Kīrtan and Bhajan
Kīrtan and bhajan, viewed collectively, are the
most important and most widely prevalent forms
of Hindu devotional musical expression in India,
South Asia, and in the diasporas. Appearing in
ancient scriptures as simply “praise or worship of
a deity,” they were later affixed to musical performance, and for the past thousand years or more
have been primarily associated with a musical
event comprising songs of glorification and worship of god or the chanting of names of a deity.
They are thus nearly synonymous with “bhakti
saṅgīt,” devotional music that became central to
the growth of the medieval → bhakti traditions:
Kirtan [as well as Bhajan] was of major importance to the maintenance and proliferation of
the religious beliefs and practices of popular
Hinduism . . . Kirtan means glorifying someone
or something by reciting or discoursing upon
his or its fine attributes. This sense of meaning
is still current; but, more commonly, Kirtan is
associated with a musical setting of a text that
glorifies a deity. While it is not possible to
determine exactly when the term acquired a
musical meaning, there is no doubt that the
modern usage of Kirtan as a musical term is an
extension of the practices of the medieval
Bhakti saints who used Kirtan as a means of
disseminating the emotional devotionalism
that they espoused. (Slawek, 1996, 57f.)
Despite apparent uniformity in the use of the
terms kīrtan and bhajan, however, most of the
bhakti religious traditions, including also Sikhism, employ them in referring to their own particular style of devotional music.
As operative forms of devotional musical
expression, kīrtan and bhajan are similar to the
Western hymn (hymnus, “song of praise or worship”) or psalm (psalmos, “plucked song of praise”)
as found in classical and biblical traditions, as
well as Sufi songs of praise in Islamic South Asia.
Just as the hymn in the West incorporates both
classical and vernacular forms, in India the concept is also present in the Sanskrit → Stotra and
Sūkta (hymns of praise) that accompany Vedic
rites. While kīrtan derives from the Sanskrit root
kīrt- (“to glorify or praise”), bhajan shares with the
word bhakti and Bhagavān (Lord) the common
Sanskrit root bhaj-, “to share, to partake of ” (as in
a rite). Bhagavān means the Lord who possesses
bhaga, good fortune, opulence. Kīrtan and bhajan,
as terms for religious or devotional music apart
from Vedic chant and the evolving classical traditions, are thus directly linked to the growing
bhakti movements, and are performed so that
God, Bhagavān, is praised or worshipped in a
mutual exchange of loving affection or bhakti.
Kīrtan and bhajan performance, like almost
all types of Indian → music, include musical
instruments. Percussion instruments as well as
a drone are most essential. Membranophones
and idiophones include pairs of hand cymbals
called kartāl or jhāṅjh, drums such as the tablā,
pakhavāj, ḍholak, or khol, and occasionally bells,
clappers, or tambourines. Bowed chordophones
such as the sāraṅgī or isrāj provide melodic support for the singing, but the harmonium has
tended to replace these. The drone is provided
by a tanpurā, if not by the harmonium or a śruti
box, a small pumped instrument used in Carnatic
music.
But while the terms kīrtan and bhajan are often
used interchangeably in common parlance, they
begin to differ when linguistic and contextual
aspects are examined more closely. For example,
from a linguistic view (see above), kīrtan refers
strictly to a song that praises or glorifies a deity,
and bhajan refers to a song that affects a personal
communion or emotional exchange with the
divine. Geographic factors also shape distinctive
meanings. In the North, kīrtan may refer to
the act of devotional singing itself, with bhajan
meaning a specific song. In the South, the reverse
is found. Most recently, “bhajan” signifies a
solo devotional song performed at the conclusion
of a concert of North Indian classical vocal music:
“Bhajan has become commonly associated in
North India with devotional songs sung in a
semi-classical style by Hindustani vocalists”
(Slawek, 1996, 61). In certain cases, bhajan refers
to a specialized type of praise song associated
with a religious movement or → guru, some
perhaps non-Hindu; for example, sai bhajans in
honor of → Sathya Sai Baba, jain bhajans in honor
of Mahāvīra (see → Hinduism and Jainism).
Regarding what constitutes kīrtan and bhajan,
there have been misleading distinctions and
appellations. For example, a few distinctions
586
Kīrtan and Bhajan
regarding the object of affection have been
advanced. According to P.L. Sharma,
[A] devotional song addressing the Saguna
conception of a deity [with attributes] may be
termed either Kirtan or Bhajan. A religious
song addressing the Nirguna aspect of the
divine [without attributes], however, should
not be considered Kirtan, but could be accepted
as a Bhajan. (Slawek, 1996, 60)
In response, the persistent use of the term “kīrtan”
in Sikhism, a → nirguṇa tradition, serves to invalidate this prescription. Another less useful distinction is that between deva kīrtan (addressed to a
male deity) and devī kīrtan (addressed to a female
deity), since kīrtans and bhajans often combinelly
address gods and goddesses (e.g. Sītā-Rām,
Rādhā-Kṛsṇ ạ , Śiva-Śakti, etc.). And, in modern
times, the appellation of kīrtan is too often used
(misleadingly) to refer to what is actually nām
kīrtan, the call-and-response practice of devotional singing of divine names among worshipping congregations.
Classifications derived from literary and musical structure are perhaps the most successful,
along with some basic performative dimensions
that may be noted. Two divisions of both kīrtan
and bhajan may be enunciated that are useful for
readers and scholars but may not be actually used
by the groups performing them. Kīrtan that contains lyrics that describe the nature or activities of
a deity is pada kīrtan (pada, “words,” “lyrics”),
whereas kīrtan that merely contains a series of
divine names is nām kīrtan (nām, “name,” “epithet”) or saṃ kīrtan (community nām kīrtan).
There is a parallel distinction related to the term
bhajan: pada bhajan (rarely used) and nām
bhajan. In actual use, the terms kīrtan or bhajan
most often refer to the definition of pada kīrtan,
unless qualified as nām kīrtan, nām bhajan, or
saṃ kīrtan, and so on. Musically, nām kīrtan (or
nām bhajan) compositions tend toward speedier
tempos and simpler melodies, whereas pada
kīrtan songs tend toward slower tempos and
more complex musical structures based on rāga
(melodic formula) and tāla (rhythmic cycle). In
addition, the performance of pada kīrtan normally requires formal training in Indian music,
whereas nām kīrtan (or nām bhajan), being of
simpler structure, is accessible to the musically
illiterate.
There are additional delimitations with regard
to physical execution. Pada kīrtan is most often
performed in small groups, with participants
seated on the floor in proximity to a lead singer.
The term “congregational” may sometimes apply,
but there are significant types of pada kīrtan,
known in South India as kīrtana (Tam. kīrttaṉai)
and kṛti ( Tam. kiruti), or in the north as havelī
saṅgīt, samāj gāyān (Braj area), śabad kīrtan
(Sikhism), and padāvali kīrtan (Bengal) that may
be performed by professional or well-trained
musicians with less audience participation. A
principal exception is the āratī (waving of the
light pūjā) song, which is most often a standing,
congregational pada kīrtan. Nām kīrtan, while
sometimes performed on the floor, is essentially a
standing event, even in temples. Otherwise, nām
kīrtan is performed outdoors in public as walking
nām kīrtan or saṃ kīrtan (also called nagar kīrtan).
The most developed form of pada kīrtan in Bengal, called padāvali kīrtan (or pala kīrtan), is usually a standing event. As the drum used (khol) in
Bengal is very suitable for stand-up performance,
players of the khol often combine drumming with
elaborate dancing movements and gestures.
For pada kīrtan performance, a separate space
in a temple, either facing or adjacent to a deity, is
frequently designated for singers and musicians.
Reading lyrics from an anthology, the leader sings
and plays on the harmonium, flanked by players
of drum (pakhavāj, tablā, or ḍholak) and hand
cymbal (kartāl or jhāṅjh). The harmonium is an
Indian floor version of the upright, portable reed
organ used by 19th-century Christian missionaries, yet the metal reed is South Asian in origin.
Group members generally repeat the lines in unison after the leader in a call and response format,
though the leader may also sing solo with alternating refrains sung by the group. To facilitate
devotional music, varieties of printed hymnals
are available.
Nām kīrtan or nām bhajan that is performed as
part of solitary devotional practice is known as
japamālā (chanting on beads), which may be
combined with → mantra invocation, recitation of
scripture, and other private → pūjā activities.
Japamālā is normally carried out in declamatory
fashion in one or two monotones, or else muttered in near silence.
As an aid toward the understanding of kīrtan
and bhajan as important practices within bhakti
traditions, this article first presents a brief
description of the connection between music and
the divine in Hindu tradition. This is followed by
a discussion of bhakti devotion with citation of
Kīrtan and Bhajan
selected passages from Sanskrit texts that endorse
kīrtan and bhajan as central aspects of theistic
worship. It will then briefly present some of the
principal musical genres of pada kīrtan (or pada
bhajan), such as havelī saṅgīt, samāj gāyan, padāvali
kīrtan, śabad kīrtan, kīrtana, and kṛti, found in
traditions of bhakti from medieval times to the
present. This is followed by a discussion of the more
popular forms of nām kīrtan and nām bhajan.
Music and the Divine
Musical sound as part of worship and devotion
has occupied a central place in Indian religions
since ancient times. Music also has an abiding
presence in Hindu mythology as found, for example, in the goddess → Sarasvatī depicted with the
vīṇā (a musical instrument) in her hand and
believed to be the patroness of music. While the
god → Brahmā the Creator plays the hand cymbals, → Viṣnu
̣ the Preserver sounds the conch shell
and also plays the flute as the incarnation → Kṛsṇ ạ .
Kṛsṇ ạ , viewed by Vaiṣnạ vas as the musical god
par excellence, dazzles the universe with his
enchanting melodies. → Śiva the Destroyer, the
dancing god who plays the → ḍamaru drum, is
recognized as the source of all rhythm in the universe, and is central to ancient Indian classical
music and → dance traditions.
The religion of the ancient Āryans, both in
India and Iran, incorporated the chanted word
(mantra or manthra) in combination with sacrificial activity as the requisite means to interact with
the cosmos. The Vedic texts of the Indo-Aryans
(ca. 4000–1800 BCE; → Vedas) were proclaimed
to be eternal, authorless, and the embodiment of
the primeval sound that generated the universe,
the syllable → oṃ (auṃ ). The Ṛgveda, Yajurveda,
Sāmaveda, and Atharvaveda contained mantras
(ritual hymns and incantations) to specific deities
that required effective execution as intoned
speech, with the meter of each mantra associated
with a particular god or divine power.
The syllable oṃ , the condensed powers of the
Vedic mantras, became identified with śabdabrahman
or nādabrahman (the sound absolute; see → philosophy of language). → Brahman, the absolute
truth of the → Upaniṣads, was then personified as
male → Īśvara (“Lord”) and Nādaśakti (“Female
Sound Energy”). Each male deity in the evolving
Hindu pantheon contained this element of sacred
sound as represented by a female consort.
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Nādaśakti thus remained ever-present within the
evolving Vaiṣnạ va, Śaiva, and Śākta theistic and
devotional (bhakti) traditions of worship, with
the notion of sacred sound manifest through
chant and music providing a link between the
human and divine.
The aesthetics of kīrtan and bhajan are also
rooted in Vedic literature. The major Upaniṣads
describe brahman as full of → rasa (raso vai sāḥ :
brahman as composed of emotional taste, pleasure). Hence the performing arts, like theater and
music, were closely aligned with religion since
their goal was to produce rasa which led to → liberation or mokṣa. Brahman as Īśvara (personal
deity whether Viṣnu
̣ , Śiva, or Śakti) was the prime
source of the emotional pleasure produced by
musicians (and actors).
The abiding link between music and the divine
is also observed through musical features. Vedic
priests chanted verses from the Ṛgveda in roughly
three accented notes, interpreted to correspond
with the tonic (middle C), a whole step below
(B flat), and a half step above (D flat). Vedic chants
such as the gāyatrīmantra and the Puruṣasūkta
follow the three-tone system, and continued to be
chanted this way during the developing rites of
Hindu pūjā.
The Sāmaveda contains verses (mostly from
the Ṛgveda) set to melodies involving 5–7 notes
in a descending scale. These sāmans were rendered during sacrifices involving the offering of
soma juice, and were believed to possess supernatural qualities capable of petitioning and summoning deities in control of natural forces.
Meaningless syllables called stobhas were inserted
and extended vocally by the singers, enhancing
these functions. Regarding the power of musical
sound in Vedic rituals, G.U. Thite has stated that
the [Vedic] poet-singers call, invoke, and invite
the gods with the help of musical elements. In
so doing they seem to be aware of the magnetic
power of music and therefore they seem to be
using that power in calling the gods. (Thite,
1997, 68)
The Vedic gods responded to music with appreciation:
Gods are fond of music. They like music and
enjoy it. The poet-singers sing and praise the
gods with the intention that the gods may be
pleased thereby and having become pleased,
they may grant gifts. (Thite, 1997, 71)
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Kīrtan and Bhajan
Parallel to the tradition of sāman singing was
gandharvasaṃ gīta, also known as simply gandharva. Gandharvasaṃ gīta (“celestial music”), the
Āgama counterpart to the Vedic sāmans, was the
earthly music that replicated the music in heaven,
and included the playing of vīṇā, flutes, drums,
and cymbals. In heaven, this music was performed by the gandharvas, groups of male singers
led by → ṛsị Nārada and accompanied by dancing
apsarases and the kiṃ naras on musical instruments (see → gandharvas and apsarases). Nārada,
the son of Brahmā and Sarasvatī, is said to have
instructed humans in gandharva. The recently
discovered text of the Dattilam is one of very few
surviving sources of ancient gandharva tradition,
along with Bhārata’s Nāṭyaśāstra (both c. 300 BCE).
The Dattilam describes gandharvasaṃ gīta as a
highly regulated sacred tradition of music used to
propitiate the gods, especially Śiva and Viṣnu
̣ .
It was governed by strict rules of melody and
rhythm and was performed in ritual and liturgical contexts. Gradually, the ascending gandharva
scale (in NāṭŚā. 28.21) prevailed over the
Sāmaveda scale to form the current seven-note
system: sa ri ga ma pa dha ni (compare C D E F G
A B of the western diatonic scale, but with varieties of accidentals to form rāga scales). This system
was employed by all succeeding traditions of
kīrtan and bhajan of the bhakti traditions.
The ancient epics of → Mahābhārata and
→ Rāmayaṇa, and the → Purāṇas (Histories) contain descriptions of temple musicians and dancers
performing for the pleasure of the gods. Gandharva music was also associated with drama, as
evidenced in Bhārata’s Nāṭyaśāstra wherein special ritual songs called dhruva were rendered, not
in Sanskrit, but in Prakrit, a derivative vernacular
with less rigid grammar. The dhruvas set a precedent for the later Hindu liturgical and devotional
music, and were thus prototypes for the medieval
genres of pada kīrtan that were the basis of classical and devotional forms sung in vernacular.
The melody formulas of Indian music are
known as rāga (color or emotion). Each rāga possesses a unique mood or flavor (rasa) mysteriously embodied within it, and is capable of
generating these feelings within the minds of
listeners when properly invoked. If directed
to brahman or Īśvara (Lord), understood as
nādabrahman, and performed properly in the
spirit of bhakti, then both musicians and listeners
gain momentum for eventual release and the association of god.
Rhythm or tāla was vitally important in religious music, and a salient factor in the achievement of liberation (mokṣa). According to the
Indian philosophy of → Mīmāṃ sā, Vedic ritual
chants were punctuated by metrical divisions
that, besides being aids to memorization, generated distinct units of unseen merit that accrued
to the patron of the sacrifice and assured an afterlife in heaven. The punctuated units of rhythm
in gandharva music carried the same liberating
effect as the Vedic unseen merit, as explained in
commentaries on the Dattilam. This was achieved
by the rhythms of the hand cymbals and the beats
of the drums. This ancient theory of music, based
upon the Vedic ritual system, explained how both
musicians and audience were able to earn liberation through the accumulation of unseen merit
as exemplified in the marking of ritual (musical)
time.
Tālas (time cycles) are composed of tālis (claps)
and khalis (“waves”; turning of the palm upwards).
In pada kīrtan, there are many complex tālas of 7,
10, 12, 14, and 16 beats (mātras) with claps and
waves intertwined. In nām kīrtan and current
forms of lighter bhajan (see below), simple rhythmic cycles of 6, 8, and 16 beats are most common.
In each case, there is a built-in system of tension
and release in the counting of the alternating
claps and waves. Not mere aesthetic diversions,
however, these exercises reflect the continuity
with Vedic ritual time.
Music, already associated with nādabrahman
and mokṣa, continued to be linked with Brahmā,
Viṣnu
̣ , and Śiva into medieval times. The
Saṃ gītaratnākara of Śṛnġ adeva (ca. 1200–1250 CE)
opens with the salutation:
We worship Nāda-Brahman, that incomparable
bliss which is immanent in all the creatures as
intelligence and is manifest in the phenomena
of this universe. Indeed, through the worship of
Nāda-Brahman are worshipped gods (like)
Brahmā, Viṣnu
̣ , and Śiva, since they essentially
are one with it. (trans. Shringy & Sharma,
108–109)
Bhakti
We now approach the subject of bhakti and the
appropriation of kīrtan and bhajan into specific
bhakti traditions. Bhakti is the concept of approaching god exclusively through love and devotion, as
enunciated in classical Hindu literature, especially
Kīrtan and Bhajan
the epics, the Purāṇas and the → Bhagavadgītā.
Bhaktas, persons following bhakti, are in fact
organized into a large number of → sampradāyas,
denominations or sects, with the Vaiṣnạ vas in the
majority. However, they all have much in common with regard to ritual practices and the adoption of kīrtan and bhajan in worship.
By the 6th century CE, the bhakti movement
emerged in South India, favoring a devotion-centered Hinduism over one governed by priests and
rituals. This new wave sustained the Sanskrit tradition, yet embraced songs and hymns in vernacular dialects directed toward favorite deities such
as Śiva and Viṣnu
̣ (Kṛsṇ ạ ). Bhakti became the primary motivation for creating and performing
religious music from the early medieval period.
Vaiṣnạ va refers to the worship of Viṣnu
̣ or one
of his → avatāras (embodiments) such as → Rāma
or Kṛsṇ ạ . The deity of Kṛsṇ ạ has been the
most popular object of bhakti devotional music.
While there are numerous examples of devotional
music directed at other deities like Śiva, Gaṇeśa
(→ Gaṇapati/Gaṇeśa), and the goddesses → Durgā
and Sarasvatī, the prevalence of Kṛsṇ ạ -centered
devotional music is evidenced by the enormous
literary output in the form of song texts and
poetry. S. Thielemann has affirmed the superiority of music in Vaiṣnạ va devotion, especially
Kṛsṇ ạ -based traditions (see Singer, 1968), with
regard to its dialectic of expression and arousal:
Music and singing have been of central importance in the Vaiṣnạ va Bhakti movement since
its very beginnings . . . In the theological sense,
we may distinguish between offered and received
music, between music directed to the divinity
and music conceived through divine inspiration. Both poles of the dialectic constellation
are carried forth by the underlying devotional
element: a person endowed with devotion
makes the musical offering out of love for God,
and it is his devotion that enables man to partake of divine blessing in the form of music. It
is important to note that the dialectic principle
can work only in devotional religion, because it
presupposes an active and two-sided relationship between man and the divinity. (Thielemann, 1999, 333–334)
Orthodox Vaiṣnạ va lineages were established during the later medieval period that propagated this
new “vernacular devotion.” The Bhāgavatapurāṇa
was the key text in Sanskrit for giving Brahmanical sanction to devotion with its direct exposition
589
of the principles of bhakti. Herein, bhakti is elevated as a distinct doctrine and mode of religious
life superior to knowledge ( jñāna; → wisdom and
knowledge) and works (→ karman). Following the
directions given in the Bhagavadgītā and the
Bhāgavatapurāṇa, bhakti practitioners acknowledged devotional kīrtan and bhajan as primary
vehicles of personal access to the divine. Hence,
in addition to Sanskrit treatises and prayers, vernacular songs in the form of pada kīrtan came to
prominence in the liturgical and devotional contexts of the emerging bhakti traditions throughout various regions, first in the South and then in
the North. Parallel to largely liturgical pada kīrtan
was the predominance of nām kīrtan in groups
encouraging greater outreach among the masses.
The huge popularity of certain forms of nām
kīrtan in the towns and villages of India was due
in large part to the belief in the need for, and the
efficacy of, a simplified chant that was sufficient
for liberation in the present age of declining morals (kaliyuga; → cosmic cycles). Before discussing
some of the specific vernacular traditions of
kīrtan and bhajan, two key Sanskrit sources that
endorse kīrtan and bhajan as central features of
bhakti theistic worship are cited.
Sanskrit Sources
The authoritative textual endorsement of kīrtan
and bhajan with reference to bhakti is most
pronounced in the Bhagavadgītā and the
Bhāgavatapurāṇa, two important Vaiṣnạ va scriptures. These two Sanskrit texts are so influential
that sectaries of many other deities utilize them as
authorities for their own practices.
The Bhagavadgītā provides two sequential
verses that contain all three of the key terms –
kīrtan, bhajan, bhakti – with a shared objective.
The Bhagavadgītā states:
But great-souled men take up their stand in a
nature that is divine; and so with minds intent
on naught but [Me], they love-and-worship
[bhajanty] Me, knowing [Me to be] the beginning of [all] contingent beings, as Him who
passes not away. Me do they ever glorify
[kīrtayanto], (for Me) they strive, full firm in
their vows; to me do they bow down, devotedin-their-love [bhaktyā], and integrated ever
(in themselves) they pay me worship. (BhG.
9.13–14; trans. Zaehner, 279)
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Kīrtan and Bhajan
In both cases, the terms kīrtan (kīrtayanto) and
bhajan (bhajanti) as appearing here refer primarily to any act of worship or loving devotion,
without a necessary musical connection. Some
modern translaters and interpreters have preferred the musical interpretation (e.g. Srila
A.C. → Bhaktivedanta Swami translated kirtayanto
as simply “chanting”), while others have not (e.g.
S. → Radhakrishnan, “glorifying”).
The Bhāgavatapurāṇa (6th–9th cent. CE) further endorses kīrtan and bhajan as near statutory
practices within bhakti worship, with some of the
musical dimensions becoming explicit in certain
passages. In the Bhāgavatapurāṇa bhakti is
described with reference to nine prescribed activities, of which kīrtan is the second:
Hearing and glorifying/chanting [kīrtanam]
about the sacred name, form, qualities, paraphernalia and pastimes of Lord Viṣnu
̣ , remembering them, serving the feet of the Lord,
offering worship to the image of Lord, offering
prayers to the Lord, becoming His servant,
considering the Lord one’s friend, and surrendering everything unto Him; these nine processes are known as pure bhakti service.
(BhāgP. 7.5.23; trans. by the author)
Kīrtan and pūjā are inextricably linked in the
Bhāgavatapurāṇa:
Eagerness to hear My deathless tale again and
again and to expatiate on it; the hymning of My
glories [ anukīrtanam ] and solicitous assistance
at My worship [pūjāyām]. (BhāgP. 11.19.20;
trans. Raghunathan, vol. II, 595)
Additional prescriptive references to kīrtan in
the Bhāgavatapurāṇa are as follows: 2.1.11,
yatkīrtanam; 2.4.15, kīrtanam; 4.31.25, harikīrtanam;
6.1.30, harikīrtanam; 7.11.8–12, kīrtanam; 10.38.4,
kīrtanam (of the Vedas).
In the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, kīrtan and bhajan are
also understood to be expressed musically in the
form of song, represented here with the Sanskrit
words gayan (“singing”) and gītā (“song”). The
Bhāgavatapurāṇa indicates ways of worship which
cause the mind to become fully immersed in the
contemplation of god, including listening to
divine stories, singing, and enacting divine deeds:
The man who hears with faith the auspicious
tales of My exploits, which purify the worlds,
sings [gayann] the glories of My life and work,
dwelling in his mind on them with love, often
imitating them in his own person, and devotes
himself to Dharma, Artha, and Kama for My
sake, putting his trust wholly in Me – that man
gains a rock-like devotion to Me, the Eternal,
O Uddhava.” (BhāgP. 11.11.23; trans. Raghunathan, vol. II, 561)
The relevance of music and singing as a pure
expression of spontaneous bhakti is confirmed in
Bhāgavatapurāṇa 11.14.24:
The man who is filled with love for Me [bhakti],
whose voice falters with emotion, whose heart
melts within him, who weeps often and sometimes laughs, who sings aloud [udgayati] and
dances unabashed, purifies the world. (trans.
Raghunathan, vol. II, 573)
Gītā (“song”) is prescribed as part of daily worship, according to Bhāgavatapurāṇa 11.27.35:
Bathing the image after the ceremonial cleaning of the teeth, oiling and ceremonial massaging or anointing with ‘panchamrita,’ holding
the mirror to the face, offering food and dainties, and entertainment with song [gītā] and
dance, should be features of the daily worship,
if he can manage it, or should be done at least
on special days such as the Parvas. (trans. Raghunathan, vol. II, 630–631)
In Bhāgavatapurāṇa 11.11.36, song (gītā), dance
(tāṇḍava), and instrumental music (vāditra) are
mentioned as equal components of the divine
service in the temple:
Reciting the story of My births and exploits;
celebrating important events connected with
Me; conducting festivals in My temples with
congregational singing [gītā], dancing [tāṇḍava]
and music [vāditra, “instruments”]. (trans.
Raghunathan, vol. II, 563)
Bhāgavatapurāṇa 11.27.45 states that hymns and
songs should be in vernacular dialects:
Chanting in My praise the hymns of the
ancients and the panegyrics of latter-day singers [prakṛtair], he should throw himself down
on the ground like a stick, making his prostrations to Me with the words “Be Pleased, O
Lord, to shower Thy grace on Me.” (trans. Raghunathan, vol. II, 632)
Here, the use of vernaculars as suitable for the
praise of god is given scriptural authority by the
Bhāgavatapurāṇa, which prescribes Sanskrit hymns
(paurāṇastotra) as well as verses composed in
Prakrit (“local languages”, i.e. Hindi, Brajbhasha,
Kīrtan and Bhajan
Bengali, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, etc). Backed by
this pronouncement, the Vaiṣnạ va bhakti traditions have produced an immense corpus of vernacular devotional poetry which is sung along
with hymns in Sanskrit in temples all over India.
According to the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, the easiest
method of evoking the divine presence in the
kaliyuga is saṃ kirtan, the congregational glorification and incessant repetition of god’s name.
Bhāgavatapurāṇa 11.5.32 underscores the importance of saṃ kīrtan as part of bhakti worship in the
present age (kaliyuga; → cosmic cycles) in order to
guarantee spiritual fulfillment:
In Kalī, too, they worship according to the
modes prescribed in various Agamas; let me
describe them. Men of enlightenment worship
Him, Who is of a brilliant sapphire-blue in
complexion [Kṛsṇ ạ ], along with different parts
of His body, His ornaments, weapons and
attendants, according to modes of worship in
which the singing of His praises and the recital
of His names [saṃ kīrtana] play a predominant
part. (trans. Raghunathan, vol.II, 534, see
also 535)
The high significance of saṃ kīrtan (nām kīrtan)
for destroying all sins is reaffirmed in the final
concluding verse in Bhāgavatapurāṇa 12.13.23:
I offer my adoration to Hari, the Supreme, the
recital of Whose names [nāmasaṃ kīrtanam]
destroys all sins, and humble submission to
Whom brings surcease of sorrow. (trans. Raghunathan, vol. II, 698)
Pada Kīrtan
While the Sanskrit sources cited above have
endorsed kīrtan and bhajan, musical and nonmusical, as authentic and legitimate activities of
bhakti practice toward any or all deities, various
styles or types of kīrtan and bhajan flourished
within specific bhakti traditions. And since bhakti
literature quickly became an expanding body of
song texts in regional vernacular languages,
assorted forms of pada kīrtan and nām kīrtan
emerged among various language and ethnic
groups.
Composers of pada kīrtan song texts were
strongly influenced, directly or indirectly, by
the Gītāgovinda of Jayadeva, a Sanskrit work of
12th-century CE Bengal that became a landmark
in devotional literature. This work contained lin-
591
guistic innovations in Sanskrit meter and poetics
(i.e., distributions of vowels and consonants,
alternating refrain and stanzas) that would inform
new patterns of vernacular musical composition.
In fact, the notion of a unifying structure or paradigm behind kīrtan, bhajan and even classical
music, was finally set in place by Jayadeva in his
Gītāgovinda, wherein a closed form consisting of
a refrain (dhruva) and eight stanzas ( pada or
caraṇa) was presented. Musicologist H. Powers
summarized the wide-ranging effects of Jayadeva’s influence on pada kīrtan composition:
After each stanza the refrain is sung, and the
text is structured semantically and often grammatically so that the independent refrain is also
a logical or even necessary completion of the
stanza. In the performance of devotional Kirtana (“praise song”) a leader and a group normally sing the stanzas and refrain alternately.
There is a musical as well as textual contrast
between the theme of the refrain and the theme
of the verse, and there is usually a musical
and a textual end-rhyme common to refrain
and verse. These three textually determined
features – leading back, contrast of refrain and
verse, and musical rhyme – are fundamental to
the performing practice not only of Kirtan
singing (or, as devotional song is now often
called, Bhajan) but also of Hindustani and Carnatic classical music. (Powers, 1980, 75)
Following Jayadeva’s innovations, an immense
outpouring of similarly-structured vernacular
devotional poetry addressed almost every deity in
the Hindu pantheon, though primarily directed
towards Viṣnu
̣ and his incarnations of Kṛsṇ ạ and
Rāma. First in the South, the Haridāsa saints
(→ Haridāsī Sampradāya) like Naraharitīrtha (1300s,
who actually resided in Orissa, the place of Jayadeva), Śrīpādarāya, and Purandaradāsa wrote
kīrtans in Kannada language expressing devotion
to Hari (Viṣnu
̣ or Kṛsṇ ạ ), Annamācārya in Telugu
to Śrī → Veṅkat ̣eśvara (Viṣnu
̣ ), Śyāmaśāstri in
Telugu devoted to the Goddess (→ Mahādevī), and
→ Tyāgarājā in Telugu to Rāma. In the North,
→ Sūrdās (1500s), Nandadās, Paramānandadās, and
Svāmi Haridās wrote in Brajbhasha about Kṛsṇ ạ ;
Śrī → Hit Harivaṃ ś (→ Rādhāvallabha Sampradāya)
wrote in Brajbhasha about → Rādhā; → Tulsīdās
addressed Rāma in Avadhi; → Tukārām and
→ Nāmdev in Marathi expressed devotion to
Kṛsṇ ạ ; → Mīra Bāī in Rajasthani addressed Kṛsṇ ạ ;
Govindadās wrote about Kṛsṇ ạ in Brajbuli, and
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Kīrtan and Bhajan
Chandidās in Bengali expressed devotion to
Rādhā and Kṛsṇ ạ . As it were, many of these poems
were composed directly for, or later incorporated
within, Hindu temple liturgies that perpetuated
specific bhakti traditions or sectarian religious
lineages.
Parallel to the Vedic system of sacrifice
(→ yajña), the Hindu temple liturgy evolved out
of the Āgama tradition of pūjā. In pūjā, the divine
service associated with the worship of images, the
sacrificial fire altar was replaced by an altar upon
which are placed statues (mūrti) of deities requiring regular worship. The deity worship in temples
and shrines gradually developed into a complicated daily service that was enhanced during
special monthly and seasonal observances. Pūjā
is generally centered on pleasing the Lord in the
temple with offerings of food, water, incense,
flowers, fan, sweets, camphor, lampwick, unguents,
and conch. As prescribed in the Bhāgavatapurāṇa,
music and devotional songs (kīrtan and bhajan)
are important items in this arsenal of offerings.
Pūjās continued to include unaccompanied
Sanskrit chants called Stuti or Stotra (hymns of
praise), but also embraced vernacular hymns and
songs accompanied by musical instruments.
Dhrupad represents the most important musical
structure that was adopted for pada kīrtan in the
North, and is still associated with several Vaiṣnạ va
traditions of pūjā. Kṛtis as well as early kīrtanas
were and still are the principal forms of vernacular vocal music in South Indian pūjās. While the
lyrics of these forms include devotional praise
and the depiction of pastimes of chosen deities,
musically they are based upon rāgas and tālas in
the Indian music tradition.
Dhrupad was an ideal vehicle for vernacular
bhakti lyrics in the North, comprising songs primarily in the Brajbhasha dialect of Hindi. It refers
to the formal, slow, four-section vocal rendition
of a poem using the pure form of a rāga, along
with strict rhythms of cautāl (12 beats) and
dhamar (14 beats), among others. Dhamar is
another form of dhrupad-style pada kīrtan, and
refers to a slow/fast composition of 14 beats that
is sung primarily during the holī season (spring
festival). Because dhrupad is highly regulated, it
also bears similarity in concept to the ancient
gandharva music discussed above. And like many
of the Hebrew Psalms in Ancient Israel, most
dhrupads were composed with the intention of
cultic performance. Under the influence of the
Gītāgovinda and its alternating structure of
refrain and verse, Dhrupad songs developed into
a four-part structure based on the refrain
(dhruva) and additional three or more lines of
text. Dhrupad spread wherever it was patronized
in temples and courts, and developed into a high
art form. Dhrupad-style compositions in different
rāgas were also composed and retained as part of
temple liturgies in religious lineages. These were
performed by trained singers and musicians at
the appropriate times of the day and seasons of
the year.
Havelī Saṅgīt
Havelī saṅgīt is identified with the Puṣtị mārg
or Vallabha tradition (→ Vallabha Sampradāya)
founded by Śrī Vallabhācārya (1479–1531;
→ Vallabha). While described as “music performed
in the havelīs or palaces of Kṛsṇ ạ worship,” the term
“havelī saṅgīt” is actually of recent vintage. Havelīs
are merchant houses in much of Rajasthan, which
points to structure of patronage implied in the
performances. In the early hymnals and literature
of this sect, the dhrupad-style songs of the
Vallabha tradition are called kīrtan. → Sūrdās
(16th cent. CE), the famous blind poet and musician associated with the Vallabha sect and havelī
saṅgīt, spent his entire life singing and composing
kīrtans in dhrupad style to Kṛsṇ ạ ; these songs are
collected into his anthology, Sūrsagar. Sūrdās was
one of the “aṣtạ chāp” (“Eight Seals”), eight poets
of the Vallabha sect who collectively wrote thousands of pada kīrtans for the worship of Kṛsṇ ạ . The
other members included Nandadās, Paramānandadās, Kṛsṇ ạ dās, Govindasvāmi, Citsvāmi,
Kumbhandās, and Caturbhujdās. Their music has
been called the “Mother of Indian Classical
Music,” and is in fact a “close cousin” to the classical dhrupad and dhamar songs heard in medieval
courts throughout northern and central India at
that time.
The worship of Kṛsṇ ạ (as Śrī Nāthjī) in
Puṣtị mārg includes special daily and seasonal
kīrtan songs. The daily cycle (nitya kīrtan), from
morning to evening, is divided into eight periods,
with kīrtans sung in appropriate rāgas for the
times of the day. In northern India these times are
called prahāras, each comprising about three
hours. There are traditions of kīrtan performances
called aṣtạ prahāra kīrtan (one day and night).The
annual cycle (varṣotsava kīrtan) consisted of different festivals celebrated throughout the year,
such as holī, rathyātrā, śravaṇ, kṛsṇ ạ janmāṣtạ mī,
rādhāṣtạ mī, rāsalīlā, annakūṭ, and vasantpañcamī.
Kīrtan and Bhajan
In Puṣtị mārg havelī saṅgīt, the kīrtans are performed according to very conservative guidelines.
Only traditional rāgas and tālas are performed,
and any changes are strictly prohibited. Seven
main tālas are as follows: cautāl (12 beats),
dhamar (14 beats), ada cautāl (14 beats), ādī tāl
or tintāl (16 beats or in fast speed 8 beats), jhaptāl
(10 beats), sultāl (10 beats), and jhumra (14 beats).
From the point of view of musical style, there are
two prominent centers of havelī saṅgīt, Braj and
Nathdwara (Rajasthan). Havelī saṅgīt is still practiced and is found primarily in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharastra.
Samāj Gāyan
Samāj gāyan is a form of northern pada kīrtan
that is found in three Vaiṣnạ va traditions. Differing from havelī saṅgīt, samāj gāyan possesses its
own set of melodies which, though based on classical rāgas and tālas, are unique to each community. As a highly complex form of responsorial
singing, samāj gāyan requires serious training
and practice to perform properly and is less well
known than other forms of pada kīrtan and nām
kīrtan. But despite its relative obscurity, samāj
gāyan is seriously cultivated within the worship
practices of the → Nimbārka Sampradāya, the
→ Haridāsī Sampradāya, and the → Rādhāvallabha
Sampradāya, all centered in Vrindaban. Though
everything about samāj gāyan conforms to the
definitions of pada kīrtan given in this article, the
terms kīrtan or bhajan are not employed in these
three traditions.
The most conspicuous feature of samāj gāyan is
its highly interactive nature; at least two responsorial singers (jhelas) are required to respond to
each line, phrase, and exclamation of the main
singer (mukhiya) in a systematic fashion. There is
no solo samāj gāyan, since it is believed that only
through the interactive play of the participants
may the pastimes of Rādhā and Kṛsṇ ạ be invoked.
The style of singing samāj gāyan is quite different
from regular traditions of Indian music. Though
the songs are often in standard rāgas and tālas,
the verse lines are broken up in parts. First the
mukhiya (leader) sings an entire line, and then
the jhela, after adding appropriate words of exclamation (eri han, eri mai, etc.), repeats it verbatim.
The mukhiya and the jhelas, after singing and
repeating the first half and second half of each
line in this way, repeat the whole line again. After
all the lines have been rendered, the refrain is
repeated in unison in a faster tempo. The whole
593
process may take up to an hour or more depending on the number of lines of text. The instruments preferred for samāj gāyan are the same as
those of havelī saṅgīt: drum (pakhavāj or tablā),
hand cymbals (kartāl or jhāṅjh), and harmonium.
Occasionally a tanpurā, (four-stringed lute as a
drone) sāraṅgī (bowed chordophone), or isrāj, is
added.
The Nimbārka Sampradāya posits that samāj
gāyan was originally taught in Sanskrit to Narada
in the heavens by Kṛsṇ ạ himself, and then passed
down along the chain of disciplic succession to
Śrī Nimbārka (12th cent. CE). Śrī Bhaṭṭa (c. 1500–
1600 CE) composed the Yugalaśataka, a compositional model for Brajbhasha songs, and his
disciple Śrī Harivyāsadevācārya composed the
Mahāvāṇi, the main anthology used in presentday samāj gāyan. While there is no daily samāj
gāyan, the normal practice in Nimbārka tradition
consists of multiple-day sittings in one location
commemorating a special season like holī or the
birthday of one of their ācāryas (teachers; → gurus
and ācāryas).
The Haridāsī Sampradāya was founded by
Svāmi Haridās (c. 1535–1635 CE), the “Father of
Hindustani Music” and an expert singer and
musician. Tradition places him as the music
teacher of Mian Tansen who sang at the court of
Akbar (16th cent.), and whose disciples were
almost solely responsible for the transmission of
Hindustani classical music. Svāmi Haridās’ main
poetical work was the Kelimālā, a collection of
dhrupads in Brajbhasha that focuses exclusively
on the intimate loveplay between Rādhā and
Kṛsṇ ạ in Vrindaban.
Svāmi Haridās himself did not practice samāj
gāyan, but rather sang a form of solo dhrupad
heard only by his intimate followers. The sect officially adopted the practice of samāj gāyan in the
early 19th century as a means of solidifying
the group of ascetic followers living in Tatiya
Samsthan. Among the three samāj gāyan groups,
Haridāsīs follow the most rigid calendar, according to which a particular pada is sung on a
particular day of the lunar year. A special type of
samāj gāyan is performed on festival days and on
the birthdays of the ācāryas and gurus. On these
days, there is an antiphonal style in which all persons are divided into two groups, the mukhiyas
(leaders) and the jhelas (responders), which are
seated in front of the image or deity. The principal
hymnal is the Samājaśṛṅkhala (Chain of Samāj
Songs).
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Kīrtan and Bhajan
The Rādhāvallabha Sampradāya was founded
by Śrī Hit Harivaṃ ś (1502–1552), the author the
Hitacaurāsī, 84 songs in Brajbhasha. This sect
venerates Rādhā above Kṛsṇ ạ in its worship and
doctrine, and is little known outside of Braj. There
is daily samāj gāyan, however, and the subject
matter is exclusively the amorous sports of Rādhā
and Rādhāvallabha (i.e. Kṛsṇ ạ ). The Rādhāvallabha
Sampradāya claims to be the originator and longest practitioner of samāj gāyan, which it guards
with great care. The three-volume hymnal, Śrī
Rādhāvallabhjī ka Varṣotsava, is the largest of all
pada kīrtan anthologies. While many songs can
be identified with classical rāgas, there are many
slower “ballads,” mostly in dhamar style, which
have their own unique melody and character and
are not heard outside the tradition. The singers
and composers of the Rādhāvallabha Sampradāya
are known as samājīs. While their music conforms
to the definition of pada kīrtan, the term kīrtan
does not appear in their literature or tradition.
Kṛti
In South India, the songs in Tamil of the 6thto 9th-century Vaiṣnạ va → Āl ̱vārs and Śaiva
→ Nāyaṉārs represent the first hymnals of devotional music in the vernacular, providing the
foundation for the later development of the
kīrtana and the kṛti, the most refined Carnatic
classical-devotional composition. The early compositions of the Śaiva → Nāyaṉārs were collected
in the Tēvāram, which is still used in the pūjā
ceremonies of hundreds of Śaiva temples in
the south (see Peterson, 1989). The compilation
hymnal of the Vaiṣnạ va → Āl ̱vārs is called the
Divya Prabandham, and has been adopted by
several orthodox sampradāyas in the South (see
Narayanan, 1994).
The use of the term kīrtan (a) as a purely musical form of bhakti devotion was perhaps first
adopted by the Haridāsas in the 1300s, though
there are precedents in the earlier worship songs
of the → Liṅgāyat sect (Śaivism). The Haridāsas
were itinerant Vaiṣnạ va followers of the Dvaita
school (→ Vedānta) of Śrī Madhvācārya (1238–
1317; → Madhva) who sang songs of devotion
(kīrtanas) in Kannada language that also criticized social ills and worldliness. Patronized by
the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336–
1646) in Karnataka, the Haridasas almost single
handedly elevated devotional kīrtan to a major
phenomenon and forged the beginnings of
Carnatic classical music. As innovators they had
been influenced by the linguistic structure of the
Gītāgovinda:
The refrain (dhruva) and the stanzas (caraṇa) of
its [Gītāgovinda] eight-stanza form (aṣtạ padi)
set the pattern for the structure of kīrtana,
also involving a refrain (pallavi) and stanzas
(caraṇa) – a structure developed by the Haridāsa
singers of Karnataka in and after the 1300s.”
(Jackson, 2000, 262)
One of the most illustrious members of the
Haridāsa movement, Purandaradāsa (1480–1564),
hailed as the “Father of Carnatic Music,” composed thousands of kīrtanas in Kannada, and was
a major inspiration of Tyāgarājā (1759–1847)
whose devotional kṛtis in Telugu to Rāma comprise much of the current repertoire of South
Indian music. Tyāgarājā is recognized as one of a
trinity of great musician-poets from Thiruvarur
that included Śyāmaśāstri and Muttusvāmi
Dīkṣitar, composers of songs to the goddesses
Kāmākṣi and Mīnākṣi.
The kṛti (from Sanskrit kṛ-, “to create”) is a
South Indian form of classical pada kīrtan that
evolved out of the earlier, two-section kīrtanas of
Purandaradāsa. The two-section saṃ kīrtanams of
the Telugu composer Annamācārya (1424–1503)
were also important precursors. The new kṛti thus
had three distinct sections: pallavi (refrain), anupallavi (second verse elaboration of refrain), and
caraṇa (stanzas). The creative development in the
anupallavi was the addition that made the kṛti a
distinct genre of Carnatic classical music. Kṛtis
are essentially devotional but have increased their
versatility as pieces performed in a wide variety
of contexts. Regarding the relation between kṛti
and bhajan,
there are areas of overlap between Kriti and
Bhajan; some Kritis are performed congregationally by Bhajan groups, and a Bhajan or
another “light” piece may be performed at the
end of a Carnatic concert [as in Hindustani
concerts in the North].” (Viswanathan & Allen,
2004, 17)
Padāvali Kīrtan
Padāvali kīrtan is another very distinctive style of
pada kīrtan found in Bengal and Orissa. Developing primarily out of the late medieval songs of
poets Vidyāpati and Chandidās, but also drawing
upon → Baul music, pancāli recitation, Buddhist
carya gīti, and folk idioms, padāvali kīrtan became
the most sophisticated form of devotional music
Kīrtan and Bhajan
in Bengal. To reach its present structure, it was
adapted and modified from the slower dhrupad
style of Braj music by Narottamadās (1531–1587),
a follower of → Caitanya who organized a large
kīrtan festival in Kheturi in the 1570s. His originating style of padāvali kīrtan is sometimes
called garanhati kīrtan, named after the region in
present-day Bangladesh. Later styles incorporated
influences of Hindustani vocal forms like khyāl,
thumrī, and tappā.
Padāvali kīrtan combines the recitation of religious narratives (Kathā) with songs in various
tempos and rhythms composed by bhakti saints
in Bengali and Brajbuli. A session will revolve
around a theme from Rādhā-Kṛsṇ ạ pastimes,
with names like māna, pūrvarāga, rāsalīlā, dānlīlā,
mathurāgamana, etc. The songs also include short
improvisatory phrases called ākhar inserted into
the lyrics of the original songs by the singers
themselves for the purpose of interpreting or reiterating the meaning using colloquial expressions
for the benefit of local audiences. The normally
“standing” performers include one or more vocalists, khol (double-headed clay drum) players,
hand cymbal players, and sometimes a violinist
or flautist. While the tradition is dwindling today,
there are still singers of padāvali kīrtan, both male
and female, who have the ability to freely improvise ākhar on the spot. Nanda Kishor Das, Rathin
Ghosh, Śmt. Veenapani, Śmt. Radharani, and Śmt.
Chabi Bandyopadhyay are names of important
20th-century performers and recording artists.
Śabad Kīrtan
Śabad ( Skt. śabda, “word”) kīrtan is the term used
by Sikhs to refer to their devotional singing.
Śabad kīrtan was started by Guru Nānak himself
at Kartarpur in the early 1500s and was strengthened by his successors and particularly by Guru
Arjan at Amritsar. In spite of several interruptions, śabad kīrtan continued to be performed at
the Golden Temple and other historical gurdvārās
with due attention to rāga and tāla. The idea of
kīrtan in Sikhism means singing a devotional
song in praise of Akal Purakh or “the Timeless
One” (God). Sikhism venerates nirguṇa brahman
(brahman without attributes) above saguṇa brahman (brahman with attributes), following Nānak
and the earlier Sant poet → Kabīr (13th–14th cent.).
While the musical style of Kabīr is uncertain, Sikh
tradition adopted the style of dhrupad and its use
of rāga and tāla:
595
Most of the songs of medieval poet-saints were
sung in the Dhrupadstyle by trained professional singers, and this was one of the styles
that became the model for Shabad Kirtan in
early Sikh tradition. (Singh, 2006, 141)
Śabad kīrtan maintained this style and has been
an integral part of Sikh worship up to the present
day.
The main scripture of the Sikhs is the Śrī Guru
Granth Sahib (or Ādigranth), which contains the
songs of Guru Nānak, Guru Arjan and other Sikh
Gurus a well as those of Kabīr, Nāmdev, and
Raidās (→ Ravidās), etc. While the original śabad
kīrtan (known as “śabads”) may have been written in Brajbhasha, Hindi, Punjabi, or other dialects, they have been transcribed into a special
script known as Gurmukhi. The śabads are
arranged in chapters named after classical rāgas,
and the title of the śabad has a numeric notation
which gives the singers an idea of the tāla. Instruments include tablā and harmonium, but current
trends supplement these with chordophones.
The forms of pada kīrtan described here have
developed along similar musical lines regardless
of sectarian message or affiliation. Believers in
nirguṇa brahman (absolute without qualities,
including → Sants, Sikhism) as well as saguṇa
brahman (absolute with qualities, including Vaiṣṇava,
Śaiva, or Śāktas) all drew from the evolving musical genres, patterns of rāga and tāla structures,
and assortments of instruments. The next forms,
nām kīrtan and bhajan are more pan-Indian and
less tied to sectarian affiliation.
Nām Kīrtan, Nām Bhajan, and
Saṃ kīrtan
The collective singing of divine names is very
popular everywhere in India and is properly called
nām kīrtan, saṃ kīrtan, or nām bhajan. Sung and
danced to simple melodies accompanied by
drums and cymbals, nām kīrtan or nām bhajan
expresses fervent devotion and serves as a
more immediate means of spiritual release than
performing ordinary temple pūjā or religious observances. As we have seen above, the Bhāgavatapurāṇa
regards nām kīrtan or saṃ kīrtan, the glorification
and incessant repetition of God’s name, as the
principal way towards spiritual fulfillment in the
present age of kaliyuga. Primarily a congregational practice in call and response form, nām
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Kīrtan and Bhajan
kīrtan or saṃ kīrtan enables persons not schooled
in classical music traditions to experience a parallel sense of musical elation.
Four examples of popular nām kīrtan are:
• hare kṛsṇ ạ hare kṛsṇ ạ kṛsṇ ạ kṛsṇ ạ hare hare
hare rāma hare rāma rāma rāma hare hare.
Hare kṛsṇ ạ , the chant known as the mahāmantra
(great mantra [for deliverance]), was propounded
by Śrī Caitanya Mahāprabhu (early 16th cent.)
and other bhakti saints, and continues by pious
Vaiṣnạ vas in India, and worldwide by Indian and
non-Indian members of the Hare Kṛsṇ ạ movement (→ ISKCON). It purports to be a petition to
Rādhā (“Harā”), the energy of Kṛsṇ ạ , and to Kṛsṇ ạ
who is also full of pleasure (“Rāma”).
• sītā rām, sītā rām, sītā rām jaya sītā rām (“All
glories to Lord Rāma and his consort Sītā”).
• oṃ nāmah śivāya (“I bow to Lord Śiva”).
• jai mātā dī (“Glory to the Mother Goddess”).
Careful attention is given to the names of god in
the nām kīrtan traditions, since the names themselves contain revealed truths for the followers.
As explained,
God is identical with such a self-revealed name,
God’s sabda, and that lends power to the sound
of the Name itself. Repetition of the Name is
the most powerful remedy against all sins and
faults. The sins against the Name itself, however, are unpardonable and exclude a person
from the community of bhaktas as a heretic.”
(Klostermaier, 1989, 216)
Current Trends in Kīrtan and
Bhajan
In the first half of the 20th century, some devotional music became associated with the general
anticipation of Indian political independence,
finally achieved in 1947. The role of kīrtan in relation to politics has been underscored in recent
scholarship:
Marathi Rashtriya Kirtan is an especially effective medium for the propagation of national
ideas because of its devotional context and kirtan music’s potential for group participation,
experiences of embodiment, and multiple
interpretive possibilities.” (Schultz, 2002, 307)
Proponents of Indian classical music also supported
the freedom movement, often performing bhajans
at political rallies and broadcasts. While anthems
like Bande Mataram, by Bankimchandra Chatterji,
and Jana Gana Mana, by Rabindranath → Tagore
(India’s national anthem), expressed devotion to
“Mother India,” famous Rām bhajans like Raghupati Raghava prayed for an ideal peaceful world
in which the gods of differing religions are reconciled with Rām, including the Muslim Allah.
Made popular by the singer Pt. D.V. Paluskar, this
song was a favorite of Mahatma → Gandhi, later
used in the Oscar-winning film Gandhi (1982).
Pt. D.V. Paluskar, while essentially a classical
singer, helped to elevate the status of bhajan as
items in classical concerts. Beside famous ṭhumrīs,
singers of repute would come to have their special
“signature” bhajans or kīrtans: for example, the
nirguṇi bhajans of Pt. Kumar Gandharva, Pt. C.R.
Vyas, and Pt. Bhimsen Joshi, havelī saṅgīt songs
of Pandit Jasraj and Pt. Rattan Mohan Sharma,
śabad kīrtan of Jagjit Singh, hori bhajans of Śmt.
Sobha Gurtu, and kajri bhajans of Śmt. Girija
Devi. Today, most classical singers have in their
stock of songs and “encores” a number of bhajans,
ṭhumrīs, holī songs, dadras, or ghazals. Generally,
as distinct from temple kīrtans or liturgical
bhajans, solo songs on the concert stage are rendered without hand cymbals or hand clapping.
The study of kīrtan has invited approaches that
examine the role of gender in bhakti traditions.
While the name of Mīra Bāī (16th cent.) stands
out as a prime example of a woman writer of
bhajan or kīrtan songs, prevailing attitudes have
suggested that kīrtan is primarily a male endeavor,
especially in premodern times. Contrary to this
perception, D. Wulff has noted with regard to
padāvali kīrtan of Bengal that,
[H]eir to the Buddhist and Hindu Tantric traditions, the Vaiṣnạ vas have from the first honored women as religious leaders and teachers,
and subsequently also as writers and performers of Kirtan songs . . . In the case of Kirtan we
have evidence that there have been a significant
number of women singers from fairly early
times. (Wulff, 1985, 224)
Regarding kīrtan and bhajan to the goddess, there
has been a gradual rise in interest toward śākta
kīrtan, whether toward Durgā, Kālī, Sarasvatī, or
Lakṣmī (→ Śrī Lakṣmī ), and so on. While there
are many Sanskrit prayers to the goddesses, the
large volume of vernacular poetry devoted especially to Kālī and Durgā is only beginning to be
explored by scholars in the West. For example,
Kīrtan and Bhajan
R.F. McDermott (2001) has translated the Bengali
poems of → Rāmprāsad Sen (1718–1775 CE), the
greatest name in the bhakti tradition of śākta
kīrtan. Sen lived in rural Bengal and created
a new form of goddess kīrtan (śyāma saṅgīt)
that combined Baul folk styles with classical melodies. An initiate of → Tantrism, Sen completely
absorbed his life in devotion to the goddess Kālī.
In most recent times, many of the older styles
of pada kīrtan (dhrupad-influenced havelī saṅgīt
and samāj gāyan as well as padāvali kīrtan), are
facing decline. Frequently, the formal pada kīrtans
have been replaced by more informal styles of
bhajan and nām kīrtan, especially in the diaspora.
Śabad kīrtan and kṛti remain strong in their
respective communities, however, while expanding into the commercial sphere. Current trends in
kīrtan and bhajan also follow in the wake of new
religious movements headed by charismatic gurus
and leaders that stress class egalitarianism and
→ gender equality, leading to larger and less segregated congregations. In any case, modern kīrtan
or bhajan sessions frequently include congregational rites (simple pūjā with āratī) in which there
is a sharing of bhakti experiences extending to
commensalisms. In Bengal, for example, long
unbroken “sessions” of nām kīrtan (akhaṇḍa
kīrtan) are followed by sumptuous feasts. In several monasteries in Orissa the practice of akhaṇḍa
nāma kirtana is established, which means the
uninterrupted chanting of the name day and
night, year by year (see Malinar, 2004). Distinct
from pada kīrtan and its usual connection with
temple liturgies, the freer atmosphere of the modern bhajan or nām kīrtan session fosters more
informal social relationships where all participants sit, stand, sing, and eat together regardless
of caste, gender or religious views.
Nām kīrtan and bhajan songs in the current
context usually comprise simple refrains or litanies containing divine names. Most have their
own distinctive tune and rhythm that are easily
followed by the audience. The most common
tālas are up-tempo, such as keherva (8 beats) and
dadra (6 beats).
Nām kīrtan has also experienced a rise in the
West in recent times. It was first brought to
America and Europe in a significant manner by
A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami in the mid 1960s by
way of the Hare Krishna Movement (ISKCON).
Parallel with ISKCON’s very public form of nām
saṃ kīrtan, nām kīrtan has become a central feature of Yoga and Vedānta movements inaugurated
597
by Swami → Vivekananda, Swami Sivananda,
Paramahamsa → Yogananda, → Maharishi Mahesh
Yogi, Swami → Muktananda, Sathya Sai Baba, Śmt.
→ Anandamayi Ma, → Swami Rama, and Baba
Ram Dass. Hindu-style bhajans are also widely
performed by non-Hindus, including New Age
groups, Christians, Buddhists, and Muslims.
Many songs performed by Islamic Sufis (qawwālī)
in India and Pakistan are modeled on the structure (rāga and tāla) of the Hindu bhajan. Moreover, American and European singers, such as
Krishna Das, Jai Uttal, Dave Stringer, Deva Premal, and Ragani, have made success in promoting
a popular style of kīrtan in the West that employs
New Age, Celtic, middle-eastern, blues, Jazz, and
African features.
The Pop bhajan in India has achieved great
commercial renown by male and female playback
singers in Indian films (→ Hinduism and film): for
example, Śmt. Lata Mangeshkar, Mohammad
Rafi, Śmt. Asha Bhosle, Manna Dey, Kishore
Kumar, Sonu Nigam, Anup Jalota, Hari Om Sharan, and Jagjit Singh are widely known in India
and abroad. Film bhajans such as Om Jaya Jagadisha Hari (from the Hindi film Purab aur Pacchim) are now used by Hindus in home and
temple worship all over the world.
In conclusion, whether rendered as songs or
simply as chants of divine names, kīrtan and
bhajan are significant components of Hindu religious practice with regard to bhakti devotion.
Ubiquitous today throughout India and the
diaspora, they help to consolidate and maintain
religious faith, cultural bonds, as well as moral
discipline. Whether performed by skilled musicians or lay enthusiasts, kīrtan and bhajan have
also overflowed beyond the Hindu temple and
meeting hall, and continue to aspire toward goals
of world peace through global and commercial
spheres of expression.
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