I.
Renaissance
A. Foundations/ Coming of the Renaissance
1. Decline of the Church
a) Babylonian Captivity
b) The Great Schism
B. KC: The worldview of European intellectuals shifted from one based on ecclesiastical
and classical authority to one based primarily on inquiry and observation of the natural
world.
C. Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance
1. Renaissance: rebirth and revival of classical traditions/ antiquity, revival of
classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new values in both
society, religion, culture and politics
2. Individualism(new ways of viewing human beings) : high regard for human
dignity, capacity and potential
3. Secularism
4. Urban society: commercial preeminence, independent city states in Italy were
the center of political, economic, social and cultural life
5. Age of recovery: improvements from the period of Black death, political disorder
and economic recession
6. Movement of the elite: Italian Renaissance was the preserve of the upper class
7. Italian Renaissance humanists promoted a revival in classical literature and
created new philological approaches to ancient texts. Some Renaissance
humanists furthered the values of secularism and individualism (Petrarch
(pre-1450), Lorenzo Valla, Marsilio Ficino, Pico della Mirandola).
8. Humanist revival of Greek and Roman texts, spread by the printing press,
challenged the institutional power of universities and the Roman Catholic
Church and shifted the focus of education away from theology toward the study
of the classical texts (Leonardo Bruni, Leon Battista Alberti, Niccolò Machiavelli).
9. Admiration for Greek and Roman political institutions supported a revival of
civic humanist culture in the Italian city-states and produced secular models
for individual and political behavior
10. Optimism of human capacity
D. The Making of Renaissance Society
1. KC: The family remained the primary social and economic institutions of early
modern Europe
2. Economic Recovery
a) Expansion of trade:
(1) Hanseatic League: commercial and military association formed
by North German coastal towns, monopoly on northern
European trade
(2) Flanders Fleet of Venice
(3) Italians and Venetians established a wealthy commercial empire
b) Industries old and new
(1) Recovery of old industries
(a) Florentine woolen industry recovered from the
economic depression in the 14th century
c) New industries
(1) Italian cities developed luxury industries
(2) Printing, mining and metallurgy
(a) New machinery and techniques
(b) Development of new weapons
d) Medici:preeminence in banking in Florentine
(1) Decline at the end of 15c, 1494 French expelled Medici from
Florentine and confiscated property
3. Social Changes in the Renaissance
a) KC: Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of
hierarchy and status persisted. Most Europeans derived their livelihood
from agriculture and oriented their lives around the seasons, the village,
or the manor
b) Continuation of medieval traditional social order: first estate( clergy),
second estate( nobility), third estate( peasants and townspeople)
(1) Nobility
(a) Aristocracy continued to dominate society and politics
(b) Castiglione: social ideals of the nobility
(i)
Fundamental native endowments such as
character, noble birth, grace
(ii)
Participate in military and bodily exercises
(iii)
Classical education ( change)
(2) Peasant and Townspeople
(a) Majority of the population
(b) Decline of the manorial system and serfdom (rural)
(i)
Accelerated by the Black Death
(ii)
Accepting rents, tenant workers in replace of
servile labor with free legal status
(c) Merchants and artisans were most inhabitants of towns
and cities with diverse socioeconomic status
(i)
Patricians: wealth from capitalistic enterprises
in trade, industry and banking → dominate
urban communities (politically, economically,
socially)
(ii)
Petty burghers: goods and services for local
consumption
(iii)
Propertyless & unemployed: urban poverty, live
in miserable conditions
(a) 30-40 % of urban population, increase
in late 14th and early 15th century
c) The Family in Renaissance Italy
(1) Family was the center of communities, reputation and name of
family was important
(2) Marriage: arranged marriages based on business or family ties
(a) Dowry = indication of social status
(3) Father was the center of the household
(a) Legal, financial authority
(b) Authority over children
(4) Children: high death rate → families to have as many children as
possible to ensure male heir
(5) Women’s main role was to bear children
(6) Sexual norms: lack of emotional attachment led to extramarital
relationships, large age difference between husband and wife
E. The Italian States in the Renaissance
1. KC: The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played a
central role in the creation of new political institutions
2. KC: the competitive state system led to new patterns of diplomacy and new
forms of warfare
3. The Five Major States
a) Duchy of Milan: Sforza, highly centralized
b) Republic of Venice: governed by small oligarchy of merchant aristocrats
(1) Commercial success generate wealth and international power
c) Republic of Florence: governed by small merchant oligarchy in
apparently republican government
(1) Medici: Cosimo and Lorenzo the Magnificent
(a) Patronage
(2) Center of cultural Renaissance
d) Papal states: political control of the pope but papal residence in Avignon
and Great Schism enabled individual cities ( Urbino, Bologna, Ferrara) to
become independent
(1) Direct energy towards reestablishing papal control
e) Kingdom of Naples: monarchy, poverty-stricken peasants, corruption
4. Independence City-States
a) Mantua(Gonzaga), Ferrara(d’Este)
b) Urbino: Montefeltro= condottieri
(1) Classical education
(2) Humanism
(3) Cultural and intellectual center
5. Warfare in Italy
a) Balance of power
(1) Peace of Lodi
F.
(2) Alliance system ( M +F+ N vs. V + PS)
b) Growth of powerful monarchical states led to the disruption of peace
among city-states
(1) Italy soon became a battlefield for the great power struggle
between French and Spain
c) Breakdown of Italian balance of power
(1) Sforza incited French to intervene in Italian politics
(a) Charles VIII invaded Naples ( 1494)
(2) Other Italians states called for Spanish for help
(3) Continued intervention between French and Spain
d) Italian city states were individual and separate. They did not create a
confederation or alliance to repel foreign invaders together. This
increased the vulnerability and disadvantages of Italian states as
strong monarchical empires emerged elsewhere
6. The Birth of Modern Diplomacy
a) To ensure security among the states, the role of diplomatic agents
became more important
(1) Methods to benefit political interests of the state, duty of the
prince was to serve the interests of the state
7. Machiavelli and the New Statecraft
a) Niccolo Machiavelli:
(1) Political activity during period of tribulation and devastation,
French invasion (1494), strong monarchical states invading the
Italian city states
(2) Virtu: do what everyone needs to do to achieve the security
and prosperity of the state, do what is best for the state
(3) Rejection of faith-based thinking and embracing secular,
separation of church and state
(4) Precursor of the scientific revolution: a lot of ideas based on
observation and pragmatism
(5) A lot of his study based on renewed study of classical texts
b) The Prince
(1) Pragmatic account based on classical works and realization of
Italy’s political problems ( too weak to face monarchical states,
battleground for foreign powers)
(2) Acquisition and expansion of political power as the means to
restore and maintain order
(a) Political activity cannot be restricted by moral principles
( before)
(b) Abandon morality as the basis for political activity
The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy
1. KC: a revival of classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new values
in both society and religion
2. Individualism( synthesis points with Chapter 21) , secularism, humanism
3. Italian Renaissance Humanism: intellectual movement based on the study of
Classical literary works
a) The emergence of Humanism
(1) Petrarch: characterize Middle Age as period of darkness, interest
in classical antiquity
b) Civic humanism: modeled on Cicero, the belief that it was an
intellectual's civic duty to be involved in politics and help the
community, opposed to the church being politically powerful
(1) Study of humanities should be put to the service of the state
(2) Lorenzo Valla: The Elegances of the Latin Language
c) Neoplatonism: Marsilio Ficino
(1) Neoplatonic hierarchy of substances ( Great Chain of Being):
physical matter(plants) → humans (middle)→ spiritual matter(
God,highest); link between physical and spiritual world
(2) Theory of spiritual love: all people are bound together by love
(3) Florentine Platonic Academy: Plato + Christianity
d) Hermeticism: Ficino and Pico Mirandola
(1) Pantheistic view stating God is in everything and humans were
created divine but chose to live in a material world but could
achieve divinity.
(a) Pantheism: divinity embodied in all aspects of nature
(2) Mirandola:Everybody has the seeds in them, everyone become
the fruits of the seed that they choose the cultivate, potential,
your destiny in your hands= illustration of Renaissance
humanism and individualism
4. Education in the Renaissance
a) Increasing importance in humanist education: believe that through
education, people could reach their full potential, stressed on liberal arts
b) Education as practical preparation for life to produce complete citizens
who could participate in civic life
c) Geared towards the male elite ruling class
5. Women in the Renaissance
a) Many upper class women did receive humanist classical education ( new
views in society)
G. The Impact of Printing
1. KC: the invention of printing promoted the dissemination of new ideas
2. Movable metal type
3. Johannes Gutenburg
4. Development of expanding lay reading public
H. The Artistic Renaissance
1. KC: The visual arts incorporated the new ideas of the Renaissance and were used
to promote personal, political and religious goals
2. Imitation of nature; naturalism
3. Art in the Early Renaissance (Florence)
a) Giotto and Masaccio: realistic relationship between figures and
landscape; laws of perspective; three-dimensional
b) Mathematical side of painting: laws of perspective, organization of space
and light by geometry and perspective
c) Investigation of movement and anatomical structure
(1) Idealization, natural depiction of human body
(2) Botticelli
d) Sculpture and architecture
(1) Donatello “David”
(2) Brunelleschi: drew much of inspiration from architectural
monuments of Roman antiquity ( domes & arches)
(a) Duomo
(b) San Lorenzo: classical columns, rounded arches,
coffered ceiling
e) Portraiture ( influence of humanism and individualism)
4. The Artistic High Renaissance (1480-1520)
a) Scientific observation, individualistic forms
b) Frescos
c) Rome= new cultural center of Italian Renaissance
d) Leonardo da Vinci: experimental, ideal form
(1) The Last Supper: perspective, three-dimensional, volume and
depth, individualized gestures and movement
e) Raphael
(1) School of Athens: balance, harmony, symmetry = principles of
classical world
f) Michelangelo: sculptor, painter, architect
(1) Sistine Chapel: ideal type of human being, perfect proportions,
technical mastery in human anatomy, ideal beauty
(2) David: glorification of human beings
g) Bramante: architecture
(1) Tempietto: Doric columns, dome inspired by antiquity
5. The Artist and Social Status
a) Guilds and apprentices
b) Patrons played an important role in art ( a lot of secular patronage)
(1) Wealthy upper class determined both the content and purpose
of art commissioned
c) Transformation in the status of the artist
(1) Before, Middle Ages: artists viewed as artisans, craftspeople, no
high social status and regard
(2) Artists were praised for their creativity and artistic talent during
the High Renaissance
I.
(3) Rise of social and economic status
6. The Northern Artistic Renaissance
a) Illuminated manuscript and altarpieces
b) Attentive detail, exact portrayal
c) Oil paint: medium that allowed varied range of colors and fine detail
d) Imitate nature no by mastery of laws of perspective and proportion but
by empirical observation of visual reality and accurate portrayal of
detail
e) Devotional art and religious symbolism
f) Jan van Eyck ( Flanders)
g) Albrecht Durer: Northerner influenced by Italian Renaissance
(1) Details + mastery in laws of perspective and proportion, ideal
beauty
The European State in the Renaissance
1. New monarchies, centralized power in France, England and Spain
2. The Growth of the French Monarchy
a) Charles VII
(1) Royal army
(2) Right to levy “taille”, an annual tax on land or property without
approval from Estates-General
b) Louis XI
(1) Secured taille as permanent tax ⇒ regular source of revenue
(2) Repressed French nobility
(a) Charles the Bold
(3) Expand territory
(4) Foundation for strong monarchy
3. England: Civil War and a New Monarch
a) War of Roses: Lancaster(win) vs. York
b) Tudor dynasty
(1) Henry VII: worked to establish strong monarchical government
(a) Abolish nobility to have private armies
(b) Court of Star Chamber to control nobles
(c) Successful in extracting income
(d) Diplomatic relations and avoid costly wars
(2) Prosperous, stable government and more powerful monarch
4. The Unification of Spain
a) Marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon: dynastic union
of two rulers
(1) Worked to strengthen royal control and strong monarchy
(2) Limit power of aristocrats in royal council
(3) Reorganized military forces
(4) Controlled the Catholic Church
(a) Instrument to enforce royal power and discipline
J.
(5) Policy of strict religious uniformity
(a) Inquisition ( 1478)
(b) 1491, Reconquista: reconquest of Muslim Granada and
expelled Jews and Muslims from Spain
5. The Holy Roman Empire: The Success of the Habsburgs
a) Failed to develop monarchical authority
b) Success of the Habsburg due to dynastic marriages
6. The Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern Europe
a) Obstacles in achieving strong, centralized authority: ethnic, religious
diversity
b) Poland: aristocrats gained power
(1) Control of national diet, reduced peasants to serfdom and
establish right to elect kings
c) Russia: Ivan III
d) Hungary: Matthias Corvinus
7. The Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine Empire
a) Ottomans conquered Byzantine Empire and continued expansionist
campaigns towards the Balkans, threat to Europe
b) Battle of Kosovo ( 1389): Ottoman forces defeated Serbs
The Church in the Renaissance
1. Council of Constance ended the Great Schism (1417)
2. The Problems of Heresy and Reform
a) Wyclif and Lollardy
(1) Disgust with clerical corruption; challenge medieval Christian
beliefs and practices
(a) Veneration of saints, rituals
(2) Bible should be Christian’s sole authority
(3) Vernacular language so that every Christian can read
(4) Followers= Lollards
b) John Hus and Hussites: call for reform; condemn corruption in clergy
(1) Burned at the stake triggered Hussite wars and further unrest in
Bohemia
c) Reform of the Church
(1) Unsuccessful because popes had strong power and did not
cooperate in Conciliar Movement (final authority in spiritual
matters resided with the Church , not with the Pope.)
(a) Sacrosancta: council received authority from God,
church > pope
(b) Frequens: regular holdings of general council to ensure
church reform
(2) Popes reasserted supremacy over Catholic Church
3. The Renaissance Papacy
II.
a) Time frame: end of Great Schism ( 1417) to the beginning of
Reformation (early 16th century)
b) Declining moral leadership of the popes/ corruption
c) Julius II: involved in war and politics “warrior pope” overshadow
spiritual responsibilities
d) Nepotism: the appointment of family members to important, powerful
positions in church office
(1) Pope Sixtus IV
(2) Alexander VI
e) Popes were great patrons of Renaissance culture
(1) Julius II- Michelangelo
(2) Leo X
K. Renaissance Ideal:
1. humanism : Strong belief in individualism and the great potential of human
beings (in contrast to the Middle Ages where humans were seen as small,
wicked and inconsequential and should focus solely on earning salvation)
2. Virtú: “the quality of being a man”; idea of excelling in all of one’s pursuits
3. Castiglione: Renaissance man, including physical and intellectual abilities
Reformation
A. Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a unified Europe.
B. The Protestant and Catholic Reformations fundamentally changed theology, religious
institutions, and culture.
C. Christian humanism, embodied in the writings of Erasmus, employed Renaissance
learning in the service of religious reform (Sir Thomas More, Juan Luis Vives).
D. Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin, as well as religious radicals such as the
Anabaptists, criticized Catholic abuses and established new interpretations of Christian
doctrine and practice (indulgences, nepotism, simony, pluralism and absenteeism)
E. The Catholic Reformation, exemplified by the Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent,
revived the church but cemented the division within Christianity (St. Theresa of Avila,
Ursulines, Roman Inquisition, Index of Prohibited Books).
F. Religious reform both increased state control of religious institutions and provided
justifications for challenging state authority.
G. Monarchs and princes, such as the English rulers Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, initiated
religious reform from the top down ("magisterial") in an effort to exercise greater control
over religious life and morality (Spanish Inquisition, Concordat of Bologna (1516), Book
of Common Prayer, Peace of Augsburg).
H. Some Protestants, including Calvin and the Anabaptists, refused to recognize the
subordination of the church to the state.
I. Religious conflicts became a basis for challenging the monarchs' control of religious
institutions (Huguenots, Puritans, nobles in Poland).
J. Conflicts among religious groups overlapped with political and economic competition
within and among states. ( Thirty Years’ War)
K. Issues of religious reform exacerbated conflicts between the monarchy and the
nobility, as in the French Wars of Religion (Catherine de’ Medici, St. Bartholomew’s Day
Massacre, War of the Three Henries, Henry IV).
L. The efforts of Habsburg rulers failed to restore Catholic unity across Europe (Charles I/V,
Philip II, Philip III, Philip IV).
M. States exploited religious conflicts to promote political and economic interests (Catholic
Spain and Protestant England, France, Sweden, and Denmark in the Thirty Years’ War)
N. A few states, such as France with the Edict of Nantes, allowed religious pluralism in order
to maintain domestic peace (Poland, the Netherlands).
O. Causes of the Reformation
1. Corruption in the Catholic Church
a) Pluralism: an official holding more than one office at a time
b) Absenteeism: an official not official holding more than one office at a
time
c) Sale of indulgences: people paying money to the Church to absolve their
sins and reduce one’s time in purgatory
d) Nepotism: favoring family members in the appointment of Church
offices
e) Greed, preoccupied with accumulating wealth
2. Growing power of new monarchs ( increase state power over church)
3. Changes in religious beliefs, institutions, and culture
a) Lay piety
b) Christian ( northern) humanism (product of the Renaissance) :
cultivated a knowledge of classics focused on sources of early
Christianity, the Holy Scripture
(1) Reform program: optimism in human progress and potential,
Classical education would bring reform in the church
(2) Based on re-examination of classical texts: new testaments,
rediscovery and re study of classical texts, and reflection of
individualism and rejection of church authority, celebration of
the individual
(3) Translate bible into the vernacular, so that everybody else can
read it for themselves
(a) John Calvin (France)
(b) Wilclif(England)
(c) Luther( Germany)
(4) Early Christian humanists: reform within the church, not a split
with it
(a) Erasmus: reject dogmatic beliefs and church practices,
emphasize inner-piety and de-emphasize the role of
good works ( sacraments, veneration of saints, relics,
pilgrimage), interpretation of Scripture
(i)
Edited the New Testament and re-published it
with Latin translation
(ii)
The Praise of Folly: criticism of corruptions in
society
(b) Thomas More: Utopia, idealistic life based on
communal ownership, criticism of problems in
economy and society
P. Martin Luther(Germany) : revolutionary for the church, so ends up being
excommunicated, reflects Renaissance way of thinking
1. Justification by faith and the Bible as the sole authority in religious affairs were
the pillars of Protestant Reformation
2. Priesthood of the believer: individuals can go directly to god through Jesus,
individuals have direct access to God, rejected that there is an intermediary
a) Reject sacraments and hierarchical authority of the clergy and pope
3. Sola Scriptura: authority is in the Bible, Bible is the chief guide to religious truth
a) Contrast to Medieval: authority is in the Scripture and how the clergy
interprets it
(1) Selling of indulgences
(2) Corruption
(3) Pilgrimage
4. Sola Fiedla: get grace and salvation by faith
a) starting point, everybody are sinners,
b) Contrast to Medieval: grace by faith and good works
(1) Denied the doctrine of transubstantiation, which taught that the
substance of the bread and wine consumed miraculously
transformed into the body and blood of Jesus
(2) Reject all 7 sacraments instead of the Last Supper and baptism
Q. The Spread of Lutheranism in Germany
1. Ninety-Five Theses
2. The important role of printing press and vernacular literature ( though only 4-5
percent of Germans were literate )
a) German translation of New Testament had sold almost 200,000 copies
and spread rapidly
b) Pamphlets
3. Sermon, evangelical preaching
4. Depended on the support of German state authorities/princes for the growth
and maintenance of his reformed church
a) State-dominated churches where state supervised and disciplined
church members
R. The Peasants’ War
1. Cause: poverty, abuses from local lords, new demands for taxes and services
generated social(class) and economic discontent
2. More radical demand for change
3. Demand to crush the revolt because he believed that the state and its rulers
were ordained by God and given the authority to maintain peace and order
S. Political consequences of Protestantism
1. England: English Reformation
a) Henry VIII wanted divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon but Pope
Clement VII failed to get annulment
b) Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell advised the king to obtain an
annulment of his marriage in England’s own ecclesiastical courts,
legislation that abolished papal authority in England
c) Henry broke away from the Catholic Church and formed the Church of
England ( Anglican Church)
(1) Act of Supremacy made the king official head of church
(2) Catholic lands were confiscated and he sold them to nobles to
gain loyalty and support
d) Pilgrimage of Grace: multi-class rebellion opposing to English
Reformation, still presence of Catholic faith, view Protestantism as
destruction and anarchy
e) Statue of the Six Articles: administrative reformation but not religious
reformation because the Catholic doctrine, theology, and ceremony
still remained
f) Edward VI :regents governed on behalf of him were strongly Protestant
so changes in doctrine and practices
(1) Clergy could marry, iconoclast, communion of laity
(2) Salvation by faith, denial of transubstantiation, only two
sacraments
(3) Book of Prayers
g) Mary Tudor: tried to reimpose Catholicism
(1) Marian exiles: protestants fled England fearing persecution
(2) Bloody Mary: 300 people executed
(3) As a reaction towards her violence, unfavorable alliance with
Spain and marriage with Philip II, England became more
Protestant and viewed it as a resistance to Spanish interference
h) Elizabethan Settlement: Elizabeth I and Parliament required conformity
to the Church of England but people were allowed to worship
Protestantism and Catholicism privately (tolerance and common ground
of both religions to end the instability and religious conflict)
(1) Religious and foreign based on moderation and compromise
(2) Politique
(3) Thirty-Nine Articles: defined theological issues midway between
Lutheranism and Calvinism
(4) Avoid major war, only minor piracy and aid to French Huguenots
and Dutch Calvinists
2. Germany
a) German states converted to Lutheranism
(1) gives political rulers the foundation to consolidate power over
the church, insubordinate to the Pope (state-run churches)
(2) Many German princes in north ( South remained Catholic) were
politically motivated: they could now escape the authority of
the Catholic Church and confiscate church lands for the state’s
benefit
b) Emperor Charles V: sought to stop Protestantism, preserve unity of
Catholic faith and maintain strong control over his empire
(1) Problems/failures
(a) Hapsburg Valois Wars
(i)
His preoccupation with the war prevented him
from concentrating on spread of Lutheranism
(ii)
No papal cooperation with pope in France due
to political considerations
(b) Ottoman Empire: overrun Constantinople and took large
control of southeastern Europe
(c) Internal political division in HRE
(i)
Schmalkaldic League: defensive alliance formed
by Protestant states; response to Diet of
Augsburg that demanded Lutherans to return to
the Catholic Church ( 1530)
(ii)
Religion dividing the empire
(2) Schmalkaldic Wars ( 1546-1547): Charles V vs. Schmalkaldic
League
(a) Peace of Augsburg ( 1555): recognized Lutheranism and
thus acknowledged the division in Christianity,the right
of each German ruler to determine the religion of his
subjects; signify official end to medieval Christian unity
T. Lutheranism in Scandinavia (Denmark and Sweden): Scandinavian monarchs had been
the dominant force in establishing state-run churches
U. Zwinglian Reformation ( Switzerland): Zurich
1. State (city council) to supervise the church: new liturgy consisting of Scripture,
sermons, prayer replaced Mass/ pope celibacy, veneration of saints, pilgrims,
pope authority were all abolished
2. Disagreement with Luther over transubstantiation led to failure in establishing
an alliance between Swiss and German reformed churches at the Marburg
Colloquy ( 1529)
a) Zwingli: sacraments are just symbols
b) Luther: real presence of the body and blood of Christ
3. Zwingli died in Swiss civil war of 1531 against Catholic cantons
V. Radical Reformation: Anabaptists
1. Adult baptism;when you choose to convert, then you choose to get baptised
2. lower-class, against economic inequities, socially radical
a) Synthesis: Levelers in England
3. Pacifist: against war, when war erupts and everyone is pacifist lack of
motivation, will to fight, soldiers
a) Mennonites ( Menno Simons): descendents, rejuvenated Dutch
Anabaptism
4. They were severely persecuted and were viewed as a threat to society
5. Munster: place of Anabaptist uprising, led to legal recognition for the
Anabaptists; known as the haven
a) John of Leiden
W. Calvinism (French) :
1. Predestination: God already knows the elect and damned (reprobate) and
humans can’t control their destiny; economic success, a moralistic life, and
baptism & communion are indications of salvation
2. Logical foundation for his belief is absolute sovereignty of God: starting point
is God’s sovereignty, God has all the power
3. Protestant work ethic: importance of hard work and accompanying financial
success as a sign of salvation
4. Theocracy in Geneva: center of Reformation
a) Home to Protestant exiles from England, Scotland, France who later
returned to their countries with Calvinist ideas
b) Consistory: special body for enforcing moral discipline
5. Spread of Calvinism: greater impact on the future than Lutheranism
a) Puritans ( England): dissenters and Church of England,persecuted,
wanted to purify and reform the church they thought was still so
Catholic; later establish colonies in New England in US
b) Huguenots ( French Calvinists): esp. nobility
c) Dutch Reformed Church
d) Presbyterianism ( Scotland, John Knox)
X. The Social Impact of the Protestant Reformation
1. Family became the center of human life with more affectionate marriage
2. Retained traditional gender roles with men being dominant authority over
obedient women whose primary role was to bear children
a) Calvin believed subjugation of women to preserve social order
3. Because monasticism was destroyed, there was no other social avenue for
women but to get married and have children, less independence and freedom;
lost opportunities in religious service
4. Women and men as spiritual equals but different expectations and unequal
conditions; reduce role of women in religious affairs and society in general
a) Emphasis on reading the Bible improved women’s literacy and education
Y. Education in Reformation: humanist methods in Protestant secondary schools and
universities aimed at a much wider audience so more people can read the bible
Z. The Catholic Reformation: revival of the Catholic Church with new reforms
1. Counter- Reformation: reaction against the Protestant movement
2. Catholic Reformation: elements of reform were already present in the Catholic
Church
3. Mysticism: Teresa of Avila
4. Regeneration of religious orders: Franciscans, Ursulines, Jesuits
a) Jesuits ( Spain): founded by Ignatius of Loyola
(1) Obedience to papacy, strict hierarchical order, education,
militaristic
(2) Established disciplined schools, propagation of Catholic faith
among non-Christians ( missionary), fight Protestantism
5. Pope Paul III: appoint reform commision to study condition of church, but failed
effort to compromise with Protestantism
6. The Council of Trent: established Catholic dogma
a) Maintain Catholic doctrine
b) Index of Forbidden Books: banned books critical of the Catholic Church
c) Reforms: curtailed sales of indulgences and church offices, seminaries to
train priests, bishops given greater control
d) Moderate Catholics hope to make compromise with Protestants to
retain Christian unity
e) Conservatives: uncompromising, affirm Catholic traditions
AA. Politics and the Wars of Religion in the 16th century
1. The French Wars of Religion ( 1562-1598): Valois (Catholic) vs. Bourbon
(Calvinist) vs. Guise ( ultra-Catholic); feudal disorder, compete for the throne
(political and religious motivations)
a) Huguenots: attracted people from all levels of society, esp. Nobles;
conversion of so many nobles posed a dangerous political threat to the
monarchical power
b) Opposite of politiques
c) Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre
d) War of Three Henrys
e) Henry of Navarre(politique- sought practical political solutions rather
than ideological ones) claimed the throne but converted to
Catholicism to gain support in France (1594)
f) Edict of Nantes ( 1598): acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion
of France but guaranteed the Huguenots the right to worship in selected
places and have fortified towns for protection
2. Philip II and Militant Catholicism
a) Strict conformity to Catholicism enforced by Inquisition and strong
monarchical authority to maintain his vast empire
b) Gold and silver from New World did fuel prosperity but inflation and
expenses of war damaged the economy
3. Revolt in Netherlands (Spanish territory)
a) William I ( William of Orange): led 17 provinces against the Spanish
Inquisition, Philip sought to crush the rise of Calvinism in the
Netherlands
b) United Provinces of the Netherlands/ Dutch Republic (1581) : received
aid from Elizabeth I in England
c) Spanish Netherlands: 10 southern provinces remained under Spain’s
control
d) Netherlands had become prosperous through commerce and trade,
Amsterdam as Europe’s main commercial center
4. Spain (Philip II) vs. England (Elizabeth I )
a) Philip sought revenge for England’s support for the Dutch and to make
England Catholic again
b) Spanish Armada (1588): Spain’s attempt to invade England resulted in
a disaster
(1) Result: rise of England as a world naval power, turning point
towards Spain’s decline
KC 1.4: Europeans explored and settled overseas territories, encountering and interacting with
indigenous populations.
I.
European nations were driven by commercial and religious motives to explore overseas
territories and establish colonies.
A. Renaissance & age of exploration= focus on human as opposed to religion, mutually
reinforcing, observation, cultural relativism: different perspective less Euro-centric as
exposed to different cultures and religion in the world, broader view of the world feeds
humanism by downplaying the role of Christian European religion
Advances in navigation, cartography, and military technology allowed Europeans to establish
II.
overseas colonies and empires ( Prince Henry the Navigator established navigations schools,
experimentation in navigation technologies allowed Portugal to pioneer the age of expansion,
establishing trading posts)
Europeans established overseas empires and trade networks through coercion and negotiation
III.
IV.
Europe’s colonial expansion led to a global exchange of goods, flora, fauna, cultural practices,
and diseases, resulting in the destruction of some indigenous civilizations, a shift toward
European dominance, and the expansion of the slave trade. ( Columbian Exchange)
KC 1.5: European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial
and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the persistence of medieval social and economic
structures.
I.
Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of hierarchy and status
persisted.
a. Innovation of banking and financing led to growth in companies and finance, new
merchant social class, generates and creates wealth British and Dutch India Company
invested in voyages, joint-stock companies
B. Creation of wealth impart be on exploitation of labor ( NA labor and slave labor) fuel
wealth
C. Markets and demands for goods ( sugar=dominant)
KC 2.2: The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic
network.
I.
Early modern Europe developed a market economy that provided the foundation for its global
role.
A. Mercantilism supported the development European trade and influenced the world
IV. Age of Expansion
A. Motives for Expansion
a. Economic motives: direct access to trade in East ( inland trade blocked by Muslim
middlemen); gold and precious metals
b. Religion: missionary zeal to spread Christianity
c. Glory: fascination to unknown lands;national glory
B. Means for Expansion
a. Wealth and power of strong monarchies allowed to fund expansive voyages
b. Technological developments
i.
Maps
ii.
Navigational techniques and better ships
1. Axial rudder: allow long-distance travel & carrying substantial amount of
goods and weapons
C. Portuguese Empire: lead in European expansion by exploring the western coast of Africa under
sponsorship of Prince Henry the Navigator
a. Reach East/India by circling Africa
b. Motives: gold and trade
c. Cape of good Hope
d. India:search of new spices
i.
Vasco da Gama
ii.
Destroy Arab shipping and establish monopoly in spice trade
iii.
By seizing Malacca( major Arab shipping port), Portuguese weakened Arab
control of spices and obtained major port route
e. Successful because superiority in naval and military tech.
D. Columbian Exchange: exchange of new plants, animals, crops, and diseases,religion, values
between New World and Europe
E. Spanish Empire: westward across the Atlantic into the New World in Western Hemisphere,
South America, massively funded by the state
a. Christopher Columbus: want to reach the East/India from the West; thought possible
because he underestimated the circumference of the world
b. Treaty of Tordesillas: divided up SA into Portuguese and Spanish spheres; while Portugal
had Brazil, Spain would have the rest
c. Civilization in Mesoamerica already flourishing and established
i.
Maya: sophisticated civilizations, elaborate temples, calendar
ii.
Aztec: sophisticated civilization with extensive irrigation systems with rich
culture and religion; lack of centralized power, political organization composed
of semi-independent territories with local rules contribute to the downfall
1. Capital: tenochtitlan
2. Cortes conquers the Aztecs with the alliance with city-states that were
tired of the oppressive rule of the Aztecs
3. Population of Aztecs dramatically decimates due to smallpox that they
have not developed immunity to
iii.
Inca (Southern Peru): highly centralized state with Cuzco as the capital; build
major roadways
1. Francisco Pizarro took lead in conquering the Inca Empire
2. Population already succumbed due to epidemic of smallpox that
Europeans brought in with them
3. Internal political strife/ civil war facilitated conquest
d. Administration of the Spanish Empire: exploitation and enslavement
i.
Encomienda: system that allowed the Spanish to impose forced labor on the
Indians
1. Mita: system that allowed Spanish authorities to draft native labor in
silver mines
ii.
A lot of Spanish settlers used brutal methods to exploit labor which drew
criticism
1. Las Casas: dominican friar
a. Result: government abolished the encomienda system and
provided more protection, still limited though
iii.
Exploitation, enslavement and disease were detrimental to Native American
population
iv.
Strong imperial presence in the administrative system as viceroys ( chief civil and
military officer) and audiences( served as supreme judicial bodies) were all
appointed
1. Also, Catholic monarchs of Spain were given rights over ecclesiastical
affairs in the New World, can appoint bishops, clergy, build churches,
collect fees etc.
Mass conversion of Indians: organizational and institutional structure of
v.
Catholicism introduced in the New World
1. Cathedrals, schools, hospitals
vi.
Active cultural exchange and inter-mixing communities: mestizo and new
social caste system
e. Disease in the New World: because the Indians did not have natural resistance to
European diseases, they were drastically affected by smallpox(contagious) and other
diseases that spread throughout the region
Resulting in huge epidemic and drastic decrease in population ( 30-40% of local
i.
population died)
ii.
Shortage of workers led them to shift to African slaves for labor needed in
silver mines and plantations → accelerate slave trade
F. New Rivals on the World State: 17c. Dutch, French, and English create their own colonial
empires and spread their influence
a. Dutch took much control of the Portuguese trade across the Indian Ocean and seized
ports along West African coast
Dutch East India Company: trading company, set up settlement in southern
i.
Africa and Cape of Good Hope to serve as trade base
ii.
Boers settling outside city of Cape town
iii.
Many Africans on the coast were shipped to plantations in the New World
b. Origins of the slave trade :slavery already had existed in smaller scales, but the
emergence of sugar plantation economies in the New World accelerated the slave
trade to an unprecedented scale due to increased demand for labor unsupplemented
by the declining Native American population
c. Triangular trade: connecting Europe, Africa, and American colonies/West Indies that
characterized new Atlantic economy
i.
Europe exported manufactured goods to Africa and New World while consuming
raw materials from Americas
ii.
Africa exported slaves to the Americas and consumed guns, ivory from Europe
iii.
Americas exported raw materials, timber, fish and consumed slaves from Africa
and manufactured goods from Europe
d. Effects of slave trade
Slave trade disrupted the well being of African societies: local rulers, viewing
i.
the trade as active source of income, engaged in conflicts with surrounding
African communities to look for slave supply; slave trade expanded to the
interior as demand increased
1. African tribes were more concerned with internal rivalries
2. Increased warfare and violence within African communities
ii.
Cheap manufactured goods undermined local industries that could not
compete with cheap price
iii.
Late 18thc, slavery drew criticism in Europe for humanitarian reasons and was
on its way to decline and abolition but continued in US until Civil War
G. The West in Southeast Asia
a. Portuguese lack the wealth and power to largely colonize Asian region → cede power to
new European forces
b. Spain: Mexico, Philippines
c. Dutch: pushed Portugese out and dominated spice trade/ African trade; consolidated
control over trade
d. Arrival of Europeans had small impact to the mainland of Southeast Asia because
strong, centralized monarchs had more power to resist, distinct political entities
H. The French and British in India: India was divided into a number of different kingdoms, with
rampant internal conflict and lacking centralized power; allow the Europeans to dominate with
ease
a. Mughal Empire
b. Impact of Western powers
i.
Portuguese first arrived in India: dominated regional trade in Indian Ocean but
by the end of the 16c. Ceded power to the English and Dutch
ii.
English successfully took control of trade and established trading posts in the
India but soon competition with Dutch and mainly France
1. Sir Robert Clive: led GB force and defeated Mughal army in the Battle of
Plassey; East India Company received stronger authority of India and
Bengal
2. French spheres of influence declined as French support for efforts in
India diminished, allowed GB to consolidate more power
3. Authority Indian subcontinent to East Indian Company → crown
colony
I. China: reluctant toward European presence
a. Ming Dynasty ( 1369-1644)
b. Qing Dynasty: peace and prosperity
i.
Internal conflicts within China provided opportunities for European countries to
coerce China to allow more active trade
ii.
By end of 17c. English became dominant force of European trade
1. Before: trading post in Canton, export silk and tea to GB, with limited
contact
2. GB traders demanded access to other cities and insisted that country
open to GB manufactured goods, but Emperor Qianlong expressed no
interest
J. Japan: central authority under shogunate ( Tokugawa Ieyasu); unified political entity
a. Success of Catholic missionaries provoked strong reaction against the presence of
Westerners
i.
Expelled missionaries and closed foreign trading posts
ii.
Fear that Europeans would interfere in politics and take over, cautious and
wary
K. Americas : GB, FR, N challenge S and P
a. West Indies: plantation economies worked by African slaves, producing tobacco, cotton,
coffee and sugar(main) that had high demand in Europe
b. British North America
i.
Dutch: New Netherlands, Henry Hudson
1. Anglo-Dutch Wars: England seized New England and renamed it New
York; Dutch West India Company went bankrupt
ii.
English colonies
1. Jamestown/Chesapeake: tobacco economy soon flourish
2. New England: Massachusetts Bay Company, Puritans more motivated by
religious and economic desires
c. French and North America: Quebec, Mississippi River; vast tradings ports, fur traders
d. GB and F rivalry
L. Impact of European Expansion: S + P → D → GB + F → GB
a. Conquered
Natives: viewed as barbaric savages, loss of population, traditional
i.
structures/cultures replaced by European institutions
ii.
Slaves: disrupt African communities, population/work force loss
iii.
India heavily affected by GB encroachment
iv.
China/Japan little affected
b. Latin America: inter-mixing, multiracial, diverse community
i.
Mestizos and mulattos composed of new social class
c. European horses and cattle revolutionized the life of Indians, leading to cattle farming
i.
New crops such as wheat and sugar cultivated
d. Catholic Missionaries: converted lots of Indians
KC 1.2: The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying degrees of political
centralization
I.
The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played a central role in the
creation of new political institutions
II.
The competitive state system led to new patterns of diplomacy and new forms of warfare
III.
The competition for power between monarchs and nobles produced different distributions of
governmental authority in European states.
(English Glorious Revolution, Poland, Russia/Prussia)
KC 1.3: Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a unified Europe
I.
II.
Religious reform both increased state control of religious institutions and provided justifications
for challenging state authority. ( Thirty Years War outcome of the failures of the Peace of
Augsburg)
Conflicts among religious groups overlapped with political and economic competition within and
among states. (Thirty Years War and the Glorious Revolution/ English Civil War)
KC 1.5: European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial
and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the persistence of medieval social and economic structures.
I.
Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of hierarchy and status
persisted. ( Dutch( new class of urban merchants that also had influence in the government,
oligarchy) , France ( mercantilism, active commercial exchange but social hierarchy remained )
II.
Population shifts and growing commerce caused expansion of cities, which often found their
traditional political and social structures stressed by growth. ( rise of Amsterdam as the trading
pub, banking, commercial center politically controlled by oligarchy of commercial elites)
III. State Building and the Search for Order in the Seventeenth Century
A. Witchcraft craze: trials held in regions in Europe and New England that deemed witchcraft as
heretical act and executed/tortured/trialed women accused as witches
a. Causes:
i.
responses to social and economic hardships of war
ii.
changing dynamics within the economy that undermined community values
iii.
War, famine, plague, mini ice age
Religious turmoil and disunity with emergence of Protestantism created
iv.
spiritual uncertainty/ Inquisition, peak during 16th and 17th century
v.
Desire for explanation of such turbulence in society and economy
vi.
Fear
b. Witchcraft was an intrinsic part of rural village culture for centuries; simply intensified
during this period
c. Decline during the second half of 16th c. after destruction caused by religious fanaticism
and warfare and stabilization of government, prompt the rise of Scientific
Revolution/Rationality as a reaction
B. Thirty Year’s War ( 1618-1648) : religious war intertwined with political/dynastic motives
between HRE, France, and Spain in the Germanic lands of the HRE
a. Cause:
Futility of the Peace of Augsburg ( 1555): resolved conflicts between Protestants
i.
and Catholics but did not recognize the rights of Calvinists
Tensions between Protestants Germanic principalities that had gained more
ii.
autonomy and political drive from the POA and the Catholic HRE that still
wanted to impose authority
1. Political aspect: German Protestant states desired political sovereignty
instead of under complete control of the HRE Hapsburgs emperors
attempted to consolidate power within the empire
b. Formation of divided leagues intensified conflict
i.
Protestant Union: coalition of German states headed by Calvinist ruler Frederick
IV
ii.
Catholic League of German States headed by Duke Maximilian
c. Hapsburg seek allies with Spain while German princes turned to France: such diplomatic
relation reflects how secular competitive tensions between different centralized states
drove the different phases of the war
d. Bohemian Phase ( 1618-1625): war between the Protestant Union ( Frederick IV) and
the Catholic League ( Ferdinand ) and Spanish troops; protestants are defeated
i.
Cause
1. Short-term:
a. Defenestration of Prague: two HRE officials are thrown from
their window in royal castle as a statement of rebellion against
the emperor; elect Frederick IV as new emperor
2. Long-term: conflict between Protestants Bohemian nobles against HRE
Ferdinand Habsburg who attempted to convert the mostly Calvinist
province to Catholicism
Result: Protestants lose; land of protestant nobles are confiscated and invasion
ii.
of Bavaria and Bohemia opened new advantageous trade routes for Spain (
economic motives)
e. Danish Phase ( 1625-1629): Christian IV of Denmark intervened for the Protestant Union
and led an army into Northern Germany (alliance with England as well)
i.
Cause: interplay between religious and political motivation ( also hoped to
gained land and strengthen dynastic power)
Wallenstein was the leader of the imperial forces
ii.
iii.
Result: Protestant forces defeated by the Catholic League
1. Edict of Restitution(1629): restored all protestant land to the Catholic
Church, causing a surge of fear as princes were worried about losing
their autonomy
f. Swedish Phase ( 1630-1635): King of Sweden enters the war as ally of Protestant Union,
conquering northern Germany and moving towards the center of the area
i.
Battle of Lutzen: death of Swedish king but victory of Protestants
1. Turning point where Swedish power begins to diminish
ii.
Result: Catholic forces seized Southern Germany and Ferdinand II annulled the
Edict of Restitution to pacify the German princes
g. Franco-Swedish Phase ( 1635-1648): Catholic French supported the Protestant Swedes
against the Catholic Hapsburgs of the HRE and Spain
i.
Significance: period where dynastic issues completely dictated the course of
combat, example of the concept of realpolitik where dynastic interests comes
before ideological/religious
ii.
Result: Treaty of Westphalia ( 1648)
1. Spain loses power
2. All German states gain the power to determine their own religion (
mark total end of religious unity in Europe)
3. Dissolving power of the HRE leads to emergence of new monarchs (
Prussia, Austria, Russia)
4. France emerges as a major power
5. Religion and politics were separated as the Pope was excluded from
the formation of the treaty and dynastic interest came to the forefront
of foreign politics/diplomacy
C. Absolutism: sovereign power was entirely included in the hands of a king who derived his
complete power from divine right,central ideological foundation for power dynamics
a. Bossuet: argued for necessity of divine rule to establish social order
b. France: Louis XIV
Cardinal Richelieu initiated policies to strengthen the monarchy
i.
1. Religious uniformity: restricted the political rights of Huguenots
2. Restrict the power of landed nobles who were viewed as potential
challenges towards centralized monarchical power
3. Intendants to execute royal decree in distant provinces and more
efficiently collect taxes, strengthen control over provincial governors
4. Taille: tax on land and property
ii.
Cardinal Mazarin
1. Took on huge debt that accumulated due to the costly 30 year’s war (
ominous economic climate)
2. Fronde : revolt of the nobles who resented the increase in central
political power and allied with the Parliament to oppose taxes and
absolutist governing
a. First ( 1648-1649), Second ( 1650)
Louis XIV ( 1661): sun King, intensified efforts towards
iii.
centralization/absolutism
1. Brought government to Versaille to direct policy making
2. Intentionally isolated landed nobles and princes from center of policy
making ( Paris) and instead preoccupied them with courtly manners
and obtaining his attention and favor
3. Constructing a permanent system of indebtment
4. Edict of Fontainebleau (1685): revoked the Edict of Nantes and
persecuted Protestants (destroyed schools, rejection of legal rights and
public positions)
5. But depleted the treasury due to numerous/bold/costly wars
iv.
Colbert: mercantilist system that focused on government controlled
production of luxury goods
1. Rose tariffs( protective policies, exports > imports)
2. Infrastructure
3. Increased taxes ( later peasant unrest)
c. Spain: period of decline during 17th c. (marked by Armada)
i.
Attempted revitalization ( curtailing power of CC and domestic reform) but costly
Thirty Year’s war led to worse economic status
d. Prussia: Frederick the Great
i.
Efficient army was the main governing force (militant characteristic)
Junkers were nobles who often filled high ranks of the army
ii.
iii.
In order to prevent conflict and reconcile with the nobles, FG exempted them
from taxes, reinforced serfdom ( control over peasants), and bestowed them to
highest ranks in army
e. Austria: Leopold I won victories against Ottomans, shift towards East ( partly due to loss
of German territory during 30 Years War)
i.
Lack centralized monarchy and remained governed by aristocracy
f.
Russia: focus on military prowess
i.
Ivan IV: expand territory and crush power of Boyars ( Russian nobility),
strengthening position of Tsar
1. His death marked a anarchical period called the time of troubles
2. Michael Romanov as new Tsar: period of stability and dynastic control
ii.
Stratified society relying on serfdom
Peter the Great: sought to westernize Russia and connect with the
iii.
modernization of Western Europe; attracted by the trend of centralization;
compelled by dynamism and expansion in the West
1. Conscripted peasants to expand the army
2. Nobles served either in the army or a civic position
3. Table of Ranks: allowed non-nobles to rise in position through actions
of merit; sense of indebtedness;created a more loyal class of nobles in
power that ultimately expanded the power of the state
4. Adopted mercantilist policy but fell back on raising taxes →
disatisfaction of peasants
5. State control of the Russian Orthodox
6. Strict code of western etiquette into court ( cut of beards)
7. Acquisition of territory in Sweden: strengthen his empire
g. Denmark: Christian IV, conflict between nobles and monarchy inhibited state from
gaining much land or governing effectively
h. Sweden: domestic upheavals and king killed in battle, led to the nobles to control the
government
i. Polish: weak and decentralized
i.
Sejm: collection of nobles who formed an imperial diet where landowners
dominated political affairs
ii.
Libertum Veto ( 1652): It was a form of unanimity voting rule that allowed any
member of the Sejm (legislature) to force an immediate end to the current
session and to nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session
by shouting → degradation of Poland’s government
j. Dutch Republic: center of commerce and trade during 17th c. accompanied by
emergence of new social structure that impacted family life
i.
Conflict between House of Orange and decentralized republic
ii.
William III ( 1672) created centralized monarchy within the United Dutch
Provinces
iii.
Republican forces gained control after his death
iv.
Economic prosperity of Dutch ended after series of costly wars leading to
economic decline 1715
v.
Amsterdam: major hub of trade activity in the 17c.
1. Major banking system ( Bank of Amsterdam)
2. Society governed by oligarchy of wealthy manufacturers/ commercial
elites known as Burghers
vi.
Calvinist background: simple, humble lifestyle but became increasingly secular
and extravagant
k. England
English Civil War (1642-1651): war between Charles I and Parliament
i.
1. Background: James I took power claiming divine right, attempting to
establish strong monarchy, but this alienated the Parliament that
wanted more power
a. Parliament used power on finance to exert influence, not giving
requested finance
b. Much of Parliament and English gentry were
Puritan/Presbyterian who did not like the Anglican church that
favored the monarchy ( authority resided in Bishops)
2. Cause:
a. Charles I was forced to accept the Petition of Rights which
prohibited taxation without parliamentary support, arbitrary
imprisonment, the quartering of soldiers in private houses, and
declaration of martial law
b. Charles I violated petition, ceased all meetings of parliament in
1629, exacerbating conflicts between middle class and nobles
c. Ship tax: stress on middle class families
d. Catholic affiliation
3. New Model army was comprised by radical Puritans led by Oliver
Cromwell
a. Presbyterian majority of parliament desired the reinstatement
of Charles I with a Presbyterian state
4. Commonwealth under Cromwell
a. Internal opposition
Levellers who wanted more social reform with
i.
democratic system of government, religious tolerance,
gender equality
Presbyterian faction within the Parliament who tended
ii.
to be more moderate → dissolved
b. More radical direction as it resorted to arbitrary military rule to
maintain power
5. Charles II
a. Following Cromwell’s death, Parliament restored power
b. Sympathetic to Catholics, Declaration of Indulgences ( 1672)
that allowed degree of tolerance to Catholics and Puritans
c. Whigs: establishment of Protestant king instead
d. Tories: support James II
6. Fear of Catholic succession prompted Glorious Revolution
Glorious Revolution (1688-1689): parliament sought to maintain power and
ii.
religious control by inviting William of Orange invade and rule
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
1. Bill of Rights: secured inherent rights of British citizens; generated belief
that liberty and individual rights were a key component of British
identity
2. Balance of power between king and Parliament: Parliamentary control
to levy taxes and raise a standing army
3. Repudiate idea of divine right
4. Example of secular forces and religious currents mixing to shape
government
Outgrowth of the Glorious Revolution:legacy of Enlightenment
1. Hobbes: absolute control on behalf of the government was necessary to
maintain stability
2. Locke: against absolute sovereignty; believed that people are endowed
with inalienable rights, and the government should be restricted to
protect such rights
a. Right to rebel if failed to protect rights ( tyranny/oppression)
Mannerism: rejection of realism, intense emotion, asymmetric,stylized
1. Ex. El Greco
Baroque Period: Catholic Reformation, religious fervor and ideals, celebrate
spirituality, colossal expression of might full of intensity and movement;
theatricality
1. Ex. Rubens, bernini, Gentileschi
Dutch Realism: interest of upper class Dutch society; realistic capturing and
secular aspects, reveal tension between religious piety and commercial
success/economic prosperity
Drama
1. Shakespeare: cultural elite and lower class, vernacular, representative
figure of the Elizabethan era
V. Scientific Revolution
A. KC 1.1: Based on observation, experimentation, and new forms of mathematics, scientists
challenged the medieval and classical view of the universe, people, and their place in nature
B. However, the belief in alchemy, astrology, and the power of divine and demonic powers
continued to influence people throughout the period ( not secular because most of the
scientific discoveries were meant to exult religion and were understood of providing a more
comprehensive understanding of God and his divine will)
C. Background to the Scientific Revolution
a. Medieval science was centered within a theological framework and reliance on ancient
authorities: natural philosophers but did have interest in science
i.
Aristotle, Galen, Ptolemy
b. Legacy of the Renaissance
i.
With their interest in Classical philosophers, Renaissance humanists spread
beliefs of a larger variety of philosophers that stimulated new scientific thinking
and departure from “unquestioning” faith in a few ancient philosophers
ii.
Imitate nature led to close observation of nature, generating new perspective of
anatomical proportions and mathematics
iii.
Magic
1. Hermetism: world was a living embodiment of divinity, Humans, who
believed that they could use mathematical magic to understand and
dominate the world of nature or employ the powers of nature for
beneficial purposes
2. Continuation of divine interests and magic in the Scientific Revolution
c. Technological innovations and mathematical reasoning: practical rather than
theoretical knowledge
i.
Invention of new instruments/machines: telescope/microscope made new
scientific discoveries possible
ii.
Mathematical view of nature ( revived by classical mathematicians Renaissance)
D. New view of the universe/cosmology ( Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, Newton)
a. Before: cosmological views of Later Middle Ages had been built on Aristotle and Ptolemy
and Christian theology
i.
Geocentric/Ptolemaic conception: finite universe was a series of concentric
spheres with fixed earth at center
1. Imperfect/constantly changing earth with 10 perfect spheres/heavenly
bodies surrounding it under circular movement
2. Beyond the 10th sphere was Heaven
b. Copernicus ( 1473-1543): mathematician focused on observation
Heliocentrism: motionless sun at the center surrounded by eight spheres
i.
revolving around it, while the moon revolved around the earth; the earth itself
was rotating daily
Conservative: adhered to ( continuation) Aristotle’s belief in the existence of
ii.
heavenly spheres moving in circular orbits
Effect: nevertheless radical because it challenged Christian cosmology;
iii.
uncertainty and rejection from Protestants (literal interpretation of Bible);
skepticism towards existing beliefs on astronomy and physics
c. Brahe(1546-1601): using observatories, instruments allowing precise astronomical
observations, he compiled record/data of his observations, which led him to reject
Geocentric conception
d. Kepler (1571-1630):
i.
Close relationship between math and science ( continuation): keen interest in
Hermetic mathematical magic
Using Brahe’s data, created three laws of planetary motion that confirmed and
ii.
modified heliocentric theory
1. Elliptical orbits with sun at one focus of the ellipse
2. Speed of a planet is greater when it is closer to the sun and decreases
as its distance from the sun increases
3. Square of a planet’s period of revolution is proportional to the cube of
its average distance from the sun (= planets with larger orbits revolved
at a slower average velocity than those with smaller orbits)
4. ⇒ rejected idea of uniform circular motion and crystalline spheres
revolving in circular motion both endorsed by Copernicus and Aristotle
iii.
Declining interest in Ptolemaic system as it was disproved by this
e. Galileo ( 1564- 1642): observations using telescope; universe was composed of material
substance similar to that of earth, rather than ethereal or perfect and unchanging
substance ( reject traditional belief)
i.
Inquisition/Catholic Church: condemned Copernicanism as heretical and ordered
Galileo to reject it
1. Seen Copernicanism as a threat to Scripture and Christian cosmology: “
heavens were no longer a spiritual world but a world of matter” seemed
unpious and undermining religious spirituality (uncertainties)
2. Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems:Ptolemaic and Copernican :
Italian, making it accessible to public → alarmed church authorities
3. Inquisition again in 1633 forced to recant errors
ii.
Problems of Motion
1. Aristotle's conception (before): object remained at rest unless a force
was applied against it; if force was constantly exerted, then the object
moved at a constant rate, but if it was removed, then the object stopped
→ incompatible with Copernican system
2. If uniform force was applied to an object, it would move at an
accelerated speed rather than a constant speed
3. Principle of inertia: a body in motion continued in motion forever unless
deflected by an external force; state of uniform motion is just as natural
as state of rest
f. Newton
i.
Invented calculus: the mathematics of calculating rates of change
ii.
Continuation of interest in magic/alchemy/ occult/ hermeticism
Universal law of gravitation: universe was a great machine operating according
iii.
to natural laws; explain all motion in the universe
1. Three laws of motion: every object continues in a state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless deflected by a force, the rate of
change of motion of an object is proportional to the force acting on it, to
every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction
2. Every object in the universe was attracted to every other object with a
force ( gravity) that is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distances
between them
iv.
Significance: mechanistic universe operating according to natural laws in
absolute time, space and motion; world-machine
E. Medicine/Chemistry: meticulous observation and experiments
a. Galen: study on anatomy and diseases used in the Medieval Ages; Greek physician
b. Paracelsus:Human is a small replica of the larger world,Disease is a chemical imbalances
in local organs: we can cure with chemicals of proper dosage.
c. William Harvey: Heart starts the blood circulation, which makes a complete
circulation through arteries and veins
d. Robert Boyle:volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it ; matter is
composed of atoms/ chemical elements ( reject Medieval belief that all matters are
consisted of same components)
e. Antoine Lavoisier:Invented a system of naming elements and fundamental rules of
chemical combination
F. Women and the Scientific Revolution
a. Emphasis on humanist education(classical) open some educational opportunities to few
elite women in the 17c . Women who had brothers and fathers involved in network of
scientists were also exposed to Scientific Revolution.
b. Maria Merian: involvement stemmed from craft tradition, study of entomology
reflected in illustrations that show her exact observation of insects and plants
i.
Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam
c. Maria Winkelmann: stemmed from craft organization of astronomy; family observatory (
trained as apprentices from father or husband)
i.
German astronomer who worked as Gottfried Kirch’s (her husband’s) assistant in
Berlin’s observatory by the Academy of Science
ii.
Position for assistant astronomer at Berlin Academy denied
d. Learned women were considered as those who overcame female liabilities to become
more like men.
i.
Medieval view of women from Men’s POV: sexually insatiable, inherently base,
easily swayed, and prone to vice.
ii.
Unfortunately, Scientific Revolution did not encourage female education, it was
used to provide evidences for Medieval view of women.
iii.
Women lost traditional professional job of midwives
e. Obstacles women faced in being accepted in scientific world, which was considered a
male realm
G. Rationalism/ New View of Humankind
a. Descartes: father of modern rationalism
Cartesian dualism: separation of mind and matter; using human reason and
i.
mathematics, humans can understand the material world because it is pure
mechanism governed by its own physical laws created by God
H. Scientific Method: synthesis of FR and D by N; systematic observation and experiments, which
were used to arrive at general concepts; new deductions derived from these general concepts
could then be tested and verified by precise experiments (hypothesis)
a. Francis Bacon: inductive reasoning; generalizations based on experimentations and
observations;empiricism
Values practicality where science would contribute to new technologies which in
i.
turn would serve to benefit society/industry/agriculture
ii.
Exercise human power/ability to control nature= foundation for modern science
b. Descartes: deduction and mathematical logic; draw logical conclusions from general
principles
I. Continuation: religion retained its central importance in the 17c. Because it still was believed
to explain the purpose and meaning behind nature ( why). Scientific method was only used to
determine how something works, the mechanism/method
J. The Spread of Scientific Knowledge: emergence of scientific societies and journals that enabled
new scientists to communicate/interact with their ideas and disseminate them to wider,literate
public
a. Scientific societies: scientific meetings where scientists would communicate with each
other, producing cooperative ventures
i.
The English Royal Society: little government encouragement more autonomy
1. Value practicality; created committee to investigate in technological
improvements for industry
ii.
The French Royal Academy of Sciences: supported by Louis XIV, received
abundant state support and remained under government control
1. Tools and machines
b. Journals: spread scientific ideas/knowledge to other scientists and educated public
c. Science and society: why was Science to rapidly accepted?
i.
Mercantile elites were attracted to science because it offered new ways to
exploit resources for profit
1. How science could be applied directly to specific industrial and
technological needs
2. Fulfill the material interests of the elites
3. Potential most tangibly realized in the IR
ii.
Part of high culture that separated elites from popular culture
iii.
Political interests to achieve social stability
iv.
Princes and kings were providing patronage for scientists for practical reasons:
military applications (guns → metallurgy and ballistics), need to control the
scientific body
K. Science and Religion:
a. Opinions that argue whether science and religion were compatible
b. Spinoza: God is inseparable from matter;deny Descartes’ separation of mind and matter
and separation of God from world of matter.
c. Galileo: split between God and science is necessary; embrace Pantheism: humans and
human emotions are part of God or nature or the universal order
d. Pascal: unite religion and science; prove that Christian religion was not contrary to
reason; emotions
e. Gap between science and traditional religion grew even wider as Europe continued
along its path of secularization; more intellectual, social and political elites began to act
on the basis of secular framework
VI. The Enlightenment
KC 2.3: The popularization and dissemination of the Scientific Revolution and the application of its
methods to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased, although not unchallenged,
emphasis on reason in European culture.
I.
Rational and empirical thought challenged traditional values and ideas ( Voltaire, Rousseau)
II.
New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas. (salons)
III.
New political and economic theories challenged absolutism and mercantilism. ( Adam Smith,
John Locke, Montesquieu)
IV.
During the Enlightenment, the rational analysis of religious practices led to natural religion and
the demand for religious toleration. ( Voltaire, deism)
V.
The arts moved from the celebration of religious themes and royal power to an emphasis on
private life and the public good. ( neoclassicism, rococo)
VI.
While Enlightenment values dominated the world of European ideas, they were challenged by
the revival of public sentiment and feeling. ( Rousseau, Romanticism)
●
Emergence of a secular world view
○ Natural science and reason could explain all aspects of life
○ Optimism in the man’s intellect apart from God
○ Faith in reason and rationality, rather than religious belief → downplaying the role of
religion
● Belief that scientific method could explain the laws of society
○ Progress in society was possible if natural laws and how they applied to society could be
understood
○ Education was seen a key to helping society to progress
● Skeptical towards traditional political or religious institutions(want reform and change )
● Impact of Enlightenment on society
○ 1.Secular worldview of the universe
○ 2. Enlightened despotism in Prussia, Russia, Austria
○ 3. American and French revolution
○ 4. Educational reform
○ 5. Growth of laissez faire capitalism
A New Skepticism
● Skepticism on traditional religious attitudes
○ Bayle ( 1647-1706)
■ Advocated complete toleration of ideas and religion and attacks superstition,
religious intolerance, dogmatism
The Legacy of Locke and Newton
●
●
John Locke ( 1632- 1704)
○ State of nature: humans are basically good but lack protection (Hobbes’ view that
humans are inherently evil)
○ Government should rule from the consent of the governed
○ The purpose of the government is to protect “ natural rights “ of the people: life, liberty
and property
■ Social contract: people agree to obey the government in return for protection of
natural rights
○ Right to rebellion: People have a right to abolish a government that does not protect
natural rights
○ Stressed the importance of the environment on human development; human
knowledge is derived from environment and reason
■ So education was important to achieve progress in society
Newton
○ Applied his concept of natural laws governing the universe to other aspects of society (
politics, economics, religion)
Philosophes: intellectuals of the Enlightenment who are committed to reform and change in society;
optimistic about European civilization and prospects for progress and reform
●
●
●
Voltaire (1694- 1778)
○ Religious toleration and criticism of traditional religion
■ Criticize FR royal absolutism and advocated enlightened despotism, believing
that people were incapable of governing themselves (X democracy)
○ Equality before the law
○ Deism: God created the universe but left it to function under scientific principles and
natural laws, no direct involvement in the world
Montesquieu ( 1689-1755)
○ Separation of powers in government into three branches to prevent tyranny and
promote liberty; principle of checks and balances
○ Religious toleration
○ Criticize FR monarchy and church
○ Significant impact on the US Constitution and French Revolution
Beccaria (1764)
○ Humanize criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality
before the law
■ Punishment for crime should be based on rationality
■ Opposed torture and death and instead encouraged imprisonment
○ Influenced Enlightened despots
■ FG → banned torture
■ CG → restricted torture
■ JII → banned torture and death penalty
Economic theory in Enlightenment
● Quesnay/ Physiocrats ( 1694-1774)
○ Sought to reform the existing agrarian system by instituting laissez faire in agriculture (
repudiate mercantilism)
■ Wealth can be increased only by agriculture because all other economic
activities were unproductive
● Adam Smith (1727-1790)
○ Wealth of Nations (1776)
■ Capitalism
■ Believed that economy is governed by the natural laws of supply and demand;
free market and free trade
● Competition will encourage producers to manufacture most efficiently
and sell products with highest quality with lowest price
■ Labor theory of value: wealth is measured by labor
○ Economic liberalism (repudiate mercantilism and gov. Intervention in econ.)
Later Enlightenment ( late 18c)
● More skeptical perhaps even atheistic, more extreme and intensified
● Holbach ( 1723-1789)
○ Argued that humans were essentially like machines, completely determined by outside
forces
○ Atheism
● Hume ( 1711-1776)
○ Argued that rather than natural law and religious faith, desire governed human
behavior → undermine Enlightenment emphasis on rationality
● Condorcet (1743-1794)
○ Extreme optimism and exaggeration for progress (utopian)→ next stage of development
is human perfection
● Rousseau
○ General will, a consensus of the majority, should control and govern a nation → implied
democracy
○ Founder of the Romantic Movement: attacked rationalism as destroying rather than
liberating the individual,Emphasis on heart and sentiment, progressive education
● Kant (1724- 1804)
○ Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge:ethical sense is
beyond the knowledge of science
Women and the Enlightenment: while many traditional beliefs were reinforced, some women thinkers
challenged them and demanded better conditions for women
●
●
Mary Astell: argue for better education and equality in marriage
Mary Wollstonecraft: founder of feminism; call for equality in education, and in economic
political life
Spread of Enlightened Ideas: common people were little affected, mostly literate intellectuals from
middle class or aristocracy were involved
● Salons, coffeehouses, reading clubs, libraries facilitate exchange of ideas
● Limited opportunities for women to be involved in political discussions
Culture in the Enlightenment
● Rococo: lavish,elaborate, gentle, curvy, secular, pursuit of pleasure; reflected aristocratic life and
upper-class pleasure and joy
○ Watteau
● Neoclassicism: recapture dignity and simplicity of Classical style
○ Jacques-Louis David
● Classical music: sonata, symphony, opera,concerto
○ Mozart: blend of grace, precision and emotion
○ Haydn
● Literature: novel; experimental, sentimental and emotional
● History: more secular, focused on causation, economic, social, cultural,and political
developments; learn from the past to achieve better future ( optimistic)
Society in the Enlightenment
●
Expansion of reading public and publishing → wider circulation of information
○ Growth of literate middle class (including women)
○ magazines/newspapers/pamphlets for the general public
○ Coffeehouses, public libraries
● Education: increase of private schools and colleges for elites
○ Also emergence of schools that taught practical education ( math and science)
● Prison reforms: decline in capital and corporate punishment
● Popular culture: culture of the mass; collective and public nature
○ Festivals and carnivals: time of indulgence and recreation; relax from hard work
○ Taverns and alcohol: gathering places for social interaction
○ Popular literature: chapbooks
○ Primary education and growth of literacy especially in Protestant states because of
emphasis on reading the Bible
Religion and Churches: continuation of power and practices of established Catholic and Protestant
churches and strong religious devotion despite rise of skepticism
● Nationalization of Catholic church + dissolution of Jesuits = consolidate state’s authority over
church and decline in papal power
● Veneration of saints, pilgrimages, and relics still existed among common people
● Protestant Revivalism:response to rationalism and deism; more spiritual,personal
○ Pietism: spiritual, mystical fervor
○ Methodism: John Wesley, charismatic preaching, enthusiastic, appeal to lower-class
KC 1.5: European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial
and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the persistence of medieval social and economic structures.
I.
The price revolution contributed to the accumulation of capital and the expansion of the market
economy through the commercialization of agriculture, which benefited large landowners in
western Europe (enclosure movement, restricted use of the village common).
II.
As western Europe moved toward a free peasantry and commercial agriculture, serfdom was
codified in the east, where nobles continued to dominate economic life on large estates
KC 1.5: Population shifts and growing commerce caused the expansion of cities, which often found their
traditional political and social structures stressed by the growth.
I.
Migrants to the cities challenged the ability of merchant elites and craft guilds to govern and
strained resources (employment, poverty, crime)
II.
The family remained the primary social and economic institution of early modern Europe and
took several forms, including the nuclear family.
III.
Rural and urban households worked as units, with men and women engaged in separate but
complementary tasks
KC 2.1: Different models of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states and between
states and individuals.
I.
In much of Europe, absolute monarchy was established over the course of the 17th and 18th
centuries.
Absolute monarchies limited the nobility's participation in governance but preserved the
II.
aristocracy's social position and legal privileges (James I of England, Peter the Great of Russia,
Philip II, III, IV of Spain)
Louis XIV and his finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert extended the administrative, financial,
III.
military, and religious control of the central state over the French population.
In the 18th century, a number of states in eastern and central Europe experimented with
IV.
“enlightened absolutism” (Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria).
The inability of the Polish monarchy to consolidate its authority over the nobility led to
V.
Poland's partition by Prussia, Russia, and Austria, and its disappearance from the map of
Europe.
VI.
Peter the Great "westernized" the Russian state and society, transforming political, religious, and
cultural institutions; Catherine the Great continued this process.
After 1648(Westphalia), dynastic and state interests, along with Europe's expanding colonial
VII.
empires, influenced the diplomacy of European states and frequently led to war
VIII.
Rivalry between Britain and France resulted in world wars fought both in Europe and in the
colonies, with Britain supplanting France as the greatest European power. ( 7 year’s war)
KC 2.2: The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic
network.
I.
Early modern Europe developed a market economy that provided the foundation for its global
role.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
The Agricultural Revolution raised productivity and increased the supply of food and other
agricultural products.
The putting-out system or cottage industry expanded as increasing numbers of laborers in
homes or workshops produced for markets through merchant intermediaries or workshop
owners. → reflect expanding market relations
The development of the market economy led to new financial practices and institutions
(insurance, banking institutions for turning private savings into "venture capital," new definitions
of property rights and protections against confiscation, Bank of England).
The European-dominated worldwide economic network contributed to the agricultural,
industrial, and consumer revolutions in Europe.
European states followed mercantilist policies by exploiting colonies in the New World and
elsewhere.
The transatlantic slave-labor system expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries as demand for
New World products increased (Middle Passage, triangle trade, plantation economies in the
Americas).
Overseas products and influences contributed to the development of a consumer culture in
Europe (sugar, tea, silks and other fabrics, tobacco, rum, coffee). → global trade led to consumer
revolution
. The importation and transplantation of agricultural products from the Americas contributed to
an increase in the food supply in Europe.
Foreign lands provided raw materials, finished goods, laborers, and markets for the commercial
and industrial enterprises in Europe
Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among European states in the early
modern era.
European sea powers vied for Atlantic influence throughout the 18th century.Portuguese, Dutch,
French, and British rivalries in Asia culminated in British domination in India and Dutch control of
the East Indies.
VII. Eighteenth century society and Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened Despotism in Eastern Europe
●
Impact of Enlightenment on Political Development
○ Natural laws :equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech
and press, right to property
○ The policies and reforms of Enlightened despots support and were inspired by the
philosophes
■ 1. Religious toleration
● Voltaire
■ 2. Equality before the law
■ 3. Educational reform
■ 4. Elimination/ restriction in torture and death penalty
○
●
●
● Beccaria
■ 5.Streamlined legal codes
Legacy of John Locke and Voltaire
■ Absolute rulers no longer found their legitimacy in divine right to rule but in
commitment to protect natural rights of humans, their duty is to protect
natural rights and the welfare of the state
● Derives from John Locke’s concept that a government is a form of social
contract between people and ruler: people obey the government in
return for protection of natural rights + consent of the governed
■ Voltaire supported Enlightened despotism. He did not believe in democracy and
thought that the mass cannot govern themselves.
● The most effective way to protect the natural rights of people is
through an enlightened ruler
Prussia
○ Frederick I: Centralized power
● Efficient civil bureaucracy
○ General directory: administrative agent that supervises military,
financial and economic affairs
○ Increase domination of royal officials
● Junkers: Prussian nobility closely related to military → disciplined, sense
of indebtedness and obedience/ loyal to the king
○ Frederick II ( the Great)
■ Reforms
● Single code of laws
● Elimination of torture
● Reduced censorship
● Religious toleration
● Promote education in schools and universities
■ He understood that his success depended on the support of the nobility, so he
did not abolish serfdom and granted nobility power over peasants. Understand
that his success depended on the support of nobility
● Policies that benefit the nobility, x the peasant and serfs,which reflects
the limits of his enlightened rule
■ Necessitates control and maintenance of a centralized state over reform
● 1. Context of international rivalry/ costly wars and competition among
different states
○ War of Austrian Succession, 7 years war
■ Need large army to protect nation and money to
maintain a large army and pay for weapons
■ Need to effectively mobilize resources
● 2. Strong power of the Junkers and nobility in the state and military
○ Reform to an extent that does not diminish their power
Austria
○
○
●
Maria Theresa ( x Enlightened despot)
Joseph II ( out of the three most apparent)
■ Reforms
● Abolish serfdom and feudal dues
● Nationalization of German language
● Religious toleration
● Single code of law
● Promote education, educational reform
● Elimination/reduction of torture and death penalty
● Freedom of press to a significant degree
● Public health: hospitals, poorhouses, insane asylums, orphanages
● Reform judicial system, equality before the law
■ Failures
● Alienated nobles, peasants ( now pay debt through money not labor)
and other different nationalities
● Revolts in Austrian Netherlands
● Military threats and attacks from Russia, Ottoman
Russia
○ Catherine the Great ( out of the three least apparent)
■ Reforms
● Promote immigrants as a vital economic labor force
● Religious toleration, give civic identity to Jews
● Reduce torture and death penalty
● Educational reform
■ Pugachev rebellion
● Serf rebellion demanding end to serfdom, feudal dues and state service
● CG’s oppressively responds
■ Privileges to Nobility
● CG’s policies expands the power of nobility while worsening the
condition of serfs
○ 1. Give nobles full control over serfs
○ 2. Nobles are exempt from taxation and state service
○ 3. Strengthen local administration, divide the country into
provinces and subdivides it into districts ruled by officials
appointed by nobles
■ Is CG an Enlightened ruler?
● Does do legal reform and religious toleration
● Enlightened disciple
○ Admires French culture, efforts to adapt Russia towards Western
culture and development
● However prioritizes control and maintenance of a centralized nation
over reform
○ Knows that her success depends on the success of nobles
○
●
More practical/pragmatic reforms adapted to her country’s
conditions
Continuations: hereditary aristocracy still held the most power in society; the administrative
and judicial changes did not seriously undermine the powerful interests of the European
nobility; rigid class stratification persisted
Enlightened Despotism in Atlantic Seaboard States
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
France
○ 18thc. France experience economic revival
○ Continuation: France monarchy was not overly influenced by the philosophes and
resisted reforms
○ Unsuccessful rulers ( Duke of Orleans and Louis XV) that undermine the prestige of the
monarchy
Great Britain: constitutional monarchy where there was a share of power between the king and
Parliament
○ King appointed ministers and Parliament had mostly financial and legislative l power to
levy taxes, make laws and pass budgets
○ Parliament consisted of landed aristocrats ( House of Lords and House of Commons)
■ Rampant corruption because the deputies were often elected through
patronage and bribery of the the boroughs and counties
○ Ministerial power; William Pitt the Elder furthered imperial ambitions by acquiring
Canada and India during the Seven Year’s War
■ New forces were emerging in the 18c as growing trade and industry led an
ever-increasing middle class to favor expansion of trade and world empire
Dutch Republic: decline in economic prosperity during 18c.; political instability as the oligarchies
that governed local/national political affairs and house of Orange (executive) were in conflict;
Patriot burghers demanded democratic reforms but were crushed by Prussia, and old system
was re-established
Poland: decentralized king and powerful nobles; to maintain the balance of power in central and
eastern Europe, the three great powers cynically agreed to the acquisition of Poland’s territories
undergone with three partitions; building a strong, absolutist state was essential to survival
Spain: change of dynasties to Bourbons, which increased French influence ( language of Castile,
French-style ministries, intendants)
○ Charles III brought CC under control and circumscribed activities of Inquisition and
expelled the Jesuits; fewer administrative problems and economic drains due to less
territory after Treaty of Utrecht ( 1713)
Portugal: decline but Pombal succeeded in curtailing power of the nobility and CC, creating
temporary revival
Italian states: Austria replaced Spain as dominant force in Italy after the Treaty of Utrecht; losing
independence and potency
●
Sweden: Gustavus III centralized power after period of decentralization under the power of
nobility
○ Freedom of religion, speech and press, new legal code, eliminated torture
○ Laissez-faire: reduced tariffs, abolished tolls, encourage trade and agriculture
War and Diplomacy
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Balance of power: counterbalance the power of one state by another to prevent any one state
from dominating the others (dynastic / political reasons dominating diplomatic interests)
Individual states increasingly motivated by self-interest, desire to expand territory and military
prowess/might
Diplomacy centered on dynastic interests
Reason of state: Machiavelli; the ruler’s duty is to protect and enhance the power of the state
International rivalry and centralization of states; need for money to support wars, larger armies
and weapons led to an imperative for more efficient and effective control of power
War of Austrian Succession ( 1740-1748):
○ Pragmatic Sanction: various European powers agreed to recognize Maria Theresa as legal
heir to the crown
○ Prussia invaded Silesia and France also invaded Austria and MT made alliance with GB
who feared that France’s advance would disrupt balance of power
○ Treaty of Aix-la Chapelle: promise return of all occupied territories except Silesia
○ Because GB and FR were global colonial empires, this was extended to the colonies as
well (global scale)
The Seven Years’ War ( 1756-1763): war in Europe, India, and North America( world scale)
○ European conflict
■ Diplomatic Revolution: A + F + R and GB+ P, traditionally Hapsburgs and
Bourbons were rivals
■ Peter III, who admired FG, withdrew Russian troops from the conflict and from
Prussian lands, which ended the War
■ Peace of Hubertusburg(1763): Austria officially recognized Prussia’s permanent
control of Silesia
○ Colonial War
■ French and Indian war in NA: Dispute in Ohio Valley between GB settlers and FR
traders because GB settlers believed that FR activity in Ohio Valley was an
obstacle towards their westward expansion
■ Treaty of Paris ( 1763)
● France lost control of its territory in North America/completely
removed, gave GB land east of the Mississippi River + Canada and Spain
Louisiana Territory ( including NO)
● GB gained India: Later becomes GB’s crown colony, and most
important possession
● In return of cuba and Philippines, Spain gave GB Florida
● GB became dominant colonial empire
Economic and Social Change during the 18c.
Growth of European population
●
Causes
○ 1. Agricultural revolution:
■ More food production
○ 2. Lower death rate
■ End of bubonic plague
■ Healthier diet and nutrition
● New staple crops (potatoes) introduced through Columbian exchange
■ Improved sanitation
Agricultural Revolution ( England)
●
●
Causes
○ 1. Better climate
○ 2. New methods of agriculture
■ Rotation of crops
● Townshend= New nitrogen-rich crops such as turnips and clover restores
the fertility of crops x needing to leave it fallow
● Selective breeding of livestock (Bakewell)
○ More abundant livestock → fresher meat + use as animal
manure for fertilizer
○ 3. Technological advancements that lead to more productive and efficient agriculture (
science and technology applied to agriculture)
■ Seed drill allows straight line (Tull)
Result
○ Increase in population + improved diet
○ Enclosure movement altered society in countryside
■ Open field system, common land enclosed → change in traditional village life
■ Migration to cities → urbanization
○ Cottage industry
■ Accelerated growth of cottage industry as many farmers were displaced and
needed supplement of income after enclosure movement
○ Consumerism
■ Increase in supply of food → decrease in price of food → enable people to
spend more money on consumer goods
■ Also availability of cheap manufactured goods due to expansion of cottage
industry/ IR
●
Enclosure Movement (England):Large landowners consolidating scattered fields and fencing
them, replace the open field system that has a more communal character
■ Cause
● 1. Landowners invest in technologies for more efficient means
○ Less need for large human labor as before
● 2. Growing global trade larger market and demand for agricultural
produce→ commercial agriculture/ expanded market relations
● 3. Enclosure acts and laws that benefit wealthy
○ Corn laws
● → conditions suitable for large scale, commercial farming
■ Result
● Strict social hierarchy
○ England becomes a land of large estates where minority of large
landowners possess concentrated wealth and power
○ Tenant farmers and wage earners
○ → Class conflict
● Dislocation of peasants
○ Peasants become tenant or wage farmers
○ Migrate to the city for other jobs → urbanization
○ Supplement income through cotton industry
● Less economic opportunities for women
○ Before: indispensable and active role in economic survival
(farmed + raise animals)
○ After: limited opportunities, instead become domestic
servants/prostitutes in towns and cities or work in cottage
industry, spinning and weaving in textile industries
●
Cottage Industry, putting-out industry :merchants would provide raw materials to rural cottage
workers and collect finished products ( paid by the pieces made);Prefer lower wage of rural
workers rather than high cost of urban artisans and craftsmen
●
●
●
The countryside become the pillar and center of England’s manufacturing textile industries
Proto-industrialization
Problems
○ 1. Conflict among cottage workers and merchants/businessmen since less control and
supervision + unorganized → ultimately evolved into growth of factories due to the
needs of more efficient/organized methods of control and production
○ 2. Technologies insufficient for increasing demand for cotton wool
■ New technologies that facilitate large quantities
● Spinning jenny (Hargreaves)
● Flying shuttle ( Kay)
● Water frame (Arkwright)
●
Rural communities supplemented their income, the agricultural revolution, and availability of
cheap manufactured goods due to the growth of the cotton industry facilitated consumer
revolution; as food gets cheaper, people can afford consumer goods
Mercantilism and Atlantic Economy
Mercantilism
●
Bullionism: wealth is measured by the amount of precious metals, the state should accumulate
as much gold and silver as possible
○ Wealth is finite
● Active government participation to regulate the economy: promote domestic industry, maximize
exports over imports, use tariffs and protective economic policies
● Government grant monopolies to few companies ( Dutch India Company, British India Company)
● Colonies should contribute to enrich the power and wealth of the mother country
○ Purchase imported, manufactured goods and provide raw materials
○ Led to development of transatlantic trade
● Navigation Acts ( England)
○ Protect GB merchants and weaken Dutch trade and shipping
○ Grant GB merchants monopoly in trade with NA
○ Goods shipped through GB merchants and shipped
○ Encourage colonists to purchase GB imported goods
○ Most goods imported from Europe into GB be carried on GB ships
Atlantic Economy
●
●
●
●
●
●
Slave trade : slavery is central in the tobacco/ rice plantation economies of southern colonies
and sugar plantation in the West Indies
○ Central role in the Atlantic slave trade/ Triangular trade
Sugar= most important commodity
Growth of town and cities
○ Port cities
Trade led to the growth of related industries such as textile, manufacturing, sugar refining,
tobacco processing
Triangular trade
○ GB → NA: manufactured goods
○ NA → WI: fish, timber, tobacco, rice, indigo, livestock
○ WI → NA: slaves, sugar, molasse
○ NA → WA : rum, iron, gunpowder, cloth
○ WA→ WI : slaves
○ GB → WA: beer, gun, iron
○ WA → GB: ivory, metals
Decline of Dutch Republic and rise of GB global colonial empire
○ Anglo-Dutch Wars
○
■ New Amsterdam → New York
■ Damage/ decline in Dutch trade and shipping industries
GB becomes major global colonial empire
New methods of Finance
●
●
●
Banking: New public and private banking and the acceptance of paper notes that made
possible an expansion of credit
GB
○ World’s leading maritime and colonial power
○ Bank of England (1694)
■ Accept paper notes and loan money to the government, important source of
immense capital for economic development
Bubbles/financial crisis: drawbacks of expanding capitalist/commercial economy; speculative
frenzy burst due to immense source of capital for economic development
○ GB and FR ⇒ entrenched in immense national debt due to ambitious and costly war
campaigns
○ South Sea Bubble ( 1720)
■ GB gave South Sea Company monopoly on trade with LA + right to assume the
national debt
○ Mississippi Bubble (1720)
■ FR government gave monopoly to Mississippi company on trade with Louisiana
Life in the 18th Century
●
Marriage and the Family prior to 1750 ( before)
○ 1. Nuclear family
○ 2. Average age of marriage was higher especially for lower classes
■ Couples could not marry until they could support themselves economically
■ Peasants sons had to wait until they inherit property
■ Peasant daughters had to accumulate dowry
○ 3. Laws and regulations in marriage
■ Required legal permission or approval of local lord or landowner for marriage
■ Austria and Germany
■ Reason: regulate marriage to lower the number of abandoned children who
become an economic strain in society ( money need for welfare)
● Effect: maintain balance in population growth
○ 4. Many men and women x married
■ 40 to 60% of women b.t 14 and 44 unmarried
○ 5. Children
■ Low birth rate
● Reflect strong restrictions and control of villages
● Pressure for young couples to marry is a pregnancy occurred
●
●
●
○ Premarital sex for couples considering marriage
○ Less illegitimacy
■ High infant mortality
New patterns of marriage & legitimacy after 1750 (change )
○ Increase in income due to growth of cottage industry + ignored laws and regulations on
marriage ( Germany) → marriage for affection
■ Decline in arranged marriage for economic reasons
■ X have to wait long for financial independence
○ Increasing illegitimacy
■ Premarital sex + fewer boys married girls they impregnated
■ Less parental pressure and strict village tradition
○ Women in cities and factories had limited economic independence
■ Poor economic and social conditions prevented many marriages
Change in attitude towards children
○ Child care and nursing
■ 1. Increasing periods breastfeeding among poorer women
● Spacing in birth → decreased fertility
■ 2. Elite women seldom breastfed and instead used wet nurses
○ Infanticide
■ Infanticide was common due to poverty
● Parents could not afford children
■ → abandon in foundling houses or hospitals
● By 1770, ⅓ of all babies born in Paris were immediately abandoned
○ Child rearing
■ Before
● Treated indifferently with strict discipline
○ Less emotional attachment and affection due to high mortality
rates + use of wet nurse
○ Children worked in factories
■ After
● Humanitarianism and Enlightened optimism in human progress
emphasized better treatment
○ Rousseau encouraged greater love and understanding
○ More affection and intimacy
Education
○ Protestantism inspired formal, public education of the masses
■ Elementary education
● Basic literacy and religion
■ Charity schools founded by Puritans
■ Parish schools in Scotland to teach Scripture
■ FR, Christian schools
○ Prussia= universal compulsory education
■ Inspired by Protestant idea that Christian should be able to read the Bible
■
●
●
Education also seen as a way to make the population effective serve and state
and obey → a method of control
○ Enlightenment emphasis on education as key to social progress → reinforced interest
of education
○ Result
■ Increased literacy rate (90% in Scotland, ⅔ in FR, majority)
Increased life expectancy
○ Due to the disappearance of plague and starvation
○ Development of public health techniques
■ Improved sanitation
■ Vaccinations
■ Better clothing ( cotton industry, growth of proto-industrialization)
■ Adequate food ( agricultural revolution)
○ Diet and nutrition
■ Potato and introduction of new crops through the Atlantic trade/ Columbian
exchange
● Staple crops
○ Medical improvements
■ Resistance to disease + better hygiene + public health and sanitation →
disappearance of the bubonic plague
■ Vaccine for smallpox
● Jenner ( 1749-1823)
○ Humanitarianism → hospital reform
■ Ventilation
■ Decreased spread of infection
■ Mental hospital
Social Order of the 18th century: continuation of traditional social order, determined by birth,
hereditary, estate/land
○ Peasants: rural,agricultural society prevailed, biggest difference between areas were free
peasants and serfs
■ Peasants in GB, Italy, Low Countries, France were legally free but many of them
lived in poverty
● But still tenant farmers had compulsory services such as owing tithes
(certain amount of crops) to aristocratic land owners
■ Peasants in Eastern Europe continued to be dominated by large landed estates
owned by powerful lords and worked by serfs who had no legal status; lords had
full control of their rights and were forced to labor and could not marry without
permission (deprived of the fundamental rights that were otherwise have as free
citizens
■ Village: local village remained the center of social life for the peasants
● Village church, poorhouse ,infrastructure
■ Diet: continuation of basic staple of dark bread
● Changes: potatoes and corn added variety to diet
○
○
○
Nobility: dominated society, minority with special privileges and rights
■ Exemption from many forms of taxation
■ Rights of landlords over serfs in Eastern Europe
■ Change: many were increasingly engaged in mercantile endeavors and trade and
involved in industries such as mining,metallurgy and glassmaking to gain profit
from exploitation of raw materials on their estates
■ Important role in military and national/local government and bureaucracy
■ Differing degree in wealth, education and political power within the social class
Social order in urban towns
■ 1. Patrician oligarchies dominate town and city council/ control, minority
■ 2. Upper middle class: non-noble office holders, financiers, merchants, bankers,
wealthy financiers
■ 3. Petit bourgeoisie: artisans, shopkeepers, small traders
■ 4.laborers/working class: small guild workshops, apprentices, artisans
■ 5.unskilled-workers: servants, miserable conditions with low wages
● As guild increasingly became more closed and restricted, many skilled
artisans had no choice but to be low-paid laborers
● Unsanitary living conditions, polluted water high death rate of children,
overcrowding facilitated spread of disease
Poverty and social crisis
■ Increasing gap between the rich and poor
■ Begging and prostitution
■ propertyless/ beggars were a threat to social order, and a source of vice and
crime; responsible for their own conditions ( idleness)
■ No legislative action to improve welfare due to this mindset towards the poor
■ Charitable institutions were also rare
KC 2.1: The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe's existing political and social
order.
The French Revolution resulted from a combination of long-term social and political causes, as
I.
well as Enlightenment ideas, exacerbated by short-term fiscal and economic crises.
The first, or liberal, phase of the French Revolution established a constitutional monarchy,
II.
increased popular participation, nationalized the Catholic Church, and abolished hereditary
privileges (Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Civil Constitution of the Clergy,
Constitution of 1791, abolition of provinces and division of France into departments).
After the execution of the Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin Republic led by Robespierre responded
III.
to opposition at home and war abroad by instituting the Reign of Terror, fixing prices and wages,
and pursuing a policy of de-Christianization (Georges Danton, JeanPaul Marat, Committee of
Public Safely).
IV.
Revolutionary armies, raised by mass conscription, sought to bring the changes initiated in
France to the rest of Europe.
V.
Women enthusiastically participated in the early phases of the revolution; however, while there
were brief improvements in the legal status of women, citizenship in the republic was soon
restricted to men.
KC 2.1: Claiming to defend the ideals of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte imposed French
control over much of the European continent that eventually provoked a nationalistic reaction.
As first consul and emperor, Napoleon undertook a number of enduring domestic reforms while
I.
often curtailing some rights and manipulating popular impulses behind a facade of
representative institutions (careers open to talent, educational system, centralized bureaucracy,
Civil Code, limitation of women’s rights).
Napoleon's new military tactics allowed him to exert direct or indirect control over much of the
II.
European continent, spreading the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe.
Napoleon's expanding empire created nationalist responses throughout Europe.
III.
VIII. French Revolution/ Age of Napoleon
I.
II.
Long-term Causes
A. Enlightenment ideas: skepticism towards tradition/existing order and stress on reason
1. Montesquieu: balanced system of government with different branches
2. Voltaire: religious toleration
3. Rousseau: government was responsible for the general will of people(imply
democracy)
B. Political issues
1. Louis XIV depleted the treasury and left the country in massive debt through
series of costly wars ( 7 Year’s War) and large expenditures( construction of the
Versailles) and failed to establish a secure source of revenue
2. Kings and aristocrats lived in fabulous luxury in Versailles, while many suffered in
poverty
3. General discontent towards new alliance made with Austria through Louis XVI’s
and Marie Antoinette’s marriage
C. The Old Regime
1. Privileges given to the nobles and upper clergy: wealthiest people but were
exempt for taxes; more burdens for the commoners
2. Estate system
a) 1st: clergy
b) 2nd: nobility
c) 3rd: peasants and bourgeoisie (merchants, financiers, bankers with
non-noble status but really wealthy and successful)
(1) Had to pay all of the taxes
Short-term causes
A. Financial crisis: due to costly wars and royal extravagance, the French treasury
depleted and the government borrowed large amounts of money, which then resulted
III.
in debt; poor taxation policy also contributed to the debt → reform in the taxation
system ( debt also because of the American Revolution, bad harvests)
B. Parlement refused to assist fiscal reform with fear that they would be taxed
Moderate Stage
A. Estates-General: The calling of the Estates General was looking for a way to solve the
immediate financial crisis, specifically dealt with the issue of new taxes
1. Divided on whether voting should be by order or by head
a) Parlement of Paris advocated for voting by order: this means each estate
was given one vote and thus the first and second estates could use their
two votes to prevent the passing of any reforms that represent the
interest of the third estate
b) Royal council decided that Third Estate could elect twice as many
representatives than the 1st and 2nd ( 600 to 300)
(1) This meant that if they counted by head, the 3rd estate would
have tremendous influence in the Estate-General; liberal and
reform-minded nobles along with bourgeoisie would support
the Third Estate
B. National Assembly: the third estate created a new legislative body, then soon declared
itself the National Assembly; the 2nd estate joined it
1. Tennis Court Oath: vowed to write a constitution for France
2. Several liberal, reform-minded members of the First and Second Estates joining
the National Assembly in defiance of the king
C. Fall of Bastille
1. Louis XVI gathered military troops around Versailles and Paris, considering to
take military action against the National Constituent Assembly which inflamed
public opinion
2. Rather than cooperating, Louis XVI decided to ally himself with the conservative
members of the Second Estate to maintain his control
3. As the king mobilized his forces, anxiety grew among Parisians, and they started
organizing citizen militia
4. Due to rising bread prices, the Parisians were disillusioned by Louis’s rule
5. Storm of Bastille: many Parisian common people ( shopkeepers, tradesmen,
artisans) attacked the Bastille ( royal armory); this became a popular symbol
of triumph over despotism (motive was also the rising bread prices)
6. Effect: Louis XVI recognized the National Constituent Assembly as a legitimate
government
D. The Great Fear: witnessing Louis’s capitulation to the demands of the third estate, the
peasants started rebellions against the seigneurial system, demanding ecclesiastical
lords and aristocrats to denounce dues and tithes; vast panic of fear of foreign invasion
1. Result: liberal nobles and clerics rose up and renounced their hunting and
fishing rights, legal exemptions, and privileges → abolished feudalism and
equality of taxation to all classes
E. Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen ( 1789)
1. Abolished feudalism and aristocratic privileges
2. Stated basic natural liberties
3. Parisian Women’s March on Versailles (1789): Parisian women armed with pikes,
guns, knives, marched to Versailles, demanding more bread
a) Causes: Louis XVI stalled to ratify the Declaration and bread was scarce
and expensive
b) Result: Louis ratified the end of feudalism and approved Declaration;
crowd ordered Louis to return to Paris
F. Nationalization of the Catholic Church
1. Assembly decided to pay the debt by confiscating and selling CC’s property and
land holdings
a) Issued assignats, government bonds with values guaranteed by the
revenue from the sale of church’s land
2. Civil Constitution of the Clergy: states that both bishops and priests of the CC
were to be elected by the people and paid by the state
a) Result:embittered relations between church and state in France,
setting a platform for counterrevolution
G. Legislative Assembly ( 1791-1792)
1. Completely new group of legislators replaced the National Assembly
2. Jacobins, political club, dominated
a) Girondins because the most prominent party and led the country into
war
(1) Emigres: aristocrats who left France in order to plan to stifle
revolution
(2) Flight to Varennes: Louis and his family attempted to flee the
country, but got caught to sent back → people believed that he
was a traitor
(3) Declaration of Pillnitz: Emperor Leopold II and Frederick William
II vowed to intervene in France to protect monarchy
3. Declared war on Austria ( 1792)
4. Brunswick Manifesto: Prussia and Austria threatened to destroy Paris if the
royal family was harmed → generate fear/uncertainty
H. Paris Commune ( led by Danton): revolutionary municipal government, which
effectively usurped the power of the Legislative Assembly
1. September Massacre
2. Shopkeepers, artisans, wage earners
I. National Convention: France was proclaimed a republic in 1792, majority of members
were Jacobin/republican, well-educated middle class
1. Factions among the Jacobins
a) Mountain; radical; Danton and Robespierre;represent the interests of
Parisians and san-culottes
b) Girondins: more moderate and rural
2. Sans-culotte gained influence during the National Conventional;used violence
to maintain influence
3. Louis XVI execution in 1793
4. The “Mountain” supported by the sans-culottes ousted the Girondins
a) Mountain believed that the Girondin was not radical enough; believe it
would work with the conservatives and royalists to retain power
5. Domestic counterrevolution: many parts in Western France viewed the
Convention and execution of Louis as anarchy/ too radical
a) Rebellion in Vendee spread to Marseilles and Lyons, wanted to establish
their own republics
6. Foreign crisis: as France turned to a radical phase, an anti-French coalition was
formed among other European nations that threatened to invade France
J. Committee of Public Safety ( 1793-1794): emergency government to deal with internal
and external challenges
1. Led by Robespierre
2. Large influence of the san-culottes
a) Law of Maximum: planned economy to respond to food shortages and
related economic problems (fixed prices for bread so the poor could
afford, rationing of bread); responding to the needs/agenda of the
sans-culottes
(1) Gov. decreed maximum allowed prices, economic control that
goes against bourgeoisie interest; reflect the influence of the
sans-culottes
(2) Rationing
b) Levee en masse: entire nation conscripted into service;revolutionary
army
(1) With such a large army, it brought military victory: pushed the
allies back and conquered Austrian Netherlands
(2) Nationalism; the entire nation involved in the war; a total war
K. Reign of Terror ( 1793-1794): internal enemies of the revolution were brought for
trial;guillotine; 40,000 people throughout France was executed
1. Victims ranged from royalists, Girondins, and anti-radical peasants ( western
France, places with open-rebellion against the National Convention
2. “Republic of Virtue” emerged as new political culture under Robespierre to
inculcate revolutionary virtue
a) Cult of the Supreme Being/de-Christianization
(1) Deistic natural religion, in which the Republic was declared to
recognize the existence of God and the immortality of the soul.
(2) Notre Dame Cathedral was converted into the“Temple of
Reason”
(3) Result: backfired because France was predominantly Catholic
(4) New Republican Calendar: anti-Christian and served to mark
Revolution as new historical beginning; glorify the revolution,
mark as historical moment
L. Thermidorian Reaction (1794): ended reign of terror.
1. Respectable bourgeois middle-class lawyers and professionals who had led
liberal Revolution of 1789 reasserted their authority
2. Reduced powers of the Committee of Public Safety and closed the Jacobin club
3. 1794, execution of Robespierre
a) Committee of Public Safety executed even the radical Parisians ( main
support base),and military victories waned the anxieties and need for
terror; many people began to realize the extreme radicalism and
fanaticism
M. The Directory ( 1795-1799)
1. New constitution which set up republican form of government
2. Middle class bourgeoisie controlled the government; all economic controls
were removed in favor of laissez-faire, which ended the influence of the
sans-culottes
a) Prices rose sharply → inflation, public discontent
3. Internal challenges from the royalists and the Jacobins ( interests of the common
people), so it relied on military to maintain its power
a) Conspiracy of Equals led by Gracchus Babeuf formed to overthrow the
Directory and replace with democratic gov. That would abolish private
property and enforce equality
b) Royalist uprisings
4. Coup d’etat (1799) by successful and popular general Napoleon was able to seize
power
N. Consulate/ Empire
1. Napoleon made peace with the Catholic Church to stabilize his regime
a) Napoleon opened negotiations with Pope Pius XII to reestablish the
Catholic church in France.
b) The Pope gains the right to depose French Bishops, this gave him little
real control over the French Catholic church, since the state retain the
right to nominate Bishops.
c) The Catholic church was also permitted to hold processions again and
reopen the seminaries.
d) By signing the Concordat , the pope acknowledge the accomplishments
of the revolution.
e) But, Catholicism was not be established as the state religion.
f) The clergy would be paid by the state.
g) People who acquired church property during the Revolution could keep it
2. Civil Code
a) These laws preserved most of the Revolutionary gains by recognizing the
principle of the equality of all citizens before the law, the right of
individuals to choose their professions, religious toleration, and the
abolition of serfdom and feudalism.
b) Some people's rights were strictly curtailed by the Civil Code. It made
divorce a hard process for both husbands and wives, put the woman's
property under the control of their husbands.
3. Rationalizing and developing a centralized administrative bureaucracy
a) Eliminated locally elected assemblies and appointed new officials called
the prefects who were responsible for supervising local affairs
b) Systematic and efficient tax system: no tax exemptions due to birth,
status ,or special arrangement
c) Redesigned the bureaucracy with offices given to people with
demonstrated abilities rather than rank or birth
d) New aristocracy based on merit in the state service; mostly bourgeois
origin
4. Napoleon’s despotism
a) His legal code curtailed some rights
b) His title as emperor itself
c) Censorship: shut down newspapers and insisted that all manuscripts
be subjected to government scrutiny before being published;
government police
5. Napoleon and Europe
a) Napoleon called for peace in the war, and it was achieved at Amiens in
March 1802 but this peace did not last long.
b) In 1803, war was renewed with France and Britain, which was soon
joined by Austria and Russia and the Third Coalition.
c) In 1807, the Treaties of Tilsit, signed by Napoleon in the rulers of
Prussia and Austria, ended the fighting and gave the French emperor the
opportunity to create a new European order.
d) The Grand Empire was composed of three major parts: the French
Empire, a series of dependent States, and Allied States.
e) With this Empire, Napoleon demanded obedience , and part because he
needed a common front against the British and in part because his
growing egotism required obedience to his will.
f) Napoleon's Empire collapsed almost as rapidly as it had been informed.
This happened because of the survival of Great Britain and the force of
nationalism. Britain survived because of its sea power.
(1) Napoleon turned to his Continental System to defeat Britain.
Put into effect between 1806 and 1807, it attempted to prevent
British goods from reaching the European continent in order to
weaken Britain economically and destroy its capacity to wage
war. This failed.
(2) the spirit of French nationalism had made possible the mass
armies of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras.
6. The Defeat of Napoleon:
a) In 1812 Napoleon decided to invade Russia. The French lost battles and
did not survive the harsh Russian winter. This military disaster led to a
war of Liberation all over Europe, culminating in Napoleon's defeat in
April 1814.
b) Louis the 17th , was restored to the French throne . This new king had
little support.
c) At Waterloo on June 18th, Napoleon met combined British and
Prussian Army under the Duke of Wellington and suffered a bloody
defeat. Victorious allies exiled Napoleon to st. Helena, small, forsaken
island in the South Atlantic.
KC 3.1: The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a
greater role in promoting industry
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile
production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems.
Britain's ready supplies of coal, iron ore, and other essential raw materials promoted industrial
growth.
Economic institutions and human capital such as engineers, inventors, and capitalists helped
Britain lead the process of industrialization, largely through private initiative (the Crystal Palace
at the Great Exhibition of 1851, banks, government financial awards to inventors).
Britain's parliamentary government promoted commercial and industrial interests, because
those interests were represented in Parliament.
V.
VI.
VII.
Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental Europe, sometimes with
state sponsorship.
France moved toward industrialization at a more gradual pace than Great Britain, with
government support and with less dislocation of traditional methods of production (canals,
railroads, trade agreements).
A combination of factors, including geography, lack of resources, the dominance of traditional
landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some areas, and inadequate government
sponsorship accounted for eastern and southern Europe's lag in industrial development
KC 3.2: The experiences of everyday life were shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of
industrial development in a particular location.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the industrial regions of Europe.
In industrialized areas of Europe (i.e., western and northern Europe), socioeconomic changes
created divisions of labor that led to the development of self-conscious classes, such as the
proletariat and the bourgeoisie
In some of the less industrialized areas of Europe, the dominance of agricultural elites persisted
into the 20th century.
Class identity developed and was reinforced through participation in philanthropic, political,
and social associations among the middle classes, and in mutual aid societies and trade unions
among the working classes.
Along with better harvests caused in part by the commercialization of agriculture,
industrialization promoted population growth, longer life expectancy, and lowered infant
mortality.
With migration from rural to urban areas in industrialized regions, cities experienced
overcrowding, while affected rural areas suffered declines in available labor as well as weakened
communities.
Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and
working-class families.
Bourgeois families became focused on the nuclear family and the "cult of domesticity,” with
distinct gender roles for men and women.
By the end of the century, wages and the quality of life for the working class improved because
of laws restricting the labor of children and women, social welfare programs, improved diet,
and the use of birth control (Factory Act of 1833, Mines Act of 1842, Ten Hours Act of 1847).
VIII. Industrial Revolution
A. Industrial Revolution in GB
a. Origins
Agricultural revolution: changes in methods of farming and stock breeding led
i.
to increase in food production → feed more people with lower prices and less
labor, leaving disposable income to cheap manufactured goods ( market)
1. Dislocation of farmers due to enclosure movement and rapid population
growth also provided surplus labor for new factories
2. Rural workers in cottage industry also served as a potential labor force
for industrial enterprises
ii.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Supply of Capital/ economic institutions and human capital: central bank,
flexible credit facilities, paper notes increased capital; large population of
entrepreneurs interested in making profits
iii.
Mineral Resources: supply of coal and iron needed in manufacturing process;
abundant rivers; private and public investment in construction of new boards,
bridges, canals (infrastructure), which linked markets and facilitated domestic
trade
iv.
Parliament created favorable business climate by few restrictions on private
enterprises and protection of private property
v.
Markets: colonies; high demand for both domestic and foreign markets on GB
manufactured textile goods led entrepreneurs to adopt new more efficient
methods that would increase production
Technological changes/ Organization (departing from Cottage Industry)
i.
Flying shuttle: sped the process of weaving on a loom,doubling output
ii.
Spinning jenny: spinners to produce yarn in greater quantities
iii.
Water frame and mule
Result: mechanization made factory owners organize their labor collectively in
iv.
factories located next to rivers and streams than to leave workers dispersed in
their cottages
The Steam Engine: created by James Watt, revolutionized production of cotton goods,
allowed factory system to spread, and sparked the railroad industry
Applied steam power to cotton industry, and with mechanization, brought new
i.
boost to cotton textile production to global and domestic markets
ii.
Steam engines were fired by coals so greater location flexibility
iii.
Steam engine → increasing demand for coal → new processes using coal →
development of iron industry
The Iron Industry
i.
Wrought iron: puddling, coke was used to burn away impurities
ii.
Growing supply of less costly metals encouraged the use of machinery in
transportation
Revolution in Transportation: efficient means of moving resources and goods
i.
Steam engine produced a radical transformation of the railways; development of
cast-iron railways
ii.
Importance of railroads
1. Growth of coal and iron industries as demand increased
2. New job opportunities
3. Cheaper and faster means of transportations
a. Reduced prices lead to enlarged markets, which increased
sales and expanded industries
b. Self-sustaining nature of IR: entrepreneurs would reinvest
profits to new capital
Industrial Factory: factory emerged as the main means of organizing labor for new
machines
i.
Workers no longer owned the means of production but were simply paid wages
to run the machines ( proletarianization)
ii.
Factory system
1. regular , unvarying hours and repetitive tasks
a. Contrast to the cottage industry that had looser schedules
2. Strict regulations and discipline
a. Evangelical values paralleled the efforts of the new factory
owners ingrain labourers with values of hard work and discipline
to maximize productivity (protestant work-ethic)
g. Britain’s Great Exhibition of 1851: display GB’s wealth and success and colonial power
B. The Spread of Industrialization
a. Continental countries ( F+ G + B)
i.
18c. Similar developments with GB: population growth, agricultural
improvements, cottage industries and foreign trade, but lagged behind GB in IR
1. Lack of transportation/ river transits
2. Custom barriers/ toll stations that increased prices of goods
3. Guild restrictions
4. Dominance of traditional landed elite not interested in
entrepreneurship/retained traditional business attitudes
Borrowing techniques and practices: Continental countries initially borrowed GB
ii.
skills and gradually achieved technological independence, also established
technical schools to train engineers and mechanics
iii.
Differences in IR
1. Role in Government: government in most of the Continental countries
played a larger role in the economy (grants, infrastructure, protective
tariffs to spur domestic industry)
2. Centers of IR: for B, F,G heavy industries were more developed than
cotton industries
a. Mixed of old and new technologies, generation behind in cotton
manufacturing
b. Steam engine used primarily in mining and metallurgy (iron and
coal)
b. IR in America
i.
Initial application of machinery was accomplished by borrowing from GB
ii.
American system: using interchangeable parts, the final product could be put
together more easily, which reduced costs and revolutionized production by
saving labor ( no need for skilled labor) → rapid pace of mechanization
iii.
Developments in transportation ( steamboats, road, canals, railroads) made US
into a massive domestic market of manufactured goods in the Northeast
(expansion of market relations)
Labor force: small population of skilled laborers, so displaced rural
iv.
people/immigrants worked as unskilled laborers
1. Single women worked in textile factories in New England
2. European immigrants (esp. Irish) replaced women/children as main
source of unskilled labor
C. Limiting the Spread of Industrialization in the Non-Industrialized World
a. IR lagged in Eastern Europe and other parts of the world
i.
Eastern Europe: rural, agricultural, no middle class, preferred to import
industrial goods in return for exporting raw materials, serfdom did not create a
large force of free labor, bounded people to agriculture
b. India: European states had a deliberate policy that prevented the growth of mechanized
industries elsewhere to maintain a large market for their own manufactured products
i.
GE encouraged Indians to export their raw materials while buying GB-made
goods
D. The Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution
a. Background: overpopulation magnified rural poverty, which increased the number of
landless peasants, giving them no choice but to emigrate or migrate cities with hopes
of finding alternative income
i.
Agrarian crisis and rural poverty accelerated urbanization
b. The Great Hunger: Irish potato famine
i.
Potato was Irish people’s main source of diet that enabled survival and
population growth (dependent)
ii.
Decimated population and produced influx of immigration to North America
c. Emigration was considered as a valve for overpopulation and social crisis
d. Growth of Cities: cities became a place for manufacturing and industry as the steam
engines eliminated the need for factories to be located near rivers/streams
i.
By 1850, more than ½ of GB population lived in towns or cities
e. Urban Living Conditions
i.
Overcrowding and rapid urbanization intensified miserable living conditions in
the cities ( deterioration of urban life)
ii.
Wealthy middle class lived in the suburbs or outer-ring
iii.
Lower-middle class lived in the inner ring
iv.
Industrial workers lived in the center of towns
1. Overcrowded, unsanitary, high death rates, adulteration of good
f. Urban Reformers
i.
Social investigation gave outlook and reports on such horrible living conditions
(morally and physically debilitating effects)
ii.
Reform was based on a paternalistic mindset and the assumption that the urban
poor were responsible for their miserable conditions and poverty
1. In addressing this issue, the wealthy middle class viewed the urban poor
as a potential/volatile threat to established social order
a. Believed that as the richer and more intelligent class, they were
obliged to guard the urban poor with discipline and police to
contain their activities (Shuttleworth)
iii.
Chadwick: advocated a system of modern sanitary reforms with efficient sewer
and piped water based on his investigations of their living conditions; more
focused on improving the environment of the workers, solving the root of the
problem
g. New Social Classes: The Industrial Middle Class
i.
New industrial entrepreneurs who raised capital, determined markets,
constructed and organized factories; usually were resourceful, ambitious,
initiative
ii.
Reinvest profits to other investments
Most early industrial enterprises were small
iii.
iv.
Diverse social origin, though majority of them came from a mercantile
background; many aristocrats were also involved in entrepreneurial businesses (
close relationship between land and industry)
v.
With high socioeconomic status, and large estates, this new class was
assuming an increasingly influential and important role in the nation ( more
political power)
h. New Social Classes: Workers in the Industrial Age
i.
During the first half of the 19c, industrial proletariats were not the majority.
Rather, GB had more agricultural laborers, domestic servants and skilled workers
( who normally had higher wages and more autonomy, guilds and
apprenticeship)
ii.
Working Conditions for the Industrial Working Class
1. Psychological traumas from break from old pre industrial work patterns
and strong discipline
2. Physical conditions: long hours, low wages, lack of security equipment
often causing disease, high death rate and deformity ( exploitative
conditions)
3. Child labor and women labor were common
a. Continuation of pre industrial kinship patterns where the
entire family would be active producers of the family income
b. Traditional types of female labor were predominant: 40% of
female workforce in GB were domestic servants
i.
Most factory workers were single women
i. Did Industrialization Bring an Improved Standard of Living?
i.
Long run: higher income and great material conditions
ii.
First generations
1. Improved: increased employment, most of them already came from
horrible conditions under rural poverty, increase in household income
2. Worse: volatile/unstable employment, wages were not uniform,
inadequate housing and unsanitary conditions
E. Effort at Change: The Workers
a. Formation of labor organizations to gain decent wages and working conditions
b. Trade union ( skilled workers) : limited goals to improve conditions of only the particular
union
i.
Strikes
c. National Union ( 1820s-1830s)
i.
Owen: voluntary associations that enforcing cooperative living
ii.
Grand National Consolidated Trades Union ( 1834): general strike for 8 hour
working day, but lack of working class support let to its collapse
d. Luddites: skilled craftspeople who in 1821 attacked machines to stop the industrial
mechanization of GB
e. Chartism: labor organization with a political agenda; demanded universal male
suffrage, and annual sessions of the Parliament → eventually declined
i.
Women also participated but women's’ suffrage was not part of the platform
Significance: ability to organize working class; working class consciousness →
ii.
precedent that will expand in the future
F. Efforts at Change : Reformers and Government
a. Before: little and ineffective legislative efforts for reform
Poor Act of 1834: established workhouses where jobless poor people were
i.
forced to live in miserable conditions; assumption that the poor were
responsible for their conditions; like prisons to impose discipline and police
b. Successes
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Factory Act ( 1802 and 1819): limited child labor to below ages of 9 and set
maximum 12 work hours for 9-16, children were to receive instruction reading
and arithmetic during working hours
1. No provisions for enforcement
2. Only applied to cotton mills not mines or factories
Factory Act of 1833: included textile factories; children between ages of 9 and
13 could world only eight hours, 13-18 12 hours, factory inspectors were
appointed
1833, at least two hours of elementary education
Ten Hours Act ( 1847): reduced working hours for children between 13 and 18
to 10 hours
Coal Mines Act ( 1842): eliminated employment of boys under 10 and women
in mines
KC 3.4: European states struggled to maintain international stability in an age of nationalism and
revolutions.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the status quo through
collective action and adherence to conservatism.
Metternich, architect of the Concert of Europe, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal
revolutions.
Conservatives re-established control in many European states and attempted to suppress
movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities.
In the first half of the 19th century, revolutionaries attempted to destroy the status quo (Greek
War of Independence, Decembrist Revolt in Russia, Polish Rebellion, July Revolution in France)
The revolutions of 1848 challenged the conservative order and led to the breakdown of the
Concert of Europe.
Key Concept 3.6: European ideas and culture expressed a tension between objectivity and scientific
realism on one hand, and subjectivity and individual expression on the other.
I.
II.
III.
Romanticism broke with neoclassical forms of artistic representation and with rationalism,
placing more emphasis on intuition and emotion.
Romantic artists and composers broke from classical artistic forms to emphasize emotion,
nature, individuality, intuition, the supernatural and national histories in their works (Francisco
Goya, Caspar David Friedrich, J.M.W. Turner, John Constable, Eugéne Delacroix, Ludwig van
Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin, Richard Wagner, Pyotr Ilich Tchaikovsky).
Romantic writers expressed similar themes while responding to the Industrial Revolution and to
various political revolutions (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, William
KC 3.3: The problems of industrialization provoked a range of ideological, governmental, and collective
responses.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political
revolutions
Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, and enlightened self-interest but
debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance
(Jeremy Bentham, Anti-Corn Law League, John Stuart Mill).
Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full
citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights
should be extended to women (chartists, Flora Tristan).
Conservatives developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious
authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible (Edmund Burke,
Joseph de Maistre, Klemens von Metternich).
Socialists called for a fair distribution of society's resources and wealth, and evolved from a
utopian to a Marxist “scientific” critique of capitalism (Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier,
Robert Owen, Friedrich Engels, August Bebel, Clara Zetkin, Rosa Luxemburg)
IX. Reaction,Revolution, and Romanticism
A. Conservative Order ( 1815-1830) : immediate response to defeat of Napoleon, aiming to
contain revolution and restore old order
B. The Peace Settlement: Congress of Vienna: representatives of major powers of Europe met to
redraw territorial lines and to restore social and political order of the Old Regime
a. The Principle of Legitimacy: to reestablish peace and stability in Europe, Metternich
considered it necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who would preserve
traditional institutions
i.
Bourbons restored in France, Spain, and Naples
ii.
Papal states returned to the pope
b. The Principle of Compensation: territorially rewarding those states which had made
considerable sacrifices to defeat Napoleon
i.
England received naval bases
ii.
Russia was given most of Poland
c. A New Balance of Power: prevent any one country from dominating Europe
i.
FR remained a great power, but to prevent FR expansion, formed Netherlands (
former Dutch Republic + Austrian Netherlands) ruled by King William I of Orange
as major defensive barrier
ii.
Prussia received Rhenish lands bordering on the eastern French frontier
d. Evaluation: successfully restored European balance of power, not until Germany’s
unification in 1871 was the balance of power compromised; no world war until 1914,
but created repressive atmosphere that liberals/nationalists did not like
i.
Conservatism as a reaction determined to contain liberal and nationalist forces
unleashed by the FR
C. Concert of Europe: series of arrangements to enforce the status quo/ conservative/ against
liberalism and nationalism; meet periodically in conferences to discuss measure to maintain
peace
a. Quadruple Alliance: R, P,A, GB; provided for concerted action against any threat to
peace or balance of power; system of collective security
i.
1822, GB withdrew disagreeing with squashing revolt in Spain→ end of Concert
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
b. The Principle of Intervention: in presence of dangers that threaten other states, the
Powers ally together to end it and restore condition; great powers of Europe had the
right to send armies into countries with active revolt to restore legitimate monarch
Conservatism and repression
a. Conservatism was a reaction to liberalism and nationalism unleashed by the FR
b. Belief in order, faith in tradition
c. Burke: opposed radical republican and democratic ideals, society as a contract, but he
was against rebelling against the government; want organic, evolutionary change
Multi-ethnic composition of Austria meant that liberalism and nationalism were potentially more
dangerous, so Metternich was more repressive
The Revolt of LA
a. Inspired by Enlightenment and American Revolution
b. Simon Bolivar led independence movement in northern South America
c. Jose de San Martin: concentrated in the South
d. 182, Central American states became independence and was divided into five republics,
and 1822, Brazil declared independence from Portugal
e. Continental powers determined to use troops to restore Spanish control in LA but GB
strongly opposed, against European interference in LA ( Monroe Doctrine)
i.
GB wants access to investment and trade in LA
The Greek Revolt: example of principle of intervention used to support revolution that fulfilled
interests of the great powers
a. 1821, Greeks revolted against Ottomans ( nationalism → desire for liberation)
b. 1827, GB and R went to Greece and defeated Ottomans
c. 1830, three powers declared Greece as an independent kingdom and established royal
dynasty
d. Revolution successful only with the support of great powers
Conservative Domination: The European States
a. GB
i.
Conservative Tories controlled the government
ii.
Corn Laws ( 1815): high tariffs on foreign grain
1. Benefited wealthy landowners at the expense of the rest of English
population
iii.
Peterloo Massacre ( 1819) : pro-liberal crowd listened to anti-Corn law rhetoric
in mass meeting were attacked by police
1. Press was brought under firm control and mass meetings were
abolished
b. France
i.
Bourbon family was restored under the rule of Louis XVIII
1. He was a moderate ruler, so accepted Napoleon’s Civil Code
2. Moderate policies were opposed by liberals eager to extend
revolutionary reforms and ultra royalists who criticised king’s willingness
to compromise and retain elements of Napoleonic era
ii.
Charles X: ultraroyalist platform; indemnity to aristocrats whose lands were
confiscated during the FR. CC reestablished control over FR educational system
1. This generated outrage by liberals and Charles X was forced to accept
principle of ministerial responsibility, but in 1829 he violated it and
dissolved legislature in 1830; this sparked another revolution
c. Italian States and Spain
i.
ii.
I.
Congress of Vienna established 9 states in Italy
Much of Italy under Austrian domination but had large nationalist sentiment
1. Secret societies Carbonari: conspire and plan revolution
iii.
Spain, Bourbon dynasty restored under the rule of Ferdinand VII
1. When he violated his agreement to accept the liberal constitution
(elected parliamentary assembly), liberal intellectuals revolted, and the
king capitulated
2. But Metternich’s policy of invention restored the king in 1823
d. Repression in Central Europe
German Confederation: enhanced Austrian influence over Germanic states(PR +
i.
A+ 38 sovereign states of HRE); Austria as the President of the Diet; loose
confederation where members remained virtually sovereign
ii.
Liberal and nationalistic movements in german states
1. Burschenschaften: student societies dedicated to unite Germany (
nationalistic)
2. Karlsbad Decree (1819) by the German Confederation: closed
Burschenschaften, censorship of press, universities under close
supervision and control
e. Russia
i.
Czar Alexander I initially favored Enlightened despotism but grew increasingly
reactionary
ii.
Northern Union: secret society composed of young aristocrats, intellectuals (
alienated by censorship and lack of academic freedom) who advocated a
constitutional monarchy and abolition of serfdom
Decembrist Uprising ( 1825): rebel against succession of Nicholas I and more
iii.
expansively, the autocratic system of government, but crushed by loyal troops
iv.
Nicholas became most reactionary monarch
1. Russia became police state with censorship, secret police
2. No representative assemblies
3. Education was limited and university curriculum was monitored
4. Result: alienated Russian intellectuals
Liberalism: individual as self-sufficient being, whose freedom and well-being were the sole
reasons for the existence of society ( believe in the existence and protection of inherent natural
rights)
a. Classical Liberalism: republican form of government with rights guaranteed by a written
document; people are endowed to inherent, natural rights that the government should
protect; equal civil rights
i.
Ministerial responsibility: give the legislature branch a check on the power of
the executive
ii.
Tied to middle class men who favored extension of voting rights so that they
could share power with the landowning class, but opposed to democracy and
universal male suffrage
iii.
John Stuart Mill: people should be protected both by government and by
anarchy
b. Liberalism in Economics
i.
Laissez-faire: belief that the state should not intervene with the economy that
operates under the natural laws of supply and demand/self-regulating market (
Adam Smith)
ii.
David Ricardo: “ iron law of wages”
1. Plentiful supply of workers would keep wages low, to the detriment of
the working class
iii.
Thomas Malthus
1. Population increased at a geometric rate whereas food supply increases
in a much slower arithmetic rate which would lead to starvation and
famines if population growth is not held in check
2. Misery(epidemics, diseases, plague,famine) and poverty are inevitable
results of the law of nature imposing a natural restraint on population,
so no government or individual should interfere with this operation (
laissez-faire)
J. Nationalism: awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions,
traditions, languages, and customs; turn cultural unity/bond into self-government
a. Herder: saw every cultural group as unique and possessing distinct national character;
every nation should be sovereign and contain all members of the same nationality
b. Intensifies after the FR and Napoleon
c. Since many European state were multinational, conservatives (esp. Austria) tried hard to
repress the radical threat of nationalism that would disrupt the balance of power in
Europe
d. National revolutionary movements
i.
Spain (1820) : crushed by Quadruple alliance
ii.
Greek Revolution
iii.
Germany, Hungary, Italy wanted to unify and self-rule
K. Early Socialism
a. Desire to introduce equality into social conditions and believed that human cooperation
was superior to the competition that characterized early industrial capitalism
b. Utopian societies: against private property and competitive spirit; reaction to the
drawbacks of IR
c. Fourier: proposed creation of small model communities called phalansteries that have
communal, cooperative living
d. Owen: cooperative community
e. Louis Blanc: social problems could be solved by government assistance ( advocating for
a welfare state); state-financed workshops
f. Female Supporters: equal social conditions between men and women
i.
Gamond: same educational and job opportunities between men and women
ii.
Simon: equality between men and women
iii.
Even emancipation of women
iv.
Tristan: utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism, equality of men and
women
g. Socialism was considered as radical and was unpopular
L. Revolution and Reform ( 1830-1850)
a. French July Revolution (1830)
Cause: reaction against the July Ordinance issued by Charles X that imposed
i.
rigid censorship, dissolved legislative assembly, and reduced electorate in
preparation for new election
ii.
Result: moderate liberals called Louis-Philippe constitutional king of France
iii.
Louis Philippe: bourgeois monarch that had support from the upper middle
class(limited political powers to wealthy)
1. Disappointment to the lesser middle class and Parisian working class
because they were completely excluded from political power
2. Result: sparked a wave of revolutions throughout Europe
b. Liberal Reform in England
i.
Liberal Whig reformers gained power and made concessions to demand for
reform
Election Reform Bill ( 1832): extend voting rights to give political power to
ii.
wealthy middle class industrialists; disenfranchise rotten boroughs and
enfranchise new manufacturing cities/towns that rose from the IR
1. New industrial urban communities gain political power
Labor Reform: Poor Law ( 1834), Factory Act of 1833, 10 hour Act
iii.
iv.
Slavery abolished in the West Indies ( 1833)
Repeal of Corn Laws ( 1846) with the help of Anti-Corn League ( 1838) that
v.
sought to lower bread prices
vi.
Relatively no major crisis in England with no serious popular discontent
c. The Revolutions of 1848: influenced by nationalism ,liberalism, romanticism and
economic instability served as catalysts
i.
France: February Revolution
1. Working class and liberals were unhappy with King Louis Philippe and his
minister Guizot who opposed electoral reforms that asked to extend
suffrage
2. Second French Republic
a. Louis Blanc (socialist thinker), national workshops (created to
provide work for the unemployed, heavy cost for the gov.)
b. New constitution that established universal male suffrage
c. Split between moderate republican and radical republicans (
Parisian working class); as the workshops were a drain to the
funding, the moderate closed them. This led to a working class
rebellion that was crushed by the government
3. Election of 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte elected as president
and later emperor
ii.
Italy: Italian nationalists and liberals sought to end foreign domination of Italy
1. Mazzini established the Roman Republic in 1849
2. Austria established complete control over Lombardy and Venetia
3. French took back the papal states
iii.
Austria: ethnic minorities sought nationalistic goals
1. Hungary: Louis Kossuth demanded independence/ wanted their own
legislature
a. Revolutionary forces, guided by educated and propertied
classes, took control of the capital and insisted a constituent
assembly be called to draw up liberal constitution ( initial
success)
2. Hungarian Revolution crushed in 1849 and autocratic government was
restored
iv.
Germany: liberals demanded constitutional government and a union or
federation of German states
Frankfurt Parliament: liberal, nationalist leaders called for elections to a
v.
constituent assembly for the purpose of unifying the German states
1. In debating on the composition of the new state, the Kleindeutsch who
favored excluding Austria and making Prussian king the emperor won
and thus selected King Frederick William IV as emperor
2. But Frederick William IV rejected the liberal constitution and the
assembly disbanded, failing to create a German state
vi.
Evaluations of the Revolutions of 1848
1. Positive: universal male suffrage introduced in France, serfdom
remained abolished in Austria and German states
2. Why fail?
a. Internal division among revolutionaries:
i.
Moderate liberals from propertied classes failed to
extend suffrage to the working classes who had helped
achieved the revolution, feared of the radicalism of the
working class (ex. Louis Blanc)
ii.
Division among nationalist ethnic groups in the Austrian
Empire (ex. Hungary, gave no autonomy to other
minorities)
iii.
Largely urban movements where conservative
landowners and peasants disliked
M. Emergence of an Ordered Society
a. Revolutionary upheavals of the late 18c. And early 19c made the ruling elites nervous
about social disorder and potential dangers to their lives and property
b. Influx of large numbers of rural people to the cities led to horrible living conditions,
unemployment,poverty, resulting in great social dissatisfaction
i.
Increase in crime, which led to a severe reaction among middle-class urban
residents who feared that urban poor posed a threat to their security and
possessions
c. New Police Forces: development of disciplined/ order society with regular system of
police whose duty was to preserve property and lives, maintain domestic order and
investigate crimes
i.
Civilian police forces of well trained law-enforcement officers
d. French Police: serjents
i.
Lightly armed civilian force, to de-emphasize the military aspect
e. British Bobbies: resisted creation of professional police so established a system of
constables recruited by local authorities
i.
Often incapable of keeping order because of its lack of systematic organization
ii.
Bobbies: uniformed police officer Sir Robert Peel created, gradually expanded to
a sense of professionalism
f. Germany: state-financed police forced that was originally civilian, but gradually evolved
to a more military system used for political purposes with strong weaponry ( pistols,
swords etc)
i.
More organized and systematic
N. Other Approaches to the Crime Problem
a. contemporary reformers believed that increase of crime was related to the dramatic
increase in poverty
b. strongly influenced by the middle-class belief that unemployment was the result of
sheer laziness, European states passed poor laws that attempted to force paupers to
enter workhouses designed to make people so utterly uncomfortable that they would
choose to reenter the labor market
c. group of reformers argued that poor laws failed to address the real problem, which was
that poverty was a result of the moral degeneracy of the lower classes because they
were perceived as a threat to middle-class society
secular reforms to form institutes to instruct working class in applied sciences in
i.
order to make them more productive members of society
1. London Mechanics’ Institute
2. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in the Field of Natural
Sciences, Technical Science and Political Economy ( G)
ii.
organised religions
1. evangelical Sunday schools to improve the moral of working children
(GB)
2. evangelical Protestants established nurseries for orphans and homeless
children, women’s societies to care for the sick and the poor, and prison
societies that prepared women to work in prisons ( G)
3. Catholic Church brought revival of religious orders, dedicated priests and
nuns used instruction and recreation to turn young male workers away
from moral vices of gambling and drinking and female workers from
lives of prostitution
O. Prison Reform: 1820s, capital punishment was being replaced by imprisonment, incarceration
to punish and rehabilitate and transform criminals into upright moral people in society
P. Romanticism: new intellectual movement emerged to challenge Enlightenment’s preoccupation
with reason, stress to importance of intuition, feeling, emotion and imagination
a. Emotion over reason, glorification of nature, individualism
b. Philosophical forerunners: Rousseau, Kant
c. Poetry: direct expression of one’s soul
i.
Lord Byron: melancholic Romantic hero who defy the world
ii.
Percy Shelley: revolt of human beings against laws and customs
d. Love of nature
i.
William Wordsworth: glorified mystical experience of nature,poet
ii.
Pantheism: divinity in nature
e. Critique of Science: criticized mechanistic materialism of 18c. ( IR), which they believed
devalued nature and left no room for imagination of the human soul
Frankenstein represented danger of science when it tried to conquer nature
i.
ii.
Believed that IR would cause people to be alienated from their inner selves
and the natural world around them
f. Gothic literature: horror, attraction to bizarre and unusual, extraordinary states of
dreams, nightmares; states of consciousness, exploration of psychology
i.
Edgar Allan Poe and Mary Shelley
g. Passionate interest in the past: Grimm Brothers collected and published local fairy tales
(folklore, nationalism and romanticism together); revival of medieval Gothic
architecture ( British House of Parliament)
i.
Fascination with the past; mysticism, sense of mystery provoke imagination
h. Art: glorification of nature, artistic expression was a reflection of artist’s inner feelings,
expressive
i.
Friedrich: mystical view of the sublime power of nature; expressive
ii.
Turner: interplay of light and color to depict natural effects;landscapes and
seascapes; sunrise and sunset; convey mood/emotion → anticipate
impressionist
iii.
Delacroix: exotic and dramatic use of color; theatricality
i. Music: human emotions
i.
Beethoven: music reflect inner feelings; fear, terror, horror, transitional figure
ii.
Berlioz: use the moods and sound effects of instrumental music to depict the
actions and emotions inherent in a story, event of personal experience/
passionate emotions
j. Revival of Religion
i.
Catholicism: reinforced through attraction to the Middle Ages and emphasis and
fascination with sublime force of divinity; nobles brought new appreciation for
Catholic faith as a force of order
ii.
Protestantism: Great Awakening, enthusiastic experiences of Methodism and
Pietism, evangelical, emotional, enthusiastic preaching/individualistic/spiritual
k. Romanticism’s connection to politics and revolution: romantics believed revolutionary
movements would give people more freedom and control over their lives
i.
Supported nationalistic movements that emphasized cultural traditions and
languages
ii.
Art idealized movements ( delacroix liberty leading the people)