Ancient Greece
Greek Mask, gold, Medusa
Ancient Greece
Scholars believe that Greek architects used a concept, known as the Golden Section, to
design and construct buildings such as the Parthenon. The Golden Section is a
mathematical process in which shapes grow larger according to a fixed ratio as they rotate
around a central axis. Greek architects used the Golden Section to determine the
proportions of building elements such as columns.
Why do historians place so much importance
on events that happened more than 30
centuries ago in an area not much larger than
the state of Arizona? Why are the names of
such artists as Myron, Phidias, and Polyclitus
still held in esteem, even though none of their
works is known for certain to exist today?
Why are plays by Sophocles still performed all
over the world? Why do people still find the
comedy of Aristophanes funny after
thousands of years? The answer is simple:
That area – Greece - was the birthplace of
Western civilization. Furthermore, its
contributions to art, literature, and theatre,
have had a profound effect on artists up to
the present day.
Vocabulary
Raking cornice
Stylobate
Ionic order
Cornice
Pediment
Corinthian order
Frieze
Entablature
Lintel
Column
Capital
Colonnade
Shaft
Doric order
Silver decadrachm
(coin) 375 B.C.
The history of ancient Greece begins around 2000 B.C. At that time the
earliest people probably entered the land. The descendants of these
primitive peoples remained there, and in about 500 years a strong
culture known as the Mycenaean had formed. However, the power of the
Mycenaeans eventually gave way to that of a stronger people.
After a series of invasions, the warlike Dorians took over the land in
about 1100 B.C. This event changed the way of life in many areas as the
conquerors mingled with the native populations. Towns eventually grew
into small, independent city-states. Unlike many other civilizations,
which developed as collections of city-states that formed kingdoms or
empires, the Greek city-states remained fiercely independent.
The independence of Greek city-states can be accounted for, at least in
part, by geography. Greece is divided by mountains, valleys, and the
sea. (See map) These physical separations made communication
difficult. In addition to these natural barriers, social barriers of local
pride and jealousy also divided the city-states. These factors combined
to keep the Greek city-states from uniting to form a nation.
History of Greek City-States
There was continuing rivalry among the city-states, but none ever
succeeded in conquering the others. The rivalry was so intense
that the city-states could not even agree to
work together toward common goals. Fear alone finally united
them long enough to fight off invaders from Persia during the fifth
century B.C.
Suspecting further invasions by the Persians, several city-states
joined together to form a defensive alliance. This alliance came to
be known as the Delian League because its treasury was kept on
the island of Delos. The larger cities contributed ships and men to
this alliance, while the smaller cities gave money.
Because it was the most powerful member of the Delian League,
Athens was made its permanent head. Athenian representatives
were put in charge of the fleet and were authorized to collect
money for the treasury.
Pericles, the Athenian leader, moved the treasury from Delos to
Athens. Before long, Pericles began to use the Delian League's
money to rebuild and beautify Athens, which had been badly
damaged by the Persian invaders.
The Peloponnesian War
The greatness of Athens was not destined to last long. Pericles’
actions were bitterly resented by the other members of the Delian
League, especially Saprta and Corinth.
Finally, in 431 B.C., this resentment led to the Peloponnesian War.
At first, Pericles successfully withstood the challenge of Sparta and
the other city-states, but in 430 B.C. a terrible plague killed a third
of the Athenian population. A year later, Pericles himself was a
victim of this plague. With the death of its leader, Athens was
doomed.
After Athens was defeated, a century of conflict followed. One
city-state, then another gained the upper hand. This conflict so
weakened the city-states that they were helpless before foreign
invaders. In 338 B.C., Greece was conquered by Macedonia.
Despite a history of rivalry, wars, and invasions, the Greek people
made many important contributions to art. Their accomplishments
in architecture, particularly temple architecture, were among their
most enduring legacies to Western civilization.
Greek Architecture
The Greeks considered their temples dwelling places for the gods,
who looked and often acted like humans. The Greeks believed that
the gods controlled the universe and the destiny of every person
on Earth. The highest goal for the Greeks was doing what the gods
wanted them to do. As a result, fortune tellers and omens, which
helped people discover the will of the gods, were important parts
of religious practice.
Early Greek Temples
The earliest Greek temples were made of wood or brick, and these have since
disappeared. As the economy prospered with the growth of trade, stone was
used. Limestone and finally marble became the favorite building materials.
The basic design of Greek temples did not change over the centuries. Greek
builders chose not to alter a design that served their needs and was also
pleasing to the eye. Instead, they made small improvements on the basic
design in order to achieve perfection. Proof that they realized this perfection
is represented in temples such as the Parthenon. It was built as a house for
Athena, the goddess of wisdom and guardian of the city named in her honor.
The Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, Greece c. 447 B.C.
The 1Parthenon made use of the most familiar features of Greek
architecture: post-and lintel construction; a sloping, or gabled
roof; and a colonnade. Like all Greek buildings, the parts of the
Parthenon were carefully planned to be balanced, harmonious,
and beautiful.
Greek Temple Construction
Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon is a simple rectangular
building placed on a three-step platform.
The Parthenon consisted of two rooms The smaller held the
treasury of the Delian League, and the larger housed a large gold
and ivory statue of Athena. Few citizens were allowed to see
this statue. Only priests and a few attendants were allowed
inside the sacred temple. Religious ceremonies attended by the
citizens were held outdoors in front of the buildings.
Exterior Design of the Parthenon
Because few people were allowed inside the temple,
there was no need for windows or interior
decorations. Instead, attention centered on making
the outside of the building as attractive as possible.
DETAILS OF GREEK TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION
Raking cornice. The raking cornice is a sloping
element that
slants above the horizontal cornice.
Cornice. A cornice is a horizontal
element above the frieze.
Raking Cornice
Frieze. This is a decorative band
running across the upper part of
a wall.
Lintel. The lintel is a crossbeam
supported by columns.
Capital. The top element of a
column.
Shaft. The shaft is the main
weight-bearing portion of a
column.
Pediment
Cornice
Frieze
Entablature
Lintel
Capital
Stylobate. Find the stylobate at the top step
of the
three-step platform.
Pediment. This is the triangular section
framed by the cornice and the raking cornice.
column
Shaft
Entablature. The entablature is the upper
portion, consisting of the lintel, frieze, and
cornice.
Column. A column is an upright post used to bear
weight.
Colonnade. A colonnade is formed by a line of
columns.
Stylobate
Three step
platform
It is hard to see with the naked eye, but there are few, if any, perfectly straight
lines on the entire structure. The three-step platform and the entablature
around the building look straight but actually bend upward in a gradual are, so
that the center is slightly higher than the ends. This means that the entire floor
and ceiling form a low dome that is slightly higher in the middle than at the
edges. The columns also curve slightly outward near their centers. Like
muscles, they seem to bulge a bit as they hold up the great weight of the roof.
In addition, each column slants inward toward the center of the building. The
columns were slanted in this way to prevent a feeling of top-heaviness and to
add a sense of stability to the building.
Use of Color
The Greeks preferred bright colors to the cold whiteness of their marble
buildings. For this reason, they painted large areas of most buildings. Blue,
red, green, and yellow were often used, although some details were coated
with a thin layer of gold. Exposure to the weather has removed almost all
of the color from these painted surfaces. If you look closely at the more
protected places of these
ancient buildings, however, you still might find a few faint traces of paint.
The Parthenon has been put to a variety
of uses over its long history. It was a Christian church in the fifth century and
a mosque in the 15th century. Its present ruined state is due to an explosion
that took place in the 17th century. The ruins have now been restored as
much as possible with the original remains.
The Acropolis
The Parthenon was only one of several buildings erected on the sacred
hill, or Acropolis, of Athens. The Acropolis is a mass of rock that rises
abruptly 500 feet above the city. Like a huge pedestal, it was crowned
with a group of magnificent buildings that symbolized the glory of
Athens.
Covering less than 8 acres, the Acropolis was filled with temples,
statues, and great flights of steps. On the western edge was a huge
statue of Athena so tall that the tip of her gleaming spear served as a
beacon to ships at sea. The statue was created by the legendary sculptor
Phidias, and it was said to have been made from the bronze shields of
the defeated Persians. Today, the crumbling but still impressive ruins of
the Acropolis are a reminder of a great civilization.
The Three Orders of Decorative Style
Over the centuries, the Greeks developed three orders, or decorative styles. Examples of these orders can be
seen in various structures that were built by ancient Greeks and still survive today.
The Doric Order
The Parthenon was built according to the
earliest decorative style, the Doric Order.
Doric Order
Ionic Order
Corinthian Order
In the Doric order, the principal feature is a
simple, heavy column without a base,
topped by a broad, plain capital.
The Ionic Order
The Greeks later began using another order,
the Ionic. This order employed columns that
were thinner and taller than those of the Doric.
In the Ionic order, columns had an elaborate
base and a capital carved into double scrolls that
looked like the horns of a ram. This was a more
elegant order than the Doric, and for a time
architects felt it was suitable only for small
temples. Such a temple was the little shrine to
Athena Nike built on the Acropolis between 427
and 424 B.C.
The more they looked at the new Ionic order,
the more the Greeks began to appreciate it. Soon
they began using it on larger structures such as
the Erechtheum a temple located directly
opposite the Parthenon. This building was named
after Erechtheus, a legendary king of Athens who
was said to have been a foster son of Athena.
An unusual feature of the Erechtheum
is the smaller of two porches added to its sides. On the
Porch of the Maidens, the roof is supported by six
caryatids, or columns carved to look like female figures.
The Corinthian Order
The most elaborate order was
the Corinthian, developed late
in the fifth century B.C. In the
Corinthian order, the capital is
elongated and decorated with
leaves. It was believed that
this order was suggested by a
wicker basket overgrown with
large acanthus leaves found on
the grave of a young Greek
maiden.
At first, Corinthian columns
were used only on the inside of
buildings. Later, they replaced
Ionic columns on the outside. A
monument to Lysicrates built
in Athens about three hundred
years before the birth of Christ
is the first known use of this
order on the outside of a
building. The Corinthian
columns surround a hollow
cylinder that once supported a
trophy won by Lysicrates in a
choral contest.
Grecian gold Diadem
The Parthenon. The Parthenon is remarkable for the astonishing technical skill of its
construction. No mortar was used anywhere in the building.
The stones were cut so precisely that, when fitted together, they form a single smooth
surface. The columns, which appear to be carved from single blocks of stone, are
actually composed of sections called drums. These are joined together by square pegs
in the center. These sections are fitted together so tightly that the cracks between
them are scarcely visible.
Greek Vase Decoration
The earliest Greek vases were decorated
with bands of simple geometric patterns
covering most of the vessel. Eventually the
entire vase was decorated in this way. The
years between 900 and 700 B.C., when this
form of decoration was being used, are
called the Geometric period.
Early in the eighth century B.C., artists
began to add figures to the geometric
designs on their vases.
Some of the best of these figures were painted on
large funeral vases. These vases were used in much
the same way as tombstones are used today, as
grave markers. The figures on these vases are
made of triangles and lines, and look like simple
stick figures. Several figures often appear on either
side of a figure representing the deceased, as
though they are paying their last respects. Their
hands are raised, pulling on their hair in a gesture
of grief and despair.
Funerary Vase. Athens, Greece. c. Eighth
century B.C. Terra cotta.
Realism in Vase Decoration
In time, vase figures became more
lifelike and were placed in
storytelling scenes. An excellent
example of this kind of painting is
provided by a vase showing two
figures engrossed in a game (It was
created by an artist named Exekias
(ex-eekee-us) more than 2,500 years
ago
Exekias's vase shows two Greek
generals playing a board game,
probably one in which a roll of the
dice determines the number of
moves around the board. The
names of the generals are written
on the vase. They are two great
heroes from Greek literature, Ajax
and Achilles. The words being
spoken by these warriors are
shown coming from their mouths
just as in a modern cartoon strip.
Ajax has just said "tria," or
"three," and Achilles is responding
by saying "tessera," or "four."
Legend says that these two great
heroes were so involved in this
game that their enemy was able to
mount a surprise attack.
Exekias shows the informality of
this simple scene. The warriors'
shields have been set aside, and
Achilles, at the left, has casually
pushed his war helmet back on his
head. Ajax, forgetting briefly that
they are at war, has removed his
helmet and placed it out of the
way on top of his shield. For a few
moments, the Greek heroes are
two ordinary people lost in
friendly competition.
Exekias. Vase with Ajax and Achilles Playing Morra (Dice). c. 540
B.o. Museo Gregoriano Etrusco, Vatican, Rome, Italy.
Exekias's Use of Realism
Exekias also has added details to make the scene as realistic as possible. An intricate design
decorates the garments of the two generals. The facial features, hands, and feet are carefully drawn,
although the eyes are shown from the front as they were in Egyptian art.
Exekias was not so concerned with realism that he ignored good design, however. The scene is
carefully arranged to complement the vase on which it was painted. The figures lean forward, and the
curve of their backs repeats the curve of the vase. The lines of the spears continue the lines of the two
handles and lead your eye to the board game, which is the center of interest in the composition.
At this stage in Greek vase design, decorative patterns became a less important element, appearing
near the rim or on the handles. Signed vases also began to appear for the first time in the early sixth
century B.C., indicating that the potters and artists who made and decorated them were proud of their
works and wished to be identified with them.
Greek Painting. Although no great paintings from ancient Greece have survived, it is likely that
Greek painters placed great importance on realism.
The Roman historian Pliny the Elder supports this notion. He tells of a great competition that took
place in the fifth century B.C. The purpose of this competition was to determine which of two famous
painters was more skilled in producing lifelike works. The painters, Zeuxis and Parrhasius, faced each
other with their works covered by curtains. Zeuxis confidently removed his curtain to reveal a
painting of grapes so natural that birds were tricked into pecking at it. Certain that no one could
outdo this feat, he asked Parrhasius to reveal his work. Parrhasius answered by inviting Zeuxis to
remove the curtain from the painting. When Zeuxis tried, he found he could not - the curtain was the
painting.
Alexander the Great
The Evolution of Greek Sculpture
The buildings on the Acropolis were constructed during the fifth and fourth
centuries B.C. This was a time in Greek history known as the Classical period. Like
architecture, Greek sculpture also reached its peak during this period.
To understand and appreciate Greek accomplishments in sculpture, it is necessary
to look back to an even earlier time known as the Archaic period.
Sculpture in the Archaic Period
From around 600 to 480 B.C., Greek sculptors
concentrated on carving large, freestanding
figures known as Kouroi and Korai. Kouroi is the
plural form of Kouros, meaning "youth," and
Korai is the plural of Kore, or "maiden."
The Kouros was a male youth who may
have been a god or an athlete. This example
is from the Archaic period. In some ways, the
stiffness and the straight pose of this figure
bring to mind Egyptian statues. The only
suggestion of movement is in the left foot,
which is placed slightly in front of the right
foot.
Even though the Kouros is stepping
forward, both feet are flat on the ground. Of
course, this is impossible unless the left leg
is longer than the right. This problem could
have been corrected if the right leg had been
bent slightly, but it is perfectly straight.
Later, Greek artists learned how to bend and twist their figures to
make them appear more relaxed and natural.
Except for the advancing left foot, the Kouros is symmetrically
balanced. Details of hair, eyes, mouth, and chest are exactly alike on
both sides of the figure, just as they are on Egyptian statues. Unlike
Egyptian figures, the arms of the Kouros are separated slightly from
the body and there is an open space between the legs. These
openings help to break up the solid block of stone from which it was
carved.
No one knows for certain what the Kouros was meant to be. Some say
he represents the sun god Apollo, whereas others insist that he
is an athlete. The wide shoulders, long legs,
flat stomach, and narrow hips may support the claim that he is an
athlete.
The face of the Kouros has a number of unusual features that were
used over and over again in early Greek sculptures Among these are
bulging eyes, a square chin, and a mouth with slightly upturned
corners. This same mouth with its curious smile can be found in many
early Greek sculptures. Greek sculptors wanted their figures to look
more natural, and this smile may have been a first step toward greater
realism.
The Hera of Samos
Komi were clothed women, often goddesses, that were also carved
during the Archaic period. One of these goddesses, the Hem of Samos
looks like a stone cylinder. It has the same stiff pose as the Kouros, but
its right arm is held lightly against the body and the feet are placed tightly
together. The missing left arm was bent and may once have held some
symbol of authority. There is no deep carving here, and there are no
open spaces. Instead, a surface pattern of lines suggests the garments
and adds textural interest to the simple form.
Sculpture in the Classical Period
With each new generation, Greek artists became more bold and skillful.
During the Classical period, they abandoned straight, stiff poses and made
their figures appear to move in space.
The discus thrower is about to put all his strength into a mighty throw, yet his face
is completely calm and relaxed. In this respect, the figure is more idealistic
than real.
The athlete's throwing arm is frozen for a split
second at the farthest point of the backswing.
Details reveal that Myron had a thorough
understanding of anatomy (how the body
is structured).
The athlete's right leg bears all his
weight. His left leg is poised and ready
to swing forward.
Myron's chief material was bronze. As
far as is known, he never worked in
marble. Knowledge of his sculptures,
however, comes from marble copies
produced in Roman times. Not a single
certified original work by Myron or any
of the great sculptors of Greece exists
today. Bronze works, which once
numbered in the thousands, were melted
down long ago. Even marble sculptures
were mutilated, lost, or ruined by
neglect. What is known of the ancient
Greek works comes from copies made
later by Romans, who used them to
decorate their public buildings, villas,
and gardens.
Myron.
Discobolus
(Discus
Thrower).
Roman copy
of a bronze
original. 450
B.C.
Sculptures for the Parthenon
It is through Roman copies and descriptions
by ancient writers that the works of Phidias
(fhid-ee-us) are known. He was one of the
greatest Greek sculptors and the creator of
the gigantic statue of Athena in the
Parthenon.
Athena Parthenos
Anyone who walked into the darkened
room of the Parthenon would have faced
Phidias's colossal goddess, towering to a
height of 42 feet. Her skin was of the
whitest ivory, and over 1 ton of gold was
used to fashion her armor and garments.
Precious stones were used for her eyes
and as decorations for her helmet. A slight
smile softened a face that looked as if it
could turn cruel and angry at any moment.
DISCUS. In Greece, the champion
discus thrower was considered the
greatest of athletes. In ancient
times the disc was made of stone or
metal. It is now made of wood with
a smooth metal rim.
OLYMPICS. The ancient Olympics were first
held in 776 B.C. in Athens, to honor the god
Zeus. In 1896, the first modem Olympics
were held.
Procession of Horsemen
Every four years, the citizens of Athens held
a great celebration in honor of Athena. The
celebration included a procession in which
people carried new garments and other
offerings to Athena in the Parthenon. These
gifts were given as thanks to the goddess
for her divine protection. The procession
was formed in the city below the Acropolis
and moved slowly up a winding road
through a huge gateway, the entrance to the
sacred hill. Then it wound between temples
dedicated to various gods and goddesses
and past the huge bronze statue of Athena.
The procession finally stopped at the
entrance to the
Parthenon where, during a solemn ceremony,
the presentations were made.
On a 525-foot band, or frieze, Greek sculptors,
under the direction of Phidias, show how that
parade looked more than 2,400 years ago. The
frieze, which was over 3 feet high, ran around
the top of the Parthenon walls like a giant stone
storyboard.
As they move, the figures bunch up in some places and spread out in
others. At one point, an irritated horseman turns and raises his hand in
warning to the horseman behind him, who has come up too quickly and
jostled his mount. The rider behind responds by reining in his rearing horse.
All along the parade, a strong sense of movement is evident in the spirited
prancing of the horses and the lighthearted pace of the figures on foot. This
pace seems to quicken as the procession draws closer to its destination.
Perhaps movement is best suggested by the pattern of light and shadow in
the carved drapery. This pattern of alternating light and dark values creates
a flickering quality that becomes even more obvious when contrasted with
the empty spaces between the figures.
Another relief sculpture, this one from the
Temple of Athena Nike, may remind you of
Myron's discus thrower, since it also shows a
figure frozen in action. The unknown sculptor
has carved the goddess of victory as she bends
down to fasten her sandal. A graceful
movement is suggested by the thin drapery that
clings to and defines the body of the goddess.
The flowing folds of the drapery and the line of
the shoulder and arms create a series of oval
.
lines that
unifies the work. If you compare the
handling of the drapery here with that of the
Hera of Samos, you can appreciate more fully
the great strides made by Greek sculptors over
a 150-year period.
Sculpture in the Hellenistic Period
The Peloponnesian War left the Greek citystates weakened by conflict. To the north, Macedonia was ruled by
Philip II, a military genius who had received a Greek education. Having unified his own country, Philip turned his
attention to the Greek city-states. Their disunity was too great a temptation to resist; in 338 B.C. Philip defeated
them and thus realized his dream of controlling the Greek world.
The Spread of Greek Culture
Before Philip could extend his empire further, he was assassinated while attending his daughter's wedding.
His successor was his 20year-old son, Alexander the Great, who soon launched an amazing career of
conquest.
Alexander, whose teacher had been the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle, inherited his father's admiration
for Greek culture. Alexander was determined to spread this culture throughout the world. As he marched with
his army from one country to another, the Greek culture that he brought with him blended
with other, non-Greek cultures. The period in which this occurred is known as the Hellenistic age. It lasted
about two centuries, ending in 146 B.C .when Greece fell under Roman control.
Expression in Hellenistic Sculpture
Sculptors working during the Hellenistic period were extremely skillful and confident.
They created dramatic and often violent images in bronze and marble. The sculptors were
especially interested in faces, which were considered a mirror of inner emotions. Beauty was less
important than emotional expression. Because of this new emphasis, many Hellenistic sculptures
lack the precise balance and harmony of Classical sculptures.
Burial Vessel
The Dying Gaul
Many of the features of the Hellenistic style can be observed in a life-size
sculpture known as the Dying Gaul A Roman copy shows a figure that was
once part of a large monument built to celebrate a victory over the Gauls,
fierce warriors from the north. In this sculpture, you witness the final
moments of a Gaul who was fatally wounded in battle.
Blood flows freely from the wound in his side. The figure uses what little
strength he has remaining to support himself with his right arm. He has
difficulty supporting the weight of his head and it tilts downward. Pain and
the knowledge that he is dying distort the features in his face.
Expression of Emotion
Works such as the Dying Gaul were intended to stir the emotions of the
viewer. You are meant to become involved in this drama of a dying
warrior, to share and feel his pain and loneliness and marvel at his quiet
dignity at the moment of death.
The Nike of Samothrace
About 2,100 years ago, an unknown sculptor
completed a larger-than-life marble work to
celebrate a naval victory. The finished sculpture
of a winged Nike (goddess of victory) stood on a
pedestal that was made to look like the prow of
a warship. She may have held a trumpet to her
lips with her right hand while waving a banner
with her left. A brisk ocean breeze whips Nike's
garments into ripples and folds, adding to a
feeling of forward movement.
Her weight is supported by both legs, but
the body twists in space, creating an overall
sense of movement.
It is not known for certain what great
victory this sculpture was meant to celebrate.
Also uncertain is its original location. The
sculpture was found in 1875 on a lonely
hillside of Samothrace, headless, without
arms, and in 118 pieces. Pieced together, it is
now known as the Nike of Samothrace and
commonly called the Winged Victory. It stands
proudly inside the main entrance to the
Louvre, the great art museum in Paris.
The Seated Boxer
Ten years after the Nike
of Samthrace was found, a
bronze sculpture of a
seated boxer was
unearthed in Rome. It is
not as dramatic as the
Dying Gaul nor as spirited
as the Winged Victory, but
its emotional impact is
undeniable.
The unknown artist presents
not a victorious young
athlete but a mature,
professional boxer, resting
after a brutal match. Few
details are spared in telling
about the boxer's violent
occupation. The swollen ears,
scratches, and perspiration
are signs of the punishment
he has received. He turns his
head to one side as he
prepares to remove the
leather boxing glove from his
left hand. The near-profile
view of his face reveals his
broken nose and battered
cheeks. There is no mistaking
the joyless expression on his
face, suggesting that he may
have lost the match
Stylistic Changes in Sculpture
The development of Greek sculpture can be traced through an examination
of the gods, goddesses, and athletes created from the Archaic period to the
Hellenistic period. Sculptured figures produced during the Archaic period
were solid and stiff. The Kouros, for example, was created at a time
when artists were seeking greater control of their materials in order to
make their statues look more real.
By the Classical period, sculptors had achieved near perfection in
balance, proportion, and sense of movement. The Discus Thrower
demonstrates the sculptor's ability to create a realistic work. A later
Classical work, the Spear Bearer, is an example of the balance, harmony,
and beauty achieved by Greek sculptors.
During Hellenistic times, sculptures such as the Seated Boxer reveal
the artists' interest in more dramatic and emotional subjects.
The Demand for Greek Artists
The Romans defeated Macedonia and gave the Greek citystates their freedom as allies, but the troublesome Greeks
caused Rome so much difficulty that their freedom was
taken away and the city-state of Corinth burned. Athens
alone continued to be held in respect and was allowed a
certain amount of freedom. Although the great creative
Hellenistic period had passed its peak, Greek artists were
sought in other lands, where they spread the genius of
their masters.
Philip the Great, Ivory