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RESEARCH PUBLISHING
History of Science and Technology in
Tamil Nadu through the Ages
Edited by
S. Swaminathan
RESEARCH PUBLISHING
Published by
Research Publishing
No: 83 Genting Lane, #08-01, Genting Building, S349568 SINGAPORE.
e-mail: editorial@rpsonline.com.sg
India Office: New No: 61/1 First Cross Street, CIT Nagar, Chennai 600035.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN TAMIL NADU
THROUGH THE AGES
Edited by
S. Swaminathan
Copyright © 2013 by Research Publishing Services. All rights reserved.
This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Organizers or
the Publisher.
Disclaimer:
No responsibility is assumed by the Editor/Publisher for any injury and/or damage to per­
sons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use
or operation of any methods, products or ideas contained in the material herein. Contents,
used in the papers are how it is submitted and approved by the Editor after changes in the
formatting. Whilst every attempt made to ensure that all aspects of the papers are uniform
in style, the Publisher or the Editor(s) will not be responsible whatsoever for the accuracy,
correctness or representations of any statements or documents presented in the papers.
ISBN 13: 978-981-07-1409-3
ISBN 10: 981-07-1409-2
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Contents
Chapter 16
History of Science and Technology in Colonial
Tamil Nadu 1857-1947
xv
111
S. Swaminathan
Chapter 17
Two Significant Landmarks in the Colonial Space
Science
121
T. Asokan
Chapter 18
History and Operation of Nilgiris Mountain
Railway (NMR)
130
R. Shangameswaran
Chapter 19
Navigation and Shipbuilding Technology in the
Coromandel Coast with Special Reference to
Dutch East India Company (VOC)
133
S. Ravichandran
Chapter 20
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History
141
K. Marimuthu
Chapter 21
Methodical Study of Indian Flora and Fauna Under
Colonial Period
163
P. J. Biju Joseph
Chapter 22
History of Science: Perspective of a Historian
170
N. Rajendran
Chapter 23
Impact of Science and Technology on Women
in Colonial Tamil Nadu
177
K. Mahalakshmi
Chapter 24
Biography of Indian Women Scientists, Technologists
and their Achievements
183
V. Kalpana Devi
Chapter 25
Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddi: Health and Medical
Services
G. Gowri
190
Chapter 20
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History
K. Marimuthu
Doctoral Research Scholar,
Department of History,
Bharathidasan University,
Druchirappalli
HISTORY OF LIGHTHOUSES
A Lighthouse is a tower, building, or other type of structure designed to
emit light from a system of lamps and lenses or, in older times, from a fire,
and used as an aid for navigation pilots at sea or on inland waterways.
Lighthouses are used to mark dangerous coastlines, hazardous shores
and reefs, and safe entries to harbors, and can also assist in aerial naviga­
tion. Once widely used, the number of operational lighthouses has
declined due to the expense of maintenance and replacement by modern
electronic navigational aids.
Lighthouses have always had two principal functions: to warn of
danger from a spot that sailors could see from a safe distance both night
end day, and to be guides into harbors or anchorages. Lighthouses also
nave become symbolic monuments of society's efforts to reduce the haz­
ards of seafaring. These structures were often constructed under
precarious circumstances by skilled builders and were maintained, often
at great personal risk, by dedicated keepers.
TECHNOLOGY AND LIGHTHOUSES — THE LIGHT
The purpose of a lighthouse's light is to provide a mariner at sea with a
fixed point of reference to aid his ability to navigate in the dark when the
shore or an offshore hazard cannot be seen directly. The distance at which
such a light can be seen depends on the height and intensity of the light.
History of Science and Technology in Tamil Nadu
Editor: S. Swaminathan
Copyright © 2013 by Research Publishing :: www.rpsonline.com.sg
ISBN: 978-981-07-1409-3
141
142
K.Marimuthu
The brighter the light and the greater its height above the sea, the farther
it can be seen. Of course, when the weather is bad-with rain, snow, or fog­
visibility, it can be greatly reduced.
The earliest lights were wood-burning fires. Large, visible fires
required vast quantities of wood, which tended to burn quickly. During
the early 1500s, coal began to be used for fires in lighthouses. Coal had the
advantage of burning more slowly and brightly than wood. However, it
also required more care to keep its fire bright, particularly during bad
weather. Enclosing the fire with glass windows resulted in soot on the
glass, which reduced the visibility of the light. Adding reflectors to
increase the visibility also resulted in deposits of soot on the reflecting
surfaces, which reduced their effectiveness.
Candles were used in some lighthouses. Although not as bright as
coal fires, candles produced less soot and ash, and were more easily con­
tained within a lantern, which kept the flame steadier. Some lighthouses
used a dozen or more candles and reflectors to make the light more visi­
ble, but in bad weather, still-brighter lights were needed.
Lamps burning oil were the next step in the attempt to improve the
visibility of the lights. A variety of wick types were used in these lamps:
flat, solid and round, and multiple wicks in a single oil reservoir (known
as "spider lamps"). A lamp using a hollow, circular wick was invented by
a Frenchman, Ami Argand, in 1781. The design allowed air to flow along
Fresnel lenses
The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without
the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design.
Compared to conventional bulky lenses, the Fresnel lens is much thinner, larger, and flatter,
and captures more oblique light from a light source, thus allowing lighthouses to be visible
over much greater distances.
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History
143
[fc-r- the inside and outside of the wick, which greatly enhanced the
fc^ghtness of the flame. This lamp was often fitted in the center of a large
>C — to 20-inch) parabolic reflector, and was widely used in England and
feance.
In the United States, an unemployed ship captain, Winslow Lewis,
Hptented his version of the Argand lamp and parabolic reflector after
ifemonstrating its superiority to the spider lamp at the Boston Light. He
w — awarded a contract to install his lamp system in the nation's lightL uses, a task he completed in 1815.
In 1822, the Frenchman Augustin Fresnel invented a lens that capr. - ?d and focused a much larger fraction of the light emitted by the lamps
■an did reflectors, hence producing a much brighter light. These Fresnel
fesses were quickly adopted in England, France, and other European seafaring nations.
LIGHTHOUSES IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
The first lighthouse on record was built on the island of Pharos. Later des­
ignated one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, it was the only
structure among these seven built for a practical purpose: guiding sailors
safely into the harbor at Alexandria, Egypt. Alexander the Great founded
this port city on the Mediterranean Sea in 332 B.C., and located it on the
western edge of the Nile River delta to avoid the heavy silt and sediment
’oads deposited annually by the great river. Ptolemy, ruler of Egypt after
Alexander's death, authorized the building of the Pharos light in 290 B.C.
Alexandria served ships carrying Egyptian grain and armies to ports
around the Mediterranean, and proved important to the extension and
maintenance of the Roman Empire.
The Pharos lighthouse was the last of the six vanished Wonders to
disappear (the Great Pyramid in Egypt still exists). It stood for about 1,
500 years, finally falling victim to earthquakes in A.D. 1326. An Arab trav­
eling in 1166 described the lighthouse as follows: the lowest of three
stages was a square about 183 feet high with a cylindrical core; the mid­
dle stage was octagonal with 60-foot sides and a height of about 90 feet;
and the third stage was circular with a height of 24 feet.1 The total height,
including the foundation, was about 384 feet. It was reported to have used
fire at night and a sun-reflecting mirror during the day.
The Pharos lighthouse was memorialized on Roman coins, and its
name is the base for the word "lighthouse" in Spanish and Italian (faro),
Portuguese (farol), and French (phare). Even in Britain before 1600, a light­
house was called a pharos.
The Romans have been credited with building more than thirty light­
houses throughout their provinces, including one in Spain at Corunna, in
144
K.Marimuthu
France at Boulogne (which survived until 1664), and in England alongside
the harbor at Dover.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, no new lighthouses were con­
structed until the end of the so-called Dark Ages, when trade among ports
on the Mediterranean and beyond began to expand. The Italians built a
light tower in 1157 at Meloria and at other port cities thereafter, almost all
of them harbor lights. It was not until the 15th century that lighthouses
began to be installed offshore to warn seamen of hazards to their vessels
along routes to the port cities. Alan Stevenson estimated that the number
of lighthouses worldwide grew from about 34 in 1600 to approximately
175 in 1800.
MEDIEVAL LIGHTHOUSES
The decline of commerce in the Dark Ages halted lighthouse construction
until the revival of trade in Europe about 1100 ce. The lead in establishing
new lighthouses was taken by Italy and France. By 1500, references to
lighthouses became a regular feature of books of travel and charts. By
1600, at least 30 major beacons existed.
These early lights were similar to those of antiquity, burning mainly
wood, coal, or torches in the open, although oil lamps and candles were
also used. A famous lighthouse of this period was the Lanterna of Genoa
in Italy, probably established about 1139. It was rebuilt completely in
1544 as the impressive tower that remains a conspicuous seamark today.
The keeper of the light in 1449 was Antonio Columbo, uncle of the
Columbus who crossed the Atlantic. Another early lighthouse was built
at Meloria, Italy, in 1157, which was replaced in 1304 by a lighthouse on
an isolated rock at Livorno. In France the Roman tower at Boulogne was
repaired by the emperor Charlemagne in 800. It lasted until 1644, when
it collapsed owing to undermining of the cliff. The most famous French
lighthouse of this period was one on the small island of Cordouan in the
estuary of the Gironde River near Bordeaux. The original was built by
Edward the Black Prince in the 14th century. In 1584 Louis de Foix, an
engineer and architect, undertook the construction of a new light, which
was one of the most ambitious and magnificent achievements of its day.
It was 135 feet in diameter at the base and 100 feet high, with an elabo­
rate interior of vaulted rooms, richly decorated throughout with a
profusion of gilt, carved statuary, and arched doorways. It took 27 years
to build, owing to subsidence of the apparently substantial island. By the
time the tower was completed in 1611, the island was completely sub­
merged at high water. Cordouan thus became the first lighthouse to be
built in the open sea, the true forerunner of such rock structures as the
Eddystone Lighthouse.
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History
145
The influence of the Hanseatic League helped increase the number of
lighthouses along the Scandinavian and German coasts. At least 15 lights
were established by 1600, making it one of the best-lighted areas of that
me.
During this period, lights exhibited from chapels and churches on the
: -a st frequently substituted for lighthouses proper, particularly in Great
Britain.
THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN ERA
The development of modern lighthouses can be said to have started about
1700, when improvements in structures and lighting equipment began to
appear more rapidly. In particular, that century saw the first construction
_ : towers fully exposed to the open sea. The first of these was Henry
V. inStanley's 120-foot-high wooden tower on the notorious Eddystone
Rocks off Plymouth, England. Although anchored by 12 iron stanchions
laboriously grouted into exceptionally hard red rock, it lasted only from
1699 to 1703, when it was swept away without a trace in a storm of excepnonal severity; its designer and builder, on the lighthouse at the time,
perished with it. It was followed in 1708 by a second wooden tower, con­
structed by John Rudyerd, which was destroyed by fire in 1755.
Rudyerd's lighthouse was followed by John Smeaton's famous masonry
rower in 1759. Smeaton, a professional engineer, embodied an important
new principle in its construction whereby masonry blocks were doverailed together in an interlocking pattern. Despite the dovetailing feature,
rhe tower largely relied on its own weight for stability-a principle that
required it to be larger at the base and tapered toward the top. Instead of
a straight conical taper, though, Smeaton gave the structure a curved pro­
file. Not only was the curve visually attractive, but it also served to
dissipate some of the energy of wave impact by directing the waves to
sweep up the walls.
Owing to the undermining of the foundation rock, Smeaton's tower
had to be replaced in 1882 by the present lighthouse, constructed on an
adjacent part of the rocks by Sir James Douglass, engineer-in-chief of
Trinity House. In order to reduce the tendency of waves to break over the
lantern during severe storms (a problem often encountered with
Smeaton's tower), Douglass had the new tower built on a massive cylin­
drical base that absorbed some of the energy of incoming seas. The upper
portion of Smeaton's lighthouse was dismantled and rebuilt on Plymouth
Hoe, where it still stands as a monument; the lower portion or "stump"
can still be seen on the Eddystone Rocks.
Following the Eddystone, masonry towers were erected in similar
open-sea sites, which include the Smalls, off the Welsh coast; Bell Rock in
146
K. Marimuthu
Scotland; South Rock in Ireland; and Minots Ledge off Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S. The first lighthouse of the North American continent,
built in 1716, was on the island of Little Brewster, also off Boston. By 1820
there were an estimated 250 major lighthouses in the world.
MODERN LIGHTHOUSES
Construction
While masonry and brick continue to be employed in lighthousecon­
struction, concrete and steel are the most widely used materials.
Structurally well suited and reasonably cheap, concrete especially lends
itself to aesthetically pleasing designs for shore-based lighthouses.
Modern construction methods have considerably facilitated the
building of lighthouses in the open sea. On soft ground, the submerged
caisson method is used, a system applied first in 1885 to the building of
the Roter Sand Lighthouse in the estuary of the Weser River in Germany
and then to the Fourteen Foot Bank light in the Delaware Bay, U.S. With
this method, a steel caisson or open-ended cylinder, perhaps 40 feet in
diameter, is positioned on the seabed. By excavation of sand, it is sunk
into the seabed to a depth of possibly 50 feet. At the same time, extra sec­
tions are added to the top as necessary so that it remains above high water
level. The caisson is finally pumped dry and filled with concrete to form
a solid base on which the lighthouse proper is built.
Where the seabed is suitable, it is possible to build a "float out" light­
house, consisting of a cylindrical tower on a large concrete base that can
be 50 feet in diameter. The tower is constructed in a shore berth, towed
out to position, and then sunk to the seabed, where the base is finally
filled with sand. Weighing 5, 000 tons (4.5 million kilograms) or more,
these towers rely on their weight for stability and require a leveled, pre­
pared seabed. For greater stability during towing, the cylindrical tower
itself often consists of two or more telescopic sections, raised to full height
by hydraulic jacks after being founded on the seabed. This design was
pioneered largely in Sweden.
Another design, which is more independent of seabed conditions, is
the conventional steel-piled structure used for offshore oil and gas rigs.
Piles may be driven as deep as 150 feet into the seabed, depending on the
underlying strata. The United States has built about 15 light towers of this
type, one prominent example being Ambrose Light off New York.
Helicopters are widely employed in the servicing and maintenance of
offshore towers, so that modern designs normally include a helipad. In
fact, older cylindrical masonry structures of the previous era-including
the Eddystone tower-have had helipads fitted above their lanterns.
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History
147
■himinants
Kood fires were not discontinued until 1800, though after about 1550 coal,
i more compact and longer-burning fuel, was increasingly favoured, parznilarly in northwestern Europe. A lighthouse in those days could
consume 300 tons or more of coal a year. In full blaze, the coal fire was far
superior to other forms of lighting, preferred by mariners to oil or candles.
The disadvantage of both coal fires and early oil lamps and candles was
the prodigious amount of smoke produced, which resulted in rapid black­
wring of the lantern panes, obscuring the light.
Oil lamps
In 1782 a Swiss scientist, AimeArgand, invented an oil lamp whose steady
smokeless flame revolutionized lighthouse illumination. The basis of his
invention was a circularwick with a glass chimney that ensured an ade­
quate current of air up the centre and the outside of the wick for even and
oroper combustion of the oil. Eventually, Argand lamps with as many as
10 concentric wicks were designed. These lamps originally burned fish
oil, later vegetable oil, and by 1860 mineral oil. The Argand lamp became
the principal lighthouse illuminant for more than 100 years.
In 1901 the Briton Arthur Kitson invented the vaporized oil burner,
which was subsequently improved by David Hood of Trinity House and
others. This burner utilized kerosene vaporized under pressure, mixed
with air, and burned to heat an incandescent mantle. The effect of the
vaporized oil burner was to increase by six times the power of former oil
wick lights. (The principle is still widely used for such utensils as camp
stoves and pressure lamps.)
Gas lamps
Early proposals to use coal gas at lighthouses did not meet with great suc­
cess. A gasification plant at the site was usually impracticable, and most
of the lights were too remote for a piped supply. However, acetylene gas,
generated in situ from calcium carbide and water, came into use around
the turn of the 20th century, and its use increased following the introduc­
tion of the dissolved acetylene process, which by dissolving the acetylene
in acetone made it safe to compress for storage.
Acetylene gas as a lighthouse illuminant had a profound influence on
the advancement of lighthouse technology, mainly through the work of
GustafDalen of Sweden, who pioneered its application between 1900 and
1910. Burned either as an open flame or mixed with air in an incandescent
mantle, acetylene produced a light equal to that of oil. Its great advantage
148
K. Marimuthu
was that it could be readily controlled; thus, for the first time automatic
unattended lights were possible. Dalen devised many ingenious mecha­
nisms and burners, operating from the pressure of the gas itself, to exploit
the use of acetylene. Most of the equipment he designed is still in general
use today. One device is an automatic mantle exchanger that brings a
fresh mantle into use when the previous one bums out. Another, econo­
mizing on gas, was the "sunvalve, " an automatic day-night switch
capable of extinguishing the light during the day. The switch utilized the
difference in heat-absorbing properties between a dull black surface and
a highly polished one, producing a differential expansion arranged by
suitable mechanical linkage to control the main gas valve.
The acetylene system facilitated the establishment of many automatic
unattended lighthouses in remote and inaccessible locations, normally
requiring only an annual visit to replenish the storage cylinders and over­
haul the mechanism. Liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, has also
found use as an illuminant, although both oil and gas lamps have largely
been superseded by electricity.
Electric lamps
Electric illumination in the form of carbon arc lamps was first employed
at lighthouses at an early date, even while oil lamps were still in vogue.
The first of these was at Dungeness, England, in 1862, followed by a num­
ber of others. The majority of these, however, were eventually converted
to oil, since the early arc lamps were difficult to control and costly to oper­
ate. In 1913 the Helgoland Lighthouse in the North Sea off Germany was
equipped with arc lamps and searchlight mirrors to give a light of 38 mil­
lion candlepower, the most powerful lighthouse in the world at that time.
The electric-filament lamp, which came into general use in the 1920s,
is now the standard illuminant. Power output ranges from about 1, 500
watts for the largest structures down to about 5 watts for buoys and
minor beacons. Most lamps are of the tungsten-halogen type for better
efficiency and longer life. As new types of electric lamps become available-for example, compact source discharge tube lamps-they are adopted
for lighthouse use wherever suitable.
ANCIENT INDIAN LIGHTHOUSES
A beacon is any artifact, built or floating, visible or recognizable from a
distance, whether by land or sea, that is specifically intended to provide a
signal or warning for any purpose not exclusive to navigation.
The use of terms such as 'Stone Age' or 'Bronze Age' is dependent
upon the relative stage of development of the civilization in question.
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History 149
However, for the purposes of chronology in the Mediterranean region,
md in accordance with standard practice, in this article we shall consider
the Stone Age as being prior to 3,000 BC. We take the Bronze Age as being
divided into three parts: early Bronze Age from 3, 000 BC to 2, 000 BC,
Middle Bronze age from 2, 000 BC to 1,100 BC and late Bronze Age from
1 100 BC to 700 BC. The Iron Age is considered to span the years from 1,
200 BC to 555 BC.
It is not surprising to find that the first lighthouse on the west coast of
India was built at the entrance to Bombay (now Mumbai), the chief seanort of western India, and a great city with a sheltered harbour covering
~0 square miles. Originally owned by Portugal, Bombay passed into
British hands by the royal marriage of Charles II to Princess Catherine of
Braganza. This single event was to have very great consequences for the
ruture prosperity of Great Britain for, arguably, it gave Britain the most
significant toehold in what was to become the most precious jewel in the
crown of the British Empire. In 1668, Charles transferred ownership of
Bombay to the East India Company and under the leadership of Gerald
Aungier, Bombay prospered greatly. During the British wars with France
in 1744-48 and 1756-63, Bombay was developed as a naval base, but the
greatest spur to its development occurred as a result of the Chinese
famine of 1770. More Chinese land was required for growing rice, at the
expense of cotton, so the Bombay cotton mills were rapidly expanded to
cope with the Chinese demands for cotton. The industry grew at a
tremendous pace.The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 also greatly
increased the volume of trade passing through Bombay.The need for a
navigation light for the port was first met in 1842 by the mooring of a
lightvessel off Colaba Point (18°50'N 72°47.5'E).
Five years later, in 1847, a lighthouse was constructed on Colaba Point
(18°53.7'N 72°47.7'E), this time with a light of a modem revolving design
that gave a bright flash every two minutes. The white tower was 89 feet
(27 m) tall, and the elevation of the light itself was a total of 132 feet (40
m), giving it a range of 17 miles (27.3 km).
Four more years were to pass before lighthouse construction began in
the regions beyond Bombay at Karachi (Kurrachee) in 1851. Today, of
course, Karachi is a major seaport of Pakistan. At this time, the settlement
was part of British India, having been taken in 1847. Karachi was an
important strategic location on the northwestern side of the Indus Delta,
one of the world's great navigable rivers that led not only to Hyderabad
and the surrounding hinterland, but offered rapid access deep into north­
western India. The British constructed a lighthouse as part of their
fortifications at Manora Point (24°47.3N 66°58.3E), which marked the
western side of the entrance to the Bay leading to Karachi. The fixed light
was visible for 16 miles (25.7 km) from its height of 120 feet (36.4 m).
150
K. Marimuthu
In the same year, another light structure was built on Piram Island (F044S
in the Cambay Gulf. Its fixed light was visible for 12 miles (19.3 km) from
an elevation of 66 feet (20 m). A year later another light was shown for the
first time from Taptee (today, known as Hazira lighthouse on Suvali Point,
F0476) on the north shore at the mouth of the river. The light was visible
for 10 miles (16 km) from a height of sixty feet (18.2 m).
In 1856 a spate of lighthouse building took place, with structures
being completed at Mandvi (F0357), a small light at Ghogha Bandar
(F0452), Koon Bunder (22°17'N 72°18.3'E), Devajagan (F0468, also called
Tankaria) and BleaguraDandee (F0472). A fort had been constructed at
Mandvi, in the strategic entrance to the Gulf of Kachchh (Kutch) and the
lighthouse provided on the southwest bastion at a height of 80 feet (24 m).
Koon Bunder was located on the west bank of the Sabermutty River and
the light was shown from September 1 to June 15. BleaguraDandee was a
minor light, whilst Taptee light was on the north shore of the river.
South of Bombay, the next important settlement was the famous for­
tified enclave of Goa. Aguada Fort is still to be found on a hill behind the
town and it was here at the great height of 280 feet (85 m) that the light
shone from the lighthouse, which still exists (F0606). Findlay reported
that the flash interval was a long seven minutes, although he seemed
unsure of this fact.
The shores of southwest India are known as the Malabar Coast. They
had seen a lot of settlement over the centuries of exploration and conse­
quently a number of quite early lighthouses were constructed at
Tellicherry (1835 with a second light added in 1847), Cochin (F0698,1839),
Cannanore (F0672, 1843), Calicut (F0686, 1847), Mangalore (F0668, 1851),
Kumta (also written Coumta, F0642,1855) and Allepey (F0706,1862). Seas
around these shores were susceptible to the southwest monsoon, during
which time lights were not shown. The lighthouse at Allepey was a sub­
stantial red brick tower, 85 feet (25.8 m) in height that remains in use today.
Calicut was one of the first points of contact between Europe and India, for
it was here that Vasco da Gama called in 1498. The city was already a cen­
tre for the spice trade, as well as textiles, tea and nuts, and had given its
name to the type of cotton (calico) that was traded here. The light at Calicut
was exhibited from the greater height of 105 feet (31.9 m), five feet (1.5 m)
higher than from Allepey, but the latter was a second order light visible to
15 miles (24.1 km) compared to only 12 miles (19.3 km) from Calicut. In
1799, like the other trading centres of the Malibar Coast, the British
acquired Mangalore at the mouth of the Netraviti River. It was important
for most of the usual commodities, as well as coffee and timber, but also as
a centre for traditional shipbuilding for the Sultans of Mysore.
A few thousand years ago, the sea level was low enough for Ceylon
to be part of the Indian land mass. (It is worthy of note that earliest Indian
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History
151
history tells of a great flood, in much the same way as is told in the Bible
[2]. We might speculate that such an event at the earliest points in our
Human history may be linked with the now proven rise in world sea lev­
els.) Even today, the Gulf of Mannar, which separates the two countries,
has two narrow spits of land that form a broken barrier across the Gulf.
The island of Mannar in Ceylon is linked to Pamban Island of India by
Adam's Bridge, a row of coral islands protected on either side by reefs.
The seas at this point were much used by ships passing around the south­
ern tip of India and heading for the northern shores of the Bay of Bengal,
and the land that stretched northwards from Mannar became known as
the Coromandel Coast.
The British established lights here during the early phase of Indian
lighthouse construction. At Tuticorin and Palk Bay, two lighthouses were
built in 1845. Findlay described the first as a fixed light shown from an
obelisk, 37 feet (11.2 m) high, situated on Hare Island (8o47.3'N
78ol0.9'E), which was given as 2% miles east of Tuticorin. Whether its
description as an obelisk implies that it was a lightstructure rather than a
lighthouse is not known, but the probability is that, because of the types
of design prevalent at the time, it was, indeed, a lighthouse. Today, the
description is given under F0734. The Palk Bay lighthouse was a round
tower, 41 feet (12.4 m) high situated one mile (1.6 km) east of Paumben
Pass (9°17.5'N 79°12.6'E). Its fixed light was visible for 12 miles (19.3 km)
from a height of 84 feet (25.5 m). Farther north, a lighthouse was con­
structed at Nagappattinam (listed by Findlay as Negapatam, F0914) a
year later in 1846. The similar fixed light was shown from a height of 100
feet (30.4 m), but was lowered to 88 feet (26.7 m) during a northeast mon­
soon. A small distance north again, we come to Karikal (10°55'N 79°44'E)
where a fixed light was shown from 1853 onwards.
Pondicherry is a region of southern India that was once the chief
French settlement in India. The Pondicherry lighthouse (F0926) was the
first on the Coromandel Coast, built in 1836 and it is interesting to specu­
late whether this French initiative was responsible for the building of
further lights along the coast. It was visible for 15 miles (24.1 km) from a
height of 131 feet (39.8 m). The lighthouse in Madras (F0936) followed
some years later in 1844. Findlay records that it showed both a fixed light
and a flashing light every two minutes. This was from a column 125 feet
(37.95 m) high on the Esplanade north of the fort. It is reported to have
been visible at a distance of 24 miles (38.6 km) - a great distance in those
times.
The Armegon Shoal (F0951) was a hazard to ships sailing north from
Madras and was marked by a lighthouse in 1853. Its location was given as
13o52.8'N 80ol2'E. The fixed light was visible at 15 miles and was 95 feet
(28.9 m) above sea level. North from the Armegon Shoal, a lighthouse
152
K. Marimuthu
showing a fixed light visible for 12 miles was built in 1851 at
Masulipatam, 2 miles northwest of Point Divy and located at 15o58.9'N
81o9.5'E. The height of the light was 95 feet (28.9 m).
The second lighthouse in India was established at Cape Godavari
(also recorded as Gordeware Point) in 1817, located at 16o 49.IN
82ol8.4'E. This was an important point marking entry to the region of the
sacred Godavari River and was one of the earliest European settlements
in India. Flowing through Andhra Pradesh, the river flows southeast
through eastern India where Rajamundry was to become a major city. The
river enters the ocean at two mouths, one at Cape Godavari and the other
at Point Narasapatnam. The Godavari lighthouse was a white stone
tower, sixty feet (18.2 m) in height and situated at a point IV2 miles (2.4
km) west by north on Hope Island in Coringah Bay.
In 1849, a lighthouse called Santapilly (F0980) was built % mile (1.2
km) inshore on Conada Hill where the height of the light was given as 150
feet (45.7 m). The location was 18o3.5'N 83o36.6'E and the light was fixed
and visible for 14 miles. In 1838 a lighthouse was constructed two miles
southwest of False Point (Fl006) as a fixed bright light visible for 18 miles,
the increased range due to its height of 120 feet (36.6 m) above sea level. At
Pilot Ridge, a light vessel was first moored in 1851 in 211Z> fathoms (39.3
m) during the southwest monsoon. It showed a blue light and a maroon
light every 30 minutes.
To the east of India lies the great Bay of Bengal, and in the far north
lies the city of Calcutta on the banks of the Hughli River. By 1810, the
British were long established as rulers of Bengal - a large region rich in
natural resources that were to provide Britain with a source of great
income for over a century. The first lighthouse in South East Asia was
built here in 1810 at Cowcolly or Kedgeree, two miles southwest of the
point at the eastern side of the entrance to the river. There are so many
river mouths and other inlets in this area that it is possible that the British
decided to mark the entrance to the Hughli more as an identification than
to mark a particular hazard. Sadly, the Cowcolly lighthouse is not listed
as active today and whether it still exists is not known.
The location of Calcutta well inland from the northern Indian Ocean,
albeit on a navigable river, was a major driving force in the early estab­
lishment of a lighthouse here, rather than at Bombay, for example, where
the first light was established in 1842 in a light vessel. Since the Hugh
River was to become such an important navigable channel, it is unsur­
prising that a number of other lights were eventually established along it.
An iron lighthouse, 82 feet (25 m) high was built at Middleton Point on
Saugor Island (Fl028) in 1852. The light was a bright revolving light that
flashed every 20 seconds and was visible for 15 miles, the standard range
for lights of this kind at the time.
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History 153
Lightships were popular in these times, not just because they were
asm established, but because they were easily moveable in the larger
0 - mannels that were always susceptible to silting-up. There were
Knw occasions when permanently established light structures were renredundant because the course of a river had changed. In 1861,
-1ng to Findlay, there were at least two in the Hughli River. The most
rant would seem to be located in the eastern Channel at 21°4'N
- E established in 1843 with a single fixed white light. This entry in
. s list is most interesting for we see an indication of how the parxm^r conditions created by the monsoon climate affected the operation
navigational aids. The light vessel was moved to different loca1 - - during the year.
'From October to March in 714 fms.(13.7 m) at entrance to E. channel,
wa ' maroon or torch every 14 hour, and blue It. every hour. From March
1* ‘ Sept. 15 is removed to lat. 21o N., with blue It. every 14 hour and
every U hour."A second lightvessel is reported at 21°26.3'N
" E in the Gaspar Channel showing "blue and maroons alternately"
- i most unusual description of lights. In 1857, a second lightvessel was
b * md in the Mutlah River at 21° 6'N 88°48'E. Besides its bright revolv­
er £ Hght, visible for 7 miles, Findlay reports that it fired rockets at 8 p.m.,
■■unight and 4 a.m. from March 16 to October 16.
HERITAGE OF LIGHTHOUSE IN INDIA
branding to mythology the 'Yakshas' and the 'Yadavas' Landed at
khau during the prehistoric period. The name of the port Jakhau is said
i have been adopted from the term 'Jakh' derived from /Yaksha'. Jakhau
aenained an important port till the opening of a port at Mandvi in 16th
□Entury. Jakhau Lighthouse is connected by an all-weather road to Naliya
e Rail head linked to Bhuj about 70 Km away.
During 1950's large-scale salt pans were developed at Jakhau and the
rt of Jakhau was revived to handle the export of raw salt to Japan and
K rea. Therefore providing a major Lighthouse at Jakhau became essentsal. The first lighthouse was established in 1957. The light operating on
DA gas in 500 mm Lantern and cut and polished drum optic with AGA
flasher, temporarily provided on MS trestle tower. The lighthouse project
was planned and completed by 1965.
The light equipment supplied by M/s Stone Chance, Brimingham, was
mstalled on the RCC Tower and the light was commissioned in April 1965.
The emergency source, capillary tube (Alladin Lamp) was replaced
first by LPG Burner in 1993 and then by a 100W 12V halogen lamp in
1996. A Racon was installed on the tower in September 1999. The incan­
descent lamp 1500W 100V and emergency source were replaced by a
154
K. Marimuthu
cluster of three 150W 230V Metal Halide lamps with a direct drive system
by stepper motor in May 2004. Jakhau will be an important station of the
planned VTS for Gulf of Kachchh with Automatic Direction Finder sys­
tem.
During the reign of Emperor Ashoka, who was a contemporary of
Ptolemyll, royal emissaries sailed towards Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the Far
East Including China and Japan and it is very likely that similar light­
houses were also constructed on our country's coastline.
In the 7th Century A.D, Pallava King Narasimhavarman I known as
Mamalla, or the great wrestler, is credited with the establishment of a
lighthouse at Mamallapuram (Mahabaliburam), 56 Km south of Chennai,
where log fire was burnt in a crucible for guiding the ships.
In Mauryan India, (3rd century B.C.) during the regime of
Chandragupta Maurya, shipbuilding was a regular and flourishing
industry, the output of which was quite large. This industry was, how­
ever, a state monopoly and ship builders were salaried public servants
and were not permitted to work for private persons. This development of
national shipping made necessary the
Coming to more recent times, according to AbulFazl, there was cre­
ated in the time of Emperor Akbar (17th century) the office of 'Meer
Behry'. The 'Ain-i-Akbari' gives details of manifold regulations, which in
many respects are very similar to those mentioned in the monumental
Sanskrit work the 'Arthasastra' of Kautilya. The broad function of the
'Meer Behry'.
LIGHTHOUSES: TAMIL NADU
Chennai Lighthouse District
The Chennai Lighthouse, along with 23 other lighthouses along the east­
ern, southern and western coast of the Indian peninsula, comes under
the administration of the Chennai Lighthouse District. In accord with
the Lighthouse Act of 1927 and the Lighthouse (Amendment) Act of
1985, the Chennai Lighthouse District comprises under its jurisdiction
part of Kerala State which is south of latitude 9Q00'N and state of Tamil
Nadu, which is south of latitude 13Q00'N and west of longitude 80Q30'E
and the union territory of Pondicherry, which include the following
lighthouses.
PULICAT LIGHT HOUSE
The History of Pulicat revolves around the early role of Pulicat as a sea­
port in one of the few natural harbours on the Coromandel Coast of South
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency. A Brief History
1. Alleppey
2. KovilThottam
12. Kodikkarai
3. Tangasseri Point (Quilon)
4. Anjengo
13. AmmpattinamDgps
14. Pasipattinam
15. Rameswaram
5. Vilinjam
16. Pamban
6. Muttam Point
7. KanyaKumari (Cape Comorin)
8 Manappad Point
17. NagapattinamDgps
18. Porto Novo
19. Pondicherry Lighthouse AndDgps
20. Mahabalipur
21. Madras
9. PandiyanTivuDgps
10. Kilakkarai
11. Point Calimere
A55
22. PulicatDgps
MADRAS DISTRICT
India. Pulicat is in Tamil Nadu at the mouth of Pulicatlake. Pulicat is
notable as the headquarters of Dutch Coromandel between 1616 to 1690
and 1782 to 1825.The Light House expert Mr Alan D Stevenson on his visit
to this lighthouse in 1926 observed the light to be extremely low powered
156
K. Marimuthu
for the purpose of marking such danger. Besides he also mentioned about
frequent Malarial attacks infesting the station.
There was an old Lighthouse positioned adjacent to the present
Lighthouse Tower. It was a 20m high Brick masonry circular tower with
black & white bands. The tower was constructed in the year 1859. The
equipment consisting of a fourth order optic with PV light was installed
on this tower The equipment remained in service till 1986 after certain
modifications carried out in 1910.
The present Lighthouse Tower was constructed during 1984-85 and
PRB-21 equipment supplied by M/s Asia Navigation Aids, New Delhi
was installed and commissioned on 25th August 1986. The old
Lighthouse Tower was later dismantled. Sealed beam ZD' type lamps^were
replaced by Auto head lights with 24V 100W halogen lamps in 1995.
Pulicut will be also be a DGPS station.
MADRAS LIGHT HOUSE
The city of Madras (Chennai) was founded by the factor Francis Day of
British East India Company on a three square mile strip of land, on 22nd
July 1639. Immediately afterwards his boss Andrew Cogan laid founda­
tion of Fort St George and established seat of the Company's Agency in
the Fort on 24th September 1641. Madras became the capital of Madras
Presidency controlling whole of south India except a few princely
states.Madras enjoyed the status of Capital ever since-after the independ­
ence and creation of linguistic state on 1st Nov 1956 renamed as Tamil
Nadu on 14-1-1969. Madras was renamed as Chennai in 1996.
There must be some arrangement of exhibiting light to assist com­
pany's vessels arriving at Madras and to enter the port during the 17 &
18th centuries but no such record is available. The first conventional light­
house was the oil wick lamp placed on the roof of the officer's Mess cum
Exchange building in 1796. The building is now known as Fort Museum.
The construction of a regular Lighthouse Tower in the compound of
present High Court was taken up in 1838 and completed in 1840 on which
the wick lamp was shifted as the supply of the new equipment by M/s
Chance Bros, Birmingham was delayed. The new flashing light consisting
of Argand lamps and reflectors was installed which started functioning
from 1st January 1844. Fifty years later the Lighthouse equipment with
lantern was shifted on to the dome of new High Court building and
started functioning from there with effect from 1st June 1894. An improve­
ment of equipment was introduced in 1927.
The present modern Lighthouse was built in 1976 and Electrical
Lighthouse equipment manufactured by BBT, Paris was installed on it
which started functioning with effect from 10th January 1977.
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History
157
WAHABALIPURAM LIGHT HOUSE
, V zhabalipuram is connected to Chennai (Madras) by East Coast
Highway. It is about 35 km from Chennai. Mahabalipuram also known as
yamallapuram was an important port built by Pallavas during the
Seventh Century for the maritime trade with the countries of South East
-31a and Mediterranean. The rock cut temples, pavilions and monuments
1
sculpted during the same period are the principal attractions here
fcawing visitors from around the world.
In the ancient times the log fire on one of the high rocks used to serve
15 beacon for the vessels approaching Mahabalipuram port during the
Bght. The British established the first conventional lighthouse by placing
i wick lamp inside 4th order optic and lantern on the roof of
CMakkaneesway Temple on 15th May 1887. This temple has been built on
I i p of Mahishasuramardini cave. Lighthouse was then known as Seven
Tigoda Lighthouse because the structures-mandapa, Rathas, Cave
vpeared like Pagodas when observed from the sea.
A dressed stone masonry circular tower 26m in height was built on a
■earby rock in 1900. Its exterior surfaces were left natural and unpainted
s: as to blend with surroundings. The PV equipment and 2nd order three
Lanel optic assembly supplied by M/s Chance Bros, Birmingham was
.- 'Tailed over this tower. The light was commissioned into service on 31st
starch 1901. In 1937 and 1940 the equipment underwent changes and
modifications to give single flash every ten seconds. The PV source was
replaced by incandescent electric lamp in 1994.
?ONDICHERRY LIGHT HOUSE
Itondicherry is the headquarters of former French settlements in India- . ndicherry and Karaikal in TamilNadu, Yaman in Andhra Pradesh and
Mahe in Kerala. The city of Pondicherry is the typical cosmopolitan with
55 languages spoken here. Pondicherry is famous for 'Aurovillo'; the
Bshram set up by Sri AurobindoGhosh, the Revolutionary Saint. It has the
i reputation of being an international city and is about 3 Vi hours drive from
Madras (Chennai). The rail network terminates here.
The French East India company established settlement at Pondicherry
ir. 1673. They transformed this obscure village into a flourishing trading
rer.tre .The Dutch captured it from French in 1693 but returned it to them
I ir 1699. The French handed over the territory to the Government of inde­
pendent India in 1954. It was given the status of Union Territory on ist
November 1956 so as to retain its specific identity.
The early sea-farers to Pondicherry were guided by log fire kept burn­
er g on Gorimedu hill 5 km west of the port. A 25 m lighthouse standing
cn the sea edge near the place Du Government was built by French in
158
K. Marimuthu
1836 and powerful wick lamp inside 5th order optic was placed on it. The
lighthouse was commissioned in to service on 1st July 1836. After 50 years
of service the wick lamp was replaced by a PV Burner and 4th order opti­
cal apparatus supplied by M/s BBT, Paris in 1886. In the year 1931
modification work was carried out and the fixed light was replaced by the
revolving equipment supplied and installed by M/s BBT, Paris.
With the development of city lights, there arose the need to provide
more powerful light on a taller tower and also the Direction Finding Radio
signal transmitting system. A new Lighthouse was built in 1979.The elec­
trically operated lighting equipment supplied by M/s. J. Stone India & Co.,
Calcutta and the Radio Beacon equipment, supplied by 'Nautel', Canada,
were installed at the station. The Radio Beacon went on the Air on 15th
May 1979 and the Lighthouse was commissioned on 10th December 1979.
A 'Racon' of 'Tide Land', USA, make was added at the station on 14th
July 1996.The Racon emits Morse code 'D'. The Differential Global
Positioning System (DGPS) equipment manufactured by M/s Leica Geo
Systems, U.S.A, and supplied by M/s. Elcom Marine, Mumbai was inte­
grated on 10th June 1998 converting the Radio Beacon to DGPS station.
The old Transmitters were replaced by SAC, USA make transmitters on
30th June 2003.
The old lighthouse served the mariners for almost a century and half
and now proudly stands as monument under the UT Administration - A
fitting tribute to its valuable services.
PORTONOVO LIGHT HOUSE
Portonovo Lighthouse is on the outskirts of Paringapattai village. The
famous Chidambaram temple is about 22 km west from here. The
Railhead is Chidambaram. There an all-weather road up to Paringapattai
and then a short stretch of metalled track up to the Lighthouse. This site
was a temporary camp established by French East India co in mid-17th
century prior to moving to Pondicherry and settling down there. They
gave the name Portonovo to this place.
There was no Lighthouse provided in the region prior to this
Lighthouse It was constructed during 1979-81 and on completion the
PRB-21 equipment supplied by M/s. Asia Navigational Aids Ltd., New
Delhi was installed and commissioned on 31st March 1981. Subsequently
the sealed-beam lamps were replaced by Auto-head lamps in 1997.
NAGAPPATTINAM LIGHT HOUSE
Nagapattinam in Thanjavur district is an important port of Tamil Nadu.
It is situated on the mouths of Kaduveiyaruriver. The port has the glori-
Lighthouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History 159
cus history. It is in existence since the 8th century, period of great Cholas.
During those days a staff was provided on which flag used to be hoisted
to enable vessels enter the port. There was a direct ship service from
\agapattinam to Penang (Malaysia) and Singapore. The famous MV
Chidambaram was the vessel plying regularly till it was destroyed in a
fire off Nagapattinam in 1970.
First conventional 20 m high Lighthouse tower was built inside the
port premises by the British in 1846. A wick lamp inside the 6th order
_ r>tic was placed on this tower. The system worked till 1903 when a new
equipment with 4th order optic and characteristic of occulting flashes was
introduced. A storm warning signal hoisting mast was also erected in
'.903. In 1923 complete renovation of lighthouse was carried out and the
new PV equipment with 85 mm burner and first order optic assembly in
two panels, revolving on mercury float was installed. The equipment was
supplied by M/s. Chance Bros., Birmingham. This equipment worked up
to 1985.
The importance of Nagapattinam demanded improvement at contin­
uous pace. In 1985 the PV equipment was replaced by PRB-21 equipment
with sealed beam lamps supplied by M/s. ANA, New Delhi on 20th
March 1985. The Radio beacon equipment (400 W) supplied by MACE,
Visakhapatnam, transmitting on 295 kHz was installed at the station in
’.992 and the 'Tide land''Racon' was installed on 3rd September 1996.
In the year 1997 the sealed beam lamps have since been replaced by
Auto head lamps. The DGPS equipment manufactured by M/s Leica Geo
Systems, U.S.A, and supplied by M/s. Elcome Marine, Mumbai was inte­
grated on 30th April 2003, converting Radio Beacon to DGPS station.
POINT CALIMERE LIGHT HOUSE
'Calimere' is the Dutch word for beautiful. Towards the end of 16th cen­
tury, the Dutch contingent had camped on this coast and so the name.
They must have raised some land mark for the identification but no such
ruins are seen now. The first ever lighthouse was provided here in the 8th
century during the regime of Raj-raja Chola. It was a mound of stones
over which logs were burnt as the source of illumination.
The present Lighthouse was built in 1890 during British regime for
the benefit of the vessels approaching the port of Nagapattinam. It was an
ordinary wick lamp. In 1902 a 4th order optic with occulting flashing light
was introduced in place of wick lamp. In 1926 when the LH Expert Mr
Stevenson visited the place, he mentioned in his report that he could not
enter the tower as it was locked and the light keeper was absent.
The 'Dalian Mixer' equipment operating on DA gas, with three panel
150 mm size revolving optic, of AGA make (Ex Armagon LH), was
160
K. Marimuthu
installed in 1933 in place of the 4th order optic. This equipment was ear­
lier at Armagon lighthouse which was abandoned in 1928. The same
equipment functioned satisfactorily till 1995. The entire equipment was
replaced by a 300 mm drum optic with electronic flasher (JLWL) &12 V
100 W halogen lamp operating on Batteries charged by Solar panels, on
31st March 1996.1n 1986 a 'Racon' transmitting code 'K' was installed on
the tower by ONGC for their oil exploration programme.
PAMBAN LIGHT HOUSE
The region was part of Madras presidency prior to independence. The
lighthouse is an important land mark for the vessels crossing the Pamban
pass, below the railway bridge from West to Palk Strait on the East. The
lighthouse stands on sand hillock at the North West point of
Rameswaram island.
A circular masonry column was first built in 1846 and wick lamp
was placed on it. The present tower was constructed in 1901 and a wick
lamp with high intensity burner and 4th order Optic, supplied by M/s.
Chance Brothers, Birmingham, was installed. It was a group occulting
light. The equipment underwent alteration in 1923 with the introduction
of revolving system and a Lantern House, supplied by M/s. Chance
Brothers, Birmingham. This was replaced in 1987 by 300 mm Drum
Optic of M/s. B.B.T., make and Dissolved Acetylene Gas Flasher with
AGA Sun Valve.
The lighthouse which was earlier under the Tamil Nadu Maritime
Board was transferred to the Department of Lighthouses and Lightships
in March 2004. The light source and Dissolved Acetylene Gas Flasher was
replaced by 250 Watts/230V Halogen Lamp with electronic flasher in
March 2004 itself.
KILAKKARAI LIGHT HOUSE
The coast between Thonithura and Valinokkam point has chain of islets
and shoals. The main activity in the region is fishing. A flag mast was
the only assistance to the fishermen-mostly. With the increase in activi­
ties the region needed to be marked with a powerful light for the caution
against the dangers. As such this Lighthouse was planned during 197475. The construction of the tower was completed towards the mid 1979
and the PRB - 42 equipment supplied by M/s. Asia Navigation Aids
Ltd., New Delhi, was installed on the tower. The Lighthouse was com­
missioned into service on 2nd October 1979. The 'C' type sealed beam
lamps were replaced by 'D' type 30V 200W sealed beam lamps on 30th
April 2003.
Ligh thouses in Madras Presidency: A Brief History 161
PANDIYANTIVU LIGHT HOUSE
PandiyanTivu Lighthouse is the main Lighthouse for the Port of
Tutikkodi (Tuticorin) on the Western side of the Gulf of Mannar. There are
number of islets/reefs in the region. Tivu is the Tamil version of Sanskrit
Dweep' (Island). PandiyanTivu an island earlier, was known as Hare
Island. It is connected to the main land by an all-weather road after recla­
mation. The Lighthouse is situatechon-the northern end of PandiyanTivu
that is about 4.5 km from the town of Tutikkodi.
The port of Tuticorin (Tutikkodi) has been an important commercial
centre since the late 18th century. The steamers from this port sailed up to
Calcutta, Madras, Colombo, Bombay, Bhavnagar and Karachi. A conven­
tional wick lamp-light burning on vegetable oil, in a 6th order optic was
being exhibited from a flag post since the year 1845. Subsequently a
masonry column replaced the mast. The system continued till 1905 when
the column was improved and its height was increased to 28 feet. A wick
lamp burning the mineral oil inside 4th order drum optic was placed on
die column.
As the traffic at the port increased, the demand to improve the light­
house came. In 1930-35 a tower of 30 m height was constructed and a
flashing PV lighting equipment supplied by M/s. Chance Bros.,
Birmingham was installed on it. Subsequently when the electricity mains
supply was extended to the Lighthouse towards 1970's it was decided to
provide an electrically operated Lighthouse. The present Reinforced con­
crete Tower 45m high was completed in December 1979 over which the
equipment supplied by M/s. J. Stone & Co. (India) was installed and com­
missioned on 28th April 1980. A Racon emitting code 'O' has been
provided separately in the port area. The DGPS equipment to be installed
at the station shortly.
MANAPPAD POINT LIGHT HOUSE
Manappad point is a high sandy head land jutting into the sea on the
south side of the Manappad Bay-along its coast line is situated Manappad
fishing village. On the summit of promontory and close to the lighthouse
is situated the Holy Cross Church built in 1581. The great apostle St.
Francis Xavier visited Manappad in 1542 and again in 1543.
Manappad is known as Pearl Fishing harbour. It is about 70 km from
Kanniyakumari and 18 Km from Tiruchendur and is connected by an
all-weatherroad.The Lighthouse tower was built inl887-88 under
Madras Presidency Control. The 3rd order optical equipment supplied
by M/s. Chance Bros., Birmingham was installed and the lighthouse
was commissioned in to service on 30th March 1888. The murette of the
162
K. Marimuthu
lantern room is of brick masonry raised from inner lining of the tower
masonry wall.
The oil wick lamp was replaced by a PV Burner of 55 mm size in the
year 1902 after some modifications in the lighthouse carried out in 1901.
Mr D. Alan Stevenson LH Expert had visited the lighthouse in 1926 and
found it be functioning satisfactory.
After more than 90 years of its existence the Electric main supply
could be extended to the station. The PV light source was replaced bv
230V 400 W Metal halide lamp and was commissioned on 31st August
1994.
CAPE COMORIN LIGHT HOUSE
Kanniyakumari is a prominent tourist centre known for the confluence of
three seas Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, Vivekananda
rock memorial and giant statue of saint Tiruvalluvar erected on a rock in
the year 2000. Kanniyakumari is the terminus for national rail & road sys­
tem. Tourism and fishing are the main vocations here. The region was part
of Travancore state till the reorganization of states 1st November 1956
when it became part of Tamil Nadu.
A globular lantern with wick lamp hoisted from a white in 1904 was
the first light here. It remained in service for many years but it is not
known when exactly it was discontinued. The present lighthouse tower
was constructed during 1969-71. The optical equipment with electrical
light source supplied by M/s.B.B.T, Paris was installed on this tower. The
lighthouse was commissioned in November 1994. The main light source
incandescent lamp 3000W 110V was replaced by 400W 230V metal halide
lamp along with direct drive system in April 1999.
References
rz.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
nes Hornell, The Origins and Ethnological Significance Of Indian Boat Designs
moirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Calcutta 1920 Re- issued by South
ian Federation of Fishermen Societies, Trivandrum, 2002,pp. 1-74.
B? Arunachalam, 'Technology of Indian Sea Navigation, Op.cit, p. 193.
Henry Davison Love, Vestiges of Old Madras 1640-1800,vol-I, New Delhi,
Mittal Publications, 1995, p. 281.
K.N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean An Economic History
from the Rise of Islam to 1750, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1985,pp. 141-144.
Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib, ed., The Cambridge Economic History of
India, vol.c.1200 -1750, New Delhi, Cambridge University Press, 1982,P.132.
Himanshu Prabha, 'Seafaring and Maritime Contacts: An Agenda for
Historical Analysis', Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol.
39, No. 4,1996, pp. 422-431.
Sathish Chandra, State, Pluralism, and the Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford
University Press, 2008, p. 127.
Y. Eyup Ozveren, 'Shipbuilding, 1590-1790', Review (Fernand Braudel Center),
Vol. 23, No. 1, Commodity Chains in the World-Economy, 1590-1790,2000, pp. 15-86
Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Political Economy of Commerce Southern India
1500-1650, New Delhi, Cambridge University Press, 2004,p.94.
Ibid.
Sinnappah Arasaratnam, Op.cit. p. 258.
Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ' A Note on Narsapur Peta: A "Syncretic"
Shipbuilding Centre in South India, 1570-1700', Journal of the Economic and
Social History of the Orient, Vol. 31, No. 3 (1988), pp.305-311
Sinnappah Arasaratnam, Op.cit. p.260-61.
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CHAPTER 20
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