases OH- or accept H+ strong: releases all their OH- ions weak: only release a few OH- or only accepts a few H+ pHis the -log[H+] of the solution pH is on a scale of 0-14, 7 is neutral, lower than 7 is acidic, and higher than 7 is basic or alkaline Buffera solution of weak acids and its conjugate base - can neutralize small amount of acids or bases in body fluids Functional groupa group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds and tending to function in chemical reactions as a single unit Hydroxyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Methyl, Phophate Macromoleculeany large molecule - some made up of several copies of single units called monomers Carbohydratemolecule composed of C,H,O - monosaccharides: monomer of carbs - glucose, fructose, ribose, etc - disaccharides: a pair of monosachharides - sucrose, lactose, etc - polysaccharides: a few to 1000+ monosaccharides - starch, glycogen, cellulose Carbohydrate functionuse glucose for fuel - in the breakdown of glucose, ATP is produces Lipidsone of a highly diverse group of compounds made up of mostly hydrocarbons  - they are hydrophobic Triglyceridesreffered to as a fat, formed by synthesis of a glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acids -unsaturated: double bond -saturated: straight chain Phospholipidbond between glycerol and phosphorus - head is hydrophilic Steroid4 hydrocarbon rings bonded to atoms/molecules -cholesterol: most important and synthesized by the liver - found in the cell membrane Prostaglandinsgroup of signaling molecules, derived from unsaturated fatty acids -regulate blood pressure -sensitive nerves to pain Proteins and their microstructure + shapean organic molecule composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds - microstructure: polymers called amino acids, have a central carbon atom and a peptide bond - shape: is determined by the sequence of amino acids } primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary Disulfide bondcovalent bond between sulfur atoms in polypeptide -- form quaternary structure Denaturationchange in structure of a molecule through physical/chemical means Enzymessubstrate: reactant in enzymatic reaction - like a puzzle piece - active site + enzyme + substrate - creates an enzyme/substrate complec Nucleotides - DNA, RNA, Purine, Pyramidineone of a class of organic compounds --- one+ phosphate group, deoxyribose, ACTGU base - can be assembled into nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) or ATP DNA: nucleotide that stores genetic info RNA: ribose nucleotide that manifests genetic code as protein purine: double ring structure containing nitrogen pyramidine: single ring structure ATP- fules the bodies activites from muscle contraction to transport of substances in and out of cells - broken down through hydrolysis - phosphorylation: addition of a phosphate to an organic compound Cell membranepliable structure composed of back to back phospholipids- amphipathic *cholesterol is also present contributing to fluidity of the membrane Hydrophilic vs Hydrophobichydrophilic: a molecule or region of a molecule that is attracted to water hydrophobic: a molecule or region of a molecule that is repelled or repels water  Intracellular Fluid (ICF)the fluid interior of the cell Extracellular Fluid (ECF)fluid environment outside the enclosure of the cell membrane Intersitial Fluid (IF)the extracellular fluid not contained within blood vessels Integral Proteinprotein that is embedded in the membrane Channel proteintype of integral protein that selectively allows for small substances to cross the membrane in or out of the cell Receptor in the membranea recognition protein that selectively bind to a specific molecule outside the cell - binding induces chemical reactions within the cell Ligandbinds to the receptor to activates the process Glycoproteinprotein that is attached to a carbohydrate molecule Glycocalyxfuzzy-appearing coating on the outside of the cell formed from glycoproteins and other carbohydrates attached to the cell membrane Peripheral proteinstypically found on the inner or outer surface of the lipid bilayer but can also attach to the internal or external surface of an integral protein Selective permeabilityonly allowing certain substances meeting a certain crtiteria to pass through a space unaided e.g. the cell membrane Passive transportthe act of particles, substances, and molecules passing across the cell membrane without expending any cellular energy Active transportthe movement of substances, molecules, or particels across the cell membrane while using cellular energy from ATP Concentration gradientdifference in concentration of a substance across a region of space Diffusionparticles moving from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration Facilitated diffusiondiffusion process used for the movement of large particles into the cell that cannot cross the lipid bilayer - bringing in glucose Osmosisthe diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane Hypertonicsolution has a higher concentration of solutes than another solution Isotonictwo soltuions have the same concentration Hypotonicsolution has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution Sodium-Potassium pumpthe process of transporting sodium out of a cell while moving potassium into the cell - abundant in nerve cells Electrical gradientdifference in electrical charges across a space - for nerve cells the inside is negative --> 3 Na+ leave and only 2 K+ enter Endocytosisprocess of a cell ingesting material by enveloping it in a portion of its cell membrane  Phagocytosisendocytosis of large particles - immune clls phagocytize bacteria then digest it Pinocytosisbrings fluid containing dissolved substances into a cell through membrane vesicles Vesiclemembranous sac - sphere and hollow organelle bounded by a bilayer membrane Receptor-mediated endocytosisendocytosis by a portion of a cell membrane that contains many receptors that are specific for a certain substance Exocytosisprocess of a cell exporting material using vesicular transport Cytosoljelly-like substance within the cell - fluid medium needed for biochemical reactions Organelleone of several different types of membrane enclosed bodies in the cell performing specific functions Cytoplasmorganelle and cytosol taken together Nucleuscell's central organelle, containing the cell's DNA Endoplasmic Reticulumsystem of channels that is continuous with the nuclear membrane - Rough: membrane is dotted with ribosomes, synthesis and modification of proteins - Smooth: synthesis of lipids, detoxification Ribosomean organelle that is the site of protein synthesis - composed of 2 ribosomal RNA subunits that wrap around mRNA to start translation, then protein synthesis Golgi apparatussorts, modifies, and ships off products that come from the RER - looks like flattened disks - 2 sides: one receives the vesicles, then sorts and releases out the other side Lysosomesorganelle that contains enzymes that break down and digest uneeded components (damaged organelles) - can undergo autolysis (self-destruct) --> controlled cell death Mitochondria"membranous break-shaped organelle that is the ""energy transformer"" - outer and inner lipid bilayer (inner has cristae) - proteins, enzymes, etc perform biochemical reactions" Peroxisomesmembrane-bound organelles that contain mostley enzymes - lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification - enzymes transfer hydrogen atoms to O2 forming H2O2 to neutralixe poisons (alcohol) Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)like peroxisomes and free radical are the highly reactive products of many normal cell processes, includes mitochondrial reactions producing ATP and O2 metabolism - cell signaling processes and immune responses against foreign substances Mutationchange in the nucleotide sequence in a gene within a cell's DNA --> potentially altering the protein coded by that gene Cytoskeletongroup of fibrous proteins that provide structural support for cells - components are critical for cell motility, cell reproduction, and transportation - 3 filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules Microtubulestructural filament, maintaining cell shape and structure, resist compression, position organelles in the cell - make two appendages for movement: cilia and flagella Cilia and Flagellacilia: found on many cells including epithelial cells that like the airway of the respiratory system (move rythmically, beat constantly moving waste materials) flagella: specialized for cell movement (only in human sperm cells) Centrioleserves as the origin point for microtubules extending outward as cilia or flagella - can assist in separation of DNA Microfilament and Intermediate filamentmicro: thinner cytoskeletal filament - Actin is primary component, responsible for muscle contraction inter: made of long fibrous subunits- keratin- and are important for maintaining cell shape/structure   (anchor organelles together in a cell) Nuclear envelopethe membrane surrounding the nucleus Nuclear poretiny passageway for the passage of proteins, RNA, and solutes between the nucleus and cytoplasm Nucleolusregion of the nuclues that is responsible for manufactoring RNA for contruction of ribosomes Chromatincomposed of DNA and proteins Histoneproteins that the DNA is wrapped around Nucleosomessingle wrapped DNA-histone complex - multiple nucleosomes along the DNA appear like a beaded necklace Chromosomecomposed of DNA and proteins, condensed form of chromatin DNA replicationcopying of DNA that occurs before cell division can take place Helicasespecial enzyme that untwists and separates the two strands of DNA *initiation DNA polymeraseenzyme thatbrings in correct bases to compliment the template strand, synthesizing a new strand base by base Genomeentire set of DNA instructions found in a cell Proteomeis the cell's full complement of proteins Genea functional segment of DNA that provides the genetic information necessary to build a particular protein Gene expressiontransforms the information coded in a gene to a final gene product, ultimately dictates structure and function of a cell by determining which proteins are made Tripleta group of three DNA bases in a row that codes for a specific amino acid Messenger RNA (mRNA)a single stranded nucleic acid that carries a copy of the genetic code for a single gene out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm where it is used to produce proteins Transcriptionthe synthesis of a strand of mRNA that is complementary to the gene of interest Codon a three base sequence of mRNA because they directly encode amino acids Promoterregion at beginning of the gene where the promoter-particular sequence of nucleotides- triggers start of transcription *initiation stage RNA polymeraseenzyme that adds nucleotides to a growing strand of RNA *elongation stage Splicing and Splicesomesplicing: removes non-coding regions from the pre-mRNA transcript splicesome: attaches to the mRNA and 'splices' or cuts out the non-coding sections Introns vs Exonsintrons: the removed section or segment of the transcript exons: a segment of RNA that remains after splicing Translation"process of synthesizing a chain of amino acids ""polypeptide"" - requires a 'translator' and a substrate which the mRNA strand is translated into a new protein - like the translaters desk" Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)RNA, that with proteins composes the structure of the ribosome Transfer RNA (tRNA)RNA that ferries the appropriate corresponding amino acids to the ribosome and attaches each new acid to the last, building the polypeptide chain one by one Anticodonthe sequence of 3 bases on the tRNA ex:  shuttling glycine, tRNA has a binding site on one end, the other end contains the anticode that complements glycine Polyribosomea string of ribosomes translating a single mRNA strand Somatic cella body cell, and all human cells except for the cells that produce eggs and sperm - contains 2 copies of each of their chromosomes Homologousa pair of chromosomes that are the 2 copies of a single chromosome found in each somatic cell Diploidthe presence of a double complement of genetic material  (2 sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each of the two parents) Cell cyclethe sequence of events in the life of the cell from the moment it is created until it then divides itself, generating two new cells Interphasethe period of the cell cycle during which the cell is not dividing *in interphase most of the time Mitosisthe division of genetic material where the cells nucleus breaks down and 2 new fully functional nuclei are formed *happens in phases Cytokinesisdivides the cytoplasm into two distinctive cells Interphase: G1 phasethe first gap or growth phase in the cell cycle *spends hours up to days in this phase Interphase: S Phasefollowing the G1 phase, its a period of time during which a cell replicates its DNA *lasts about 8-10 hours in this phase Interphase: G2 phasefollowing the S phase, its the second gap where the cell continues to grow and makes the necessary preparation for mitosis *lasts approx. 5 hours Interphase: G0 phasea resting phase of the cell cycle - cells that have temporarily stopped diving or permanently stopped are in G0 Sister chromatideach copy of the chromosome - is physically bound the the other copy Centromerethe structure that attaches one sister chromatid to another Mitotic phasethe cell typically takes between 1 and 2 hours, and undergoes two major processes: mitosis and cytokinesis Prophasefirst phase of mitosis, the loosely packed chromatin coils and condenses into chromosomes - nucleus disappears and the nuclear envelope disintegrates Centrosomea pair of centrioles together - in the cell they are side by side and begin to move apart Mitotic spindlethe structure composed of the centrosomes and their emerging microtubules (begin to extend from each centrosome- like hands reaching for each other) Kinetochoreproetin structure on the centromere that is the point of attachment between the mitotic spindle and sister chromatids - referred to as late prophase or prometaphase Metaphasesecond stange of mitosis, where the sister chromatids and their microtubules line up along the linear plane in the middle of the cell Metaphase platethe name of the plane through the center of the spindle on which the sister chromatids are positioned - microtubules now poised to pull apart sister chromatids to either side of the cell Anaphasethird stage of mitosis, the pairs of sister chromatids are separated from one another, forming individual chromosomes once again - pulled to opposite ends by their kinetochores, as microtubules shorten Telophasefinal stage of mitosis, the formation of two new daughter nuclei at either end of the dividing cell. Chromosomes return to loosely packed chromatin, nucleoli reappear, mitotic spindles break, and each cell receives its own DNA and organelles Cleavage furrowcontractile band made up of microfilaments that forms around the midline of the cell during cytokinesis - squeezes the cells apart until they finally separate into 2 new cells - one stem cell and one cuntional cell of the tissue *no splitting is a sign of a cancerous cell Checkpointa point in the cell cycle at which the cycle can be signaled to more forward or to stop Cyclinone of the primary classes of cell cycle control molecules Cyclin-dependent Kinase (CDK)one of a group of molecules that work together with cylcins to determine progression past cell checkpoints - these triggers push the cell cycle forward unless prevented from doing so by 'stop signals' Stem cellan unspecialized cell that can divide without limit and can, under specific circumstances, differentiation into specialized cells - divided into several categories Totipotentembryonic cells that arise from the division of the zygote are ultimate stem cells. they have the potential to differentiation into any of the cells needed to grow and develop an organism Pluripotentembryonic cells that develop from totipotent cells and are precursors to the fundamental tissue layers of the embryo. Has the potential to differentiate into any type of human tissue but cannot support the development of an organism Multipotenthas the potential to differentiate into different types of cells within a given cell lineage --- red or white blood cell Oligopotenta stem cell is limited to becoming one of a few different cell types Unipotenta cell is fully specialized and can only reproduce to generate more of its own specific cell type Transcription factorone of a class of proetins that bind to specific genes on the DNA molecule and either promote or inhibit their transcription *how a gene turns on or off Tissuedescribes a group of cells found together in the body - share a common embryonic origin Histologymicroscopic study of tissue appearance, organization, and function Epithelial tissuerefers to the sheets of cells that cover the exterior surfaces of the body, line the internal cavities and passageways, and form certain glands Connective tissuebinds the cells and organs of the body together and functions in protection, support, and integration Muscle tissueexcitable, responds to stimulus and contracting to provide movement - skeletal, smooth and cardiac Nervous tissueexcitable, allows electrochemical aignals in the form of nerve impulses to communicate between different regions of the body Ectodermthe outer germ layer - epidermis, glands on skin, pitutiatry and adrenal medullam nervous system Mesodermthe middle germ layer - connective tissue, bone, cartilage, blood, muscle, kidneys, gonad lining Endodermthe inner germ layer - lining of airways and digestive system, glands Tissue membranethe layer/sheet of cells that covers the outside of the body, organs, internal passageways, lining of moveable joint cavities Connective tissue membraneencapsulates organs and lines moveable joints Synovial membraneconnective tissue membrane that lines the cavity of a freely moveable joint - shoulder, elbow, knee Epithelial membraneattached to a layer of connective tissue - skin Mucous membranecomposite of connecive and epithelial tissues; line the body cavities and hollow passageways - digestive/respiratory/excretory/reproductive tracts Lamina propriathe underlying connective tissue that helps support the fragile epithelial layer Serous membraneepithelial membraen composed of mesodermally derived epithelium that is supported by connective tissue - line the cavities that do not open to the outside and the organs in those cavities Cutaneous membranestratified squamous epithelial membrane resting on top of connective tissue Cell junctionadjoining cells form a specialized intercellular connection between their cell membranes Apicalthe exposed facing surface of the cell Basal laminaglycoproteins and collagen, providing an attachment site for the epithelium separating it from connective tissue Reticular laminabasal lamina attaches to the reticular lamina- secrected by the connective tissue Basement membraneanchors epithelial tissue to the connective tissue and is made up of the basal lamina and reticular lamina Tight junctionseparates the cells into apical and basal compartments - no extracellular space between the cells and movement of substances is blocked (epithelia act as selective barriers) Anchoring junctionincludes several types of cell junctions that help stabalize epithelial tissues - desosomes, hemidesosomes, adherens - common on lateral and basal surfaces Gap junctionforms an intercellular passageway between the membranes of adjacent cells to facilitate the movement of small molecules and ions between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells Simple squamousappearance of thin scales, tend to be flat/horizontal Endotheliumepithelial tissue that lines vessels of the lymphatic and cardiovascular system- made up of a single layer of squamous cells Mesotheliumsimple squamous epithelium that forms the surface layer of the serous membrane - secretes fluid to lubricate - provide a smooth and protective surface Simple cuboidalbox-like cells with a round nucleus in the center - active in secreteion and absorption of molecules in lining of kidney tubules and ducts of glands simple columnartall column-like cells with an elongated nucleus to match - absorption and secretion of molecules - in digestive and female reproductive system Pseudostratified columnarappears to be stratified but consits of a single layer of irregular shaped columnar cells - in respiratory tract Goblet cella mucous secreteing unicellular 'gland' interspread between the columnar epithelial of mucous membranes Stratified squamoussquamous cells in multiple layers - the skin or mouth cavity Stratified cuboidal2+ layers of cube shaped cells - found in ducts Stratified columnar2+ layers of column-like cells - contains glands and is in some ducts Transitional epitheliumgradual changes in shape of apical cells as the bladder fills with urine - only in urinary system (ureters/urinary bladder) Endocrine glanda ductless gland that releases secretions directly into surrounding tissues/fluids Exocrine glandsecretions leave through a duct that open directly or indirectly to the external environment Merocrine secretionmost common exocrine secretion - secretions enclosed in vesicles move to the apical surface of the cell where the contents are released by exocytosis Apocrine secretionaccumulates near apical portion of the cell, that portion of the cell and its contents pinch off from the cell and is released Holocrine secretioninvolves the rupture and destruction of the entire gland cell - accumulates secretions and releases them only when the cell bursts Serous glandproduces watery, blood-plasma-like secretions rich in enzymes Mucous glandreleases watery to viscous products rich in glycoprotein mucin Matrixlarge amount of extracellular material produced by the connective tissue thats embedded within it Ground substanceFluid portion of the matrix:  can be mineralized and solid Mesenchymethe stem cell line from which all connective tissues are later derives - scattered in clusters in adult tissue if a repair is needed Mucous connective tissueforms in the umbilical cord, and is no longer present after birth Connective tissue propercontains a viscous matrix, fibers, and cells Loose connective tissuelittle specialization with cells dispersed in the matrix Dense connective tissuecontains many fibers that provide both elasticity and protection Supportive connective tissueprovides strength to the body and protects soft tissue Fluid connective tissuespecialized cells that circulate in a watery fluid containing salts, nutrients, and dissolved proteins Fibroblastmost abundant cell type in  connective tissue. secretes protein fibers and matrix into extracellular space Fibrocyteless active form of a fibroblast Adipocyteslipid storage cells - fill most of the cytoplasm Mesenchymal celladult stem cell from with most connective tissue cells are derived Collagen fiberflexible proteins that give connective tissue tensile strength Elastic fiberprotein with connective tissue that contains a high percentage of elastin that allows fibres to stretch and return to their original size Reticular fiberfine protein made of collagen subunits, crosslink to form 'nets' within connective tissue Parenchymafunctional cells of a gland or organ, in contrast with the supportive/connective tissue of a gland or organ Adipose tissuespecialized arolar tissue rich in stored fats Areolar tissuetype of connective tissue proper that shows little specialization with cells dispersed in the matrix Reticular tissuetype of loose connective tissue that provides supportive framework to soft organs- spleen/liver/etc Chondrocytescells of the cartilage Lacunaesmall spaces in bone on cartilage tissue that cells can occupy Hyaline cartilagemost common cartilage type; smooth and made of short collagen fibers embedded in a chondroitin sulfate ground substance Fibrocartilagetough form of cartilage, made of thick bundles of collagen fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate ground substance Elastic cartilageelastin is the major protein, characterized by rigid supports as well as elasticity Skeletal Muscleusually attached to bone, under voluntary control, each cell is a fiber that is multinucleated and striated Myocytea muscle cell Striationalignment of parallel actin and myosin filaments which form a banded pattern Cardiac Muscleheart muscle under involuntary control, composed of striated cells that attach to form fibers, contracts autonomously Smooth Muscleunder involuntary control, moves internal organs, not striated, each cell is a fiber Neuronexcitable neuron cell that transfers nerve impulses Neurogliasupportive neural cells Astrocytestar-shaped cell in the central nervous system that regulates ions and uptake/or breakdown of some neurotransmitters - contributes to the blood-brain barrier formation Oligodendrocyteneuroglial cell that produces myelin in the brain Schwann Cellneuroglial cell that produces myelin in the peripheral nervous system Inflammationthe response of tissue to injury Necrosisaccidental deaths of cells Apoptosisprogrammed cell death, step-by-step process Vasodilationthe widening of blood vessels Histaminechemical compound released by mast cells in response to injury that causes vasodilation and endothelium permeability Clottingalso known as coagulation, a complex process by which components form a plug to stop bleeding Primary Unioncondition of a wound where the wound edges are close enough to be brought together and fastened if necessary, allowing a quicker and more thorough healing Secondary Unionwound healing facilitated by wound contraction Wound Contractionprocess whereby the boarders of a wound are physically dawn together Atrophyloss of mass and function Integumentary Systemskin and its accessory structures Epidermisoutermost tissue layer of the skin Keratinocytecell that produces keratin and is the most predominant type of cell found in the epidermis Kertaintype of structural protein that gives skin/hair/nails its hard, water-resistant properties Stratum Basaledeepest layer of the epidermis made of epidermal stem cells Dermal Papillaextension of the papillary layer of the dermis that increases surface contact between the epidermis and dermis Basal Cellstem cell found in the stratum basale and in the hair matrix that continuoualy undergoes cell division, producing keratinocytes of the epidermis Merkel Cellreceptor cell in the stratum basale of the epidermis that responds to the sense of touch Melanocytecell found in the stratum basale of the epidermis that produces the pigment melanin Melaninpigment that determines the colour of hair and skin Stratum Spinosumlayer of the epidermis superficial to the stratum basale, characterized by the pressence of desmosomes Desmosomestructure that forms an impermeable junction between cells Langerhans Cellspecialized dendritic cell found in the stratum spinosum that functions as a macrophage Stratum Granulosumlayer of the epidermis superficial to the stratum spinosum Keratohyalingranulated protein found in the stratum granulosum Stratum Lucidumlayer of the epidermis between the stratum granulosum and the stratum corneum, found only in thick skin covering the palms, soles of feet, digits Eleidinclear protein-bound lipid found in the stratum lucidum that is derived from keratohyalin and helps to prevent water loss Stratum Corneummost superficial layer of the epidermis Dermislayer of the skin between the epidermis and hypodermis, composed of mainly connective tissue and containing blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glandsm and other structures Papillary Layersuperficial layer of the dermis, made of loose/areolar connective tissue Reticular Layerdeeper layer of the dermis, reticulated appearance due to presence of collagen and elastin fibers Elastin Fibersfibers made of the protein elastin that increases the elasticity of the dermis Hypodermisconnective tissue connecting the integument to the underlying bone and muscle Melanosomevesicel that transfers melanin from melanocytes tinto keratinocytes of the epidermis Hair Rootpart of hair that is below the epidermis anchored to the follicle Hair Shaftpart of hair that is above the epidermis but is not anchored to the follicle Anagen Growth Phaseactive phase of the hair growth cycle --- hair divides rapidly Catagen Growth Phasetransitional phase marking the end of the anagen phase of the hair growth cycle Telogen Growth Phaseresting phase of the hair growth cycle, initiated with catagen and terminated by the beginning of a new anagen phase of hair growth Sudoriferous Glandssweat glands Eccrine Sweat Glandstype of sweat gland that is common throughout the skin surface, produces hypotonic sweat for thermoregulation Apocrine Sweat Glandsweat gland associated with hair follicles in the armpits and genital regions Sebaceous Glandtype of oil gland found in the dermis all over the body and helps to lubricate + waterproof the skin and hair by secreting sebum (mixture of lipids) Meissner Corpusclereceptor in the skin that responds to light touch Pacinian Corpusclereceptor in the skin that responds to vibrations Skin CancerAsymetry, Borders, Colour, Diameter, Evolving -- Elevated, Firm, Growing Basal Cell: originates from the basal cells in epidermis Squamous Cell: originates from the stratum spinosum of epidermis Melanoma: originates from the melanocytes of the skin Skin Disorders/InjuryEczema: allergic reaction - resembles a rash Acne: infected sebaceous glands Burn: 1st/2nd/3rd degree -- intense heat/radiation/chemicals Bedsore: necrotizing skin from constant pressure Bonehard, dense connective tissue that forms the structural elements of the skeleton Acneskin condition due to infected sebaceous glands Albinismgenetic disorder that ffects the skin, in which there is no melanin production Anagenactive phase of the hair growth cycle Apocrine sweat glandA type of endocrine gland - pinch off portion of its cell - is associated with hair follicles in hte armpits and genital regions Arrector pilismooth muscle that is activated in response to external stimuli that pull on hair follicles making the hair 'stand up' Basal celltype of stem cell found in the stratum basale and in the hair matrix that continually undergoes cell division, producing keratinocytes of the epidermis Basal cell carcinomacancer that originates from basal cells in the epidermis of the skin Bedsoresore on the skin that develops when regions of the body start necrotizing due to constance pressure and lack of blood supply Callusthickened area of skin that arises due to constant abrasion Catagentransitional phase marking the end of the anagen phase of the hair growth cycle Corntype of callus that is named for its shape and the elliptical motion of the abrasive force cortex (hair)second or middle layer of keratinocytes originating from the hair matrix -- seen in a cross section of the hair bulb Cuticleoutermost layer of keratinocytes originating from the hair matrix Dermal papillaextension of the papillary layer of the dermis that increases surface contact between the epidermis and dermis Eccrine sweat glandtype of sweat gland common throughout the skin surface, produces a hypotonic sweat for thermoregulation Eczemaskin condition due to an allergic reaction which resembles a rash Elastin fibersmade of the protein elastin that increase the elasticity of the dermis Eleidenclear protein bound lipid found in the stratum lucidum that is derived from keratohyalin and helps to prevent water loss Eponychiumnail fold that meets the proximal end of the nail body, also called the cuticle External root sheathouter layer of the hair follicle that is an extension of the epidermis, encloses the hair root First degree burnsuperficial burn that injures only the epidermis fourth degree burnburn in which full thickness of the skin and underlying muscle and bone is damaged Glassy membranelayer of connective tissue that surrounds the base of the ahir follicle connecting it to the dermis Hairkeratinous filament growing out of the epidermis Hair bulbstructure at the base of the hair root that surrounds the dermal papilla Hair folliclecavity or sac from which hair originates Hair matrixlayer of basal cells from which a strand of hair grows Hair papillamass of connective tissue, blood capillaries, and nerve endings at the base of the hair follicle Hair rootpart of hair that is below the epidermis anchored to the follicle Hair shaftpart of hair that is below the epidermis anchored to the follicle Hyponychiumthickened layer of stratum corneum that lies below the free edge of the nail Integumentary systemskin and its accessory structures Internal root sheathinnermost layer of keratinocytes in the hair follicle that surround the hair root up to the hair shaft Keloidtype of scar that has layers raised above the skin surface Keratintype of structural protein that gives skin, hair and nails its hard, water resistant properties Langerhans cellspecialized dendritic cell found in the stratum spinosum that functions as a macrophage Lunulabasal part of the nail body that consists of a crescent-shaped layer of thick epithelium Medullathe innermost layer of keratinocytes originating from the hair matrix Meissner corpusclereceptor in the skin that responds to light touch Melanomatype of skin cancer that originates from the melanocytes of the skin Merkel cellreceptor cell in the stratum basale of the epidermis that responds to the sense of touch Metastasisspread of cancer cells from a source to other parts of the body Nail bedlayer of epidermis upon which the nail body forms Nail bodymain keratinous plate that forms the nail Nail cuticlefold of epithelium that extends over the nail bed, called the eponychium Nail foldfold of epithelium that extend over the sides of the nail body holding it in place Nail rootpart of the nail that is lodged deep in the epidermis from which the nail grows Pacinian corpusclereceptor in the skin that responds to vibration Papillary layersuperficial layer of the dermis, made of loose areolar connective tissue Reticular layerdeeper layer of the dermi that has a reticulated appearance due to the presence of abundant collagen and elastin fibers Ricketsdisease in children caused by vitamin D deficiency -- weakening bones Scarcollagen-rich skin formed after the process of wound healing that is different from normal skin Sebaceous glandtype of oil gland found in the dermis all over the body and helps to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair by secreting sebum Sebumoily substance that is composed of a mixture of lipids that lubricates the skin and hair Second degree burnpartial thickness burn that injures the epidermis and a portion of the dermis Squamous cell carcinomatype of skin cancer that originates from the stratum spinosum of the epidermis Stratum basaledeepest layer of the epidermis made of epidermal stem cells Stratum corneummost superficial layer of the epidermis Stratum granulosumlayer of the epidermis superficial to the stratum spinosum Stratum lucidumlayer of the epidermis between the stratum granulosum and corneum found only in thick skin covering palms, soles of feet and digits Stratum spinosumlayer of the epidermis between superficial to the stratum basale characterized by the presence of desmosomes Stretch markformed on the skin due to a sudden growth spurt and expansion of the dermis beyond its elastic limits Sudoriferous glandsweat gland Telogenresting phase of the hair growth cycle initiated with catagen and terminated by the begginaing of a new anagen phase of hair growth third degree burnburn that penetrates and destroys the full thickness of the skin (epi and dermis) Vitamin Dcompound that aids absorption of calcium and phosphates in the intestine to improve bone health Vitiligoskin condition where melanocytes in certain areas lose the ability to produce melanin possibly due to autoimmune reaction that leads to loss of colour in patches Abductionmoves limb away from the body Acetabular labrumlip of fibrocartilage that surrounds outer margin of the acetabulum on the hip bone Adductionmoving a limb towards the body Amphiarthorosisslightly moveable joint Annular ligamentligament of the elbow that surrouds and supports the head of the radius at the proximal radioulnar joint Anterior curciate ligamentligament of the knee, resists hyperestension extends from anterior surface of tibia to inner aspect of lateral condyle of the femur Anterior talofibular ligamentligament on the lateral side of the ankle between the talus bone and lateral malleolus of fibula, supports the talus and resists excess inversion Articular capsuleconnective tissue structure that encolses the joint cavity of a synovial joint Articular cartilagethin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the articulating surfaces of bones at a synovial joint Articular discmeniscus -- fibrocartilage sturcture found between the bones of some synovial joints Articulationjoint of the body Atlanto-occipital jointarticulation between occipital coondyles of skull and processes of the atlas (C1) Atlantoaxial joint3 articulations between the C1 and the C2  Ball and socket jointsynovial joint where the ball (spherical end of one bone) fits into the depression of a second bone (the socket) Biaxial jointtype of diarthrosis --> allows for movement within two planes Bursaconnective tissue sac that contain fluid to prevent friction between adjacent structures Calcaneofibular ligamenton laternal side of the ankle joint between calcaneous and malleolus of fibula supports the talus bone and resists excess inversion Cartilaginous jointjoint at which the bones are united by hyaline caritlage or fibrocartilage Cicrumductioncircular motion of the arm, thigh, hand, thumb or finger Condyloid jointsynovial joint where the shallow depression of one bone receives a rounded end of a nother bone -- radiocarpal joint of wrist Coracohumeral ligamentshoulder joint, from the coracoid process to humerus Deltoid ligamentmedial side of ankle, supports talkus and resists excess eversion Depressiondownward motion Diarthrosisfreely mobile joint Dorsiflexionankle moving top of foot towards the shin elbow jointhumeroulnar joint Elevationupward motion Eversionfoot movement, bottom of foot turned away from body Extensionincrease the angle of the joint (straightens the joint) Extrinsic ligamentlocated on the outside of the articular capsule of a synovial joint Femoropatellar jointarticular between the femur and patella Fibrous jointwhere articulating areas of the adjacent bones are connected by fibrous connective tissue Fibular collateral ligamentspans from epicondyle of femur to head of fibula, resists hyperextension and rotation Flexiondecreases the angle of a joint Fontanellesarea of fribrous tissue that separates the braincse bones of the skull prior to birth and until 1 year after Glenohumeral jointshoulder joint Glenohumeral ligamentone of three intrinsic ligaments of the shoulder Glenoid labrumfibrocartilage located around the outside margin of the glenoid cavity of the scapual Gomphosisfibrous joint where the root of a tooth is anchored into bony jaw socket Hinge jointsynovial joint where surface of one bone articulates with the concave surface of another bone -- elbow, knee, ankle Humeroulnar jointarticulation between the trochlea of humerus and trochlear notch of the ulna Hyperextensionexcessive extension of a joint Hyperflexionexcessive flexion of a joint Iliofemoral ligamentligaments spanning from the ilium of hip bone to the femur Inferior rotationmovement of scapula during upper limb adduction Interosseous membranewide sheet of fibrous connective tissue that fills the gap between two parallel bones Intracapsular ligamentlocated within the articular capsule of a synovial joint Intrinsic ligamentfused to or incorporated into the wall of the articular capsule of a synovial joint Inversionfoot movement where the bottom of the foot it turned toward the midline Ischiofemoral ligamentintrinsic ligament spanning from ischium of hip bone the femur Jointsite at which two or more bones and cartilage come together (articulate) Joint cavityspace enclosed by the articular capsule of a synovial joint that is filled with synovial fluid and contains articulating surfaces of the adjacent bones Joint interzonesite with growing embryonic limb bud that will become a synovial joint Lateral rotationmovement that moves limbs away from midlline Lateral excursionside to side movement of the mandible Lateral flexionbending of neck or body towards the side Lateral meniscusC shaoed fibrocartilage articular disc located at the knee Lateral tibiofemoral jointportion of the knee consisting of the articular between the lateral condyle of tibia and the lateral condyle of femur Ligamentdense connective tissue spanning between bones Ligament of the head of the femurruns from the acetabulum of hip bone to head of femur Medial rotationmovement of limbs towards the midline Medial excursionside to side movement that returns the mandible to the midline Medial meniscusC shaped fibrocartilage articular disc located at the knee between the medial condyhle of femur and medial condyle of tibia Medial tibiofemoral jointportion of the knee consisting of the articulation between the medial condyle of the tibia and the medial condyle of the femur Meniscusarticular disc Multiaxial jointtype of diarthrosis, joint that allows for movements within 3 planes Oppositionthumb movement-- in contact with tip of finger Patellar ligamentspanning from the patella to the tibia Periodontal ligamentband of dense connective tissue that anchors the root of a tooth into the bony jaw socket Pivot jointsynovial joint at which the rounded portion of a bone rotates within a ring formed by a ligament and an articulating bone Plane jointsynovial joint formed between the flattened articulating surfaces of adjacent bones Plantarflexionfoot movement at ankle where heel is lifted off the ground Posterior cruciate ligamentligament of the knee, extends from posterior surface of tibia to inner aspect of medial condyle of femur Posterior talofibular ligamentlocated on lateral side of ankle joint between the talus bone and lateral malleolus of the fibula Pronated positionforearm position with palsm facing backwards Pronationmovement of palms forward to palms backward Protractionanterior motion of scapula or mandible Proximal radioulnar jointarticulation between head of radius and radial notch of ulna Pubofemoral ligamentspans from the pubis of hip bone to the femur Radial collateral ligamenton lateral side of elbow joint, runs from lateral epicondyle of humer to merge with the annular ligament Repositionmovement of thumb from oppositon back to anatomical position Retractionposterior motion of scapula or mandible Rotationmovement of a bone around a central axis Rotator cuffstrong connective tissue structure formed by fusion of 4 rotator cuff muscle tendons to atricular capsule of the shoulder joint Saddle jointsynovial joint in which articulating ends of both bones are convex and concave in shape Subacromial bursaprotects tha supraspintus muscle tendon and end of humerus from rubbing against eh acromion Subcutaneous bursaprevents friction between skin and an underlying bone Submuscular bursaprevents friction between bone and a muscle or adjacent muscles Subscapular bursaprevents rubbing of the subscapularis muscle tendon against the scapula Subtalar jointarticulation between the talus and calcaneous bones Subtendinous bursaprevents friction between bone and a muscle tendon Superior rotaionmovement of scapula during upper limb abduction Supinated positonforearm positon in which the palsm face anteriorly Supinationforearm motion that moves palm of hanf backward to palm of hand forward Suturefibrous joint that connect the bones of the skull except the mandible Symphysistype of cartilaginous joint where the bones are joined by fibrocartilage Synarthrosisimmobile or nearly immobile joint Synchondrosistype of cartilaginous joint where the bones are joined by hyaline cartilage Syndesmosistype of fibrous joint in which two separated parallel bones are connected by interosseous membrane Synostosissite at which adjacent bones or bony components have fused together Synovial fluidlubricating fluid that fills the interior of a synovial joint Synovial jointjoint at which the articulating surfaces of the bones are located within a joint cavity formed by an articular capsule Synovial Membranethin layer that lines the inner surface of the joint cavity at a synovial joint; produces the synovial fluid Talocrural jointankle joint Temporomandibular joint (TMJ)articulation between the condyle of the mandible and the mandibular fossa and articular tubercle of the temporal bone of the skull Tendondense connective tissue structure that anchors a mucle to bone Tendon sheathconnective tissue that surrounds a tendon at places where the tendon crosses a joint; contains a lubricating fluid to prevent friction and allow smooth movements of the tendon Tibial collateral ligamentextrinsic ligament of knee joint that spans from medial epicondyle of the femur to the medial tibia; resists hyperextension of knee Ulnar collateral ligamentintrinsic ligament on the medial side of the elbow joint; spans from emdial epicondyle of the humerus to the medial ulna Uniaxial jointtype of diarthrosis, allows for motion within one plane zygapophysial jointsfacet joints; plane joints between vertebrae Canaliculichannels within the bone matrix that house one of an osteocyte's many cytoplasmic extensions that it used to communicate and receive nutrients Cartilageconnective tissue found on the skeleton i nareas where flexibility and smooth surfaces support movement Central Canallongitudinal channel in the center of each osteon; contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels Closed reductionmanual manipulation of a broken bone to set it into its natural position without surgery Compact bonedense osseous tissue that can withstand compressive forces Diaphysistubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of a long bone Diploelayer of spongy bone that is sandwiched between two layers of compact bound found in flat bone Endochondral ossificationprocess in which bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage Endosteumdelicate membranous lining of a bone's medullary cavity Epiphyseal linecompletely ossified remnant of the epiphyseal plate Epiphyseal platesheet of hyaline cartilage in the metaphysis of an inmature bone; replaced by bone tissue as the organ grows in length Epiphysiswide section at each end of a long bone, filled with spongy bone and red marrow External calluscollar of hyaline cartilage and bone that forms around the outside of a fracture Flat bonethin and curved bone Fracturebroken bone Fracture hematomablood clot that forms at the site of a broken bone Hematopoiesisproduction of blood cells, which occurs in the red marrow of the bones Holeopening or depressing in a bone Hypercalcemiacondition characterized by abnormally high levels of calcium Hypocalcemiacondition characterized by abnoramlly low levels of calcium Internal callusfibrocartilaginous matrix in the endosteal region between the two ends of a broken bone Intramembranous ossificationbone forms directly from mesenchymal tissue Irregular bonebone of complex shape Long bonecylinder-shaped bone that is langer than it is wide Medullary cavityhollow region of the diaphysis, filled with yellow marrow Modelingprocess during bone growth where bone is resorbed on one surface of a bone and deposited on another Nutrient foramensmall opening in the middle of the external surfcae of the diaphysis, an artery enters the bone to provide nourishment Open reductionsurgical exposure of a bone to reset a fracture Orthopedistdoctor who sepcializes in diagnosing and treating musculoskeletal disorders and injuries Osseous tissuebone tissue, hard and dense connective tissue -- forms structural elements of the skeleton Ossificationaka osteogenesis, bone formation Ossification centercluster of osteoblasts found in the early stages of intramembranous ossification Osteoblastcell responsibile for forming new bone Osteoclastcell responsible for resorbing bone Osteocyteprimary cell in mature bone- responsible for mainting the matrix Osteogenic cellundifferentiated cell with high mitotic activity, only bone cells that divide, differentiate and develop into osteoblasts Osteoiduncalcified bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts Osteonbasiic structural unit of compact bone OsteoporosisDisease characterized by a decrease in bone mass Perforating canalchannel that branches off from the central canal and houses vessels and nerves that extend to the periosteum and endosteum Perichondriummembrane that covers cartilage Periosteumfibrous membrane coving the outer surface of bone and continous with liagments Primary ossification centerwhere bone development starts during endochondral ossification Projectionbony markings where part of the surface sticks out above the rest of the surface -- where tendons and ligaments attach Proliferative xoneregion of the epiphyseal plate that makes new chondrocytes to replace those that die at the diaphyseal end of the plate and contributes to longitudinal growth of the epiphyseal plate Red marrowconnective tissue in the interior cavity of a bone where hematopoises takes place Remodelingprocess by which osteoclasts resorb old or damaged bone at the same time as the osteoblasts who are forming new bone to replace the resorbed bone Reserve zoneregion of epiphyseal plate that anchors the plate to the osseous tissue of the epiphysis Secondary ossification centerregion of bone development in the epiphyses Sesamoid bonesmall, round bone embedded in a tendon Short bonecube shaped bone that is approximately equal in length, width, and thickness Spongy bonetrabeculated osseous tissue that supports shift in weight distribution Trabeculaespikes or sections of the lattice like matrix in spongy bone Yellow marrowconnective tissue in the interior cavity of a bone where fat is stored Zone of calcified matrixregion of the epiphyseal plate closest to the diaphyseal end zone of maturation and hypertrophyregion of the epiphyseal plate where chondrocytes from the proliferative zone grow and mature and contribute to the longitudinal growth of the epiphyseal plate Angle of the mandiblerounded corner located at outside margin of the body and ramus junction Angle of the ribportion of rib with greatest curvature; together the rib angles form hte most posterior extent of the thoracic cage Anterior sacral foramenone of the series of paired openings located on the anterior side of the sacrum Anterior archanterior portion of the ring-like C1 Anterior cranial fossashallowest and most anterior cranial fossa that extends from the frontal bone to the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone SkeletonBones of the body Axial Skeletoncentral, vertical axis of the body including the skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage Skullbony structure that forms the head, face, jaws and protects the brain *22 bones Vertebral columnentire sequence of bones that extend from the skull to the tailbone Anterior Longitdunial ligamentruns the length of the vertebral column uniting anterior aspects of the verterbal bodies Thoracic cageconsists of 12 paired ribs and the sternum Hyoid bonesmall u-shaped bone located in the upper neck that does not contact any other bone Ear ossiclesthree small bones located in the middle ear cavity that serve to transmit sound vibrations to the inner ear Vertebraindividual bone in the neck and back regions of the vertebral column Sacrumsingle bone located near the inferior end of the adult vertebral column that is formed by the fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae, forms posterior of the pelvis Coccyxsmall bone located at inferior end of the adult vertebral column that is formed by the fusion of four coccygeal vertebrae, referred to as the tailbone Ribsthin curved bones of the chest wall Sternumflattened bone located at the center of the anterior chest Appendicular skeletonall bones of the upper and lower limbs plus the girdle bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton Craniumskull Facial bones14 bones that support the facial structures and form the upper and lower jaws and the hard palate Brain caseportion of the skull that contains and protects the brain, consisting of the 8 bones that form the cranial base and rounded upper skull Paired: parietal and temporal Unpaired: frontal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid Mandibleunpaired bone that forms the lower jaw bone, only moveable bone of the skull Orbitbony socket that contains the eyeball and associated muscles Supraorbital marginsuperior margin of the orbit Supraorbital foramenopening located on anterior skull at the superior margin of the orbit Infraorbital foramenopening located on anterior skull below the orbit Skull diagram"<img alt=""This image shows the anterior view (from the front) of the human skull. The major bones on the skull are labeled."" src=""2b992922f28d116ef649105fc6d93b2880df5084.jpg"">" Nasal cavityopening through skull for passage of air Nasal Septumflat midline structure that divides the nasal cavity into halves formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid, vomer bone and septal cartilage Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bonedownward, midline extension of the ethmoid bone that forms the superior portion of the nasal septum

BIOL 131 - FINAL EXAM

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