1. The importance of business communication
Why do accountants need strong communication skills?
Today's accounting professionals must be skilled not only numerically but also verbally.
Because accountants often work with clients and colleagues from diverse backgrounds and
professions, strong written and oral communication skills are essential to productive
collaboration and indispensable to advancing one’s career.
Key point:
“While technical skills are important, continue to build out your verbal and written
communications skills. I see many talented accountants who are entering the workforce who
are very bright, but who can’t carry on a conversation or write a decent memo. Even though
we talk a lot about technology, analytics, etc. you still need to have strong communication
skills to advance your career.”
— Stan Mark, President, ITA
Poor communication skills can lead to some serious problems
Inadequate communication may result in the following undesirable effects:
1. You may not understand what your clients really want and provide poor service as a
result.
2. You may make costly mistakes.
3. You may embarrass yourself and your firm.
4. You may miss opportunities for promotions.
Example
A client emails Kevin, an accountant at a firm catering to small business owners, asking if it's
okay if he charges furniture purchases to his business credit card. Kevin emails him back
quickly and just says "Yes" without asking further clarifying questions.
The client charges personal furniture to his business credit card, which Kevin doesn't catch
until he does the end-of-year accounting. This causes the client to accuse Kevin of giving
him poor advice and Kevin's boss to question his judgment.
Key point: Strong communication skills include listening as well as clarifying. Communication
skills are not limited to sending messages but also are important when receiving messages.
Alert: This course is designed to provide an overview of business communication standards,
including the core communication skills identified by the American Institute of Certified
Public Accountants (AICPA) and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
However, this is a general course intended to provide awareness to an employee.
Employees should ensure they are fully informed of an employer’s policies with regard to
the topics covered. Many firms and entities may have policies that differ from the general
content offered in this course.
Defining “good communication skills”
The AICPA has identified three core communication skills for accountants:
1. Interpersonal – Accountants must be able to work with individuals from different areas of
a company and must address diverse business issues. They also need to work well and
communicate effectively within a team.
2. Writing – Accounting professionals prepare myriad types of written communications,
including financial reports, interdepartmental memos, strategic plans and proposals. Poorly
written messages lack clarity and credibility and may be dismissed altogether.
3. Verbal – Accountants must be able to convey complex information in terms that everyone
can understand. Doing so requires not only good communication skills but also a
knowledge of the audience and what they need.
Key point: Communications skills involve listening, reading, writing, and speaking.
The SEC offers various recommendations for "good" writing for accountants and financial
professionals, including:
• Use the active voice
– Verbs in the active voice leave a stronger impression on the reader and remove possible
ambiguities.
– Passive voice is sometimes appropriate in professional writing.
• It can be used to make a message sound more considerate and avoid assigning blame by
deemphasizing the actor in the sentence.
• Reserve passive voice for when you need to say “no.”
Example
In the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action. For example, "John
prepared the tax audit for the company."
In the passive voice, the subject has the action done to him—rather than by him. For
example, "The tax audit for the company was prepared by John."
Key point: When you write using the active voice, your sentences will naturally be shorter.
• Use positive statements.
– Make definite assertions rather than unclear or indirect assertions.
– Saying "She usually arrives on time," is much clearer than saying "She is not very often
early."
• Use short sentences.
– Short sentences are easy to read.
– They are easy to understand.
– It is less likely the reader will make a mistake.
• Write using everyday language.
– Everyday language uses words your audience knows.
– Everyday language avoids overly technical terminology, slang, or jargon.
– Everyday language includes, rather than excludes, readers of all ages and backgrounds.
– Everyday language, specifically the use of definite and concrete words, makes business
communications easier to understand. Choose clear, direct, concise words that accurately
convey your meaning.
Example: Audit engagement letter
“We will conduct our audit in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards. Those
standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about
whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. The term “reasonable
assurance” implies a risk that material monetary misstatements may remain undetected and
precludes our guaranteeing the accuracy and completeness of the financial statements. An
audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures
in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used
and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial
statement presentation.”
As the audit engagement letter contains language that is very specific to the accounting and
auditing field, this is a great opportunity for firms to discuss the content of the letter with
their client to ensure that the client understands the terminology and expectations noted in
the letter.
• Present figures and complex material in tables, charts, or graphs to make the material
easier to understand.
– This technique helps to better organize complex information.
– Breaking the information into subgroups makes finding necessary data easier.
• Use plenty of white space around important information to draw readers' attention to
certain details.
– You may consider using callout quotes as well as highlighting key information.
– Callout quotes are sentences pulled from a letter or report and repeated in a font that is
different from the font used in the body of the report.
• Avoid using legal jargon and highly technical terms. In fact, use these sparingly, if at all.
– Accountants should keep their audience in mind when writing.
– Unless the accountant is also a lawyer and providing legal advice, he or she should avoid
using legal language.
– Communication is about clarity, and choosing simple language encourages clarity of
thought and expression.
• Avoid double negatives in sentences.
– A double negative is a negative statement containing two negative elements.
– Two negative elements can confuse readers.
– Avoiding multiple negatives helps prevent possible misunderstandings in interpreting
financial documents.
Examples: Double negatives
• “I didn’t want to say nothing.”
• “I cannot say I’m unconcerned about the facts uncovered during this audit.”
Example
Does this excerpt from Walt Disney’s Annual Report follow the SEC writing guidelines?
“The discount rate enables us to state expected future cash payments for benefits as a
present value on the measurement date. A lower discount rate increases the present value of
benefit obligations and increases pension expense. The guideline for setting this rate is a highquality long-term corporate bond rate. We increased our discount rate to 4.31% at the end of
fiscal 2018 from 3.88% at the end of fiscal 2017 to reflect market interest rate conditions at
our fiscal 2018 year end measurement date. The Company’s discount rate was determined
by considering yield curves constructed of a large population of high quality corporate bonds
and reflects the matching of plans’ liability cash flows to the yield curves. A one percentage
point decrease in the assumed discount rate would increase total benefit expense for fiscal
2019 by approximately $241 million and would increase the projected benefit obligation at
September 29, 2018 by approximately $2.7 billion. A one percentage point increase in the
assumed discount rate would decrease total benefit expense and the projected benefit
obligation by approximately $229 million and $2.3 billion, respectively.”
What are the differences between business and personal communications?
• Business communications follow a formal style.
– Use whole sentences.
– Use both salutations and titles in emails and letters.
– Avoid using slang and text-style abbreviations in business communications.
– Keep conversations focused on business topics.
• Personal communications can be informal.
– Informal personal communications (such as text messages) may include incomplete
sentences, jargon, slang, and abbreviations.
– Acronyms may be more acceptable in personal emails and messages.
– Personal conversations may include a wide selection of topics.
Small talk
• Mastering the art of small talk at business functions takes awareness and tact. Choose your
topics of conversation carefully.
• Don't forget to follow up with those you meet. In fact, not staying in touch with contacts is
considered one of the top networking mistakes. Follow up with a professional email.
• There are key benefits to networking both online and in person. The same rules of small
talk apply, regardless of the type of interaction.
• Being gracious and thanking those who share their time, energy, and expertise will ensure
your professionalism is what contacts remember.
Online networking platforms
Professional networking platforms can make the process of sharing contact information and
reaching out to business contacts easier. Some of the most popular are:
• LinkedIn
• XING
• Meetup
• Jobcase
Key point: Balance your authenticity with your professionalism in social business settings.
Common stumbling blocks to clear communication
Not knowing the basics of grammar, spelling, and other tools of written and spoken English
is a common communication stumbling block.
A weakness in any one area of written or spoken English can make you feel self-conscious.
• Everyone has weaknesses.
• If you aren't sure of yours, ask a trusted friend or colleague for help.
Improve poor writing skills
• You can improve your command of English grammar through books, online lessons,
audiobooks, classes at a local community college, or an adult education program.
• Use spell check to proofread your work or have a colleague proofread it to catch errors.
• If your documents include facts and figures, ask a friend to proofread them.
– Have one person read through the document for clarity while you check the figures, and
then switch roles.
– This can catch many errors that reading alone cannot.
– Double-checking is well worth the effort.
Grammatical pitfalls
A few key grammatical issues can be particularly challenging.
• Use apostrophes to replace letters or to show possession, with one key exception. The
word its shows possession without the apostrophe. With the apostrophe, it's means it is.
• Master the correct use of to, too, and two. Two refers to the number, too means “in
addition to,” and to is the preposition.
• Master the correct use of there, they're, and their. Their shows possession, there refers to a
place, and they're is short for "they are."
• Use fewer to refer to a number of items that can be quantified and less to refer to an
amount that cannot be counted.
Public speaking skills can also be improved
• Practice makes perfect. Your public speaking skills will improve over time the more you
practice them.
• Offer to speak to small, friendly groups in your firm.
• Rehearsals before a presentation will pay dividends when the presentation begins.
• Ask colleagues, friends, and supervisors for constructive criticism to improve your skills
over time.
• Some membership groups, including Toastmasters International, are dedicated to helping
businesspeople improve their public speaking skills.
Multitasking
Multitasking is often a common stumbling block to good business communication.
Contrary to popular belief, multitasking does not make you more productive.
• Stop and pay attention! It's difficult to focus on more than one conversation at a time.
• Set aside blocks of time to check and answer emails and monitor social media (if that is
part of your professional responsibilities) so you are not tempted to do this while focused
on another task.
• Make paying attention and being present a priority in your business.
Examples
• A study by the Institute of Psychiatry found that participants distracted by incoming email
and phone calls saw a 10-point fall in their IQ scores, which was more than twice that found
in studies of the impact of smoking marijuana on IQ.
• Another study reported in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that
heavy media multitaskers significantly underperformed on tasks related to working memory
and sustained attention.
Ending your reliance on multitasking may go a long way to improving your communication
skills.
• Set aside periods of time to focus on each task at hand. Determine along with your
supervisor what acceptable periods may be.
• Avoid keeping email applications open while you are working on other projects. The
interruptions will inhibit your workflow.
– Do not browse websites, engage in social media, or complete continuing professional
education while participating in conference calls.
– Avoid checking your electronic devices while in meetings with others.
Reinforcing respect
Give the individual or the project at hand your full attention. This demonstrates
professionalism and respect, and is an immediate way to improve your communication
skills.
• Reinforce this respect by:
– Turning off your computer monitor (or at least refocusing your attention) while you work
on other tasks or have colleagues at your desk.
– Putting away your electronic devices (phones, tablets).
– Making eye contact with your counterparties.
– Monitoring your body language.
Demographic distinctions
Culture, age, and gender may influence how messages are received. Sensitivity to such
differences may help to avoid misunderstandings.
• Avoid using slang and jargon, which tends to be specific to age or culture.
• Do not make assumptions about others based on perceived differences.
• Respect and professionalism will always serve you well.
The importance of business communication
• Client meetings go more smoothly when you can convey information clearly, confidently,
and succinctly—and when you listen carefully to your client's questions before you respond.
• Persuasive presentations work most effectively when you can speak confidently.
• Complex data can be communicated efficiently by using graphics and tables.
• Performance reviews are less stressful when you learn how to convey difficult information
to subordinates.
• Emails can be handled efficiently and tactfully.
Example: Benefits for accountants with good communication
“First, understand that interpersonal and communication skills will always be more important
than technical skills in determining career advancement and success, regardless if it’s in public
accounting or other businesses. Do not misinterpret this statement as meaning that technical
skills are unimportant. People must develop technical skills in the CPA firm world, but they are
more like antes to get into the game.”
— Marc Rosenberg, President, The Rosenberg Associates
Communication stumbling blocks: a summary
Be aware of the communication stumbling blocks many individuals face. Some key
stumbling blocks—and tips for counterbalancing each—are summarized below.
Excessive and inappropriate informality
Understand the inherent formality in a business situation and watch for cues from those
around you, particularly more experienced colleagues.
Distractions through multitasking
Recognize when you are failing to give a project or a person your full attention and decide
to value the dedicated use of your time.
Poor use of grammar
Be aware of common grammatical errors and utilize free online grammar resources such as
Grammarly before transmitting important communications.
Exaggerated verbiage to convey intelligence or importance
Using complex or highly technical jargon that your audience is unable to understand does
not demonstrate your intelligence or expertise in an area. It simply demonstrates your
inability to express an idea clearly and concretely.
Key point: Nearly every stumbling block can be solved with a bit of respect.
2. Verbal communication
Interpersonal communication includes listening as well as speaking
Listen attentively to the other person
• Focus on what they are saying. Indicate you are listening by making eye contact.
• Nod at appropriate times.
• Do not multitask.
– Put away paperwork, smartphones, and other devices when meeting with someone.
– Focus on the conversation at hand.
– Take notes but also make sure to continue to make eye contact during the conversation
and not just look down at a memo pad.
Ask clarifying questions
• A clarifying question helps you make sure that you understand what someone else is
saying.
• Wait for a pause in the conversation to ask a clarifying question.
• Do not assume you understand something or that you will figure it out. It is better to ask
questions to confirm your understanding.
Example: Clarifying questions
• “Can you please explain what you mean by that?”
• “I’m not sure I understand what you mean. Can you repeat that, please?”
• “Here’s what I think I heard you say: [describe]. Is that right?”
Good business communication skills are also essential for group meetings and
presentations
Meetings and presentations may be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video
conferencing.
What is the difference between a meeting and a presentation?
• Meetings are usually convened to solve a problem, ask for feedback, or share ideas. They
can be between two people or a group of people.
• Presentations are usually more formal than meetings. The purpose is to convey
information. Insights or feedback may or may not be solicited.
Example: Meeting or presentation?
Which of the following examples is a presentation and which is a meeting?
1. A forensic accountant is called before a company’s board of directors to share evidence
that someone has been misdirecting funds.
2. One of your clients would like an appointment with you to review his firm's compliance
with federal income tax laws.
3. You have been invited to present a paper on best practices in accounting for clothing
manufacturers at the American Accounting Association's annual convention.
1. A forensic accountant is called before a company’s board of directors to share evidence
that someone has been misdirecting funds.
This is an example of a presentation because the forensic accountant must prepare
information and convey it to a group of people. They aren't there to problem-solve,
share ideas, or brainstorm; they are there to listen to his findings.
2. One of your clients would like an appointment with you to review his firm's compliance
with federal income tax laws.
This is an example of a meeting. Although you'll be sharing your knowledge, you will
also be responding to questions and perhaps brainstorming tax-saving solutions.
3. You have been invited to present a paper on best practices in accounting for clothing
manufacturers at the American Accounting Association's annual convention.
This is an example of a presentation because you are conveying information to an
audience at a convention.
Best practices for effective business meetings
Structure the meeting with a date, a starting time, and an ending time
• Scheduling and adhering to starting and ending times helps to focus the agenda and to
ensure that participants’ other time commitments are respected.
• Estimate how long each item on the agenda will take to determine the time allotted for
the meeting.
• Be sure to convey to each participant who is presenting an estimate of how much time
they have on the agenda.
• Communicate this information clearly in writing to the invited participants.
• Give participants plenty of time to prepare for meetings.
• Email meeting invitations and the agenda in advance.
Create and circulate a meeting agenda before the meeting date
A meeting agenda should:
• Be written in outline form
• List the participants, date, time, and location of the meeting
• Include the purpose of the meeting
• Include bullet points listing what the meeting will cover
• Include any other pertinent details
Include time for each participant to convey information
• List their names on the agenda next to the topic they are covering so they know what to
prepare.
• If time is limited, prepare a timed agenda, which includes the times when each person is
speaking. This may help to keep the meeting on track.
Circulate important materials in advance
• Include an electronic copy or link to the materials in an emailed meeting agenda.
• Refer to the materials on the agenda itself so people can't miss them.
Example: Sample meeting agenda
Changes to the State's Income Tax Policies
April 25, 20XX
1:00 p.m. to 3 p.m.
Main Conference Room, 1st floor
Host: Jane Doe
Participants: June Cleaver, Carol Brady, John Walton, Richard Cunningham
AGENDA
1. Welcome and updates
2. Review changes in income tax policies (Jane)
3. Explain how changes may affect reporting (Richard)
4. Questions/answers
Please read the attached booklet from the state tax commission regarding the changes.
Have someone take notes
• The person taking notes should share them with participants within one day of the
meeting.
• The notes should include any potential tasks and people assigned to each task for followup.
• Supervisors should be copied on meeting updates to help them monitor progress on
projects.
• If another meeting should be convened to share findings or follow-up information,
circulate the next meeting date, time, and place with the meeting notes.
Prepare well in advance of the actual presentation date
• Gather all of your facts, figures, and materials several days prior to the presentation.
• Ask the meeting or conference host whether these materials should be circulated in
advance or at the presentation.
– If you are sharing materials during the presentation, ask someone to help you distribute
them so you aren't distracted.
Test any technology beforehand
• Conduct a “dry run” of any programs or devices to be used in the presentation to head off
potential glitches.
• Use technology effectively while considering its limitations.
• Use technology to share charts, graphs, and illustrations as needed, but do not rely solely
on technology to make your point.
– Keep presentations streamlined and focused.
– Avoid overuse of comics and other elements that detract from the main point of the
presentation.
Make the most of videoconferencing
Videoconferencing tools like BlueJeans, Cisco WebEx, and Zoom are convenient ways to
have a face-to-face meeting quickly or with people who are spread out over a wide
geographic area. Always approach videoconference meetings with the same level of
professionalism as in-person meetings.
• Be on time.
• Dress professionally, even if attending the meeting from home.
• Try to look into the camera, rather than the screen, when speaking. It is the equivalent of
looking into someone’s eyes when speaking.
• Pay attention. Unless you need to examine some files relevant to the meeting, keep your
eyes on the screen and the other participants.
While videoconferencing can be used to great effect in various contexts, one should also be
mindful of its limitations:
• Non-verbal communication here is limited to tone, hand gestures, and facial expressions
because your camera is unlikely to capture more than that.
• Videoconferencing tools require a strong, stable Internet connection for all parties.
• Overreliance on videoconferencing may lead to a loss of personal interactions.
Note: The values and downsides of videoconferencing are not the same for all teams. If your
team works remotely, then relying on videoconferencing can add a personal element to your
work that would not otherwise exist. On the other hand, if you work with a small team in
an office, the hassle of arranging a videoconferencing call might not be worth it as compared
to just meeting your colleagues in person.
Develop and improve your oral presentation skills
• Stand comfortably with feet slightly apart. If you are comfortable moving about, then
avoid pacing back and forth.
• Be aware of your gestures and posture. If using a podium or presentation table, do not
grip it.
• Look just slightly over audience members’ heads if you are uncomfortable with eye
contact. They won't be able to tell the difference.
• Have water handy for dry throat caused by nervousness or for coughs. Sip it; don’t gulp.
• Speak in a confident, conversational tone.
• Speak loud enough so that people can hear you, but do not shout.
Alert: Presenting at a major conference or industry event? Traveling via train or plane? Bring
backups of your materials! Many presenters have discovered to their dismay that their
computers are not compatible with conference center equipment or that USB drives were
accidently erased during transit.
Key point: If you have been invited to speak to a group, sending a thank-you letter is a polite
and professional way to express your appreciation.
3. Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication means body language
Non-verbal communication is what people communicate without speaking.
Examples include:
• Tone of voice. Is the tone conveying happiness, sadness, sarcasm, or another emotion?
• Eye contact. Is the communicator looking at someone or looking down?
• Facial expression. What additional information is conveyed by facial expressions?
• Stance. How is the communicator postured? Is she standing or sitting? Is she pacing or
standing still?
• Physical distance from others
• Time. Respecting other people's time is an effective way to communicate respect.
Face-to-face communication
Because so much information is shared non-verbally, face-to-face meetings remain
appropriate in many circumstances to facilitate clear communications.
Delivering difficult information or bad news may be handled best in a face-to-face meeting.
You can read and react to non-verbal signals quickly, gauging the other person's reaction
and responding accordingly.
Performance reviews should always be conducted in person for the same reason.
Using non-verbal communication
Common non-verbal signals at work can tell you a lot more than you think.
You can convey confidence during presentations or meetings by consciously choosing these
non-verbal signals.
• Make direct eye contact with colleagues and clients.
• Offer a confident, strong handshake (without crushing the other person's hand). Adjust
your grip as appropriate for the recipient.
• Use gestures effectively during presentations.
• Reduce nervous gestures.
• Dress for business in conservative, professional clothing.
• Stand up straight, and sit up straight in your chair.
Alert: Some of these non-verbal signals may be misinterpreted by people from cultures
outside of the United States. For example, in Western cultures, making eye contact with your
supervisor while he or she is speaking is seen as both confident and polite. In Eastern
cultures, making eye contact with a supervisor may be perceived as rude.
Understanding how culture impacts both how we express non-verbal behavior and how we
interpret them is beyond the scope of this course. If you find yourself working with people
from other cultures, it is important not to jump to conclusions about their non-verbal
gestures. If you will be travelling outside the country or working with other cultures during
your career, make an effort to learn local customs and norms before your visit.
4. Written communication
Strong written communication skills are essential
Accountants in today’s business world must be able to communicate in a variety of written
formats. These include:
• Email
• Collaborative chat applications
• Business letters
• Memos
• Reports
Email etiquette
Email is probably the most commonly used business communication tool on the planet.
“Email etiquette” simply means best practices for sending and responding to emails, and it
includes using proper greetings, closings, tone, and word choice in the body of your email,
as well as including the appropriate people among the recipients.
While there is no “email etiquette police,” having a good grasp of common courtesies
related to the sending and receiving of email enhances your professional appearance.
Remember these key points:
• Emailing colleagues and clients is very different from emailing friends and family.
• Your email messages may be read by others at work and/or kept as part of your personnel
file.
Using email
Email can be used for routine communications with clients and colleagues, but the
message’s length and complexity should also match its purpose and audience.
Format emails similarly to a letter, with a salutation field ("Dear Mr. Jones") and closing
("Sincerely, Carol Brady").
When composing an email in a business setting, be sure to write in complete sentences
using proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
Consider that most emails are kept for a long time, even permanently, to document client
correspondence.
• Think twice before saying something in an email that you wouldn't want to say in person.
Keep confidential information out of emails.
• Do not use text message-style abbreviations or emojis in email correspondence. Not
everyone receiving emails understands them.
Key point: Email messages become part of documented workpapers. Keep this in mind as you
draft, proofread, and send emails.
Always include a descriptive subject line to alert recipients to the topic of the email.
• Keep email subject lines relatively short but descriptive.
• If the email is urgent or time-sensitive, note that in the subject line.
• If the email is in response to a prior email or a forwarded message, subject lines commonly
include the abbreviations RE: and FWD:, respectively.
• When starting a new conversation, begin a new email thread with the appropriate subject
line. This will assist you (and others) in tracing correspondence and organizing messages.
Include a complete salutation and closing line, as you would for any
business correspondence.
Salutation
• Err on the side of formality when addressing someone in an email.
• Include the person's title (for example, Dr., Ms., or Mr.) and his or her last name.
• Use a greeting word ("Dear" is a great default) prior to the name and a colon following the
name.
Closing
• Your closing should include closing remarks (for example, "Sincerely" "Regards" or
"Thanks") followed by a comma and your name.
• Some companies establish a standard signature for emails to follow the sender's closing.
• Check with your supervisor to determine if a standard email signature is required.
• Standard signatures often include the sender's name, title, company name, email address,
and telephone number.
Accounting advice
Watch out for email language that implies accounting advice, including language like "you
should" or "I suggest" or any similar verbiage.
Make sure the content of your message reflects your authority level, particularly if you are a
junior staff member.
If your supervisor has asked you to prepare an email to a client, you may want to ask the
supervisor to read the email before you send it to make sure you have communicated
appropriately.
Often disclaimers are required to clarify that message content is not intended to be
accounting advice. Include these disclaimers if your firm requires them, but don't rely on
them to nullify advice you inadvertently included in your email.
Best practices for using address fields
The primary address options are To, Cc, and Bcc.
Include the primary recipients in the To field.
Cc is an abbreviation for "carbon copy." It means that an exact copy of the email is sent to
people in the Cc line. Everyone can see the primary recipients of the email, as well as the
people who have been copied on it.
Note: A good rule of thumb: If you expect a reply from someone, include him or her in the To
field. If you do not, but you wish to keep him or her apprised of the content in the email,
include him or her in the Cc field.
Key point: Some supervisors prefer to be included on all email correspondence. Initiate
a conversation with your teammates and supervisors to determine their preferences for
communications.
Bcc stands for "blind carbon copy.”
• An email address included in the Bcc field receives a copy of the note without the
knowledge of the other recipients.
– The primary acceptable reason for using the Bcc field is to keep the recipient's email
address in the Bcc field confidential.
– Occasionally, Bcc is used as a defensive measure, although it can be considered a passiveaggressive approach to communication.
• If everyone receiving the email knows one another, it's okay to include them as a Cc
instead of a Bcc.
• Note that recipients who are Bcc'd on an email will not automatically receive replies.
If during an email chain it becomes necessary to include someone that was previously
excluded from communications, it is courteous to note parenthetically in the body of the
email that the person is now included. This ensures that casual readers of the email chain
will clearly understand who is included in the conversation, and it may help casual readers
from inadvertently replying to an unintended recipient.
Note: You may have noticed the curious spelling of the verbs Cc'd and Bcc'd. When using the
verb form of these terms, an apostrophe (instead of a dash or other punctuation) is commonly
used. This is also true for comparable forms of the term, such as Cc'ing or Bcc'ing.
Managing emails
Managing emails is an important task. Set aside blocks of time during the day to focus
solely on email correspondence.
Common courtesy requires that all emails should be acknowledged within one day of
receipt.
• If the response requires research or time to craft an answer, it is preferable at least to send
an acknowledgment that you received the email, indicating that you will respond completely
within a certain period of time.
• Be aware of email deadlines. If someone needs a response by a set date and time, make
sure you respond on or before the deadline.
Set up folders in your inbox to organize emails
• Folders can be used to store emails by client name, project name, or topic.
• Be careful when automatically filing emails in folders using "mailbox rules" that can be
established with certain email providers. These features can help a user stay organized, but
emails may inadvertently be filed without the recipient's knowledge.
• Auto archive or manually archive older emails. Your firm likely has an archival policy
stating how often emails should be archived. Check with the firm’s Information Technology
(IT) department for specific requirements.
• Delete unwanted emails immediately.
Use the follow-up feature to organize emails you must respond to later
• Gmail and other email applications offer several methods to organize and set reminders
on emails.
• Use these reminders to ensure nothing falls through the cracks.
• Some programs offer categories or a way to “flag” emails.
– These can be used to organize emails according to topic, project, or client.
– Keeping a master list on your desk of which color corresponds to which project, topic, or
client can help you stay organized.
Response etiquette
Avoid clicking “reply all" for every email
• You don't need to hit “reply all" for every email, even if many people were included on the
first email.
• Using “reply all" for every email may be considered rude.
• Acknowledge an email with a simple “reply" that goes to the sender only.
Example: Using “reply all”
Facts:
Josh, the administrative assistant for the business-to-business group at a large accounting
firm, sends a reminder email to the entire department that orders for supplies are due on
Friday.
• Should you click “reply" to let Josh know you do not need supplies this week?
• Should you hit "reply all" to let Josh know you do not need supplies this week?
• Should you copy your supervisor on your email?
Answer:
Simply click "reply" and thank Josh for his email, letting him know you do not need anything
this week. Neither your supervisor nor the entire department needs to know that you have
plenty of paper clips this week!
Tone in emails
Learn to write emails with an appropriate tone.
Keep in mind that in an email, your words and writing style alone convey the overall tone.
Information may sound harsher in an email than it does in person because written
communications lack non-verbal gestures that can be used to soften the tone.
Key point: The best advice is to keep email communications business-like, professional, and
on point to avoid misunderstandings.
Avoid implying that you are giving directions or making a decision if you do not have that
authority or intention.
• Certain words immediately convey the notion that you are making a decision or giving
directions to someone.
• Phrases such as "You should do this..." or "Always..." imply giving directions and should be
avoided in emails to peers, clients, and supervisors.
• Instead, choose phrases such as "Consider...," "You may wish to...," or "Best practices in our
industry are to...”—all of which have a softer yet professional tone.
Reframing statements as questions can also soften them, turning “bossy” statements into
helpful queries.
• "May I offer a suggestion?" instead of "I suggest..." or "You should..."
• "Perhaps we could..." is also a helpful way to offer an alternative without being
presumptuous.
• Avoid negative phrases or sarcasm. They can make you seem more irritated than you
actually are.
• When in doubt, make a phone call instead.
Consider the following example email from a staff accountant to a client.
The previous email has been rewritten to reflect a more appropriate level of professionalism.
Instant messaging
Collaborative chat and social intranet apps like Slack, Zoom, and Teams offer companies a
convenient, private communication tool for quick messaging across an entire workforce.
Communicating using these apps increases productivity and collaboration while reducing
security risks.
Due to these advantages, a recent survey found that 43 percent of American workers now
use instant messaging applications at work.
However, these apps can create a pressure to respond quickly and lead to less person-toperson interaction. To remain productive, consider the following suggestions.
• Send consolidated messages: Chat messages can often be conversational in form, leading
to disjointed messages that can be distracting and difficult to read. Send concise but
complete messages to avoid this.
• Send messages only to relevant people.
• Acknowledge a “Do not Disturb” status: Avoid messaging people who are not online on
the application.
• Use other forms of communication when appropriate: If you want someone to be able to
refer to your message later, send an email. If your message could invoke an emotional
response or involves a difficult subject, consider meeting face-to-face instead.
Business letters
Business letters should accompany any materials mailed to your clients, other businesses, or
offices. This is standard courtesy and helps to introduce and contextualize the information.
• Letters should be typed and printed on business stationery. Never write business letters by
hand.
• A business letter includes the date, the return address, and the recipient's address.
• The salutation field should always be "Dear [Mr./Mrs.] [Last name]" followed by a colon.
• Include a closing at the end, then type your name and title underneath.
• Sign the letter using blue or black ink, in the space between the closing and your typed
name.
There are several acceptable business letter formats.
• Block style, perhaps the most common, pushes all the text flush with the left margin.
• Modified block style, shown in the following example, pushes only some information to
the left.
• Business letters are typed single space.
• In all types of business letters, you may omit your firm's return address if the letter is
printed on business stationery.
Be precise when writing business letters.
• Use I and you when expressing your personal opinions.
– We in a business letter means your company.
– Making a statement such as “We feel that..." implies that your entire company feels a
certain way.
• Strive for accuracy and clarity.
– If you are referring to numbers in your letter, ask someone else to proofread your work to
ensure accuracy.
– Read the letter aloud to yourself to make sure it makes sense.
• Run spell check and grammar check before printing and mailing letters. Key spelling and
grammatical mistakes that automatic tools may not detect include:
– Distinguishing the proper word among to, too, and two
– Unnecessary capitalization
– Tense inconsistencies
Key point: Spell check and grammar check are no substitute for careful proofreading. The
tools are not equipped to detect all errors.
Business memos
Memos are used to solve problems or bring attention to a problem.
• If the problem involves just one person, do not send a memo.
• Call a meeting instead to discuss the problem with that person.
Make sure that everyone who needs to be aware of the problem or included in the
discussion to solve it receives and reads the memo.
The Cc function can be used in memos to share information with parties that need to be
informed of the subject.
As is true for emails and letters, there are specific sections that should be included in every
memo.
• TO: The recipients' names and job titles
– Always ask yourself, Does everyone on this list actually need to receive this memo?
– Use everyone's full name and job title, even if you are friendly with them and it is
customary to call them by their first name in your company.
• FROM: The sender’s name and job title
• DATE: Complete and current date
• SUBJECT: What the memo is about, highlighted in some way
The body of the memo includes important information about the subject, action steps, and
follow-up tasks.
• The Opening section describes the situation the memo addresses.
• After the TO, FROM, DATE, and SUBJECT fields, skip several lines and then write the
introduction.
• Write in complete sentences.
• Include any relevant details about the situation.
– Avoid including all the background information.
– Only include information that will help the recipients respond to the needs outlined in the
memo.
• After the Opening section is the Context section.
– It provides a summation of the background, event, or circumstances described in the
memo.
– Often you can address both the context and the opening together in one sentence at the
start of an email.
• The next section is the Task section.
– It describes what you are doing to solve the problem.
– It is sometimes easier to use bullet points to list the action steps taken.
• The Discussion section focuses on key findings.
– This section may include recommendations of what to do with the key findings.
– Include supporting facts and details to accompany your recommendations.
– Organize your points from the strongest to the weakest, the most important to the least
important.
• Conclude the memo with a closing and a list of attachments.
– The closing is simply a courteous conclusion.
– If you've included background data, list each document separately as a bullet point under
"Attachments."
Memos are typically used to share information among your colleagues.
• Write for your audience.
– Focus on what your audience needs to know.
– Don't be afraid to use accounting-specific language in a memo (after all, your peers will
understand).
– Cite all facts and research and include the original information to support your citations.
• Acknowledge areas that merit further research. If you can't answer all questions, then list
the unanswered ones.
• Cite data, but don't include long citations in a memo. Include long lists of numbers or data
as attachments.
Reference: Accounting memos tend to be lengthy. Here are some online examples of FASB
accounting memos:
https://www.fasb.org/cs/ContentServer?c=Document_C&cid=1176170880042&d=&pagena
me=FASB%2FDocument_C%2FDocumentPage
https://www.fasb.org/cs/ContentServer?c=Document_C&cid=1176171580176&d=&pagena
me=FASB%2FDocument_C%2FDocumentPage
https://www.fasb.org/cs/ContentServer?c=Document_C&cid=1176170879882&d=&pagena
me=FASB%2FDocument_C%2FDocumentPage
Reports
Accountants write many types of reports in the course of business.
Accountants' reports may have important business ramifications for their firms or their
clients.
Types of reports that accountants may be asked to write include reports analyzing data or
information about an investment option.
• Reports may be written for internal review.
• Reports may be written for clients.
These reports must be logically organized.
• Because reports tend to be lengthy, logical organization of the contents makes them
easier to read.
• Logical organization means presenting the facts in a sequence that is easy for readers to
understand.
• Common methods of organizing information include listing the most important items first,
and the least important items last.
Include an executive summary in long reports.
• The purpose of an executive summary is to present key findings first in the document. This
will be the first part of the report that anyone reads.
• Executives should be able to understand the most important facts at a glance.
• Even though the summary appears first in the report, it should be the final component
drafted so you can easily summarize your entire report.
Conduct research to support your conclusions.
• The quality and accuracy of research sources is extremely important.
• Primary sources are always preferable to secondary sources.
• Learn how to assess potential information sources.
– Not all sources of information are equal.
– Sources you document and collect on your own, such as an analysis of a client's financial
information, are the best.
– If using external sources, the best are universities, government agencies, and research
groups.
– If you aren't sure of the accuracy of the information, leave it out of your report. Faulty
research leads to poor conclusions.
• Scrutinize sources from private corporations.
– Corporations often conduct research as part of their marketing and sales programs.
– Such research may be biased to promote a hidden agenda.
– Scrutinize and weigh the pros and cons of using such research.
• Website information must be judged according to the source.
– Newspapers and business journals are generally credible sources.
– Magazines may be credible sources, depending on the publication.
– Use websites or blogs judiciously.
• Use the most recent research available.
– For facts and figures that do not change much over time, older research sources are
acceptable. Examples of such data include the square footage of buildings or land masses.
– However, financial information changes annually, so the most recent figures must be used.
– Trend data depends on accurate, timely information.
– Note the dates when important facts were collected in your citations.
• Carefully document all your research citations.
– Use proper references and footnotes in your report.
– Use footnotes or in-text citations to document each fact shared in your report.
– Follow a style guide. Find out which one your company uses or recommends.
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Commonly used style guides include the AP Stylebook, the Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association, and the Chicago Manual of Style.
Many accounting firms use the Chicago Manual of Style.
Consistency is more important than using a particular style guide.
5. Presentation tips
Using pictures
Presenting financial information poses special challenges. It is often difficult for audience
members to focus on large amounts of data or streams of numbers.
Use graphs, charts, or other visual representations to share numbers whenever you can.
Use stories to paint mental pictures so that people can grasp large numbers or the impact
of data.
Line graphs
Tables communicate quantitative information effectively. However, they do not
communicate trend data well. To communicate trends, choose a line graph instead.
Bar charts
Bar charts show the magnitude of data points side by side.
Bar charts are a good choice for comparing one item with another or one year with another.
Pie charts
Pie charts help to show how one portion fits into the whole.
Pie charts are useful to demonstrate how various parts of a budget or data set fit together.
Including data labels on pie charts helps present information clearly.
Final tips
Regardless of the form of visual representation, be careful not to use excessive colors,
labels, or extraneous information that distracts from—rather than supports—the point you
are trying to convey.
Always test the graphic in the presentation venue prior to delivering the presentation.
Occasionally, formatting changes from your computer to the venue's projection device may
be problematic.
Testing a graph or image also ensures the image you present will be displayed clearly to the
audience.