1
Introduction
Concepts in
Transportation
Engineering
Outline
1.
Introduction Concepts in Transportation Engineering
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Importance of Transportation
1.3
Philippine Transportation System
1.4
Transportation Employment
1.5
Traffic Management
Learning Outcomes
1. Identify different terms and concepts in transportation engineering;
2. Summarize the importatnce of transportation;
3. Discuss the Philippine transportation system;
4. Describe the elements of transportation employment; and
5. Define traffic management.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
For as long as the human race has existed, transportation has played a significant role by
facilitating trade, commerce, conquest, and social interaction, while consuming a considerable portion
of time and resources. The primary need for transportation has been economic, involving personal
travel in search of food or work, travel for the exchange of goods and commodities, exploration,
personal fulfillment, and the improvement of a society or a nation. The movements of people and
goods, which is the basis of transportation, always have been undertaken to accomplish those basic
objectives or tasks that require a transfer from one location to another. For example, a farmer must
transport produce to market, a doctor must see a patient in the office or the hospital, and a salesman
must visit clients located throughout a territory. Every day, millions of people leave their homes and
travel to a workplace be it a factory, office, classroom, or distant city.
Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that is involved in the planning,
design, operation, and maintenance of safe and efficient transportation systems. These
systems include roadways, railways, waterways, and intermodal operations. Typically, the demand is
the amount of traffic (people, cars, railcars, barges) that is expected to use a particular transportation
facility, while the supply is the quantity and type of infrastructure components (roadways, bridges,
pavements, etc.). These systems are typically large and expensive.
There are several attributes of transportation engineering that affect the types of statistical
theories that are used in the profession. One important aspect of transportation engineering is that
the transportation engineer is not only interested in the infrastructure (e.g., bridges, rails, etc.) and
the individual units (cars, trucks, railcars) that use the infrastructure, but also the user. Often it is
necessary to understand the interaction of all three of these entities—infrastructure, individual units,
and user—to understand the system as a whole. Typically the infrastructure and units are considered
the supply side of the equation, while the users are identified with demand.
Experimental studies, or designed experiments, are the mainstay of many standard statistics
books. They are used extensively in many engineering disciplines, including pavement engineering,
that is not necessarily applicable to transportation systems engineering. For example, consider
an engineer who is interested in the various factors that affect skid resistance and the relationship to
crash rate. From an ethical standpoint, she cannot place various types of pavement surfacing on
different sections of the highway, observe what types of accidents occur, and then choose the best
type of pavement based on the empirical accident results. Instead, most transportation studies are
observational, and as a result, the statistics used by transportation engineers reflect this characteristic.
In addition, it is sometimes very difficult to obtain certain data from the transportation system, so
statistical techniques that can handle missing data or use a priori knowledge are needed. Lastly, much
of the data are correlated and interdependent. For example, the travel time on a given link is often
correlated to the travel time on the immediate downstream link. Sometimes this correlation is
negative: Consider, for example, a driver stopped at a red traffic signal. If the signal system is
coordinated properly, the driver will have a lower probability of being stopped at the traffic signal on
the next link. At other times, however, the correlation is positive: If one link is experiencing high travel
times because of excessive demand, then other links also will experience high travel times because of
the same demand. Regardless, as this example demonstrates, the assumption that different
transportation phenomena are independent is not always valid.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
Tapping natural resources and markets and maintaining a competitive edge over other regions
and nations are linked closely to the quality of the transportation system. The speed, cost, and capacity
of available transportation have a significant impact on the economic vitality of an area and the ability
to make maximum use of its natural resources. Examination of most developed and industrialized
societies indicates that they have been noted for high-quality transportation systems and services.
Nations with well-developed maritime systems (such as the British Empire in the 1900s) once ruled
vast colonies located around the globe. In more modern times, countries with advanced transportation
systems—such as in the United States, Canada, Asia, and Europe—are leaders in industry and
commerce. Without the ability to transport manufactured goods and raw materials and without
technical know-how, a country is unable to maximize the comparative advantage it may have in the
form of natural or human resources. Countries that lack an abundance of natural resources rely heavily
on transportation to import raw materials and export manufactured products.
1.2.1 Transportation and Economic Growth
Good transportation, in and of itself, will not assure success in the marketplace, as the
availability of transportation is a necessary but insufficient condition for economic growth. However,
the absence of supportive transportation services will serve to limit or hinder the potential for a nation
or region to achieve its economic potential. Thus, if society expects to develop and grow, it must have
a strong internal transportation system consisting of good roads, rail systems, as well as excellent
linkages to the rest of the world by sea and air. Thus, transportation demand is a byproduct derived
from the needs and desires of people to travel or to transfer their goods from one place to another. It
is a necessary condition for human interaction and economic competitiveness.
The availability of transportation facilities can strongly influence the growth and development
of a region or nation. Good transportation permits the specialization of industry or commerce, reduces
costs for raw materials or manufactured goods, and increases competition between regions, thus
resulting in reduced prices and greater choices for the consumer. Transportation is also a necessary
element of government services, such as delivering mail, defense, and assisting territories. Throughout
history, transportation systems (such as those that existed in the Roman Empire and those that now
exist in the United States) were developed and built to ensure economic development and efficient
mobilization in the event of national emergencies.
Figure 1 Economic Oppurtunities of Transportation
Figure 2 Transportation Timeline
Figure 3 Socioeconomic Benefits of Transportation
1.2.2 Social Costs and Benefits of Transportation
The improvement of a region’s economic position by improved transportation does not come
without costs. Building vast transportation systems requires enormous resources of energy, material,
and land. In major cities, transportation can consume as much as half of all the land area. An aerial
view of any major metropolis will reveal vast acreage used for railroad terminals, airports, parking lots,
and freeways. Transportation has other negative effects as well. Travel is not without danger; every
mode of transportation brings to mind some major disaster—be it the sinking of the Titanic, the
explosion of the zeppelin Hindenburg, the infrequent but dramatic passenger air crashes, and highway
accidents that each year claim about 40,000 lives in the United States. In addition, transportation can
create noise, spoil the natural beauty of an area, change the environment, pollute air and water, and
consume energy resources.
Society has indicated a willingness to accept some risks and changes to the natural environment
to gain the advantages that result from constructing new transportation systems. The society also
values many social benefits brought about by good transportation. Providing medical and other
services to rural areas and enabling people to socialize who live some distance apart are just a few
examples of the benefits that transportation provides.
A major task for the modern transportation engineer is to balance society’s need for fast and
efficient transportation with the costs involved. Thus, the most efficient and cost-effective system is
created, while assuring that the environment is not compromised or destroyed. In carrying out this
task, the transportation engineer must work closely with the public and elected officials and needs to
be aware of modern engineering practices to ensure that the highest quality transportation systems
are built consistent with available funds and accepted social policy.
1.3 PHILIPPINE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
Transportation in the Philippines covers the transportation methods of over 7,500 islands.
Jeepneys are a popular and iconic public utility vehicle. They have become a symbol of the Philippine
culture. Another popular mode of public transportation in the country is motorized tricycles, especially
common in smaller urban and rural areas. The Philippines has four railway lines: Manila Light Rail
Transit System Line 1, Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 2, Manila Metro Rail Transit System Line 3,
and the PNR Metro Commuter Line operated by the Philippine National Railways. There are also steam
engines found in Visayas which operate sugar mills such as Central Azucarera. Taxis and buses are also
important modes of public transport in urban areas. The Philippines has 12 international airports and
has more than 20 major and minor domestic airports serving the country. The Ninoy Aquino
International Airport is the main international gateway to the Philippines.
1.3.1 Land Transportation
The Philippine national road network is in a continuous state of improvement as it plays an
important role in the economic development of the country. The condition of national roads is often
used as an index to assess the extent of the country’s progress.
Infrastructure, being one of the main drivers of our economy, requires statistical data to come
up with measures to reduce the cost of transportation, both in terms of money and time, and also
helps in the integration of various regions within the country and a better understanding of
neighboring countries at the international level.
1.3.1.1. Roads
As of October 2018, the Philippines has 217,317 kilometers (135,035 mi) of roads. The road
network consists of:
•
•
•
•
National roads – 33,018.25 kilometers (20,516.59 mi) (2019)
Provincial roads – 31,620 kilometers (19,650 mi) (2018)
City and municipal roads – 31,063 kilometers (19,302 mi) (2018)
Barangay roads – 121,702 kilometers (75,622 mi) (2018)
In 1940, there were 22,970 kilometers (14,270 mi) of the road in the entire country, half of
which was in central and southern Luzon. The roads served 50,000 vehicles.
Road classification is based primarily on administrative responsibilities (except for barangays),
i.e., which level of government built and funded the roads. Most of the barangay roads are unpaved
village-access roads built in the past by the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), but
responsibility for maintaining these roads has been devolved to the Local Government Units (LGUs).
Farm-to-market roads fall under this category, and a few are financed by the Department of Agrarian
Reform and the Department of Agriculture.
1.3.1.2. Highways
Highways in the Philippines include national roads that can be classified into three types: the
national primary, national secondary, and national tertiary roads.
The Pan-Philippine Highway is a 3,517 km (2,185 mi) network of roads, bridges, and ferry
services that connect the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao, serving as the Philippines'
principal transport backbone. The northern terminus of the highway is in Laoag, and the southern
terminus is at Zamboanga City.
Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) is one of the most known highways in the Philippines.
The avenue passes through 6 of the 17 settlements in Metro Manila, namely, the cities
of Caloocan, Quezon City, Mandaluyong, San Juan, Makati, and Pasay. EDSA is the longest highway in
the metropolis and handles an average of 2.34 million vehicles. Commonwealth Avenue is also an
important highway in the metropolis, it serves the Quezon City area and has a length of 12.4 km
(7.7 mi). Other important thoroughfares in Metro Manila that are part of the Philippine highway
network include España Boulevard, Quezon Avenue, Taft Avenue, and the Alabang–Zapote Road.
Outside Metro Manila, the MacArthur Highway links Metro Manila to the provinces in central
and northern Luzon. It is a component of both N1 (from Caloocan to Guiguinto) and N2 (from Guiguinto
northwards to Laoag) of the Philippine highway network and Radial Road 9 (R-9) of Metro Manila's
arterial road network. Both Kennon Road and Aspiras–Palispis Highway are major roads leading to and
from Baguio. Aguinaldo Highway, Jose P. Laurel Highway, Manila South Road, and Calamba–Pagsanjan
Road (part of Manila East Road) are the major roads in the Calabarzon region. Andaya Highway (N68)
links the province of Quezon to Bicol Region. Located in Cebu City is the Colon Street, considered the
oldest thoroughfare in the country. Among the major highways in Mindanao are Sayre
Highway, Butuan–Cagayan de Oro–Iligan Road, Surigao–Davao Coastal Road, Davao–Cotabato Road,
and Maria Clara L. Lobregat Highway.
The Strong Republic Nautical Highway links many of the islands' road networks through a series
of roll-on/roll-off ferries, some rather small covering short distances and some larger vessels that
might travel several hours or more.
1.3.1.3. Expressways
The Philippines has numerous expressways and most of them are located on the main island of
the country, Luzon. The first expressway systems in the country are the North Luzon
Expressway formerly known as North Diversion Road and the South Luzon Expressway, formerly
known as South Super Highway. Both were built in the 1970s, during the presidency of Ferdinand
Marcos.
The North Luzon Expressway (NLEX) is a 4 to 8-lane limited-access toll expressway that
connects Metro Manila to the provinces of the Central Luzon region. The expressway begins in Quezon
City at a cloverleaf interchange with EDSA. It then passes through various cities and municipalities in
the provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga. The expressway ends at Mabalacat and merges with
the MacArthur Highway, which continues northward into the rest of Central and Northern Luzon.
The South Luzon Expressway (SLEX) is another important expressway in the country, it serves
the southern part of Luzon. The expressway is a network of two expressways that connects Metro
Manila to the provinces of Calabarzon in the southern part of Luzon. It starts at the Paco
District of Manila then
passes
through Manila, Makati, Pasay, Parañaque, Taguig and Muntinlupa in Metro
Manila; San
Pedro, Biñan in Laguna; Carmona in Cavite,
then
transverses
again
to Biñan, Santa
Rosa, Cabuyao and Calamba in the province of Laguna and ends in Santo Tomas, Batangas.
Figure 4 Philippine road Network. (DPWH, 2019
Table 1 Philippine Road Conditions
Figure 5 Pan-Philippine Highway
Figure 6 EDSA
Figure 7 Route Map of EDSA
Figure 8 Map of Luzon Expressways
The Subic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway is another expressway that serves the region of Central
Luzon, the expressway is linked to the North Luzon Expressway through the Mabalacat Interchange.
Its southern terminus is at the Subic Bay Freeport Zone in Zambales, it passes through the Clark
Freeport Zone and its northern terminus is at Brgy. Amucao in Tarlac City. Construction on the
expressway began in April 2005 and opened to the public three years later.
The Cavite Laguna Expressway is an expressway that connects Cavite, Laguna, NCR. As of July
2021, it is partially opened for the Tagaytay to Silang route. It will also be connected to Cavitex. The
Philippine government and other private sectors are building more plans and proposals to build new
expressways through a public-private partnership.
1.3.1.4. Railways
Rail transportation in the Philippines includes services provided by three rapid transit lines and
one commuter rail line: the Manila Light Rail Transit System(Lines 1 and 2), Manila Metro Rail Transit
System (Line 3), and the PNR Metro South Commuter Line. The government has plans to expand the
country's railway footprint from 77 kilometers as of 2017 to more than 320 kilometers by 2022.
The Manila Light Rail Transit System or the LRTA system is a rapid transit system serving
the Metro Manila area, it is the first metro system in Southeast Asia. The system served a total of
928,000 passengers each day in 2012. Its 31 stations along over 31 kilometers (19 mi) of mostly
elevated track form two lines: the original Line 1, and the more modern Line 2 which passes through
the cities of Caloocan, Manila, Marikina, Pasay, San Juan, and Quezon City. Apart from the LRTA
system, the Manila Metro Rail Transit System system also serves Metro Manila. The system is located
along the Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), one of Metro Manila's main thoroughfares. It has 13
stations along its 16.95 km track form a single line which is the Line 3 which passes through the cities
of Makati, Mandaluyong, Pasay, and Quezon City. Some of the stations of the system have been
retrofitted with escalators and elevators for easier access, and ridership has increased. By 2004, Line
3 had the highest ridership of the three lines, with 400,000 passengers daily.
Philippine National Railways (PNR) operates a commuter line that serves a region from Metro
Manila south toward Laguna. PNR, a state-owned railway system of the Philippines, alongside
a tramway system in Manila, was established during the Spanish Colonial period. The intercity rail used
to provide services on Luzon, connecting northern and southern Luzon with Manila; on the other hand,
the tramway served what is known today as Metro Manila. In 1988, the railway line to northern Luzon
became disused and later the services to Bicol were halted although plans to revive the southern line
are around as of 2015. Panay Railways is a company that ran rail lines on Panay until 1989
and Cebu until World War II.
Figure 9 Philippine Railway Map
1.3.2 Water Transportation
1.3.2.1 Waterways
The waterways in the Philippines are approximated around 3,219 km; limited to shallow-draft
(less than 1.5 m) vessels.
1.3.2.2 River ferries
The Pasig River Ferry Service is a river ferry service that serves Metro Manila, it is also the only
water-based transportation that cruised the Pasig River. The entire ferry network had 17 stations
operational and 2 lines. The first line was the Pasig River Line which stretched from Plaza
Mexico in Intramuros, Manila to Nagpayong station in Pasig. The second line was the Marikina
River Line which served the Guadalupe station in Makati up to Santa Elena station in Marikina.
1.3.2.3 Ferry Services
Because it is an island nation, ferry services are an important means of transportation. A range
of ships is used, from large cargo ships to small pump boats. Some trips last for a day or two on large
overnight ferries. There are numerous shipping companies in the Philippines. Notable companies
include 2GO Travel (the successor to Superferry and Negros Navigation) and Trans-Asia Shipping Lines.
Other trips can last for less than 15 minutes on small, open-air pump boats such as those that cross
the Iloilo Strait or between the Caticlan jetty port and Boracay island.
1.3.2.4 Ports and Harbors
The busiest port is the Port of Manila, especially the Manila International Cargo Terminal and
the Eva Macapagal Port Terminal, both in the pier area of Manila. Other cities with bustling ports and
piers include Bacolod, Batangas City, Cagayan de Oro, Cebu City, Davao City, Butuan, Iligan, Iloilo
City, Jolo, Legazpi City, Lucena City, Puerto Princesa, San Fernando, Subic, Zamboanga City, Cotabato
City, General Santos City, Allen, Ormoc, Ozamiz, Surigao and Tagbilaran. Most of these terminals
comprise the Strong Republic Nautical Highway, a nautical system conceptualized under the term of
President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo where land vehicles can use the roll-on/roll-off (ro-ro) ferries to
cross between the different islands.
Figure 10 Philippine Nautical Highway System
Figure 11 Ninoy Aquino International Airport
1.3.3 Air Transportation
1.3.3.1 Airports
Manila, Iloilo, Cebu, Davao, Clark, Subic, Zamboanga, Laoag , and Puerto Princesa are the
international gateways to the country, with the Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA) in Manila as
the main and premier gateway of the country.
The Ninoy Aquino International Airport serves as the premier gateway of the Philippines, it
serves the Metro Manila area and its surrounding regions. It is located in the boundary
of Parañaque and Pasay in the National Capital Region. In 2012, NAIA became the 34th busiest airport
in the world, passenger volume increased to about eight percent to a total of 32.1 million passengers,
making it one of the busiest airports in Asia.
The Clark International Airport is also a major gateway to the country. It was originally planned
to replace the Ninoy Aquino International Airport as the country's premier airport, amid the plan to
shut down the Ninoy Aquino International Airport. The airport mostly serves low-cost carriers that
avail themselves of the lower landing fees than those charged at NAIA.
Other important airports in the Philippines are the Mactan–Cebu International Airport in LapuLapu City, Cebu, Iloilo International Airport in Cabatuan, Iloilo, Francisco Bangoy International Airport
in Davao City, Zamboanga International Airport in Zamboanga City, Puerto Princesa International
Airport in Puerto Princesa, Palawan and the General Santos International Airport in General Santos
City.
1.3.3.2 Airlines
Philippine Airlines (PAL) is the national flag carrier of the Philippines and is the first commercial
airline in Asia. Philippine Airlines remains the country's biggest airline company, it has the largest
number of international flights to the Philippines as well as domestic flights. As of 2013, Philippine
Airlines flies to 8 domestic and 58 international destinations in 33 countries and territories
across Asia, North America, South America, Africa, Oceania, and Europe. The airline operates hubs
in Clark, Manila, Cebu, and Davao.
Cebu Pacific is the low fare leader in the country, and is the country's leading domestic airline,
flying to 37 domestic destinations. Since the launching of its international operations in November
2001, flies to 27 destinations in 15 countries and territories across Asia and Oceania. As of 2013, the
airline operates hubs in Manila, Cebu , and Davao.
Other low-cost carriers in the country include Cebgo, PAL Express, and Philippines AirAsia.
These airlines have routes to several tourist destinations in the country.
1.3.4 Non-Motorized Transport
Human-powered and animal-powered transport exists in the Philippines in the form of walking,
cycling, pedicabs (also known as traysikad or padyak), and horse- or cattle-drawn kalesas. Nonmotorized boats are also used on inland and coastal waters.[34] The United Nations and such
organizations as Clean Air Asia support the integration of non-motorized transport as part of a clean
and "highly cost-effective transportation strategy" that "brings about large health, economic and social
co-benefits, particularly for the urban poor."
In Marikina, Metro Manila, the local government constructed a network of bikeways to help
reduce air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, fuel consumption, and traffic congestion in the city.
The bikeways project was awarded by the World Health Organization in 2008 in the category of climate
change and health.
1.3.5 Philippine Transportation Issues
With the rapid growth in economic activities and urbanization, the public utility vehicles, along
with private vehicles, exponentially increased in numbers, which resulted in poorer air quality and
frequent traffic congestion in the cities.
1.3.5.1 Traffic congestion
Traffic congestion is an issue, especially in Metro Manila. Increasing car sales and lack of mass
transit and highways cause most traffic congestion and is feared to make Metro Manila
"uninhabitable" by 2020. A survey made by Waze called Metro Manila the "worst traffic on
Earth".Economic losses due to traffic congestion cost about ₱3 billion, as of 2012. By 2030, over ₱6
billion will be lost in the Philippines' economy due to traffic congestion, according to JICA.
1.3.5.12 Air pollution
There are around 270,000 franchised jeepney units on the road across the country, with some
75,000 units in Metro Manila alone. With the country's fast development and economic growth, oldmodel jeepneys have become the main contributor to air pollution and traffic congestion in the cities.
According to the Manila Aerosol Characterization Experiment (MACE 2015) study, jeepneys, which
account for 20% of the total vehicle fleet, are responsible for 94% of the soot particle mass in Metro
Manila. In addition to air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides(NOx), sulfur oxides(SOx), carbon
monoxide(CO), and other particulate matter (PM), jeepneys contribute to greenhouse gas emissions
of about 12.49–17.48 Mtons of CO2 per year.
1.4 TRANSPORTATION EMPLOYMENT
Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that is involved in the planning,
design, operation, and maintenance of safe and efficient transportation systems. These
systems include roadways, railways, waterways, and intermodal operations. Typically, the demand is
the amount of traffic (people, cars, railcars, barges) that is expected to use a particular transportation
facility, while the supply is the quantity and type of infrastructure components (roadways, bridges,
pavements, etc.). These systems are typically large and expensive.
Related Disciplines in Transportation Engineering
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•
•
•
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Highway Engineering
Railway Engineering
Port and Harbor Engineering
Airport Engineering
Pipeline Engineering
Employment opportunities exist in several areas of transportation, including business logistics
or supply chain management, vehicle design and manufacture, provision of services related to
transportation, and the provision of the infrastructure required if vehicles are to function as intended.
1.4.1 Logistics and Supply-Chain Management
The physical distribution aspect of transportation, known as business logistics or physical
distribution management, is concerned with the movement and storage of freight between the
primary source of raw materials and the location of the finished manufactured product. Logistics is the
process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient and effective flow and storage of
goods, services, and related information from origination to consumption as required by the customer.
An expansion of the logistics concept is called supply-chain management: a process that coordinates
the product, information, and cash flows to maximize consumption satisfaction and minimize
organization costs.
1.4.2 Vehicle Design and Transportation Services
Vehicle design and manufacture is a major industry in the United States and involves the
application of mechanical, electrical, and aerospace engineering skills as well as those of technically
trained mechanics and workers in other trades.
The service sector provides jobs for vehicle drivers, maintenance people, flight attendants, train
conductors, and other necessary support personnel. Other professionals, such as lawyers, economists,
social scientists, and ecologists, also work in the transportation fields when their skills are required to
draft legislation, facilitate right-of-way acquisition, or to study and measure the impacts of
transportation on the economy, society, and the environment.
1.4.3 Transportation Infrastructure Services
Although a transportation system requires many skills and provides a wide variety of job
opportunities, the primary opportunities for civil engineers are in the area of transportation
infrastructure. In this role, they are responsible primarily for the planning, design, construction,
operation, and maintenance of the transportation system within the United States. The transportation
engineer is the professional who is concerned with the planning, design, construction, operations, and
management of a transportation system, as illustrated in Figure 1.6. Transportation professionals must
make critical decisions about the system that will affect the thousands of people who use it. The work
depends on the results of experience and research and is challenging and ever-changing as new needs
emerge and new technologies replace those of the past. The challenge of the transportation
engineering profession is to assist society in selecting the appropriate transportation system consistent
with its economic development, resources, and goals, and to construct and manage the system in a
safe and efficient manner. It is the engineer’s responsibility to ensure that the system functions
efficiently from an economic point of view and that it meets external requirements concerning energy,
air quality, safety, congestion, noise, and land use.
Figure 12 The Profession of Transportation Engineering
1.4.4 Specialties within Transportation Infrastructure Engineering
Transportation engineers are typically employed by the agency responsible for building and
maintaining a transportation system, such as the federal, state, or local government, a railroad, or
transit authority. They also work for consulting firms that carry out the planning and engineering tasks
for these organizations. During the past century, transportation engineers have been employed to
build the nation’s railroads, the interstate highway system, and rapid transit systems in major cities,
airports, and turnpikes. Each decade has seen a new national need for improved transportation
services.
It can be expected that in the twenty-first century, heavy emphasis will be placed on the
rehabilitation of the highway system, including its surfaces and bridges, as well as on devising a means
to ensure improved safety and utilization of the existing system through traffic control, information
technology, and systems management. Highway construction will be required, particularly in suburban
areas. The building of roads, highways, airports, and transit systems is likely to accelerate in lessdeveloped countries, and the transportation engineer will be called on to furnish the services
necessary to plan, design, build, and operate highway systems throughout the world.
1.4.4.1 Transportation Planning
Transportation planning deals with the selection of projects for design and construction. The
transportation planner begins by defining the problem, gathering and analyzing data, and evaluating
various alternative solutions. Also involved in the process are forecasts of future traffic; estimates of
the impact of the facility on land use, the environment, and the community; and determination of the
benefits and costs that will result if the project is built. The transportation planner investigates the
physical feasibility of a project and makes comparisons between various alternatives to determine
which one will accomplish the task at the lowest cost—consistent with other criteria and constraints.
A transportation planner must be familiar with engineering economics and other means of
evaluating alternative systems, be knowledgeable in statistics and data gathering techniques, as well
as in computer applications for data analysis and travel forecasting, and be able to communicate with
the public and policymakers.
1.4.4.2 Transportation Infrastructure Design
Transportation design involves the specification of all features of the transportation system to assure
that it will function smoothly, efficiently, and in accord with the physical laws of nature. The design
process results in a set of detailed plans that can be used for estimating the facility costs and for
carrying out its construction. For highway design, the process involves the selection of dimensions for
all geometrical features, such as the longitudinal profile, vertical curves and elevations, the highway
cross-section, pavement widths, shoulders, rights-of-way, drainage ditches, and fencing. The design
processes also include the pavement and structural requirements for base courses and the concrete
or asphalt surface material. Highway design also includes bridges and drainage structures as well as
provision for traffic control devices, roadside rest areas, and landscaping. The highway designer must
be proficient in civil engineering subjects (such as soil mechanics, hydraulics, land surveying, pavement
design, and structural design), and is concerned primarily with the geometric layout of the road, its
cross-section, paving materials, roadway thickness, and traffic-control devices. Special appurtenances
(such as highway bridges and drainage structures) are usually designed by specialists in these areas.
1.4.4 .3 Highway Construction
Highway construction involves all aspects of the building process beginning with the clearing of
the native soil, preparation of the surface, placement of the pavement material, and preparation of
the final roadway for use by traffic. Highways initially were built with manual labor assisted by horsedrawn equipment for grading and moving materials. Today, modern construction equipment is used
for clearing the site, grading the surface, compaction of the pavement base courses, transporting
materials, and placing the final highway pavement. Advances in construction equipment have made
the rapid building of large highway sections possible. Nuclear devices test compaction of soil and base
courses, Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used to
establish line and grade, and specialized equipment for handling concrete and bridgework are all
innovations in the construction industry. Large, automatically controlled mix plants have been
constructed, and new techniques for improving the durability of structures and the substitutions for
scarce materials have been developed.
1.4.4 .4 Traffic Operations and Management
The operation of the nation’s highway system is the responsibility of the traffic engineer. Traffic
engineering involves the integration of vehicle, driver, and pedestrian characteristics to improve the
safety and capacity of streets and highways. All aspects of the transportation system are included after
the street or highway has been constructed and opened for operation. Among the elements of concern
are traffic accident analyses, parking, and loading, design of terminal facilities, traffic signs, markings,
signals, speed regulation, and highway lighting. The traffic engineer works to improve traffic flow and
safety, using engineering methods and information technology to make decisions that are supported
by enforcement and education. Traffic engineers work directly for municipalities, county governments,
and private consulting firms.
1.4.4 .5 Maintenance Operations and Management
Highway maintenance involves all the work necessary to ensure that the highway system is
kept in proper working order. Maintenance includes pavement patching, repair, and other actions
necessary to ensure that the roadway pavement is at a desired level of serviceability. Maintenance
management involves record-keeping and data analysis regarding work activities, project needs, and
maintenance activities to assure that the work is carried out most economically. Scheduling work
crews, replacing worn or damaged signs, and repairing damaged roadway sections are important
elements of maintenance management. The work of the civil engineer in the area of maintenance
involves the redesign of existing highway sections, economic evaluation of maintenance programs,
testing of new products, and scheduling of manpower to minimize delay and cost. The maintenance
engineer must also maintain an inventory of traffic signs and markings and ensure that they are in good
condition.
1.5 Traffic Management
Traffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken by a highway
transportation agency to improve roadway system safety, efficiency and effectiveness for both
providers and consumers of transportation services. There are two distinct types of traffic
management. The first one is through the use of traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices
to regulate and control traffic. The second relies more on simple devices to regulate and control traffic.
The second relies more on advanced technology through the use of Intelligent Transportation Systems
(ITS). Advancement of ITS has been the primary goal of many developed countries. The more
conventional applications are common in developing countries. However, it is not uncommon in both
developed and developing countries to have a combination of conventional methods and ITS
application.
1.5.1 Traffic Regulations
Many individuals feel that traffic controls are an encroachment on their individual driving
rights. It must be stressed, however, that driving is not a right but a privilege. It is therefore
necessary to show that restrictions are for the general welfare, and it must be demonstrated that
regulations do not curtail the rights or actions of the majority.
Traffic regulation must cover all aspects of the control of both vehicle (registration,
ownership, mechanical fitness, accessories, size, and weight) and driver (age, ability to operate
specific types of vehicles, financial responsibility).
Traffic regulations must be reasonable and effective. This can only be achieved through
careful study. Facts must be sought through the conduct of traffic studies, accident analysis,
keeping driver records, and other data.
All traffic regulations are dependent upon the laws of the states and local governments,
especially the ordinances of cities. Legislative bodies and traffic authorities must keep in mind that
unreasonable restrictions or regulations are not likely to last very long.
1.5.1.1 Effective Traffic Regulation
There are fundamental requirements for traffic regulation to be effective. These are as
follows:
a. Regulation should be rational.
Irrational regulations cannot be enforces except by tremendous effort and
expense. Social, economic, and human problems must be considered. If the habits of a
community are greatly at variance with the regulations, success cannot be attained for
any substantial period of time.
b. Regulations should be developed progressively.
Regulations must be planned over a long period of time, and the effects must be
carefully observed so that alterations can be made as experience dictates. Experience
shows that abrupt changes in regulation often lead to increase in the occurrence of traffic
accidents.
c. Regulations alone often are not enough.
Regulations constitute but one approach to the overall traffic problem. When
public acceptance is poor and enforcement is lax, regulations may be totally ineffective.
They must be used in conjunction with control devices, overall highway planning and
design, and administrative policies.
Figure 13 Interaction of the three elements of the road system
1.5.1.2 Three Elements of the Road System
The road system consists of the following,
a. The road
b. The vehicle
c. The driver
Figure 13 suggests a balance among the three elements, i.e., a breakdown or deficiency in
one can lead to the failure of the entire system.The road and vehicle may be subject to constant
change and improvement. However, in a given period of time, they may be considered inflexible.
The major portion of existing regulations is therefore aimed at the driver. Worldwide, licensing has
become the most effective way of controlling the number of drivers on the road. It should be used,
therefore, to influence drivers to become familiar with the rules of the road. This is especially true
for the Filipino drivers, considering the most accidents have been attributed to them.
For vehicles, a number of controls exist, the most effective of which is vehicle registration.
Others are checks on equipment and accessories (lights, bells, mirrors, helmets, etc.). Motor
Vehicle Inspection System (MVIS) is being revitalized and expanded to cover the whole country.
1.5.2 Traffic Control Devices
Traffic control devices are means by which the road user is advised as to detailed
requirements or conditions affecting road use at specific places and times to that proper action
may be taken and accident or delay avoided.
There are three distinct functional groups of traffic control devices:
a. Regulatory devices
These have the authority of law and impose precise requirements upon the
actions of the road user.
b. Warning devices
These are used to inform road users of potentially hazardous roadway conditions
or unusual traffic movements that are not readily apparent to passing traffic.
c. Guiding devices
These are employed simply to inform the road user of route, destination, and
other pertinent traffic.
1.5.2.1 Four Elementary Requirements of Every Traffic Control Device
To be effective, every traffic control device must be able to meet the following
requirements (FHWA 1988):
a. It should compel attention.
b. It should convey a simple clear meaning at a glance.
c. It should allow adequate time for easy response.
d. It should command the respect of the road users for whom it is intended
Every traffic control must meet all these requirements in logical sequence. The
effectiveness of a sign or marking normally depends on its size, color contrast, shape (simple,
regular shapes), relative position, and maintenance to compel attention. To convey a clear
meaning, the shape, color, and message must be well understood. The message should be kept as
short as practicable at a glance. After capturing the clear meaning of the device, it should provide
adequate time for response. Simpler message like STOP or YIELD requires only a second, while
multiple choice (as in destination or guide sign) may require three to four seconds. Finally, all these
requirements the design features of size and brightness, position allowing time for response,
properly maintained control device should command the respect of road users. Thus, shabby, illkept signs must be discarded and replaced.
1.5.3 Traffic Signs and Markings
Traffic signs are employed more frequently than any other devices to regulate, warn, or guide
road users. Traffic markings normally consist of lines, patterns, words, symbols, reflectors, etc. They
may be considered as specialized types of traffic signs in which the message is in contrast with the
color and brightness of the pavement or other background.
Philippine traffic signs conform to the 1968 Vienna Conventions of the United Nations on Road
Traffic and Road Signs, which the country officially adopted on June 6, 1973.
Traffic signs are necessary to give information as to routes, directions, destinations, etc. Their
function becomes more relevant when used to warn road users of hazards and regulate any
prohibitive action at specific places and/or at specified times.
To ensure uniformity, traffic signs shall be installed only by a duly authorized public body or
official for the purpose of guiding, regulating, and warning traffic. In case of temporary construction
work, however, special permission is given to contractors or utility companies to install signs to
protect the public provided that such signs conform to the set standards.
Traffic signs are normally of fixed/permanent type although some variable signs have been
employed and have become useful in locations where traffic and environment conditions often
change.
Traffic signs are classified depending on their intended uses:
a. Informative: the signs are intended to guide users while they are traveling.
b. Regulatory: the signs are intended to inform users of special obligations, restrictions, or
prohibitions with which they must comply.
c. Warning: these signs are intended to warn users of a danger on the road and to inform
them of its nature
1.5.3.1 Elements of design
Uniformity in design includes shape, color, dimension, symbols, wording, lettering, and
illumination or reflectorization.
Shape
Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:
a. Equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal shall be used for danger warning
signs.
b. Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic.
c. Rectangular shape shall be used for informative signs.
d. Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs only.
e. Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for YIELD signs only.
Color
•
•
•
•
•
Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or white background with black symbols and red
border.
Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall have a white background with black symbols
and red border.
Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP and YIELD signs shall have a blue
background and white symbols.
STOP signs shall have a red background and white symbols. YIELD signs shall have a yellow
background and red border.
Informative signs shall have a white or light-colored symbol on a dark-colored (blue or
black) background or a blue or dark-colored symbol on a white or light-colored
background.
Size
The minimum dimensions of signs depend upon the intended applications. Larger sizes are
necessary at wider roadways and on high speed highways. According to section 2.5 of DPWH
Highway Safety Design Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual, regulatory signs
are of four sizes based on the speed of the facility as follows:
a.
b.
c.
d.
A for urban low-speed roads
B for rural roads with speed limits between 60 kph and 70 kph
C for high-speed rural highways
D for expressways
In the case of a STOP or YIELD sign, for example, table 2 below should be followed:
Table 2 Recommended dimensions for STOP and YIELD signs
SIZE
A
B
C
DIMENSION (mm)
600 x 600
750 x 750
900 x 900
The reader is advised to refer to the DPWH manual for the dimensions of various
traffic signs and for other details letter, symbol, border, bar sizes, etc.
Illumination and reflectorization
Signs are intended to convey messages during both daytime and night time. During hours of
darkness, this can be achieved through illumination or by using reflective materials for signs.
Placement and height of signs
In general, signs shall be mounted approximately at right angles to the direction, and facing
the traffic they intended to serve. Mounting signs at exactly right angle must be avoided especially
on roads following the east and west directions as the sun’s brightest reflecting on the sign will be too
glaring for the drivers. However, there may be no standard location for traffic signs. Each location
must be carefully studied so as to achieve the most advantageous position. Signs are generally placed
on the right side of the roadway. On wider roads, overhead signs are often necessary. On roads with
medians, signs may be placed on both sides. Signs may also be placed on channelized islands.
a. Lateral placement
On uncurbed roads in the rural areas, the sign should be at least 60 cm clear of the
outer edge of the road shoulder, the line of guideposts, or face of guardrails. The clearance
should not be less than 2 m nor more than 5 m from the edge of the travelled way, except for
large guide signs on expressways where ample clearance may be required (see figure 14).
In urban areas, signs should be located away from the face of the curb not less than
30 cm but not more than 1 m. If curb is mountable or semi mountable, the minimum
clearance should be 50 cm. On uncurbed roads, the distance given for rural areas shall be
used.
b. Height
In rural areas, the height of the sign should normally be between 1 m and 1.5 m
above the nearest edge of the travelled way. For intersection direction signs, the height
should be increased to 2 m. Final height is dictated by visibility factor as the sign should be
mounted clear of vegetation and it must be clearly visible under headlight illumination at night
(see figure 14).
Figure 14 Height and lateral placement of signs
On curbed roads such as in urban areas, the signs should be mounted at a minimum of
2 m above the top of the curb to prevent obstructions to pedestrians.
c. Location of advance warning signs
In urban areas, warning signs should be placed no less than 30 m but more than 100 m in
advance of the hazardous area, while in rural areas they should be placed no less than 75 m but
no more than 225 m ahead of the hazardous area. The final location shall be determined based
on the nature of the hazard, reaction time, and operating speed in the area.
1.5.4 International Standard Traffic Signs
Warning Signs
The Vienna Convention allows two forms for the warning sign one is triangular on shape
with a red border and the other is a diamond in shape (figure 15). Upon signing in the convention,
the signatory has to state which shape is to be adopted. In the Philippines, the first form is the
one being used although the second may still be found in rural areas. The coloring may also differ
in each form. However, the choice of color is left to discretion of the signing body. Examples of
warning signs are shown in figure 16.
Figure 15 Shapes and colors of warning signs
Figure 16 Examples of warning Signs
Priority Signs
Priority signs have various forms. The two most commonly used priority signs are the STOP
and YIELD signs (Figure 17).
Figure 17 Priority Signs
Prohibition Signs
Prohibition signs (figure 18) are round with a red border and either a white or a yellow
background. Access restrictions signs can have a red bar from low right to top left. Parking prohibitions
have a blue background. The signs that signal the end of a prohibition are white or yellow with a small
black border and a black bar form left below to right top. The bar can be replaced by a series of small
bars. In addition, the symbol for which the end of prohibition is intended is given in gray.
Figure 18 Prohibition Signs
Obligatory Signs
The obligatory signs are round and in blue colors. Examples are shown in figure 19.
Figure 19 Obligatory Signs
Other Prescription Signs
These signs are, in general, rectangular with either a blue base with a white background, or
with a light base with a dark foreground.
These signs give prohibitions, obligations, or danger messages for particular lanes on a
multilane road. Each lane is represented by an arrow, to which the appropriate sign is affixed. Figure
20 shows some examples. The background color blue is used for major roads, white for minor roads,
and within built-up areas, and yellow for road works.
Figure 20 Other Prescription Signs
Information Signs
These signs are rectangular with a white or yellow plate with a symbol that stands for the service
involved. The signs can be either blue or green. Examples are shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21 Information Signs
Direction Signs
A profusion of colors and forms is available. In general, the forms shown must be
adopted, and in some cases even the color shown must be used and not be changed (figure 22).
Figure 22 Direction Signs
Figure 23 Additional Signs
Additional Signs
These signs are small and rectangular, they supplement the information on the main sign (figure
23).
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