Learner English
SECOND EDITION
A teacher's guide to
interference and other problems
) ! + published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
cambridge university press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011±4211, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
Ruiz de AlarcoÂn 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa
http://www.cambridge.org
# Cambridge University Press 2001
This book is in copyright, which normally means that no reproduction of any part may take
place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. The copying of certain
parts of it by individual teachers for use within their classrooms, however, is permitted without
such formality. To aid identi®cation, pages which are copiable by the teacher without further
permission are identi®ed by a separate copyright notice:
# Cambridge University Press 2001.
First published 1987
Second edition 2001
Fourth printing 2002
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Typeset in Sabon 10.5/12pt
[CE]
& + ' ' , ,--* Learner English: a teacher's guide to interference and other problems / [edited by]
Michael Swan and Bernard Smith. ± 2nd ed.
p. cm. ± (Cambridge handbooks for language teachers)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-521-77939-1 (pb) ± ISBN 0-521-00024-6 (audio cd) ± ISBN 0-521-77497-7 (cassette)
1. English language ± Study and teaching ± Foreign speakers. 2. Interference (Linguistics)
I. Swan, Michael. II. Smith, Bernard, 1937± . III. Series.
PE1128.A2 L36 2001
428'.0071±dc21
ISBN: 0 521 77939 1 paperback
ISBN: 0 521 77497 7 cassette
ISBN: 0 521 00024 6 CD (audio)
00-046785
Contents
Notes on contributors
vii
Introduction
ix
Note for teachers of American English
List of phonetic symbols
xiv
Acknowledgements
xvi
xii
Dutch speakers
1
Speakers of Scandinavian languages
21
German speakers
37
French speakers
52
Italian speakers
73
Speakers of Spanish and Catalan
90
Portuguese speakers
113
Greek speakers
129
Russian speakers
145
Polish speakers
162
Farsi speakers
179
Arabic speakers
195
Turkish speakers
214
Speakers of South Asian languages
227
Speakers of Dravidian languages
244
Speakers of West African languages
251
Swahili speakers
260
Malay/Indonesian speakers
279
Japanese speakers
296
Chinese speakers
310
Korean speakers
325
Thai speakers
343
The cassette and CD
357
v
Dutch speakers
Distribution
! "# $$ % & '(
!$$ $ ) ! $$ $$*&$ " + & & , !$$ & &
-. !$$ $ # +"
!& / +0" $$
" $ * *1
Introduction
"# !!& + # )2 1 ! " & "# + 3 "# "$ $ $ 4 *$ # ! #
" $ * * # $ * * # #$ 4$ # #
+ $*! /# + &
+0" $$ " $$ 54$! #6 # + # $ * *
#
0 $ * * + ! / # #$ # 4$ # ! $ # & $$ + # ! $" $
$" 7! + # $ * * # #*# ! #* $$ * # $ * * 3
$! /# & $" & ! $$ $$*&$
&# # #$ 4$ "# *$ # &* "$ $ $ # # ! !3
$ $$ + # * !! "# * *$ #
$ $ $$ /# # ! * Phonology
General
# "# *$ # #$*" $ ! & $ !$ # + "# ! $$ # +0"$ "* * "* ! *$ # $ ! * * $ "" # "# -
# &$! /# *$ # ""*$ $ + + "# ** "# "" *$ # 8
9 "* + 0 $ " " * #* #
$*# + "* /$ 8
+ + "
9 !"# / * "#* # ! $/ "#
*$ #
9 :" + /# "" # $$*
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eK aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z8 @
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ "# #$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- * # $ 6 * + * <I< ! & "
"$ )$ * "+ &/ $ 1 )/# "+ &/ $ 1
' "# <e< !/# &/ *$ # <e< <{< #
$ "+ + # $ / ) $ 1 " $$ " "# # /$ " * <{<
=
$ " *$ # <A:< + & "% ! !$ <O:< )/#"# + 1 $ * "+ &/ $ > <¡< and <Ã< ! & * # $ * "+ $ ! $ ! $ " <Ã< # $
<@<
. "# 0 *$ # <O:< <@U< +0"$ ! "+ $ ! & "
, "# # ; $ + <U<
+ 7 ! $1
# $ <Ã< )/# "+ &/ $ <u:< )! * !$ 1
? <z:< ) 1 $$ " /# $ 3* &
"# $ '
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ "# #$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- # $ )5"61 " <b< <d< <v< <D< <z< <Z< <dZ< "" # + / "# /$$ $ " #!
& # + )5"61 " 8 + % + %
+ % + % + % + % + ) $ $ + $ ! # *$ # " # $*# + /$ &+ " " " 1
' # / ! # "# $ " <f< + <v< <s< + <z< <S< + <Z<8
+ % + % + = "# $ " # #! <g<
/$$ # <k<
# +" <7< ) " # 1 " ; $ <[<
# &** + / "#%
> <p< <t< <k< # " ! #! # $ <b< <d< <g<8 + %
+ % + . <tS< + " <S< <dZ< <Z< ) <S<18 + %
<Z{m< or + , <T< $$ " <s< <t<8 + <D< $$ " <z< <d<8 + ? # "# ! ! <s< # $ <S<8 +
@ ! ! <w< /# # $ $ * "+ /# <v<8 + $ + % + # $
A "# <r< 7#&
*$ # <r<
-( "# " $" 5 6 <l< 5 6 /# # * +#
& " # !# # *$ # " $$ + <i:< <I< <e<
! "# "" # 5 6 <l< &+ /$ /# *$ #
# 5"$ 6 <l<
=
-- <h< " &
&$! + $ /# $" & "* +!
# " $ " + $*!8 # " <7<3$ +" Consonant clusters
*$ # "$ * $ +0"$ + "# ! <@< &/ <l< " # " 8 + %
+ Influence of spelling on pronunciation
- # "# ! + $$* /$ ##* + $ ! $
" # * +0"$ #+ 3
" * /6 $$* +! " ' " # $ /# "" $ * ! + # !* # *$ #
= "# $ "* <g< # "!& $/ " <ê< "# # $ &$! /# / $ "
> " $ /$$ " # $ / $
<¡< + <Ã<
. # $ / $ $ ! <@U<3$ + <O:<
, 4 $ + "
<w<8 " <haUw<% " <sO:w<% " <drO:w< "
? /$$ " # $ $ / $ "
Stress
"# *$ # / " ;
!$ # ! &$! #*#
- "# "! *$ $ # # 0 $!" $ *
&$!
" /# "*$ # "! " + )"# appeltaart1
' "# " " &$ " * )1 #
* !! " $ " *
)&1 $ $ " & # + ! / = "# # ! / +!
*$ # #! " $
/$$ / $ " * * +! #*#
>
Intonation
"# ! /# !"# / * # *$ #
# "# * # /#$ $ $ #*# "# # ! $/ "#
*$ # * / #
" * ! / # # // Juncture and assimilation
- "# # 0 $ " +" " /# # "; 0 $ <b< <d< <g< <v< <D< <z< <Z< <dZ<
/$$ $$ ! #! " + # 7 / &* /# " B $ "# /30 $ " /$$
+ &"! " &+ / &** /# " /$ # $ &$! *$ # 4 7 ! $8
" " ! " ! " ' "#
;" + / " $ !$ " $$ " 8
" " Punctuation
"# "!! + " $ "$ % #" ! $8
C " # $
B!! ! & &/ $ "$ 8
C " " $
D ! / $ # 8
C % " $
&& $ $/ " * $/ " ! $$ +$$/ & 8 #" & & 7 # / # *$ # + $ $ ! & +
"+ *
2# ! 7" "# "! /
/
! #/ $* # /# # &/ +! & *$ # )* 1 # $ $$* $ $
.
Grammar
General
$*" $$ * # "# $ * * "" !/ &/ *$ # ! 2 $$ # !
! % "# $$ # * !! " $ * #*# " * +
" &$ & ! " *
/ "# + ! +!
+ !& + $ * *3 "0" ++" ! #$* "! "$ # *$ # ! # E" $ ! $ $ ! $% #
& * 5" 6% # $ +/ $" + #
$ &F"
Interrogative and negative structures
- "# #
3 * +! & ! $
% * & $ "* niet )G 1 + # & &+
# 0 30 & $ $!8
C' (
C " % $
C% $
' : 3 * ; / "# ) #/ " = 5$ 6 " .1 # &
*# 7 $"$ /#$ &+ "# /$$ 3
$$ " ' ( +
(
$ " " # $ &$ # "#
= "# * & $ &** /# # ; $ +
; & #* ) $ 5$ 61
# &$ # !*# 3 * &
# & + + # $ *8
C' ( )+ ' (1
C' (
> D /# " # + $$* "# #
!! + *$ # /#"# " ! ! $
" ; $ ) * ( $! &$$*
Tags, short answers and reply questions
"# # " " "! &$ /# # *$ # ; *%
"$ & 8
,
C+ " ( , ( )+ + "
(1
$ "# *$ # # ; !& + 07 &F"3 $ 3 7$ /#"# +; " $ 7"# * # 3 #
/ +
"# ! !! * ! +
& ** ) ( - $ )+ - " % $1
- $ ." $ )+ + $1
$ / $ )+ / " $ / " "
(1
- $ - 0 )+ - " %
$ % $1
Auxiliaries
# * $ +"
"3! "#
*$ # hebben
)G 1 / zijn )G 1 +! # +" + zijn +
blijven )G 1 + "!! "# *3+3 & 8
C1 " $
C1 $
# "# ! + #
" worden )G 1 #
! $ % #/ # +" "# # ! $
+! + zijn )G 1 + "# $ # zijn
$$ # /#$ #* # # *$ # & * +" # # /$$ & # * # &$! "!3
& # 7 " *$ # + " " $ /#"# ! !$ + 2 # + ! #
*$ # + + $ " $ Time, tense and aspect
+ "# " /# !"# ++" !
+! B $ "# " +"8
C% $
C) &#
+"
* # $ # ! $
/# *$ # /$ $
?
C+ % " $
7 #/ $*
+ ++ # & ** "#
! $$ +"8
C% $
C% ) % $
- #*# "# #
+ +! /# 7$ )*#$ ; $ # , + + *$ #1 + # + # +8
C% % $
' 7 #/ $* + + ++ /$$ # $ "#
+ ! $ + ! $ 8
C% 3456 % 57 $
C % $
= "# " +$ # + &"$ + !8
C1 $
"# # * & +! 8
C% * $
C% 2 $
5:* 6 ! * " #/ & 7 + " & #
+ " F" & 8
C' ( )+ ' (1
C- " (
! &* * $ # *$ # * 8
C $
Conditionals
- # "# # " &/ # + & $ +!
# "# &"$ ! "$ # *$ #%
+! # ; $ + # ! $ *$ # +! "# $$/
# + , , # &"$ + +$$
$7" $ & # ! "$ " ! $8
@
C% % " % $
C% " ) 1 $
C% " $
' "!! "# # & dan )G 1 # ! "$ + " $ " "8
H
C% " % # (
H
C1 % " % $
Modal verbs
I # /#$ # "# *$ # ! + ! $ & !$ 8
- *$ # " $ $ "# moeten )G 1% #" # +; + /# # #
! $8
C' ( )+ ' $ $ $(1
C% 8 )+ $ $ $ $ $ $1
# * moest niet ! 8
C- " % '
"0" $$ $ ! & # ; $ + #
"#
moest )G 1
C% * $
C " $
= # "# moet niet ! #+ "! $$ ++ +! 8
C9 > "# kan )0 kunnen1 $$ + &$% # ; $ + *$ # , # 8
C% : $
C% . #
+ "# kunnen kon ) *1 < konden ) $1 /#
* &$ $$ ! $ ! # ! &$8 $! &$ ** # # " 7 & # ! & /
" $$ " " "# ! & ! $
& # 8
C- 7 )+ $ $ $ 1
, :! ! $ *# * "# & ! + #
A
! $ mag )0 mogen1 +! $ * $ *
*$ # $ $ #
+ mag /#"# mocht ) G 18
C+ # ? "# zou #
$ ++ ! * $ +/ + /#"# " &
7 & ' = 8
C )+
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $: 1
C1 + " )+ $ $ $ $ $ $8 +$0$$ 1
C) )+ ) 8 !1
Non-finite forms
"# " &$ +/ 30 +! # *$ # #
" &$! " $$ # + & $ "! $! 3
# +! / / &# *$ # "# "#
! " $ $ # *$ #
"! $! + / + ++ +! "# ; $
- "# /$$ & "$ F" $ & $
" " + 0 * + & 8
C1 % $
C% C% )+ % 1
C ' "# # ; $ + # *$ # * /$$ +
& 0 + +/ " $ 7 ! $ 8
C% $
C% " C% $
C% $
C% $
C% $
" $$ # & " + * ; $ /$$ $ $ #
""" + 0 + 8 C% "
= # ; $ + # " 5& J &F" J
" $6 /# ! * 7 !& + ++
" 8
C% $
C% ; $
C -(
4 $$ " $ "$ "# "# $ $ &$ $ " !+*
" $ " $ & $ "$ ) 1 $ /#$ * #! & $ " $ "$ $ < " * #! / +"
" $ "$ $ 1
" )/#"# # "#
; $ $$1 /$$ $*
Word order
2 "# $
! $ # *$ # ! + # ! * ++" /$$ $ + $! $$ & #
"# ! ! & $ # # /$$ $ &$! ! ! " $$
- "# # &F" # 0 +! + # & &$8
C1 + ' # "# 0 & * & +! # +
# & $ * )0
" $ 18
C% C = " *$ # "# " # & ) ! $1 &F"
"! $! & & $ 8
C% C C+
> $/ "" "# + # " /#
" # # # &F" "F"8
C % C% 0
C # . # $ + & $ $ ++ ! & $
* " # + $ "8
C+ * , # & "$ "! # + # "$ 8
C1 ; ? "# # "$ " & +! & "! $7
" $ "$ & F" "! $!8
--
C + C1 @ 4 / * "$ # " 5* * " 6
A "# + &* " /# # ; $ + 8
C' +$ ) )+ 1
C) 5==3 % & & $ * "! # + & "$ 8
C1 2 ) $ $ $ 1
Constructions with it and there
- B$ +* $ #* &* /# het # "#
$ $ & +! /#
; $ + het +$$/ &
$ $ +$$/ " /$$ 3
"* " $8
C% 2 $
C% $
' "# $ het $ + " "
+! & ! $
% < ( / " $
= "# er + ! " " # *$ # ; $
<D@< /#"# $! &$ +$$/ & +! + "# /$$ / #* $8
C $
C ) !! 1
C $
C $
Articles
# "# ! + 0 0 "$ & " $$ # !
*$ # +!
!& + ++" + ! "
# ! 8
- "# !! 0 "$ /# " &$ $ $
+* !#*<#* < $ * $8
-'
'
=
>
.
C C "# # 0 "$ &F" "! $! /#
" &$ *
+ "" $* $% + # ; $ + :
C+ " + $ + $
C) > C+ # ! / *$ # )$ " " 1 /#"#
" & # "$ /# # /# ! & #
! ! *
$ " & /#"# $ " # "$ /# #
" # & # " + /#"# # $ " " $$
#*# "# #
! $$$ # /# # "$
$ naar bed/school gaan )G , 1 # + +/%
#" ! $8
C )+ 1
C ! + ! $ ! $$ " & "$
# $ $" " # # ) 1 $ ! $8
C* # ! $ -(( - ((( # "$ "#% #"
C C Adjectives and adverbs
& " $ /# # E" +! + # " *
F" # + ! & $ +! $ # "# 6 "! " # " $ ! ! $8
C+ $
C- ? # 8
C
Quantifiers and determiners
- "# ++ ; 0 /# " &$ "3
&$ % #" ! $ $ + )+ 1
' # " &/ /$$ # & *#
-=
7 $"$
# #* # "! "$ # ; 0 "# # ! #$ + , , ! " $ ! 8
C% )&* $1
C$ $ $ # C@ % (
C $
Interrogative pronouns
# $ &$! #
+ # &* 7 " ; $ + # "#% #"8
C' " ? A (
Relative pronouns
- "# # ++ $ + $ #* # + /#
$ " )) $ $ $1 +0"$ " ' # &* " &/ " 3 "
"$ + # "#" + "" &* +
/# " $ & " A & " ) * !! " $
= Wat #
!"# / " * # *$ # 8 /#
"$ " /# ; 0 "
"
* $ /# # 7 $ # + !& + " /# *$ # ; 8
C2 " # $
C % $
I"" $$ $ 8
C % $ $ $
> B " "$ )"$ /# $ 1 3
* $$ / "# 7% #+
&* ! 7" + " $8
% B 2 . + $ J "# +
"! $ & $ + # / * $$
& $ *$ # K J +! $ "#
# + #! " # $$
&$ /#"# /$ &
* #$ "#* * 7" # $ + )K1 $ 8
->
C $
C % $
, 4 "!! /# $ "$ 5:" 6
Reflexive pronouns
"# E" # " # $+ + E7 + !&
#" ! $ )+ %
$ ""1 # "!& /# /# ! $$ !$ & ) ! $ & +* #* # $ #! $ 1 *$ # /#"#
# "# ; $8
C1 The indefinite pronoun one
Men $
+! $
*$ # ; $ "#
#$ & $ # #
* + $ " ; $ 8
C% & ) )+ $ $ $ 1
.
$ $ $ )+ $ +! $ - 1
C. )+ $ $ $1
Gender
# $ * ! + *$ # # ! "# "#8 #
"# # ! $ # ! " !
)F $ # ! 1 /#$ + # "# / & ! )! "$ 1 /#
$! #*
!& + +! 2#"# ! # $* "# + "$ " ! # ! "$ +! *! /# # "# ;3
$ 8
C ? $ $ $ $ $ $
C $ $ $ $ $ $
-.
Countability and number
- "# "$$" $/ +$$/ & *$ & /#$ &+ /$$* $ *$ # &
+$$/ & $ $ /#
% # /$$ * + # # "$$" # ;
$ $ & /$$ * $8
C $
' : 3 $ $ /% # & 3 *$ # &/* " $ * 8
C' ( % ) % 561
! "!! + $ # $ $ +! 8 + $
= "# $ * # " &$ " &$ & $$ ; $ &$* # ! " *% #" ! $ C
" " " > + # 0 $! + J "! $ $ ! $ *$ *$ # "# # !& " $ * ! $ $
. & $ # ++" &/ + 7 ! $ + "# # *$ # /$ & &# " "
! $
C Conjunctions
# $ $ &$! # # "!! "+ &/ 8
C' $
Prepositions
#*# &$ " *# ; $" &/ "# *$ # # ! " /# # ! "# # /$$ # $ ! #
"$$" +/ "!! ! & / + 7 ! $8
C C1 =$
C, )+ 1
C
-,
C C C $
C $
C )+ 1
# $ $ / +/ ! " ! " & ! 8
- Sinds $ # % $8
C% # % "+ #!8
' Achter $ C1 # % $8
= In $ CB $
Vocabulary
"# *$ # # # ! & " ! " " &$ )* voet
G groet G zien G mij G in G 1 /#"# * $
+ "$ $ * + # ! + $ + * #
! " + # " &$ + "$ & # + " # "# #
&/ + $ 7 $ +! ! " # ! " $ / 4"# ) " $$ $*!1 ! False friends
# "$ *" $ # # ** #" $ 7! &/
"# *$ # $ # + " # &# # &/ 7 $
+! ! " " $ $ # 7 " + ! + $ + + # ! # "# $ $ * *
4"#
$ "# /$$
# +$$/*8
;
bekomen
merk
brengen
camping
parking
smoking
chance
techniek
dramatisch
solliciteren
*"
$ )+ F&1
* F&3#*
* ";
& ! " ! *3 " * $
F " 7
$"
"#$*
-?
concurrentie
controleren
neef
nicht
actueel
actueel
defect
rijden
zich amuseren
eventueel
leren
missen
fout
novelle
stage
achterkant
"! "#" ) 1
" " "
"$
+"
) " 1
F $+
&$
"#
/#
# #
& "
Some typical mistakes with high-frequency words
CD = % $
1 (
+ $
@ % ( )# * 81
9 $
1 ( )+ 1 (1
" $
CD % $
% )+ % 1
Compounding
*$ # "! $ +;$ # "# /$$ ! "# "! Multi-word verbs
# 7 "# & # + $ # *$ # /$$ + & " 7 $"$ / # 6 -@
$ & # # /$$ #/ + $ " 8
+ & zoeken
beschouwen
verdragen
" )
!$3/ & + $ &$!
#
! "# & !$ "! & &$ & "#1
A sample of written Dutch with a word-for-word
translation
Vele
malen heb ik al
meegemaakt, als
in een gezelschap
! # $ 7 " /#<+ iemand
zo onhandig
is te verklappen dat ik taalkundige
! # L"$! M & ben, dat men reageert met:
! # "
"!
`Oei,
# $* dan mag ik wel
/#8 5I
op
# ! /$$ L6 &M mijn woorden letten!'. Misschien dat een politiecommissaris
! /
/ "#N6
wel herkent,
&
# maar de wijnkoper,
de hondenfokker of de
/$$ "* & # / & # * leraar
wiskunde heeft zoiets
"# )+1 ! #
toch
#
#
niet. Hoe
#
komt het
!#* / "! dat de taalkundige of de leraar
L #M # # $* hetzelfde schuitje
dat
$" "!! # Nederlands in
# "# )+1 "#
zit als de politiecommissaris?
! & L!M Ik weet
# $" "!! H /
het niet, maar Nederlandstaligen, aan beide zijden van de grens, zijn
& "# #
als
het om
/# bang.
hun taal
&# gaat, voÂoÂr
+ # & alles onzeker, voorzichtig
& # $ * * * &+ L &M $$ " +$
Bang gemaÂaÂkt, lijkt
" " ! me. Terwijl
)1 ! )1 ! 2#
de meesten
# ! L! $M
-A
toch minder reden tot schrik
$
hebben dan in de
+ E F # nabijheid van de politiecommissaris.
# #
Vreemd
genoeg zijn het
+ # $" "!! *)$1 *# juist de leraren
Nederlands en
F # "# )+1 "#
in taalkwesties
veelal
de taalkundigen die
# $* /#
het meest tolerant zijn. Veel
$ * * ; ! $ # ! $ toleranter
dan vele
anderen buiten
"#
hun kring. Niet
! $ # ! #
# ""$ vreemd wegens
maar wel
hun opleiding,
vreemd
* /* # " & /$$ LM *
omdat
het ijzeren schrikbewind
dus uit
andere
&" # + *! L M # )+1 #
bron
moet voorkomen. Lag het aan
de doorsnee-
" ! +#"! L2 M # *
taalgebruiker,
men zou
onze taal
onmiddellijk
tot kerntaak
$ * * /$ $ * * !! $ " uitroepen van een minister tot
"$ ! +
deugdzaamheid en Preventie
van het kwaad
: + # $
)5
'(
Bevordering van de
! L+M )#1 4#* + #
"$!6 & . =? )-AA@1 ,'1
Speakers of Scandinavian languages:
Danish, Norwegian, Swedish
$ 3$ : Distribution
O I2P 2 4 )/ #1 ! ) #1
Introduction
# " $ * * 3 $ * * &$**
$ *$ # # ! " & "# B &$ " " &/ # *$ # " $ * *
/$$
"!! E" # +" #
"$ $ # &/ # $ * * *$ # #+ $ $
+ " $ 4 # + ! $" # +$$/* " "" # ! F &$! /#"# # /* / # $ +
*$ # # "!! # & /#"#
; " 3" "! )#*# # & " $ /# ! + # # " #$*1
+ +
" # & &$ "$ #
+0"$ + "$ " 4 $ Phonology
General
$$ # " $ * * #$*" $$ & $ !$ *$ # ! + + *$ # " +0"$ + # $ * * # #$*" $
! + # /* / # "# " &
" &$ !$ &# /# " *! )+
7 ! $ # + /$ 1 /$$
&$/ # ! "!! " *$ # 3
#$
$ " + 7 /#"# #
" $ * * +! "# # #+ $ +!
'-
+ + &6 3 / # ! & *$ # "
/# 5" ""6 # /$ " "# &$/
3" ++" # & ! & ! ++3
" + # "& # 7
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A:
¡ O: U
aU @U I@
u:
à z: @
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ $$ #
" $ * *
" "$ /#
+0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! + # / # <
/* 4 $ "!! &$/
"$ /$ <i:<8 + - <I< + "
' <{< + " & / # <e<8 + B $ ! /* " <e< <{<8 +
= <U< ) 1 + "
"$ "$ $ /$ & / /* & !
" $ "$ $ /$
" $ /$ & 3
> <u:< ) 1 + "
/* *$ " !/# $/ /$ &
/ . / /* +;$ $ " <Ã< ) 1 &
! + /$
/$ ! , "# " " $$ $ " <Ã< &
&/ *$ # <Ã< <¡< # $ $ <¡<
" ;$ 0 +0"$ +! "
+! "
? <z:< ) 1 " $$ " & / @ <@< $/ +0"$ " )5 61
A /* ! " <eI< ) D 8 <{I<
<u:< ) + 1 & -( <@U< + " & /
<Ou< <Êu< & /* <au< <¡u< /* ''
+ + " $$ 0 +0"$ * # &/ *$ # <@U< <aU<
) 1 ! " $$ &
#! ""$
-- <I@< <e@< <U@< ) 1 $$ "
/# <r< + <@< & /* / " $$
$ " #! /# # ##* <i¡< <e¡< <u¡< "$
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m
n
ê
l
r
D
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ $$ #
" $ * *
" "$ /#
+0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! + # / # <
/* 4 $ "!! &$/
- <T< "" " $$ "
<t< )& 1
<s<8 + % + ' <D< "" /* / # +
+ % "
<d<8 + % $ " /# !"# ! $ $ "$ <D<
= <z< "" " $$ $ " & <s<8 + I" # ! <z< ! $ 5&KK6
!"#
> <Z< "" " $$ $ " & <S<8 +
. <tS< "" + " <tj<
<dj< & , <dZ< "" + "
/* <j< & / 8 + ? <r< " /# # & " + # * & !
) #1 / /* ! / $ " &
# 3*$ # 3+3#3* 3 @ <w< "" & $ " & $ 7 <v<8 +
A 5 6 <l<
"" $ ! / # /* $" % $ " & 5"$ 6 <l<
'=
+ + -( $ " /30 $ <b< <d< <g< /# <p< <t< <k<8
+ % + %
+
/ /$ #
! #
8 + % + % +
-- / # /* " " $*
+ # /$ % # ! & " *$ # / $
Influence of spelling on pronunciation
$$* " ! "$ $ $ # " $ * * ) " $$ / # /* 1 # *$ # # +/ !&* ! & ! " /#
$ # ++ $ *$ # # !# *% /#
*$ # #* # $ # $ / + # # # /
# & " $ + " " &/ $ *$ # "$ $8
- * ! " # $ <i:< << )$ ! G
4"# 1 <A:< ) * $1 <U< <aU< $ * ! / $ )4 7 ! $ # &* !! 3
"
"
" $ < ri:D@< <pA rA:D@<1
$ " $ * * 2# <@< $ /#
' <@< $/ # $ *$ # ! " /$
"* + 7 ! $ <¡< <{< <A:<
= + " # $ " *$ #
<z< # "!!$ ! " # $ <s< / "#
> + " # $ " *$ #
<D< ) /$$ <T<1 # ! ! " <T< " "
. # ! & " / $ " " $ * ! # *$ #
Rhythm and stress
: + / " ; !$ *$ # #
" $ * *
# $ $ +/ &$! #
#/8
'>
+ + - " "! $$ # 0 $! "!! *$ # "! /#"# +$$/ #
8
"
"
C ! ! )"+ ! 1
"
C / # $$
B $ "! ! + 5& J &6 "!& 3
" & # " $!8
C "
C "
C "
C ' # " $ * * # +/ 5/ +! 6 # *$ #
+ /*$ # +! + / $ "
" CD" " " " " ** #! # 5 *6
" ! " #
$ +!
";* $ " ##! * ! # +0"$
"* / +! Intonation
- $$ &$ # ) + /* / #1 " #*# "# # "* $$ &$ # + + *$ # *# /#
" " # 0 $$ &$ + $/
"#8
. .
*
.
.
*
.
.
* .
) #1
% & + $
. .
*
.
.
*
.
.
* .
)/* 1
' "$ "# * /#"# / $ 7 # $ $ / ! /* = # + $$3 +0"$ + " $ > /* ) ! / 1 ! * ! # *$ $* #*#
'.
+ + Orthography and punctuation
Spelling
# /# # &"! / + # " &/ <v< <w<
& +$$ "$ $ " & ) " 1
& &$ &" #
$$* ! & # ! 5*$ #6
E" +! ! ! ! ! / + ) " 1 # $ !"# ! +;$ # # " $ * *
# ! $ $
" $
Punctuation
- ! " "! /
/ # "* + # # # / $ )brandalarm1 +
/ $ )ytterdùr1 " +0"$
' " !! "!! +
!3
"$ &/ ! "$ /#"# &
"3
* "F" & +$ & "$ $ $ 8
C " $
= "!! &+ &F" "$ "
$ "$ 8
C% " $
C' " (
> # # ! / *$ # # $ "+ " $$ /# # !! $ " ) , %
,1
Grammar
Order of constituents
# " $ * * &*
" /#
!#* # # # &F" 9 /#"# # $ " + # &
*$ # $ & $ *$ $ 5+6 # * $$ " &F"9& * !" &F"
"! $! " *$ # " $ ! 8
C % $
',
+ + Position of adverbs
# " $ * * !3 " & * $$
$ " + # 0 & # $ ! *$ # "
/# 3/ & 8
C@ $
/ & "$ & $ " 0 &
" $ * * # $ ! *$ # "
/# "! $7 & # 8
C$ $ $ $
# " #
/# ; $* & $ 8
1 2 $
Constructions with it and there
- /* / # # ; $ + # " "3
# det /#"# $ ! * " ;"8
C% $
' $$ # $ * * # " " /# /
* + & )/# *$ # $ "!! /# ! &1 # $ ! $8
C%, $
C%, ; $
C%, $
= " $ * * ! + # *$ # # * 0 # &F" # ! $ + 3"$+ " $ $$ + # $ "!& ! + $ $ $
Nouns: countability and number
- # " &$<" &$ " + " $ * * & # ! ++" + & /#"# *
&$! 8
C )+ 1 ' # " " + $ $8
C1 (
= B$$" " $ * 7 # " $ * * :! $ +" $ $ $ $ $ $ $
"" & +$ & "$$; $
'?
+ + > ! " /# *$ # # $ $ *$ # " $ * * : &$ ! 8
C )+ 1
C & ) )+ & ) 1
C $
. ! " # # / $ * $8
C9 # $
C $
, ++" + * ! !" $ 7 " ! $8
C 3 H C Articles
- # 0 "$ "" " $ * * &+ "3
&$ $ $ * $ *$ # ! $
"$ # " # $ $8
C+ $
C ) + $
' &F" &F" "! $! +" !$ $ + #
" $ * * # 0 "$ /#
+" 3 "0" /#"# $ $8
C1 $
C) $
= $ * !& + ! $ ! " " # ! "
+
"$ $ /# # &F" " &
+!*
! " /#$ *# /# # & #
# $ " " /$ # "$ # " $ * * "$ $ "!!$
$+ + # / + :
C C Premodification
- # * )/# #1 + # " $ * *
&F" # " # $! *$ # # ! $ 8
C ' " & !+ # *$ # / # " $ * * # / +!
"! /
/ # 0 $! ) $
" " 1
'@
+ + = +0" $ $
& F" " $ " # 3
" $! "# #!
#8
den i de gamle regler beskrevne maÊde )G )
! "" $$ + # + " " *$ #
> # $ + * F" /# # # " 3
$ * * " &$ $ " # *$ #
/#"# $ $8
C) $
Postmodification
- # " $ * * + +$$ $ "$ )* 1 " /# *$ # + $ "!& !
" $ " " )* 1
' ! " *$ # $ # /# 3
!0 /# # " $ * * #
$ "!! ! # + # / 8
C Adjective or adverb?
- " & + ! & !$ +! F" /#"# $ +; ! 8
C+ ; $
C- $
' # ! " "" " /# # & "
" " " /#"# ! " & F" " $ * * 8
C% $
Pronouns and determiners
- # , " #
"
$ * * 8
C % '$ + # *$ ; $8
C+ " % $
" 'A
+ + = + +
+$$/ &
$ "$ " $ * * + ! !8
C # $
> # " $ * * # "! $$ "0" $
man /#"# " # *$ # 5* $6 + ! & /# *$ # #
" $ % $ ; $ $$ " . ! " /# # ! &$* *$ # & /# "$ +! # "7 /# # # " $ * * # 0 "$8 1 Verb forms
# E" + !& " $ * * B ;$ $ # #3 % " $ # "# # "" $$8
C1 I @ $
) )# +! + ! !$ # *$ " & +! er/aÈr1 & + " 8
C% $
Do
" # # ! &$! /# #
" "
# + $ "" * # +! +
; * * " $$ +0"$ & "$ 8
C $
# "!! + 5&$6
< +! 8
C1 $
C+
C D $
-ing forms
- # " " $ $ $! $
"! /# *$ # &* ! $
& F"
) 1 /# " & ) D B ;$ $ # &$! /# # " $ !& + " + 7 ! $ & $ "$ )
=(
+ + B " % 1$
' # & " + # * # / $ * * ! " # 0 " $8
C% ) * 5 61
C% C D $
Progressive aspect
" $ * * # * & +! $! + * $ # *$ # 5 ! $6 +! 8
C $
! ! / * +!
# $ +
"" # 8
C% + $
Tense
- # +" "!!$ +! $ /# #
7$ & $ /# # ; $ + + + #
3 +" /#"# 7 "# * +! # "!! !* $! # $ 8
C $
C $
' # " +" " & /# 0
+" $ * ! $8
C $
C1 5=J3$
= / # # + " " "
/# sedan )G , 18
C% $
> # " $ * * + /# #
+ # & ""! * &
$ ! "$ # # +" # + # $ #
! $ + # + ) # +"
+ # + +"18
C+
$
C% $ - $
C' # $
C % $
=-
+ + # ! $ $ /# + +" + #
* +!8
C2 + $
C% % $
Voice
# " $ * * #
" 7 # +
/ / 8 /# # +07 -s /# # 7$ blive/bli )/#"# " $ ! 1 # + # " $ "" $ +
! 8
C% )+ % 1
C1 $
#
! $ & 3 + + # ! $
" /# ) # " 5: 61
Modal verbs
$#*# !& + # *$ # ! $ # *# " ; $ # ++" # + ! $ /#
" ; $ * &$! ! + # ! ! +$$/ 8
- Kan $ +0! " $ &
/## #* # " ! #
# +8
C9 * $
C # $
' Skal 7 "! $ "!! )$ *$ # 1 # !$ /# $ "+ 8
C- ; $
= Skal " $ 7 # + ! )$ *$ # 18
C1 $
> # + skal $ & *! )*$ # 18
C& )$
C2 $
. / # /* #
+! skulle " !& + *$ # & & #
; $ # $ ! 8
C+ )+ + 1
C+ )+ 1
='
+ + Complementation
- :&$!
/#
" & ++
+! *$ # ; $ " &F" !!
++$ &8
C+ $
C1 # $
' Q& /# &$* E7 !"# ! "!! # " $ * * # *$ #8
C1 0
= # 5&F" J 06 " " $ * *
/$$ 8
C1 )+ 1 $ $ $ 1
C% $
Prepositions
- # " $ * *
" & +$$/ & att/at-"$ )# ; $ + *$ # 3"$ 1 # ! $ $8
C1
$
C $
' ! $ & +$$/ & 0 " "
: &$ ! 8
C $
C% , $
= " # * " & # af/at
$* $8
C $
> # #*#$ +; i + /# *$ # # # # $ $8
C I Vocabulary
# "$ $ # &/ # " $ * * *$ #
! $ * + *$ # " &$ $ "" &$ " 2 $ " " " $$ 5#
!6% !& + " # $$* /#"# E" $ *
+ # $ * * #$ &$ # + !$ /# # " ++ ! $ * " $ ! + # !$ +
==
+ + " " % &$/ /$$ & + $ + *$ # 5+ $ + 6
# &$! " + + $$ # $ * * False friends
# +$$/* $ "!! ! * + " "* /
#/ & " 4 " 5 ) G 16 ! # # " / # $ $ & /#"#
" $$ ! )# / # " # annoncere
/* annonsere / # annonsera1 ! " " 3
/ $ ! # $ # 5+ $ +6 ! * &
$ ! "7 # ! ! *
# *$ # "* 4
/$$
) " komme/komma " 1 $
) G " 1
) G 1
) G " 1
) G 1
) G " 1
) G " C D /$$
1
) G 1
) G 1
) G 1
) G 1
CD ) G " " 1
) G 1
) " ! # Han kom fùrst kl. 10 G 1
541
) G 1
) G 1
) G 1
) G 1
) G 1
) G 1
) G " 1
) G 1
) G # 1
) G 1
) G " 1
) G 1
) G " " ; " 1
) G " 1
) G C D 1
=>
+ + ) G 1
) G 1
) G 1
) G 1
" ) G 1
Some problems involving grammatical words
- ) ! + # # " ; $
# ! " &$! /# # " &/ + "
* ) /$$
! "#
% &$! + $
1 $
' " # / "* " ) +0!3
" 1 , # ! " !
+ # ! 5 !$ 6 /
= # / ogsaÊ/ocksaÊ " # + *$ # " " # ! /$$
! + +! &$! +
"#" # $ " &$ +0"$ + / +
7 ! $8
C% ,
> # ! & " # / #
/ /#"# " $ & $ # "" $$ $ # + $ " + $ & $
+"
)+ 1%
/ & $ +"
% E"* # * # " $ * * . # / om +" &#
"F" )G 1 )G " 1 4$$/* & /# &# + /
&$ ! $ ( " &
+
A sample of written Danish with a word-for-word
translation
Der
holdt
mindst hundrede taxaer med dùrene
# $$ $ og
han havde aldrig set
# # staÊet til ham,
# 7
/# # paÊ klem
F saÊ mange biler paÊ en gang. Havde det
! " ! var han styrtet
#! LG + # & $+ #!M /
# #
=.
+ + fra
den ene vogn til den anden, indtil han havde fundet en
+! # " # # $ # # +
chauffùr med et ansigt, han kunne lide.
/#
far
+ "
lùftede blot en ®nger, en mand med kasket paÊ hovedet saÊ
+ # $+ F 0*
det, stùdte ùjeblikkelig
Men hans
# "$ ++ L G # $M #
i
&$/ !! $ ! /# "
en ¯ùjte
# # og straks
/
blev der
/# $ " /
#
bevñgelse i den yderste
bilrñkke
!! # ! " 3/
)4! 5#6 & 2$$ ! ! 2 & &
1
Acknowledgements
# # 6 # * # !
R3$ # * $ * SF I#$ $
T* $ # + "
=,
German speakers
"# $ / Distribution
P
2U
B
I 4 " $ ! $*! $$ :$ BK"# &$" $ * ! Introduction
! 3 $ * * "$ $ $ "#
*$ # # " $ * * 7 / +
$"
! ++ +! "# #
& ! $
! $$ $$*&$ # $ * * + ! )Hochdeutsch 5*# ! 61 + / "!!" #*#3
# ! 3 * /# +/ ! $$ * $ ++" & ! ! ! 3/ # #
0 $ * * " $" )+ /# * * $
"$*1
" + # "$ + !$ $ # &/ *$ # ! # ! !$ &/ # / $ * *
* #$* " &$ 7 ! #+
0 *$ # $ $$ ! $ $ * Phonology
General
# ! *$ # #$*" $ ! & $ !$ ! # +0"$ "* 3
"* ! *$ # !* # + + ! /#"#
" * 5! ""6 *$ # 8
9
*" "$ # *$ # + /# /$
! 7 $ " )<p< <t< <k<1% ! $ 3*
*
=?
B 9 ++ 9 4; + *$ $ &+ $ /$ **
"" ++"
9 " + ! * $$ $/ #*# "#
# ! # $
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U K@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ ! #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- <e< <{< + "+ 8 # ! &
' <O:< <@U< + "+ 8 "
"$ /$ <o:<
= <Ã< ! & " $ <A<
"$ ! ##* <e:<
> <eI< !! "
. /$ ! & " 3$* &+ "
" ) 1
, /
! $ " /$ Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ ! #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
=@
B $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
#! ! - <Z< <dZ< ! ! + $ #!
<S< <tS< *$ #8 + % + 2 ' # " <Z< <dZ< <z< <v< <b< <d< <g< "" #
+ / ! "+ #! /# $ " #! & # " ; $ # 8 + % + % + % + % + % + %
+ = <T< <D< "" ! % ! $ " #! & <s<
<z<8 + % + > # $ ! #! # + <v< <w<8 + )$ +1 + . <r< ! & " /# # & " + # * ) 4"#1 E
)$ *$ # <r< & ! *" * #
+ ! 1
, 5 6 <l< ) 1 7 ! ! $ " & 5"$ 6 <l< ) 1
Stress
: + / " ; !$ *$ # ! # +/ &$! # #/8
- ! "! 7 * $$ # 0 $!% # *$ # "! /#"# ! & ! 3
"
"
% 1
" )* ' ! # +/ 5/ +! 6 ! ! / $ ** #! # *
)/1 " $$ "7 * ! # +03
"$ "* / +! Intonation
# /$ # ! 3 * # ! ; $ *$ # # ! + # $* * *$ !3 "8
' % % & $
/
! " /# +$$/ &
)% D8 # *$ #
$*# + $$
=A
B B + + ! + *$ # )3
*# /# # ! *" "$ /#"# "!!1 " ! ! /# **
" $ "" 3; )/#"# ! ! " /#
*
/#"# " #"* # *$ # 1 ; Juncture
! / $$ &$ &** /# /$ + +! /# "! &+ & *$ $ ) + &* $
$ *$ #1 # " " +*3 * "" ++"8
?
? ? )! ? ? ?1
Orthography and punctuation
Spelling
! # ! &$ # # $ /#
*$ # $$* * ! *$ # & #
! $ ! * ! $ # ! / /#
$ " $ $ $ * ! $ % @ A $
Punctuation
:" " *#$ # ! ! *$ #
# ! ++" # "!!
&+ $$ & "$ /$$ 0 "! $! + & F" C% " $
C+ # " $
C% " $
C1 " # $
C+ # " $
!3"$ $ # *$ # D ! /
++$8
C""1 % ( $
>(
B Grammar
# ! *$ # * !! " $ ! !$ ! / # # ! 5 + "#6 " * ! #
+ " *$ $ $ +! 0 0 "$
*$ *$ &
7$ ! $ &
" & $ " ! $ * $$ & # & # !"#
*$ # #*# # +! /#"# !&$ # *$ #
+" # ! / % # * +! ! #*#$ E" $ * * /#"# / "# * #
+! ) " $$ # * 1 ""* # * !! " $ +"
9 "$
F" + 7 ! $ # ++ +!
)5" 61 ""* /## # # &F" " &F"
" &F" # ! # / !/# + # *$ # /# # * !! " $ +" + / " $$ " & ! # * !! " $ *8
! "$ +! )# $$
$ # &/ * ! *1 # $ " + ! "
E" $ ! *$ # + $ ! 3 * +$ # *$ # # 5 * !! 6
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries
- # 7$ # ; $ ! % * ! & ! $ 3/ & ! * &
* nicht ) G 1 + # &8
C' (
C " % $
' :+" * $$ +! /# haben ) G 1 J
" $
*$ # / ! & )! $ "!!
& +* "# * + 1 +! # +"
/# sein ) G 18
C+ = " + # !$ + +! *$ # + ! ; $ + ! hat ) G 1 haÈtte )/#"# " ! 9 &$/18
C ) (
> ! #
#* " * # "! $" *$ #
! + ; * 8 *! ! $$ $" &
*$
&$ / # "# nicht wahr? )G (1 ! *$ # ( (
; $8
C% " (
>-
B Time, tense and aspect
- ! # +! !$ # *$ # ! $
! $ +" ! $
+" & # * +! 8
C% $
C% % $ 1 (
' # ! +! /#"# !&$ # +" 7 "$ # ! / 8 + +" F " $
8
C% & = B $ # ! ! & /# / /$ +"8
C B > " "# ! &F" /#
*$ # +
* & 8
C% - # ! $ " +
* " ! 8
C'
(
' #/ $*
+ ++ # & ** ! + /# *$ # +"8
C1 B ( )! * 1 $ $ $(1
C% ! # ; $ + # + # + +! /# 7$ )*#$ ; $ # , +1
# 7 $ + # +8
C% % Conditionals
! " $ " # 7$ wuÈrde )/#"#
" *#$ 1 ! & &# "$ 8
C% " % # >'
(Wenn er mich fragen wuÈrde, wuÈrde ich ihm nichts sagen.)
" $ #
2# " "!! &
! B ! #
&F" ) 3/ +!1 + # "3
$ )"! $ *$ # % 1 " ! &F" + !&$ # $ *$ #
)* kaÈme<
waÈre< haÈtte< 1 "+ " $$ $$8
C% " $
C% % " % $
C B $ ! * 7 & ! +$ ! # *$ #8
C' % " % $
! so + &+ # ! "$ 8
C% #" $
Modal verbs
# *$ # ! $ " # *# ! ; 3
$ &$ # ++" + /#"# $ ! ! 7 ! $ + "!! &$! 8
- Ich kann )G % 1 " & /# # ! + $ * * ! %
8
C% <
' *$ # $ $ # ! musste )G 18
C- % * $
& ! & + 8
C ( = Muss nicht G % # ! 8
C% > ! will ! CD 8
C+
# " $ "+ &/ )! wollte)8
C% % . ! soll )G 1 !! ! 3
$ sollte )G 1 8
C1 )+ 1 1
C% , ! ! $ +! ; * # ! / # & # " $ *$ # ! $ &* #
! / 8
C (
C- >=
B Passivisation
! + " " /# # &F" man )G
/# *$ # +
C. ? $
C. 1
There is . . .
"!! ! ; $ + es ist )$ $$ 18
C% $
! " $ es &+ $ $ & # " % #
" "!! /# & # # sein )G 18
C% $
C $
! $ es gibt )$ $$ 1
; $ + , C% Non-finite forms
! # ; $ + # *$ # 3$ + # +!
)5*61 Lachen + " " " *$ # ! " # & 0 ""* #
"7 " # $$ #+ + "+ C% , " , $
C% , $
C% $
C% $
! # $ ! # +0"$ /# #
*$ # 5&F" J 06 " "8
C% " Word order
- 0 " $ ! # *$ # / !! ! ! 8
C% C1 >>
"! # + "$ ;"$ $ & &*
B '
=
>
.
,
?
@
A
& * $$ "! # + ! & "$ $ * &* ! ! 8
C % " ? (
! #
& " 5& "6 / + # &F" +
! "$ " & #* # # "F" #
&F" & 8
C. " ! &* /# # " &F" "! $!8
C % CA 0
& ! & +! &F" "! $!% # $ *$ #8
C- B $
C1 9 & "$ "! # + "$ 8
C1 ; ! #/ # +
"$ # &$ /# " $ % ' (
! "$ ! & +! & ;
"! $7 " $ # 8
C # Vor ) G 1 " 7 + ! Entlang )G 1 +$$/
8
C% C% , # $
C+ $
Articles
- ! # 0 "$ + ""! /#"# * $ 8
C $
C' ' # 0 "$ /# 0* $6 + 8
C& = # 0 "$ + ! + # ; $ + 8
C- $
C% " >.
B Gender
! "$ +! /# 5!6
* : ""*$8
C& $ @ (
C )das MaÈdchen 9 !1 $ % Number and countability
- ! +! # $ $ / B!! $ $
* -en -er% &* !! # +! #
$ $ + *$ # # # $ 8
C% $
' ! *$ # " &$ # " &$ ! ; $
9 + " ? C) C1 ?$
C@ (
= ! *$ # $ $ # *$ ! ; $ 8 +
7 ! $ & ) C@ (
C Possessive `s
! #
; $ + # *$ # " & ! $ /# ! # " von ) G 1 * $$ 8
C% Adjectives and adverbs
- ! & + ! $$ " $ +! /# #
E" F" 4 7 ! $ gut G , % schrecklich G
, 8
C+ $
C1 $
C% ' ! !! & + " & 5 6 + F"8
C " >,
B Relative pronouns
- ! was " $ & $ )
" " 1 /# # " "$ #
$ ! + 8
C $$$
C) $ $ $
C1 " ' ! * # $ 8
C% = " # * !! " $ " ! &/ 3
" 3 " $ "$ &* ! /# " $ 1 " 9 & " * !! " $
> ! " &F" $ " $8
% Conjunctions
- ! # # ! / + )+* !$ 18
C- ' # ! / falls )$ $$ 1 ! " "7 # " $ + /#"# "" # *$ #8
C9 Prepositions
! # *# *$ # ; $ :&$!
" ) ! $ 1 /# 07 *$ # 7 "$$" " " /# # 5 !6 ! " $ ! # 8
C C- , $
C $
C I# &$! ) "1 "" /# ! # ! # *$ *$ # ; $ ! "!! +03
"$ 8
- Nach ) G 1 " $ ! 8
C) " >?
B ' Seit " ! 8
C% = Von G % $ /# $* & # # 8
C@ % (
C C > Zu G 8
C ? 1 1 . An G 8
C & , Vor G % $ 8
C $
C% , C% ) * % 1
? Mit ) G 1 /# * 8
C' 5K @ WaÈhrend G 8
C+ $ * !& + *$ #
A Bei " * # "7 9 & $ :
C% 2 ) )+ $ $ $ 2 ) 1
C I
Vocabulary
Q ! ! *$ # / +! # ! )* Haus G % Schuh G % jung 9 % singen G 1 #
+ "$ $ * # /#$ #*# # " !& +
5+ $ + 6 ) &$/1 ! 3 * / * $$ / !
4"# /#"# #$ #! /# # + *$ # " &$ /#"# + 4"# * )#*# ! $ $ #! ! " $$ 4"# ! + $$* " &$ 1
False friends
$ * !& + ! / # ! * /#"# $*#$ "! $$ ++ +! # + # *$ # "* ! ! # +$$/* / ) !* # 18
>@
)! kommen G ""* "71
)! gehen G ""* "71
B CD
CD
)!
)!
)!
)!
)!
)!
)!
)!
)!
)!
)!
)!
)!
bringen G ""* "71
meinen $$ G 1
aktuell G " 1
eventuell G , , 1
sympathisch G 1
danke " ! / " 1
wenn G 1
bekommen G 1
kontrollieren G 1
weil G 1
1
kochen G gluÈcklich G 1
rentabel G 1
$ # )! wer1 )! wo1 $
"+ & &* Other confusions
+! +0"$ " & ! $ * "* &$! ! * $$ /# ! / # ! # *$ #
; $ /#
+ " * / & ; # ! / #
*$ # ; $ +/
7 ! $ 8
:#" $$ ! "+ 8
# ! / + )bitte) /# ++* !#*
$ +!$ " $ # ) # $ & !"# ! /$1 # $ ! 9 *$ #
>A
B /
!! ' ( $ /#
$ ;8
' & * @ ( ' (
Word formation
B! $7 "!! ! )Dorfschullehrer G 1 ! ! !$ 3/ "! *$ #
A sample of written German with a word-for-word
translation
Eines Abends
I * L*M
saû ich im
Dorfwirtshaus
# $$ * &
vor
(genauer
Bier, als
ein Mann gewoÈhnlichen Aussehens
+ + )! 7 "$
& /#
sich
gesagt, hinter)
&#1
! L+M vertraulicher
$ " ! /# "0 $
ich eine Lokomotive kaufen wolle
Stimme fragte, ob
"
/## L &F"M
Nun ist es zwar
*$
" L*M
neben mich setzte und mich mit
#! $+ & !
einem Glas
$"! & / ziemlich leicht, mir
etwas
zu verkaufen
/ # ! !#* $$
denn ich kann schlecht nein sagen,
+
" & $
L 0 +0"$ groÈûeren Anschaffung dieser Art
&**
"# schien mir
aber bei
M & /#
doch
+ # ! ! #/
Vorsicht am
Platze
" # $ " L" ! ! & " M
Obgleich ich wenig von Lokomotiven verstehe,
$#*# ich mich
.(
erkundigte
$$ + $"! +!
nach Typ und Bauart,
um
bei
! $+ L ;M + " " einer
B dem Mann den Anschein
zu erwecken, als
# ! # ! / mit
habe er es hier
L+M # # #
einem Experten zu tun, der nicht gewillt sei, die Katz'
/# im
#
7 /# /$$* & # " Sack zu kaufen, wie man so schoÈn
" &
& +$)$1
sagt
)5 *VW "# ++*6 & 2$+* * $ #! +! * * 1
.-
French speakers
B # 2 $
Distribution
4B )"$* 4"# 2 1 2U
B % ! + #/ $ 7!&*%
+0" $ / " $ * * ! +! 4"# $* "$ # / " $ +" # : "0" # !" Introduction
4"# &$* # ! " * + 3 $ * * "$ $ $ $ # :* ! #
! " * # ! ++" &/ $* B 4"# + 7 ! $ # 4"# + 4 "
& # ++" * # # &/ # !" *$ #% # ++ 4"# $" " $
! $$ "! # &$
" 4"# 3 $ * * &" #
! "& *$ # /
* # ! !$ 3
&/ 4"# *$ # &# 7 " &$ #
#$*" $ ! 7#& ! ! ++" #/ # $$ 4"# /# &$! *
"* *$ # ! * $ &/ $$*
" Phonology
General
4"# # ! #$*" $ "# " " /# *$ # 4"#
# * +0"$ "* "* ! *$ # " & ! + # /$ &$! :#
! ! $ # 4"# *$ # ! + /
##! ++ # " $ .'
A +0"$ &# * "* *$ #
!* # + + 4"# /#"# $ 54"# ""6 *$ #
8
9 $$ 4"# / + / $$ &$ ! *$ / ) &$/1 $ # *$ # ! /# # + "# / /3 ! & $ # " $ &$!
+ "! # "! # &$
9 *
$$ &$ 4"# $ "* # !
* " *$ # # $$ + # /$ " # "" *$ #
$$ &$ # / + " ! ! 4"# # *$ # 5 / $$/6 # /
" ! # *$ #
& 4"# ! "" 9 4"# ! $
! +; F /
*% # + # * # ! + #
&$ )# &# # 1 + # * ** 5 +6 ! " Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ 4"# #$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- 4"# # $ # + ,i:< ,I< $ * "+ &/ $ ' <Ã< !! " $! $ ,@< # &"!
= 4"# # $ # + ,U< ,u:< $ * "+ &/ $ > <¡< + # + " $ !#*
$ . # ,O:< ,@U< ! / # 4"# ,o< $ * "+ &/ $ .=
A , <{< + " +0"$ * #/ " & #
4"# ! & $ 8
9 $ *$ # ,Ã< # / $ "+ %
9 # $ ,A:< # + " $ %
9
,e< " * "+ &/ $ $
? <eI< !! &"! ,e< # + 7 ! $ $
" ,{< " $ & $ ,e< # " $ "+ $ @ I# ##* $$ &$! " & # ! &
" /# ; $ +" $*# # / $! 8 % &"! ) Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ 4"# #$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- <T< ,D< 7 4"# # + " # 4"#
; # + # * ! # +0"$ $ ,s< ,z< ,f< ,v< ,t< ,d< "!! $ + # #! ! & $ " % " ' <tS< + $ ,S< ,dZ< ,Z< &"! F &"! = <h< )/#"# 7 4"#1 + 8 % > <r< " /# # & " + # * 4"# $$ & " # ! / *$ #
. 5 6 ,l<
"" 4"# ! $ " & 5"$ 6 ,l<
, *$ # $*# /$ $$ &$ &+ 0 $ "
" + " # ! / *$ # # #
.>
A ++" &/ / $ & # * # $*
/$ &+ # + # " / )# "<" " &/
!"# $ ! + " 1 4"#
" $$ $*# # /$ $ * "+ &/ + / $ Consonant clusters
- / * " J # 4"# ! 3
,@l< B!& /# # " # 5 6 ,l<
!$ $$ &" / # $ $$ &$ # * " $ ' '$
' # + / $ 4"# ! " ,s<
$ " ,m< *$ # ! # $
= I ! $$ 0 " +$$/ & ,z< # +
4"# / "* *$ # $ $ 4"# # + " " ! * ! $
Stress
- 4"# / + ! # $$ &$ # / )/#"#
!/# / # *$ #1 # $ "
$$ &$ 2# # 7" + <@< /#"# !! $ /$
/#"# # " # # &*
# / <@< ,I< *$ # 4"# # * +0"$ "* # / $$ &$
/# *$ # " #!
# #* / * $ " &$! + 4"#
* " *$ #
!* +! #
*$ 4"# ! + / *$ # /# # + "# / /3 ! & $ + " ' 2# *$ # ! " 4"# + * !! " $ " " B! 4"# *$ # / 5 (68
*$ #8 / " % baker's
4"#8 Non, c'est aÁ la boulangerie que je suis alleÂe.
)G / " % $1
..
A Intonation
# 4"# *$ # ! !$ ! " !! 4"# & $ *$ /#"#
" ! * ! + #!" /# Influence of spelling on pronunciation
$#*# 4"# $$* "! $7 4"# " $$ #/ " / )/# 7" 1 +! # / $
4"# $ ! #+ 7 " & &$ # ! *$ # $$ ! ! & ! " $$ & &*
" /# $ "!& + $ #
++ $ *$ # 4"# "$ $8
- $$ &$ * /# # $ # $ " 4"#% +" # ! " &$! + + #
*$ # /# / $ " " $ / $ 4"# ! " # 0 $
,e<8 56
' ! & " ,u:< ! & " ,o<8
= *$ *
! " 0 $ ,Id< ,ed<
+ $$ " + $$ " " 8 L
L > 4 $ / " 4"# )* $ $ 1 + " # & " *$ # $ ! $ + $
. # $ * !& + "* *$ # 4"# "!! + 4"# + 4"# # / Orthography and punctuation
4"# # ! &$ # # $ /#
*$ # $$* # + # / !# $ * * $ F" " $ 4"# ! $ ! $ % :" " *#$ # ! 4"# *$ #
B!! " & 4"# ! " /# # /$ &
*$ # ! $ ! $ @ " $
.,
A D ! / $*#$ ++$ 4"#8 X Y
# # 5 6 55 66
Grammar
General
# 4"# *$ # * !! " $ ! !$ ! / 8 # # ! 5 + "#6 " * % / & $ !$ % 4"# #
*$ $ $ & +! 0 0 "$ *$ *$ &
7$ &
"
+! + # +"
& +! )#*# # /#"# " " $ # *$ #
+" # ! / 1
# ! ! ++" #*# 4"# & E" # # * + & " &# #
!& + # &F" + # "$ )#*# ! + #
E" # +! "#1 4"# # ; $ +
# *$ # * +! # & 4"# /#"# 7 ! $ E" +! ; * # !
/ # & # #* " * # $< 3
$ & 4"# # E" ; * 4"# #
* !! " $ *8 F"
"$ !
! ! "$ +! )#*# $ +/ #/
$ # &/ * ! *1% # ! / $ E"
+ $ $ ) $ /*1 5 6 + # " $$ "!
&+ # !0 4"#8 + 7 ! $ " $$ "!
&+ & F" & &+ & Verbs
4"# # &$ $ * " # 3
* # *$ & # ! + # *$ # "
3E" $ * *
"! 4"# # * + E" & +*
4 $ / 3 4"# / $$ " $#*# # ++" # $$* + 0 " #
*$ * + *$ & 4"# $$
# +! " # !
.?
A Questions and negatives; auxiliaries
- # 7$ # ; $ 4"# 4"# " &$! *$ # * +! * # 4"#8
9 ! $ & * ; ! & * ; 8
C- (
9 8
C' ? (
' * 4"# +! & * ne . . . pas 3
/ & # 7$ + $* & # " $ ! + , < "" $ "! + 8
C+ 9
# ne $ " # & /# # * +$$/ 8
C% = 4"# # /#"# +! $ # *$ # +" * $$ /# # & avoir )G 1 / ! & )3
"$* ! "!! & + !!1 +! # /#
eÃtre )G 18
C@ > BF* ; * 7 4"#% /# *$ #
# ; * * /# # ! & 4"# n'est-ce pas?
)G ( (1 ! " $$ non? + $$ & 8
C- ) " (
C? + " (
Time, tense and aspect
- # 4"# # +! !"# $ # *$ # +" & +"
! $
"# +! $
/*8
C% 2 $
' 4"# # $ & " # &* #
"* # 8
C% 9 ) , # $
C+ & # = /* !! "# ) " $$ /# *
" 1 # ! & $ & #
4"# # * ++" + + 3!* " 8
C. 3M 2 57K=" B .< * +
.@
A C% ? $ ' % ) (" > 4"# #
/#"# # ! / # *$ #
* $ & " *
* #
#
! 4"# $ $ & # &
" #
4"# ! #
* $ " + ! $
)
# + , 18
C' % $
C% % %&
C? @ A @" # $ " /# #
+" * /$ & *$ # /# 8
C' % " $
# $$ & "$* 5 6 & " & # 4"#8
C% . # 4"# /#"# +! $ # *$ #
+" * " * $$ # *$ # " $ & /# # " & +!
# & + " # "!! /$* # 9
#*# # ! & !8
1 $ < 3H3$ % 0
- 4"# # * +!8
C2 $ + , ' 4"# # + 7 $ 8
C % * $
4"# # # ! # / + 7 * + !
*$ #8
" + * $ 4"#
*$ # * + # !$ & # ! ++" - " 4"# # * # ! $ ! & ""$ + # +8
C% @ ' 4"# # 7 " #
!! 8
.A
A )# &$$ * 1 % 0
# $ 7 ! 8
C% ,%
$
= 4"# # + + + ! + # ; $ +
8
C% $
C' (
Modal verbs
# *$ # ! $ " " " # 4"# ; $ # & 4"# +!
"$ 8 $ # *$ #
" # &# ++$ +! # E" &
# " $ $ & ; * +$$/*
0 # $ ! " $$ + &* $ 1
$ $ $ $ $ $ $
# # ++" + /#"# $ ! !
"!! &$! 8
- " 4"# *# # # 0 +! " 3
# *$ # 30 "!! + #! #
30 /# *$ # ! $ 8
C% $
C- $
C- ' 4"# +! + # *$ & devoir " # +
&$* " 7 *$ # & $
# " $ * /# # ! " 8
C- C D ? $
C- C D ) $
= # " 4"# " * # *$ # +
+ ! * * + ** # "
8 # # 5! +"6 /# 8
C% (
C' (
C% % (
> 4"# " $ # ! / # *$ # ; $ / " $ $ )+
7 ! $ /
"$ / & " 1 " # # +! * & $$ " 8
C # $
) + , $ $ $1
,(
A C)
. " $ ) + $1
. # 4"# ; $ + ! $ +" " " ++$8
# ; $ + % + 7 ! $ j'aurais duà aller
9 $ $$ % # " $ 4"#
*$ # 0 +
" $8
C% $
Imperatives
- 4"# # + + + " " $ * ! *$ #8
C- " $ $ $
' / 4"# # 0 + ! +!8
C " $
C Clause structure and complementation
- 4"# + + $ "$ /# *$ # +!
F" $$8
C% ' 4"# 0 * /# & +! 0$$ # $ " + 8
C
$
C $
C% $
C% + $
C1 = " /# *$ # 0 +
& 7 4"# # ; $ + $ " $ # ""8
C1 * $
C$ $ $ $
C$ $ $ $
> 2#$ *$ # # &# 5& 6 5 36 0 4"# # $
# $ ! $8
C% $ % $
. 4"# $$/ 57 6 &F" &F" "8
C- $
C (
,-
A C+ " (
, $ ! 4"# 4"# " # &$ * ! "* "
$8
Complementation with certain verbs
4"# & # # "$ ; $ *$ # + # ++ "! $! ! + # ! "!! " 8
- 4"# ) &F"1 "$ # # 0 "
+ # ; $ + 8
C+ $
' # ; $ + 4"# " & +$$/ & 08
C% $
= 2# 7 + $"! ) " " " "1 4"#
"+ # + !! &
" $ # &
# "#" + ! & #
*$ #8
C+ $ )+ + $1
$ )+ $1
> &# *$ # 4"# " & " & !! $
+$$/ & " &F" /#"# /# ++" & # &6
" & # $ ; # ! # / $ * * 8
C% # C1 It and there
# 4"# 7 " * ! " # &** /# # ; $ + # " $ ! 8
C% $
# 4"# ; $ + C$ $ $ D " $ & /# !
7 ! % $ $ $ 8
C% $
C # $
Passivisation
- 4"# # E7 # ; $ + ! " /# *$ # #
8
,'
A C $ )+ $1
. ? $
' 4"# # &0" + & )" &F" " " "1 " & # &F" +
" 48
' 4"# /$$ 8
C. C D = # $ 4"# # &$ /# "! $7
8
C $ )+ $ $ $ $1
) $
Word order: influence of French
4"# # + # " $$ "! &+ !0 # #
+ /# #
*$ # # " ! # -
& F" 4"# $ " + # !
&$! *$ # ! +! # 8
C C C ; ; C+ % $
' 9 "! 4"# $ +; # *$ #%
/# # "" # ! 0 # !+* +$$/ 8
C C = # " " * # * " 4"# # 4"# # 30 / " $ ! $8
C C > 4"# & + "! &/ # & # "
&F"8
C% $
C% $
C+ ?$
C1 $
# $ # "!! + ! /#"# "
4"# / ,=
A - 4"# " &F" "$ $ "$ + #
&F" + # "$ 8
C% $
C 2 (
C $$$
C $ $ $
' + # &F" + # & "$ ! $ "
4"#
*$ #% & * $ +!
*$ # ; +! ! $$ $ ! "#8
C $
C% = 4"# + " " " 8
C% $
C% $
C& 1 $
C9 # ) "1 0 # ; $ 4"# " " # " ! * $ * *$ # " $ % > 4"# 7 + ; " &F" "! &+
#
" $ + /3 &8
C% $
C+ " $
C% $
C1 .
7 /# 0 4"# " & de aÁ
/#"# 4"# !! $ $ # #
++"
# $ + * 0 8
C% $
, 7"$ ! /# # 4"# ; $ + J F"< &
8
C1 0
? I# " $ ! * +! 4"# / 8
C C C% (
C
" C )+ 1
C # C1 A (
,>
A Word order: particles and prepositions
# & " * " * # $< $ &
4"# 4"# # +0"$ $ * #/ # & *$ #% / /# &F" "$ &$!
C2 $ @ (
4"# " 5 6
# + "$ 2# #
; / # &F" +
4"# # $/ "! &+ # ; / # " *$ #8
CA (
# # $ # ! " *8
C D
) $ $ $(
$ ! # +0"$ * $ " $8
% $
1 $
Articles
- 4"# # 0 "$ ""! /#"# * $ 8
C% ; $
C ' 4"# "$ &+ # ! + + "! $!
8
C+ = 4"# 0 "$ &+ !
! 8
C $
C > 4"# # 0 "$ " !! & ! + #
; $ + 8
C% $
C
(
. I# " $ ! * +! 4"# + "$ 8
C & C' (
C ? $
C1 # $
C @ N C 9 @ ,.
A C% C' 0
$
Gender
- ! "$ +! : ""*$8
C% O $
C ' # ! " * 3
" $% # * * /# # # !+8
C% 2 $
C2 Number
- !& + " &$ 4"# " &$ )! 1
*$ # B!! ! 8
C C C ' ! #* # * & $ $ *$ # * & *$ 4"# : &$ ! 8
C C )+ & ) 1
C )+ 1
C = D + ! ! + $; $
"
" $$ $ $ & +$$/ & $ $ 4"#8
C% " % $
CA % $
C+# > 2# $ $ # ! + #* 4"# +
# +* # #* # *$ 8
C' $
. *$ # 9 "! ! $ &$! /# +
# #
$ $ ! * *$ +!8
C ,,
A Adjectives and adverbs
) $ # " 52 61
- + / ! F" 4"# $$ et )G 1
&+ # $ # " $ ! /# *$ # &
F" 8
C ' # !& + F" # " & *$ 4"#8
C 0 )! * , 01
C F" " & #" $$ /# # ; $
+ *$ # +! 8
' ( $
= : " $ F" )$ 1 + "+ 8
C% $
> B! $ $/ +! /# # ; $3
+ 8
C% $
C% $ , . 2# "! F" & 4"# # / que
)/# ! "!! *$ # ; $ 1 8
C% $
C+
Reflexive pronouns
4"# 7 " # 0 " &/ E7 &F" 4"# # " &/ # 5 $+6 5 "# #68
C% $
C' Relative pronouns
- 4"# # &F" $ )qui /#"#
* ! 1% &F" $ * ! 1 # " $ )que /#"#
&$! *$ #8
,?
A C $ $ $
C % $ $ $
' # "$ ! + # 4"# # " 8
C $ $ $
= 4"# # / " * $ + !
! 7 8
C Conjunctions
- 4"# # # ! / )comme1 + )+* !$ 18
C' " ' 4"# + $$ + 8
1 (
% B ) $ $ $
Prepositions
4"# # *# *$ # ; $ :&$!
" ) ! $ 1 /# *$ # 7 " " /# # 5 !6 4"#% /#
+ # $ * * # # " $
! # 8
C C C C C I# &$! ) "1 "" /# 4"# #
! # *$ *$ # ; $ ! "!! +0"$ 8
- Depuis " ! 8
C% ' De " ! $ /# $* &
# # 8
C1 @ $
C P = *$ # $ " /## * +
!! )* ,, 1 4"# $ " ! 7 # / "$
+ # &F" + #
,@
A " + 7 ! $ /$$ & " & aÁ /## #
! " *$ #8
C+ * $
C 9$
C% B > 4"# "$ "!! & $ + !
+* + 8
C% ; C% C% / $
Vocabulary
Q ! 4"# *$ # / +! # ! # ! $$" $ "#" $ / # ! # $$ "" # + "$ $ * # /#$ " $$ # 3
! * & / + ! # 4"# $ "$ $ "!! ! 3 * "* ! " ! + ! "!! ! " /#"# ! 8 + #
# # # # # + ! "
! !!
" " " * * #
+0"$ + * # $< $ & # !& + 5+ $ + 6 /#"# # ++
! * # / $ * * % 9 #
/ 9 5$ &$
+ 68 / # ! $! # ! # / $ * * ! # ! "7 #
`Bleached verbs'
+ !$3 5&$ "# & 6 7 &# *$ # 4"# & # *
" ++$ "# $ * *8
-
+ # "" 7 *$ # /# # & 7 4"# /# # & " * # " $ ! $8
C% C+ $
C- $ )+ - 1
B $ 4"# # ; $ + Je suis d'accord )G %
$ $$ % 1 $ * # "!! ! % ,A
A ' 4"# # ; $ + 7 /# *$ #
/$ $ * ! $ * =
" # 7 /# # & *$ # 7 /# E7 & 4"#8
C% False and unreliable friends
!! !& + 4"# / # ! * /#"# $*#$
"! $$ ++ +! # *$ # "* ! $$ ! $ + # / # 4"# ! ! *$ #8
" )4"# actuel G " > actuellement G
1
)4"# avis G 1
)4"# chance G L M 1
" "M1
)4"# commander G L
)4"# corps G 1
)4"# crier G 1
)4"# demander G 1
)4"# eÂducation G 1
)4"# engage G 1
)4"# essence G 1
)4"# eÂventuel G " 1
)4"# eÂvident G 1
# )4"# expeÂrience Q # # 1
)4"# faute G 1
)4"# gentil G " 1
)4"# ignorer G 1
)4"# important G " # 1
)4"# inteÂressant G " " 1
)4"# large G 1
1
)4"# librairie G )4"# occasion G " 1
C #D )4"# passer un examen G " #1
)4"# politique G 1
)4"# professeur G 1
)4"# sauvage G 1
)4"# sensible G 1
)4"# sympathique G " 1
?(
A A sample of written French with a word-for-word
translation
Le printemps eÂtait venu. Un
#
* /
dimanche, apreÁs avoir
"! I sa boutique aÁ grande eau,
#
#
&*
Lecouvreur, sentant les chaleurs
/ " +$* # # proches, deÂcide de sortir
la
" #
tables rondes et
huit
#
trottoir,
&*
rouges: HOTEL- VINS-
: quatre
! " +Z 8 +
qu'on
aligne
ouÁ
on
lit
en lettres
/* /# $
LIQUEURS.
I323:
Lecouvreur aime musarder dans le quartier,
" $ 3 $$ au
sur
+ * # $ 3 sous un grand store
! 8
terrasse
chaises de jardin,
&$ *# "# le
nettoyeÂ
+ 3# "$ coin
des
la
cigarette
# *#&# # "* leÁvres . . . Toujours la meÃme
3# " +3# $
$/ #
promenade, tranquille, apaisante. Il
!
longe
/ $
;
" $!* / $ 3 $*3#3 3+
l'hoÃpital
Saint-Louis, puis il regagne le
quai
# # $ 3 # # * # !& !
de Jemmapes. Des
+ !!
canal, au
" $
fait
peÃcheurs sont installeÂs sur le
bord du
! 0 #! $$ # & +3#
bon endroit. [. . .] Lecouvreur s'arreÃte.
Il
3# * $ " L M " #! $+ beau . . .
! 0 Partout
les marronniers
¯eurissent,
/# # # 3"# 3 &$ !
de
grands arbres qui semblent planteÂs laÁ
L0 !& +M &*
pour saluer
les peÂniches. Des
+ 3* # & * # !
$ #
bateliers
L0 !& +M & !
?-
A se
deÂmeÁnent . . .
Un peu plus
haut,
L#! $ M / /# + " * $$ ! #*#
des
montagnes de sable ou de pierre,
des
tas
L0 !& +M ! +
+ de charbon, des
L0 !& +M $ + " $
L0 !& +M
sacs de ciment, encombrent le quai.
& * + "! "!& # !& !
Des
voitures traversent le
L0 !& +M " &*M
"
pont
tournant.
# &* * LG # /*
)4! 1 R / & *[ & # Z V$1
?'
Italian speakers
$ *
Distribution
P :B I4 $ ! $ I QB 2U
Introduction
$ 3 $ * * "$ " +! "$ $ $ # :* 4"# # /
+ * $ $" ! + /#"# ! $$ $$*&$
! + /#"# # $ + # /
$ " " + # * $ *
;" # # $ " /$$
$ " $$ # $ # ! " $ # $ * * /#"# $ +! +
" % & ! " # $" $ $" /# *
$" "$ $ #
# $" ! & # 0 $ * * + ! $ $ * * "! $ &F" #*# ! " "#$ # $$ # ++" # / *$ #
/$$ & $ $ # !
" $ *
*$ # #*# # / + # * + !"# *$ #
$7 7 # *$3 7 $! *$ # #/ " " +0"$
& " "$$; $ *$ # * + " ! &$ # ! +! $ " !" * $ $ + / & * !! " $ "" "%
# ! E" # " 5"" $ 6 # "!! !#3* "#* # $$ # #*# $$ + * !! " $
/ /#"# " & 7 $ +* $ * * $ *
?=
% Phonology
General
$#*# # ++" &/ *$ # $ #
& + $ # ! +0"$ +
$ $ $ # + ##! # # $ # ! &$! * ! * #!3
$ # $ $ *$ ! "# &/
$$* " $ # " $ + / !! " $ &"! ; * & # "3
" + *$ #
Vowels
i:
I
e
{ eI aI OI
A:
¡ O:
U
aU @U I@
u:
à z:
@
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ $ #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
<I< +;$ $ " <i:<8 + $
<{< +;$ $ " <e<: + $
<Ã< $ !! " <{<8 + $
! $ / +! *$ # # $ 3
" 8 I + I% 5""6 + . # ##* $ #*# # "!& +
/$ /#"# ! ! *$ # ##*
*# $ "* /$ + ##* "
! * ; $ /*# # / $!
$ # # * # 0 $!
, ! *$ # ##* ! & "" $ " B3
+ "!! &/ <@U< <O:< <¡<, $$ # /$ &*
$ # $ <o<% # $ +0"$ * #*
/ $
!$ "+ ! -
'
=
>
?>
% &/ <e< <eI<
&# &* $ #
$ <e<.
? # " + $ /$ ++" & / $ /$ $* +! *$ # 3
!* " &$!
"$ $ # "! # 3
" + ! $ "$$; $ "# /$ +
"
# / # # &* / "
"
" )* < fotogr{fer< + <f@t ¡gr@f@< + 1
/ +! + + !$ / "#
! & "* Consonants
p
b
f
v T
t
d
s
z
S
Z tS dZ k
g
m
n
ê
l
h
r
D
j
w
# #! # ; $ ; $ $ #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- $ <t< <d< <n< " /# # * * # #
# # # *!3*
' <T< <D< + " <t< <d<: + + " I3! # * # " $ 7" ++ # $ 6
/#"# " & ! &$! " # #
* $ = # &$! $ "*
"$ $ /# #
" &/ <s< <z< /#"# $ $ # * "# 5
6 + > # "*
+ $ $ #3 " /# *$ # ; "*
!! # +0"$ "" $ "* $
" " ) / $ 1
" &" + #
$ + "* *$ #
> # ; $ $ + # #! <Z< / $
& " /# <zj< #
E" + # $$*
?.
% . <ê< $ + <n<. *$ # ) 1 +
" <êg< & $ 8 <s¡êg< + <s¡ê<.
, # ; $ + <h< $ /$$ # + $ " 3"! 8 1 $
? $ 0 $ " $$ + $ +* $ / * " " 0 $ " *$ # ! & * +$$/* /$ $$ "#/ 8 % @ @ @ @
@ +! ! * ! " 0 $ " " 8 <aI
wend om on d@ b{z< + % $
A $ " " &$! 8 + 7 ! $ ! & "
" <u:d< <hu:d<
Consonant clusters
$#*# $ # ! + # ! &$ " "$ +
*$ # ) ! ! & 1 # $ * * $ " 3# # *$ # 2 /# ! # "$ )$ 1
"$ $ +0"$ 4 $ "$ + " &$!
" $$ # " * <T< <D< * #" .
Influence of spelling on pronunciation
! * $ $ "# $ &" + # "$ $ # &/ $$* " $ 7 " "#
$ & " )* <kni:< + 1 "$ $8
- # $ $/ " $ # " *$ # $ * ! / $ ' &$ " "
"# $ % # " ++"
$ 6 " + / "#
= # $
# " $ ""*
/# +$$/ 8 " <tS< &+ &
<k< &+
# /$ % " <dZ< &+ & <g< $ /#%
" <S< &+ &
<sk< $ /# " $
$* +! # 8
+ + + $ " <k< $ * "" $ $ +
> $ / +! *$ # # $ * * +
?,
% " <v<8 + " # $$
*$ # / /# . !! " $ $ $
/# "# $ $ " $ Rhythm and stress
$ $ + "$ ! # *$ # $ 5 # / 6 #
3! + *$ # " * +0"$ $ $ "$ $ ! + " "! # # "# "3
" + 3!* & " $ & # " + / +! " $ /$$ 7 " +$$ $ & * $$ $$ &$ ! + " +
!$ # "# * + ! * /# /
# " ; $ "$ * un poco ) <"umpoko<1% #
" an cora C" D ancora C D% capi tano C D capitano C D #
! + "# * &/
+
"# /#"#
$$$ *$ # * " "
/ +/ / + /# #
# /
$ * * ! " "# #! *$ # & &K 4 $$ #$ & # # / + $ accento
# ! & "+ /# $
Intonation
! $ ! & # * *$ # # * #!
* ++" ! $ # +0"$ "* * 8 ++" #
*$ # &/ , ; ) * 1 ; )+ $$* 1 " "$ &$! B $ $$ * $$ & * # "! + # " # # $! +" "! # /#"# "" /# #
! 8
Il treno arriva alle nove ) at nine1
Alle nove il treno arriva ) arrives $1
*$ # + " ++ ! # " & " & "# * # ! # /# " $
"# ** # + # $! $ $ # " & $ # &$! "* * # $ + * $$* ++" ! *% +! ! * ! * ** /# ! * ; * ; ??
% Orthography and punctuation
+! $* +! # $ # &/ $$* " /# $ 6 7 " + $ #"
$$* # &$! + "" " "! +! # $ $$* +
"* $ psichiatra psicologia " ** $$* "#
$
$ " # + $/ " ++ $*#$
+! *$ # ! $$ $ $$ # ! + # !#
F" + $ # ! +
$ * * Style
7 " &$! &" + ++ " #
+ $* " "
++ & /# " 5* $6 ! $* "! $7 " /# !
& # *$ # /$ ! $$ + $ & # * # ! / : " $ " "
! & & " ! & /#
& $
" " /$ & ! ! $ *$ #
Grammar
General
# ! +0"$ + $ $ * *$ # $ # + " # *$ # $ * 7 / # " " * !! " $ +" /# $ $#*# # 3
$ $* / +! # + * + / + *
$ #$ !"# ! ! #$*" $ E" # + "" " *$ # # $ $ " + ! #$*" $
* $ /$$ + " "! $ # *$ # # $
# $$ * !! " &$
Statements, questions and negatives; auxiliaries
# 7$ # ; $ $ " "" $
+0"$ * +! & * # +" $ $ 8
?@
% C' (
C' (
* +! & # + # * "$ non
C% $
C% ?$
# $ + * "$ /#"# /# non 7 " " " ** # + &$
* *$ #8
C% $
B+ "" /# # * + 0 8
C% $
Time, tense and aspect: forms
- $ # 0 # # # E" +! +
+ " $ ! $
! +" I# +! & # + 7$ ' # # *$ * # +;$
! & $ $ ) $ / $ + $ " # * &" $ " & $+ /* /$$1 # "$ $ +0"$ " $#*# $ ! "!!" C = $ #
+! !$ # *$ # +" )" "
/# # 7$ & " $ /#"# ! &
*$ *$ 1 * + & ! $ "!! 3
& + ! "# * + +! # /# )essere1 # * 8
C1 $ E7 $ +! # +" /# essere:
C% > 5B $6 + $ " ! #$*" $$ * $$ &
+! # # " " # +" 50 6
5 "6 5#6 " $
5" $ " 6
" " ! + $7 $ # &F" # 3"$ + /# / /$ " $$ " # "3
$ ! ; $ *$ #8
C% " $
C% % ?A
% Time, tense and aspect: use
- :* & 7 $ & # ! $! # *$ #8
C'
( )+ ' (1
' $ # +"
+" " # "
# 0! $ / ! # $! + /# "
! & " & +0"$ #
/ # +
# ! $ 5# "6
+# "! $" & #
+ " # # ++" * &/ # # $
&/ / $ # " ! *$ # + #/ # " / /# " # # $ ! * + $ + +0"$ + #! * + # +" + # ! $
+;8
C% = $ & #/ $* + ++ # & ** $ # ! $ )+ ! * + * % " " & $* /# $ 18
C% $
C% 5=JH$
C% % ?
> + " & # $ ; $ + "$ # & "$ /#
/$ & *$ #8
C' " % . $ # ; $ # + # + # * /# + ! *% & #
! $ +" /# + ! +" $ 8
C'
( )+ ' (1
C% To be, to have and to do
# ; $ + $ $ & "!! # " $
8
C% $
C1 ,(
7$ +$$3& +! + + "+ 8
C% # ; $ + ,
+ " *$ #
+$$3& 8
@(
% C% , $
C' $
C% ,
# $ ; $ + " /# 8
C% $
Auxiliaries and modals
" $ & & $! $ 8
C% + # 0 ! $ 7$ $ /#"# # $$ # ! #3
$*" $ "" + # & $ # *$ #
; $ #
" $ "# " " + *$ # ! $ #+
" &$! 8
C% $
C% $
C+ $
C (
% + $ + vorrei )G D8
C% $
# # + ! * # + &$ " &$* " 7 & # *$ # ! $ +0"$ + $ 5+$6 # + " " $ ++ +! + dovere # ! * #
# ++ ! $ 8
C- )+ - , $1
I# " /#"# ! " +0"$ # &/ % % " %
$
C- %$
C@ $
B! # &$! ! & " & # + " # # / +! + ! $ $ ! & " &
$ Non-finite forms
$#*# # 5*6 $ # +! # !
/ +;$
*$ # # 0 & &
$ + & + # * + F" +
J *8
@-
% C' $ $ $
C% * $
C% $
C% $
$ + $ $ # * +
8
C " $ $ $
C% $
! & &+ 0 /# # " *
/ $ 8
C% $
C% # 5&F" J 06 " " &$! " $ "$ 8
C % " (
# $ 0 + " per )G 18
C+ $ $ $ , $ $ $ , $ $ $
Clause structure: subjects and objects
$ "!!$ 7 # + 5$*6 /# # ; $ + 5
$ 6 )piacere) # ! # # $ &F" " #
*$ # &F" " /#"# " " ! 8
C- $
!$ &$! /# # & 8 # $ + % Tu mi manchi 9 $ $$ - # " " $ # *$ # & # /* / 8
C& $ + # &F" &$* ! $
"$$; $ "#8
C' " $
C% $
# + &F" " + # *$ # " &
! " + ! # $ "8
CC%D $
C% B $
&F" "!!8
C& % $ $ $
I&F" ! & !8
C- " % $
# ; $ + # " # / &F" $ 8
C9 # $
C@ (
C+ $
@'
% Reported speech
+0"$ * * # *$ # 53 6 #+ $
+
" & " $ " + * ! " $$ " $ " " $ "# "$ 8
C1 # )+ 1
2 * 3; " &
&$!8
C (
$ # / $ " # +" + 8
C1 $ $ $
Relatives
! # +0"$ * "* "$ /# K $ $ % $
! & 8
C % The passive voice
$ #
" !"# $ # *$ # ! # +0"$ +!* *$ #
"$ $ +" * +! C/ $
C. ! ! # & *# #
#
!"# " $ / 8
C D
& $
$ " ! " &F" # &F" +
& "$ $ B " !
"$ $ " $ 1 "! $ $ Reflexive verbs
E7 & ! "!! $ # *$ # #
; $ + +
7 ! $ $$ E7 $ @=
% C D
% K$44 $
$ E7 ++ +! +! $
8
C $
$ E7 " $ & " &F" " /# *$ # /$ 8
C% $
# " 7 # + 5 "# #6
C' $
# $ $ ! $ E7 " "% + $ 0
# "" *$ #
; $ $ "# 8
C% , , $
Articles
$#*# ! + "$ $ ! "!!" # $ + # * &$! + $ $ $ # &#
0 0 "$ /#"# E" + !& * &
# ++ +! *$ # # " &/ "0" *" " &$! " $ *" # 0 "$8
C $
C% $
$ # 0 "$ /# +* $6
+ 8
C% $
C' % $ $ $
0 "$ + + # ; $ + :
C% $
C- $
C% ? # $ ! "!! 7 +* $" 8
C+ , / "$ " & $ !& + " /# #
*$ # 9 + " /# +* "
"$ * ! $ 8
C% %$
C& C) " $
I# +0"$ "$8
@>
% , , , # , # C D " " " "
Quantifiers
$ $$ $ # +0! "$ 8
C+ & + /*$ /# "$8
C * $
# + " " &$! 8
C' $
+ $ $ $ , $ ! $ $ $ :
C1 $
/ " $$ & nessuno $ 8
C/ $
Possessive structures
" /# ! & # /* / 8
C ! & $8
C $ ! E" + !& * # #
# #3/ " &/ " 8 #
"#" + / $ # * )! "$ +!1
+ /# + # 8
C*
O & 0
C1 I $
I# "!! "$ # + + % ! $ " $ +;$ "3"" /#
"$ B+ + ! $ "" +3
;$
# # # ! +! $ 8
C 4! $ +0"$ @.
% Number and countability
# " &$<" &$ " $ "$ 3" $ # *$ # ! " &$ *$ # / # " &$ ;3
$ $ 7 ! $ 8 " " " "
" " ) #
# 1 $
C% 0
C% $
B $ # $ $ /# *$ # 8
C) $
# $ / + )gente1 *$ 8
C9 $
$ + !$ ! " & *
$ $ E"8
C + )+ +D
Pronouns
' ! & /# " # + 5 /#68
C' $
$ + # di )G 1 + # ; $ + " * 8
C C 1 "" $$ + E"* # * + #
; $ $ 8
C' " $
Adjectives and adverbs
F" $ $$ +$$/ # E" + !&
/#"# ! $ &* ! ! 8
C C
" $ ! ! ! /# 7 $ " "8
C' $
$ # "! $ E" 8
C+ ! 7 $ F" /# *$ # /$ &8
C C ;
@,
% $ & ! & +! &F" "! $!8
C% ?$
C% < $
Prepositions
# " ! * + ! $$ $ &#
$ * * *$ # + $ & " $
" & $ + "$8
C C C ?
C # $ / + $ "!!$ & 8
C' / B > " & $
# +0"$ /# 5 3 *6 ; $3
! $ /$ 0 # +$$/* "
# "8
' (
% $
+ Vocabulary
: $ * 7 " + $ $ / +
/ $ # # $ &$! + + $ + ! + # ! +;$ " + # 8
! ! " ! " ! ! C D
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! @?
% ! ! I# "!! + "+ $* +! ++ 3
$
* " * # / $ * * "$8
" " " " ) $$ $ & come1
" " " ) $$ $ & che1
" " ) $$ $ & troppo1
" " " ) $$ $ & molto1
" )&# $ & percheÁ1
"
" " )&# $ & morto1
" )&# $ & anche1
" 2 ! & &/ +! 4"#8
C + 5" 6 5/ 7 "6
C + 5&"#6
+07 + /*$ " " & $* /# # *$ # 4"# / 8
C
*$ # $ 3/ ! & 37 /# "# * ! *
# + gadget ! 5+&6 5 ! $ !6
A sample of written Italian with a word-for-word
translation
L'
altra notte ho
fatto un incubo
# # *# LM # ! LM /
appena scesa
/
dal
! /
treno, quando fui
& $ " +! # /# LM /
avvicinata
da due poliziotti
che mi chiesero i
"# & / $"! # !
con aria intimidatoria. Presa alla
sprovvista,
/# ! * 3# a cercarli
documenti
# "!
cominciai
LM &* prima nella borsa, poi nelle tasche ed
"# #! 0 # & *
in®ne nella valigia,
da
cui
# # "
estraevo ogni
0 $$ # " +! /#"# LM 7 " "#
@@
Mi
nella stazione di una cittadina a me sconosciuta
trovavo
LM + # +
Ero
tremendo.
*#! ! % indumento ed ogni oggetto, uno per uno, prima con calma
* !
"# &F" & 0 /# " $!
affanosamente anche percheÁ mi
poi
stavo
rendendo
# & #$ $
$ &" ! LM /
conto
che quella non era mia valigia.
"" LG $ *M # # /
allora a farmi
prendere dal
# ! ! & #
a destra e
*#
la
" $
+ "#
una via
stazione era circondata da un ®lo
# /
&
a poco
di scampo ma
/ + "
spinato ed
mi
apparve
piuÁ
!
e
una viaggiatrice
non piuÁ
come una
io non ero
+ "" /
qualsiasi
ma una deportata
$$ L+!M + /# &
quelli non erano poliziotti
ma soldati.
L+!M
Presa dall'
# / $"! & $ & #
angoscia e
7
e
a poco
!
stazione ma come un campo di concentramento. Ed
" !
&
/ & & $$
$$ LG $$ & $$M ! LM
&
Cominciai
! " LM &* panico, a guardare in giro
a sinistra per cercare
$+
*
il
dal
& #
cuore mi
panico mi
sveglai di soprassalto
" ! LM / + LG /#
batteva
# # ! /
vollero alcuni minuti
prima che mi
/ ! ! &+
conto
cosi forte
& * M
che ci
* # #
rendessi
! LM L &F"M
che
"" LG +/ ! $ $ M # era
LM /
tutto un sogno
$$
!
)& I$ 1
@A
Speakers of Spanish and Catalan
! B-
Distribution
8 : "$* # B % # /#$ + I
B 7" K$ # % B B%
BI% B% :I BI I B 3
:B% 2 # % ! & " #
""%
; $ % ! + # 8 BI I # B + Q $" $" 4 " ) : 1 / #
+/ $ /#
B $ 7"$ $% ! B $ $ # 4"# ) * /# # $1
Introduction
# B $ ! " $ * * "$ $ $ $ :* % # &$* # 3 + !$ Q # " &$ /# $+ $ &/ !3
$ # # !" / # ++"
$ *$ "0 " " &$ ! #$* 7 &* + $ /# 2# $$
7 " $$ ! $$ $$*&$
$! ** #" $ B $ " &$
+! # #*# # $ *$ /#
" " &$ # $ * * + ! $
$$*&$ #*# # # $ " *0" $
++ +! ! $ B $ Phonology
General
2#$ # # *$ # " ! #/ ! !$ 3
# /$ ! " ++ # -
$ +! !" * "# A(
$ & # # # + + @
" " * +0"$ + #3 * $ + *$ #
# "$ 0 *$ # " # # + ! # $ * * +
B $ /# & * + /$ ! !
!$ # + *$ # * $ # $ +0"$
! "!! + + # " " $ + # B $ + *$ # 8
9 +0"$ "* * * *$ # /$ 9 * "* + 0 $ " " 9 " ##! /# # " $ !" + *$ #
! * * +0"$ + *$ # $ 9 / * + "# ) 1 "* &
++"
Vowels
# # 0 /$ 0 ##* % B $ # *#
/$ *# 5+ $$*6 ##* # $ * * $*#
" + B ;$ $ 0 +0"$ ++3
* &/ *$ # /$ " $$ /# $*# +
# ++" " $$ $ / *$ # /$ # # 5 #"
"6 "" & #<B $ /$ 33 " 3
" "" $$ ! &$
- <i:< <I< " #<B $ << " "+ ' <A:< <{< <Ã< " #<B $ <a< / "#
"+ " #*# "
& #<B $ $$ #
E
<r< <kart< ) $ # " 5E" + $$* " 6
&$/1
= <O:< <¡< " #<B $ <o< "
"+ > <u:< <U< " #<B $ <u< $ "+ . *$ # <z:< <@< # !$ # /$ <@< ! $$ $ " & # * " + # / /$
<r<
<abaut< + " <z:< $ " & <i< <e< $ E
<birt< + % <bert< + " B $ # # # # $ /$ /#"#
$$ &$
" * # $ % *$ # <@< #+ "#
&$! + B $ , + ##* # + # !$ *$ # A-
+ + @
# )7" # # " $! # &
* # *$ #18 <aU< <eI< <aI< <OI< # ##*
+0"$ + #3 * $ *$ # <@U< #/
+ * # +! <O:< ) /$$
1 "+ + 7 ! $
B $ #
/ * + ##* # *$ #% #
#*# # 7 " $ "" B $ $ # $$
+0"$ "* "" &$ Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ # B $ " "$ /# +0"$
#*# # # ! "! $" # #!
" &$! - $ "$
$ )<p< <t< <k<1 *$ #
# + $ <b< <d< <g< *$ # ' 230 $ " $ # B $ % $ <t< + 0 $ <d< <k< + 0 $ <g< <p< + 0 $ <b<
I# " /30 $ " $ & *$
" 56 + % <beiT< + "
= # B $ # #
! # $ #!
*$ # <m< <n< <ê< & #
!$ # 3
* #" "7 ++ +! *$ # + 7 ! $
<aiêgoiê< "!! + % # <n< <ê< $ " <m< 0 $ +
7 ! $ + 4 $ <n< # $/ " ! & & & $ /$
< " ! $ <ê<
# B $ <k< +$$/ <ê< # +
/ " + &# "
> #<B $ * # !#3
* $ /#"# ""* "7 # ;
!$ *$ # $$ & &/ /$ # +
" 8 <b< ! $ <v< <d< $ <D< <g<
A'
+ + @
.
,
?
@
A
-(
--
7 "$ $ *$ # # " ! $ 6
" + / $ !/# +0"$ + # <z< 7 % $ <s< + <z< +
&# + &# " #
"# <S< " *
# " + <s< +
"+ &/ $ B $ # # # #
<z<9<s< " !$ # + *$ # # * $ &$! / B $ /30 $$ B $ /$$ + &#
<z< "
# ! + B $ $ # #
+ <b< <v< ) " " $" $$
&$ & $
+" " 1% #" "+ &/ $ I+ # *$ # #! <S< <tS< <Z< <dZ< #
$ # <tS< /# & " ;" + $ B+ "!! &/ / "#
% ! & " 5 6 5 6 5 6 # !" <Z< <dZ< "" / / /# * $$ ! <dZamar<
B $ # # # # + #! !$ #
*$ # #*# # " <Z< <dZ< 0 $$ " * &$! /# / $ #<B $ <r< E
! $$ " $$
% # " *$ # ) $ # "
5E" + $$* " 6 &$/1
# # *$ # <h< $ +" $ #
" # ! Bach )& / 1 # +
$ " *$ # <h< # !/# $ # # !" #
# + " *$ # <j< ) 1 # $
<dZ< $ * /# "* "+ &/ 2 "
# B $ ! " <w< # $ <b<
&/ /$ * <aribalker< + 2 $ + /$
<w< ! & " <gw< <g<8 <gwud< <gud< + Consonant clusters
B "$ * $ $ +; # B $ # *$ # # $ # +0"$ "* "*
*$ # "$ " $ ! $0" 8
A=
+ + @
+ # + + + #
+ + &# + &# + " "
+ % + ! $ " 0 $ " $$ +# "* *
5+ + $ 6 + # <s< $ # " +" " "" # &** + / # B $ ?"
" "
Influence of spelling on pronunciation
- $$* " "$ $ 9 ! $ 9 $ # &** $ " *$ # /
$ & $ B $ # $ # &/ " $$* &
"! $" *$ # # *$ # #* # ! $ +
&$! / /#
/ / B $ $ " $ &
$ ! 7 ! $ 8
" 8 " $
8 "
8 " $ )& 1
8 "
0 $
"
' 4$
<r< * $$ " /# / &+ " ) 1 + # $ # + / ) 1
4#! # B $ &$ $$ ) B $ $ /$$1 # # & " = <@< 7 # $$ &$ "
/# # / /$8
<titSer<
<interestet<
<fotografi<
<fotograf<
> # B $ &$ * $$ "
# $ # 33 5!$$6% !" " "$ <j< <Z< <dZ< * ! " # " *$ #
. # # $ " "$ $ +" #
A>
+ + @
!! $ " * / # ! $ *$ # Rhythm and stress
# $$ &$3! $ * * * $ $$ $$ &$ &
# ! $*# + ! " \#*# 7 $*# ! & + ! # 1% *$ # # #+ * ++"
!" &/ $$ &$ *$ # # # # $$ &$ " "# "# * &
" ! "$ /#$ $$ &$ " + " /# $ /$ <@< <I< " " /
\ &
F" & 1 *$ # # #+ $ $ !
"! /# # * !3
! " $ / \ "$
7$ & 1 #
##! + *$ # " * $ + " " "$ " ! * 2# # " *$ #
" /# ##! # "$ ! * *$ # $ 0 +0"$ &" # " $ " # " \4 7 ! $ ) 2 " ! &
!
$1
B $ #/
! ! ++" &/ $$ &$ "$*
$ /$ $ <@< B $ $ ! 3! \/# !$ !3 $
$ * &/ *$ # # # &/
$$ &$ $$ &$1 & # + $$ ! *$ # # /#$ B $ $ " $$
7! !
"$ $ *$ # " ##! # $$ ! * ! * +
++" & "!
# B $ $ 0 &$ " &$ \ $ # " 5 6 &$/1 # " $$ # "* " # ++" *$ # 7 $8
B $ &$! &$! + "* " * 8
C' sugar(
C& 2 " yes$
# $ / ! # $ # # " * /
A.
+ + @
Intonation
# B $ / "# * # *$ # ! # " 7 7 $*# # # 7 "# # ! ! # " & *$ # *$ # # "$ " + $$ $$ &$ # " * /# &* ! # " # ) $ * 7 B $ 1 # "$ + $$ #
$ $$ &$ # " )+ $! & #
+ / $$/ ! # 1 # $ " 7! 2 painted the walls )
/ # ; ' 2 (1 / # 0 * +0"$ "*
) "* *1 # John )
/
# ; ' (1
Orthography and punctuation
Spelling
# #
#*# 9 $$* " " & $ #
$$* + *$ # "! $% B $ # " "
!"# ! "! $" ! * # $$* + *$ # $ +
#" 4 &# * "!! " &$ $ *$
8
C # &$! + $$* 7 "& &" $ 3
* # *$ # #! " # " 7 $ # 9 $$* *$ # 7 4 7 ! $8
"+ /# "+ /# $ # # +0"$ * * & " *$ $ #
*$ # " / # / /$ $ " /$ $ / " 8
C Contractions
# B $ # " " & +!
$ 0 #!
&$! $ * *$ # # 0 +0"$ "* + 7 ! $ 8
% $
A,
+ + @
" #! % " "
* $ $ $" " "
+3
*8
% % "
& ;$ /# # # * # # " #! *8
) +( - " %
Punctuation
# B $ " " !$ *$ # # $ $ +/ &$! B!!
+ /# *$ #
/$ + !3"$ !3"$ /# *$ # /$ +
+$$ * ! " # # + ; 7"$ ! ! # &** + "8
CS' (
CT% 0
# B $ "!! * "#
& !! 9 # 8
O ¿CoÂmo te llamas? )2# 6 !H1
O Me llamo Sara. ) !6 1
!! # " " " "# ) # 7 " * ---1
# B $ &# "!! "! $ # 8
H$444 )# # 1
H"36 )# / 0% " $$ " +$$/* #
# C 1
Capital letters
# B $ " $ 0 $ + + # /
!# $ F" 8 C C C "
Grammar
General
!! " $ !$ &/ # B $ *$ # "$8
*$ $ $ +! + % 0 0 "$ %
A?
+ + @
*$ *$ & %
+ % +" * & +! % "$ + F" )!$ + +! + " * !$ + 8 &$/1
/ "! /# *$ # &# # B $ 8
9
9
9
9
9
9
# #*#$ E" & ! %
# + / %
#/ * !& F"
# ! $ 7$ %
#
!"# $ %
# &F" !
%
# $$ + 7 ) " "1 # B $ #/
$$ *" # &$! $ /# &$/ $$
$/ "!! &# # $$ + ! #$* &# # B $ #*#$ E" # & # *$ $ $
+! + F" I+ # $ # $ $ + # F"
"$ #
" &$ ++" # $ * + *$ #% " 5!&6 &$/ )" $$ * # +
$ * * /# " + & * #$ 0 # + # #
*$ + # *$ # ! $ " $" " $ + ! ! # 1
Word order
# !"# + # B $ # *$ #
- 5&F"9&6 5&9 &F"6 *$ $ " ! ; "$8
) !1
C) ) !1
)4 ; 7 "1
' # + / $$/ / # ! # & $ "
$ 8
C- $
C9 /$$ 8
- = 4;" & # $ &$ & #
" $ !3 + *$ #8
C. C+ A@
+ + @
> F" " $$ !+ # 8
C C@ (
# ! # $ @ N @
"$ $ +0"$ + # B $ $ &" +
#! # $! + # # /$ ! $$ & 7 # 8
C @ N @ * # #<B $ + " los
Rolling + < + un Christmas + @ # " # 0 / # *$ # # #
# . # B $ " &F" ! # )a1 # / &F" " * # 8
C + $
+
# *$ # /3&F" " + +0"$
+ $ # , & $ &F" "! $! *$ $ $ " &+
" &F"8
C $
C& + ?$
C! $
Questions
- # / + ; 7$ $ #!8
2 (
C1 2 (
& (
C' & (
C@ &(
C&" (
$$ &F" &F" ; " +0"$ &# "* "8
' . (
' . (
' ! ( ' ! (
)4 # + /# " &F" # " 5: 6
&$/1
' # +0"$ /# ,
, 8
C (
C (
AA
+ + @
C (
C (
) $ 5" "#6 &$/1
Question tags
# # / * *! !
! /# +! * no # "! $" )+ 1 + ; * *$ # * # # ! $ $ " *8
C " (
C- " (
B $ # " * $ ; * oi
B $ $$ *$ #
#
&
Negatives
- 7$ $ +!* * " # B $ % # * / * &+ # & # 8
C9 $
C9 $
# * "$ no &* ! $ " & ""*$8
C% $
# / # * * + # F"
& "8
$ B $ 1 $
' # &$ * 8
C% % $
C $
# ! +0"$ + $ " # # *$ #
" * +8
8
, "
3 8
"
* 8
, "
"$ 3 +! " * 8
C% ) $ 5B$ " "! $! 6 > &$/1
-((
+ + @
Verbs
- # B $ $$ & #/ # ! $ * + ) + " $1 "! +! ) * +"1 # # " * + ! $ 7$ *$ # $ 0 # "" # ! $" + # +!
# +0"$ * " $ ! "$8
C& $
C (
C& (
C+
)! * $ $ $ $ $ $1
C+ )! * $ $ $1
C # $
' ! " /# *$ # # / ++ / / /# / ++ " # B $ # & /# &# &$ 8
+ $
C+ )! * $1
$ $
& $ ' (
= # * $ &$! /# /3 #3 & ! " &" # ! * + # *$ # "! "&$
+! # ! * + # $ &" $ +$ !
"!+ &$ /#
! +! ) 5Q" &$ 6
- &$/1 ! " #*# #<B $ /
7 &# # ! * + # *$ # & $ $ #
! * +
# $ & * tirar/llencËar G gastar G > : "$ &$! + & $ " "$ # + " # ! *$ # # " * + J F"6 7 # B $ & J 68
C CQ D
C C "
#<B $ % 7 $ * "+ "# 8
CA Ellipsis
2# " & +! $ * * # 2#
*$ # " + "! $! # " &
-(-
+ + @
+! # "7 #<B $ + $$/ "! $
$$ 8
( - " $
( / " % $
% > % $
) ( / " % 6
Time, tense and aspect
+! # B $ ! ! $< * "8
Maria visita )G & 1 < Maria esta visitando )G & $1
# B $ $ # +"
"8
Maria ha visitado )G & $1
/ $#*# # +! " *$ # +! # " $ !$ " + ! *
- # ! $ + + " * $ " /8
C*
0 % 0
' # ! $ + + + !8
C % ( )+ $ $ $ + % (1
C% )+ % 1
C% )+ % 1
= # + * !
"* # )/# *$ # +"18
C1 (
C% % $
> B $ # # + ! + # +" " & /# !3/# & $ ! *
! $ /# +* " $ # !
8
C' (
C
% % $
# + !" # # # #
! $
" & ) ! # # + # # $ !1 /# # *$ # ; # +"8
Ya lo leõÂ G % $
. # B $ # ! # +! " * #
* *$ # + /#"# ! # ! C D # " "+ 8
C' " $
-('
+ + @
* $ # +! ! +; # *$ # "" $$ + #
+ & )# ; $ +
" "18
C' % " % $
C+ $
, # ! + #
7 &F"8
C@ 0
? # B $ # & "$ + ! "
+* + ! # # &F" $ $" # ! $8
C' & " @ # B $ # +; & )soler1 /#"# $$/
$$ +! + 5 6 7 +;"
! *8
C% # $
Passives
- # B $ # +! " " # !
/ # *$ #
8 /# J
" $6% & # " /# *$ # #
/# * # # B $ +! ! " + # *$ #
E78
C $
' # B $ " +!
# $$$8
@$
9 $
# " )/# # " &F" # &"! # &F" +
&1 +0"$ + $ = # #<B $ * " * # "$ " ! * "$ /# " ;
"+ *$ #8
C $
C% 9 $
Infinitives
- # B $ + # 0
& " )" * # *$ # 3 +!18
C D
$
" ;" $ ! # +0"$ *
" /#"# # 3 +!
&F" -(=
+ + @
' # B $ # 0 ! )a1 & 3
& ; +$$ /# *$ # 8
C% ?$
C* $
) $ # " 5B$ " "! $! 6 5" "#6 &$/1
Articles
! + # ! ++" # + # "$ # B $ "! /# *$ #8
- # 0 "$ * /# !
$ $ " # /# * $ ! *8
C $
C ( )! * 1
' # B $ # 0 "$ /# 3
8
C " $
= # B $ ! " &/ # 0
"$ # !& :
C' I> > ! 7 /# # " &/ ! " $ *$ " "$8
C (
C1 $
. # 0 "$ #
$ $ +! )" * *#$ D # " " &* ! ! 8
C% ) $
Gender
# B $ # * !! " $ *8 $$ /$$
$ "$ F"
! "$ +! +" ! /# # " * 8
$ @ " $
Number
- # B $ # +! + # $ $ !$ *$ #
) *1 & # * /# "$
F" /$$ 8
I -(>
+ + @
' # $ / # " $ $ +! #<
B $ /# *$ # #
!
** + 7 ! $8
C C% $
= # 5 !!" $6 #* # $ $ +! *$ #
) " "1 $$ *$ # B $ 8
# *$ $ $ # B $ % $ $ &$ " *$ ! ! $ " " $
Adjectives
- F" " /# # +! :
C " % $
' B! $ 7 & * # ; $
+ 8
C% $
# $ / )maÂs/meÂs1 + &# 8
C @ Pronouns
- &F" $ $ *$ " #<
B $ &" # & * " !&8
< A $ % +$
C1 $
C' $
I3"" ! $ $
8
C #
$
' # B $ ! $ # # ! +!
+ &F" &F" 8
% $ $
= $#*# #<B $ # ; $ ! $ !! # & $$ " 0 8
1 ,1 (
> # ; $ + # " U 6
+ $+8
' ( ) %$ )+ % $1
-(.
+ + @
. E7 !! " ! " E7
&* #<B $ /# *$ # # " $ * 8
+
/# # & &# #<B $ *$ # E7 # ! # &$! # # E7 # # ! # $ 8
C% , #<B $ ! $$ 7 " " 3
* Possessives
- # B $ # 0 "$ " $8
C& + ! "+ # ++" # "# *
E78
C ' # B $ # # ! / + )+! $1 " /# " ; "+ *$ #8
C+ 2 $
= B $ # 0 "$ /# 8
C 9 $
Possession
: $ "" # *$ # 7 &
" + )* 2 " & 1 7 # B $ /# 3 # 8
< # &$! * #* &/ " &" una botella de vino / una ampolla de vi " 7 &# ! * # /# / 7 9/#$ $ #
$ /$$ & 7 8
C -(,
+ + @
Relative pronouns and clauses
- # * # &/ $ 3 $
$ 8
C ' # $ " & $ # B $ $ # +0"$ * *$ # "$ /# K
$ 8
; $
(
)7 ! $ $ # $ /#"# $ "$ 0 # /#
/# &F" # & $ "$ $ +0"$
+ 1
Clause structure and complementation
- : "$ 7 /#
)para/per a1 #
08
C C D $
'$ # B $ + 7 ! $ ' * $ + /# " $$ ** #
* # 0 &$! /# "# "
8
' + " #<B $ " 7 # + " & #
" + + *$ # 8
C' C D $
=$ $#*# # B $ # / 30 +! )$ 0 +!1 # & ++8
C $
C% > #<B $ ! & 7 # 5 ++"6 !!3
$ +$$/* # & /# *$ # # ; ++ "8
C+ # C D C 2 Indirect speech
"# + " "# #<B $ " # +
*$ #8 & +!
" "# * #
++" &/ # * # * $ - / # " + "!! ; " ++ #<B $ "# # /#
&F" ) -(?
+ + @
#+ 0 &1 # "$ $ !$ " *$ #8
C% C C D , 7 "! $" /# # "$ * /#"# *$ # /$ + " & 7 & " 8
C% , C ' *$ " ; " &$! + ! " $ 2# # # 0 $$ "! * /#
*$ # ; / # " ; $ * # 8
C% & C % Prepositions
- # #
5 $ 6 )a1 "
/# # " &F" #! 8
C $
' # B $ ! $/ * /# # # " * # + "$ 8
CA (
0 +0"$ * " $8
% $
'
A # (
= # B $ " & +$$/ & 08
C) " $
> 2#$ ! " # 5" $6 ! * +
$ * * " # # # $/ ! 7" # ! $ " " +
"$ +0"$ 8
9 , , 8
C & 2 C $
9 ,,8
C C' $
9 , 8
C+ $
C $
9 ,8
-(@
+ + @
C @ B WV$
, 8
C $
# ! # &$! 9
Vocabulary
- # B $ $ ! + % # " &$ #+ " # 3 + *$ #8 estructura G
derivar G difõÂcil G confusioÂ(n) G 2#$ # + " ++ # $ "" $ *
" &$ $ ! # $ * * +! $8 #
# # + # + " "$ $ # +0"$ /# # +! !$ $ ! * + /3 #3 & "#
' # B $ + &# # !!& + ! $9+! $
) + !$ * 1 & * # $ $ + # ! $ +!8
rey/rei G reina G ; reyes/reis G hijo/®ll G hija/®lla G hijos/®lls G $ + + + + "
= ! $ &$! + $ 8
9 # + $ $ " C 9 # B $ $ *$ $ C 2
9 " + !& ) # " 5:" 6 &1
9 # !& ( /#"# + cero/zero $$ $$ "3
7 % #" &$! /# # 56 + $3
# !& > # " + $$ $ * * # ! ! + " &$ /#"# # ! * $ # + 33! 4 $ #
* +0"$ " $$ /# ! # !# * 7 / # * $ * * # &$! /#
cero # F & ! I# "!! 7 ! $ 8
casa G % coÂmo/com G % conocer/coneÁixer G
% decir/dir G % dejar/deixar G % esperar
G % hacer/fer G
% historia/histoÁria G % mucho(s)/molt(s) G % nervioso/nervioÂs G
# % romper/trencar G % llevar/portar G
% perder/perdre G % pista G C D
% porque, perqueÁ G % receta/
recepta G % tiempo/temps G %
uÂltimo/uÂltim G -(A
+ + @
. ! "!! 5+ $ + 68
#<B $ ? actual
asistir/assistir
bene®cio/bene®ci
caravana
conductor-a
carrera
discutir
(estar) constipado/constipat
embarazada/embarassada
eÂxito/eÁxit
en frente/davant ( enfront)
extranjero/estranger
eventual
(persona) formal
lectura
librerõÂa/llibreria
pariente/parent
pas(s)ar (un examen)
pretender/pretendre
(clas(s)e) particular
profesor-a/professor-a
propaganda
probar/provar
propio/propi
remarcar
reunioÂn/reunioÂ
sensible
simpaÂtico/simpaÁtic
suburbio/suburbi
--(
" C D C D
C D
C #D
C D
" + + @
A sample of written Spanish with a word-for-word
translation
Sentado en el
suelo se
calzaba
# E #! $+ # /
#* LG * M
las aÂsperas botas de racionamiento
de suela clavateada
# *# & + * L G ! & M + $
y
puntera de metal: ellos se
"
las
+ ! $8 # L+M #! $ #! LG # & M
con envidia
miraban
# / $* L M /# ¿Un regalito
de
GalaÂn? dijo
la viuda
Sarnita, y
$$ + LG +!M # // $ H #
levantoÂ
Java se
y
le hizo
#! $+ # LG * M LM #! # ! Ven,
dijo,
B! #
luz
y
que se
®ltraba
$*# # $+ /
para ver
el
#$$
* #
la
*# #
arpillera
"*
escenario de tables, desierto, la diminuta
+ & # apuntador, forrada con
+ # ! $
candilejas de cinc abollado,
+$*# + K" !& oscura sala con
y
una tela
/#
roja, las
"$# #
maÂs allaÂ,
la
! # LG &M #
en formacioÂn
los bancos de missa
# $$ /# # &"# + !
sin
una senÄa bastaba
a traveÂs de la
0$* #*#
+ # *
concha del
seguioÂ:
Sarnita le
#! # +$$/8 /
LG / M +! pasillo central
/# $ " $
)4! + ;
VW & Z1
---
+ + @
A sample of written Catalan with a word-for-word
translation
Tenia
/
prop de divuit
anys
quan vaig
# * $! *# /# * L
coneÁixer
en RauÈl, a l'estacioÂ
/ LG /# !M # $
Manresa. El
meu pare
7$ M
de
# + LG M
havia mort, inesperadament i
# ! + # # 7 "$
jove,
*
un parell
d'anys
abans, i
" $ + &+
conservo un record
amb la
mare
millorat,
$$ ! ®ns i tot empitjoraven
potser
#
$ contrari
$$ # " a mesura que
no existõÂ
No existia,
/
tot el
# / / * gran
! * &* LG /
feia
! $+ /
Les meves relacions
$$ # !
no havien pas
/# # !# # em
d'aquells temps
+ # !
de punyent soledat.
!! + "
encara
$$
# LG M
*/* M
mai
entre
nosaltres
7 * 7 &/ d'interessos, d'afeccions
"!! + + ++" una comunitat
Cal
"
en qui
creure
que cercava . . .
&$ # /
centrar
la
* una persona
meva vida afectiva
/#! " # !
$+ ++"
)4! N &
--'
$ :$1
Portuguese speakers
# #
Distribution
U :I I
IU D 3
B: Q I :B: ! ] !
" Introduction
:* ! " $ * * "$ $ $ # " + :* )#"+# :1 # $$ &$
* "# #% # $ # !$ +
# + " # +! +" "$ #
* $" :* $ # + # " "$ +! #
B!& 3 & * :* $ # $ * * +
7! $ A?^ + K$ K K$ #/ +/
! F $" "! /# ! "3
# * + K$ :* )#"+# :1 # + # " &/ K$ :* !"# * # # &/ # !" $ + *$ # # " + # /
++% # ! *" + " &$ )+ 7 ! $ : # ! / + &" * # : /#"# #
&/ " *$ $ * !& + / +! $ * *
!" *$ #1% # ! * !! " $ ++" # + " # / ! $$ "! 3
# &$
Phonology
General
# *$ # :* /$ ! ; ++ 2#$
*$ # # /$ /$ : # ): *# $ "#/
<@<1 $$ + /#"# " & $ --=
9 !* # + + :* /#"# * "" *$ # 8
:* 9 4; $ /$ 9 # + /$ &/ " ) " $$ :1
9 4 : " $$ $$ &$3! # # 3!
$ /# 3! # " " + ! $3
$ &$ Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A:
¡ O: U
aU @U I@
u:
à z: @
e@ U @
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ :* #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +03
"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #!
! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- <i:< & " # "+ /# <I<8 + % + "
' <e< "+ /# <{<8 = <A:< # "+ /# <{<8 % > <¡< "+ /# <O:<8 + + % /# <Ã<8 + . <U< "+ /# <u:<8 + , <Ã< ! & "
<{<8 + &" +
#* #" +"
<u:<8 + ? /$ + * # +$$ $ " $$ & :
8 ) + % + I # # # /$ # + / ! &"! /# $! &$8 + % + % + -->
9 Diphthongs
# +/ ##* :* # *$ # # * &$! /# <I@< <e@< /#"# & "+ 8 Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m
n
ê
l
r
h
D
j
w
# #! # ; $ ; $ :* #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +03
"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #!
! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- # 5 6 <l< 0 $ &+
" +
"
/$ !$ <U<8 + + ' <p< <k< <t< $$ :* ! &
"+ /# <b< <g< <d<8 % ! % = $ ! $ <t< <d< &# " ; +"+$$
! & "+ 8 % /#
++" +$$/ & <i:< <I< <e< # + "
$! $ <tS< <dZ<8 + % 2 + > # $ "+ &/ <t< ) # E 1 <r< ) #
$$18 % . Q/$ &+ 0 $ <m< <n< <ê< $ + # /# # 0 $ " &$
, $ <r< " $$ ):1 +" % : $ ! !$ * $ 8 % ? 4 $ <z< "" :* ! & $ " & <s<
) + 1 )/# : 1 & <S< ) + 1
@ <T< <D< $ # <s< <z< <t< <d< $ *
"+ "#
+ + --.
9 A <tS< <dZ< " <S< <Z< $ * "+ &/ + " -( $ <h< # ; $ :* # ! ) + + 1 " $ &" + 3
"! 8 1 + % -- 4/ " " "" 0 $$ :* /$ + 8 + % + B$ &/
/ ! & ! $08 + Consonant clusters
# * + " "$ !"# / *$ # # :* + " * # + 7 /$ & :* 5 6 " + *$ # ) + 1 :
0
"$ $ +0"$ $ "$ /# ) 1 /#$ : ! $+ 0 $ "$ Influence of spelling on pronunciation
$$* " "$ $ $ :* /$$ & ! $$ $$ + "! " "!! " # $ )&+ 1 <Z< / $ & $* /# :* gelo caju "
Rhythm and stress
: # $ 3! $ * * + : 0 &$
" " ""$ *$ # & #
" + $$ &$ ! & 7" $ " : $$ &$3! $ # # $ +0"$ + # +$$/*
+ : 8
"
9 " $* "/ ""! * #% 9 7$ &
"$ "F"
3
" ** * ! # 8
C% them C were #
C% his & his & * / 9 :"* / $$ &$ --,
9 Intonation
"$ " * ! $/ + $$ + ! * # $ / &$ $$ *$ # ; * & " /#
* " + ! *
Juncture
# " /# # &$ " "
&# /$ + 7 ! $ Orthography and punctuation
:* # " &$ +0"$ /# *$ # $$*
$$ $$ # " *$ # )$ $$1 /# # :* $$* +! # +$$/*
+ " $8
- $$ / * " )7" 1 &
* 0 $ /$ # /$ + "$ /# /*
*$ #
C+ ' 2# # #! <I< <i:< ""8
C% + ?
C + C% = 2# # ##* <aI<8
C + C + C+ > 2# # #! <S<8
C + C + . 2# / !$ &# $ * * &* /$$ # :* $$*% # + $ / &* /
/#
*$ +
&$ " )* 1
, F" + $ # " $ $ :* 8
C --?
9 Grammar
General
# :* * !! " $ ! # !"# "!! /# *$ #
! # / $ * * # !$ 5 +
"#6% :* $ $ # 0 0 "$ *$ *$ &
7$ ! $
&
" +!
+ # +" & +!
$#*# # +" #
!
$!
$" :* +! $ : # +" * :* E" !"# # ! / 4"# $ # /#"# ! # # / " &
!/# + # *$ #
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries
- :* ; +! ! & &
# + 7$ )# ; $ + 7$ 1 )
, ; 1 & "# * + / 8
- 2 ( 1 (
' I* $ +
" ! " ; 8
C9 $
C+
# $
= # * +! :* ! & $ "* # / naÄo
&+ # ! 7$ & + 8
C1 $
> # &$ * :* 8
C1
$
C% $
. # / ; :* +! & * #
& + # ; 8
( - " % $ * $
, # $ ; * :* !$ naÄo e (verdade)?
)$ $$ % (1 # ; $ ( 3
"! $ *$ #
C " (
There is
: # & haver ter )# +! $ "$$; $ ; $ + 1 7 , " : $ haver
$/ # *$ --@
9 C , + #
C1 $
C1 < C?# $
Time, tense and aspect
:* #
! $
+" +" +! - *$ # :* # +" + " "
$* # C D
% ' /# # ; $ + " & "!!8
C% # = 2# # ; $ + " & # ! $
8
C C D * ( )+ 1 C D * (1
> 7 # + # ! $ /# haÂ
)G 18
C% % . # " + & $ +* 0 # 0 #
!3 # $ " "#" :* 8
C% < $
C% , # +" * :* #
! $ * ! ; $
8
C% $
C% ? C+ & 5=J5
- : # / "!!$3 +! 8 *#$ ;3
$ # *$ # ! $ )* Ele percebe 9 1 1 # # ; $ # *$ # * )* Ele esta trabalhando 9 1 1 :&$! #/
/# & )! $ & 1 /#"# # $ " "
:* & *$ #
C+ --A
9 ' : +! * +! /# estar a J 0
)$ $$ 5 & !#*61
C' ( % $
" # " /# &# " & :
! "+ ! $ * +! *$ #
= :* " $ # ; $ + * 7$ $ * ! ' ( 1 $
)+ 1 $1
! + & +! + "F" + !8
C% $
# + :* ! + # *$ # 7 * $ ' 9 (
C1 ( )+ 1 (1
Modal verbs
2# *$ # $ & $$ :* $ #
! &8
C1 )+ 1 1
# *$ # +
" $ +! )/# 1 + # 0 +
! $ # :* ; $8
C1 $
# "! $7 " &/ +0"$ + :* +
# $ Conditionals
" + $ ! ! :* * !! " $$ # $ * * ! $$$ & +! # /
# $ + " $ " C% % " % $
C% % * " % & $
C% $
-'(
9 Relatives
:* # / que " * $ C% $
C% # +0"$ * * *$ # "$ /#
K $ )$ 1
The passive voice
* $ #
+" !$ / :* *$ # $! # # $ &$! " "*
# +! ""$ "! $7 " ! " +0"$8
C- )+ $ $ $ 1
C )+ $ $ $ 1
:* !! E7 & /# *$ # 8
C? :* # " &F" + " & " *$ #
+"
# &F" +
& #+ # +0"$ /# " $ % B + # :* ; $ 8
1 )+ 1 , $1
Non-finite forms
- # ; $ :* + # & $ + #
+! )*1 # 0 8
C (
C% C+ $
' :* 0 + " &
"# de
a " /#
:* 0 # ! &+ # *$ # ; $
C% $
C+ $
= # *$ # 5&F" J 06 " # :* ; $8
C+ )+ + 1
-'-
9 Word order
- :* / * $$ + # *$ # "!! ! 3 &F" " $! # + + #
"8
C D
@ % 0
' # & +$$/ # ; / " "# :3
* 8
C% C% = & & $ # " & +! &F"8
C% $
C1 ? $
C% + > "$ / 7"$ ! /# como ) G 18
C1 0
. : $ ! & $ " &+ + &/ $!
+ # & * !/# # + :* 8
C1 # ):1
C1 # ):1
C% )+ % 1
, : " 3"$+ " " & Quem (= ' 1
C' 2 ? F" +$$/ :* 8
C% @ # ++" # / " $ ! 3
* 8 ! & % " & A :# $ & "" :* % # / /#
&F" " &$! 8
$ @ (
-( : " & "# +! # &F" :* # ! $ $ 3+! $ $ ; " 8
' (
$ " $ # +$$/* $ +
+0"$8
% % $
1 $
-''
9 Articles and countability
- :* # 0 "$ /# # +$$/*8
9 * $ 8
C $
C $
9 8
C 9 & $
9 ! + ! $ 8
C1 " $
9 # ; $ + # 8
C% # + $
C% $
9 # ! + C% .# + $
9 / + 5 6 * $ /# *$ #
+
"$8
C , , ' ! " $ ! E"* :* 7 /#
"$ 8
C1 &$
C C C C- )! * - 1
= ! " &$ *$ # # " &$ ; $ :* 8
C% $
> + # ; $ + :* " # *$ +! +
" &$ + /
" &$
C' $
C% $
Determiners
- # ; $ + # 8
C $
C' ' :* # ; $ + " & /# *$ " &$ # ; $ + +
"! "#
8
-'=
9 C' )+ $ $ $ 1
C1 = "$
# !
"!!$ &+
" $$ :8
C+ $
C. $
C (
3
Adjectives and adverbs
& F" ! $$ +$$/ :* * /# $ $ 8
C # $
C' 0
C $
" & + F" + # ! * "$ +! #
"7
C $
Pronouns
- &F" +;$ % &F" ! $ & $+ + # " & +! # "7
C $
C% $
C8 $
C% ' # ! $ &F" 7 :* 8
C% " " C% = B $ 0" + e /# " $ # +
8
C > ! :* & " & +$$/ & &$3&F" " "3
/#$ # *$ # ; $ " 8
C?# C< . . # ; $ :* ! $$ 7 & a gente )$ $$ 1
C )+ . 1
, :* # *$ ! + -'>
9 /#"# * * /# # #* 2# " *$ # # " " &$! 8
C1 ? +! $ + $ $ :* # " teu(s), tua(s) $ " & # #3 +! seu(s),
sua(s). # " " "+ # *$ # ; $ 8
C+ )+ + 1
@ E7 /# ! :* & /# *$ # ; $ # #!8
C% % $
Prepositions and particles
# * !& + *$ # /#"# #3
+ ! " 0 + ! $" !!
:&$! "" /#
:* # ! # *$ # ; $
- Ate + &# ! ) G 1 " ) G 18
C1 ' Durante " ! 8
C% * = Para ! 8
C+ $
C1 ? # $
C $
C1 )+ $ $ $ 1
> Para $ /# 0 ! * 8
2 . Em ! )+ !1 $ 8
C+ @$
C% $
C1 C% )+ $ $ $ 1
C )+ $ $ $ 1
, # ; $ + # /# &
"# "
C 9
? I# "!! ! E"* :* $ *8
C )+ 1 , C C , C )+ 1 )+ 1
-'.
9 C C Vocabulary
" :* 3& $ * * : : 0
* " !" "0" !"# $ +0"$ # 3
* "$$; $ *$ #
Some common problems
- # ; $ + # $*#$ ++ ! "
$ # :* B ! & + !!
+! $ 8
) ( . % " $
!$ ! /# 8
C 2 $ 1 #
' # & ®car /$ :* " ! & " $ + "# * + +
* 8
C1 )+ 1 1
= :* # # ! / + 8
C1 $
> :* # # ! / + 8
C1 . # ! & ! # ; $
+ # :* 8
C C )+ 1
, # :* / obrigado ) G 1 " & 7 $ + $ 2# # / *$ # * # ! ) # # $! $$ &$ obrigado1 *
! + ! $
" !
? # ; $ + /# 0
1 $ $ $(% 1 @ B+ * &" # :* / + / ! / *$ #8
O O O O -',
9 O O O O O
O O O O False friends
! $$ $"8
)abusar G ; 1
CD
)actual(mente) G " " 1
)cigarro = 1
)cobra = 1
)constipacËaÄo = 1
)discutir G 1
)desgracËa = " 1
)desgaste G 1
1
)distraõÂdo G )educado G 1
# )esperar G $ 1
# )esperto G " 1
)facilidades G 1
" 1
)familiar G
)entender G 1
)livraria G 1
)licencËa G 1
)local G 1
)lanche G 1
)ordinaÂrio = 1
)parentes G 1
)presentemente G 1
)pretender G " 1
)primeiramente G 1
): privada G " 1
)puxe G 1
(rato = 1
)real G > > #1
)usar G 1
)vulgar G 1
-'?
9 Paralinguistic elements
:* & $/ "# # # *$ # &
#*# $! # * $$ &$ $ " + ! +
; +! ) $ ; ! # ! 1 + " # ) 1 ! # # *
! $$ "" 3! $ " " $*# !*
K$ # /# ! : $ "$ *# /#
# $ # " $ "#* ! /$ "" &$ # " " & ! A sample of written Portuguese with a word-for-word
translation
Ao acordar
disse
I / #
hoje
para a
e dia de pagar a
+ sujeito com a
prestacËaÄo de televisaÄo, vem
dinheiro da
homem ± repondeu a
DaÂ
um ar de vigarice,
aõÂ
o
!
eu naÄo
# cidade, estou a nenhum.
ao
*$8
Mas acontece que ontem
" #
&*# ! +! # "
# ! Escuta, minha ®lha:
# $! + $ "! # #
conta, na certa.
&F" /# # &$$
trouxe
mulher:
# /! L/+M8 !
± Explique isso
L $ *M 9 7 $ #
mulher. ± NaÄo gosto dessas coisas.
9 / # /! 9 $ + # #* gosto de cumprir rigorosamente as
+ /$* $ + +$0$ * $
#
minhas
obrigacËoÄes
! L $ $M &$* ). 1 / & 4 &1
Acknowledgement
# # /$ $ # # # /# #$ $$ * + #
+ # "# & $!/ B# # !
/# ** + # :* 7 ! $ -'@
Greek speakers
# B :
+#!3
Distribution
B BP:
Introduction
3 $ * * & "$ $ $ # $ * * # + !$ *$ # #$* 7
" &$ ++ *$ # #+ $ * * + Phonology
General
# *$ # #$*" $ ! & $ !$ # +0"$ "* < "*
""$ ! *$ # # *$ # /$ ! /#"# ! + ! " # # ! " &$! $ ++
!* # + + /#"# * 5 ""6 *$ # 8
9 *" "$ # *$ # /# $ 7 /$ $ $ 3
* $
*
9 " + " &/ / * +! $ "#
"! /# *$ #
9 " + $ !$ % # ! # *$ # + $/ /$* # +! $
9 " #*# $! ! +! "#
$$ # ! *$ # $ 9 ++ -'A
B
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ #$ #+ & " /# +0"$ 3 *
$ #/ # +0"$ "$ * # ""$ ##* & "$ / /$
" / $$ &$ # /$ ! " ! &$! - <I< $$ $ " & <i:< " * $ !$ ' <{< $$ $ " & <e< # <a< + 7 ! $
! & " <bad< + <b{d<
= <Ã< $$ $ " & # <a< + 7 ! $ ! & " <bat< $ ! & "+ > <z:< <@< $$ $ " & <e< + 7 ! $ ! &
" <berd< + <bz:d<
. * /$ <A:< <O:< <u:< $$ # $ " &
# ; $ <a< <o< <u< "$
, <¡< <@U< $ <O:< $$ $ " & # /$ <o< + 7 ! $ " <of< + <¡f< 3
" <hom< + <h@Um< # "+ &/
*$ # / /#"# * # & # /$
"#
, , " ,
,
" ,
" , " , ? <@< ##* "#
<e@< <I@< <U@< $$ $ " & #
<a< + 7 ! $ " <hIa<
+ <hI@<
-=(
B
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
+ # # #!
7! $ *#$ *$ #
% $#*# $ /$$ " #! $ "" "3
$ ! +0"$
# #!
/$$
! # #! " ! ! " &$! <s< + 7 ! $ ! &
- <S< + "
" ' <Z< + $ " & <z< B + 7 ! $ ! & "
= <s< &+ <m< &"! <z< + + 7 ! $ ! & "
> <b< $$ " & <m< <d< & <n< ! & " <eImbl< <aIndl<
<êg<4 " "
. <ê< $$ "
<sIêg< + <sIê<
, <h< 37 + $ " & # *# <7< )$ 1 4 " ! & "
<7Im<
? # letter " /# / $ * ! # *$ # /# "
" "! # + / ) " 1
@ <tS< <dZ< ! & " $ <S< <Z< "$ $ *
"+ + " &/ Influence of spelling on pronunciation
$$* #"8 # $! 33 " "
&/ * #" !&$ /# +/ !&* $
$ " $$ &* # " " $$
# $ # / + ** #! # $ 8
-=-
B
,kUld< + ,me< + ,water< + ,eleven< + ,eIgt< + ,sekretari< + Stress
# ! !$ + / " *$ # #/ # # $$ &$ "# / $ *$ # / /#"# ! $ # $$ &$ /# " $ $ " ! *$ # / * $$ #
$$ &$ / 8
"
"
,sÃbstI tju:S@n< + <"sÃbstI tju:S@n<
Rhythm
- #
$$ &$3! ##! "# $$ &$ #
7! $
# ! * $ + # !& + " *$ # #/ # $$ &$ " $
" * $ + # !& + $$ &$ # $ + # $$ &$3
! ##! *$ #
' * ! $ # +0"$ "* "$ *
" / " Q + #
" $ 5/ +! 6 "#
" " "
"* #! # $ # ! 0 +0"$ # "# / /# # " $ Intonation
++ *$ # ! + + " *$ # ) "# # + #*# + $$ /#
*$ # /$ $/ 1 ! ! & ! $ " $ "" # + $ ; ** "!! ++ ; * # + "#
&" - " % " /#
-='
B
Orthography and punctuation
Spelling
-
$ # &" !&$
++ +! # *$ #
$ &* "" # /*
' * ! $ " $ + "# $ * ! $8
C % )+ 1 )+ 1
= ! $ $ $ 8
C )+ 1 C )+ 1
Punctuation
:" " * $$ !$ # *$ # & # +/ " $ ++" /#"# ! " &$! # ! ++" # !"$ ; ! ; ! / ++$ /#"# " " &$! + &* 8
!"$8 ; ! 8 %
; ! 8 X Y
Grammar
General
# *$ # * !! " $ ! !$ ! / # # ! 5 + "#6 " *
#
+
" *$ $ $ +! 0 0 "$
*$ *$ &
" & +! + # +" & +! & # +" + " # ! / *$ #
# ; $ + # *$ # * +" * +! )#*# # ! * 7 & # +! " & 7 # / 1 # #/
*# ; $ + #
* +!
#*#$ E" $ * * 9 "$
F" # + " + 7 ! $ 2 " ;$
+ # *$ # /# # * !! " $ +" +
/ ! $ " & # " $ # +0"$ /# / *$ #
-==
B
# * !! " $ * 9 ! "$
+! 9 & # ! " $ # &/
* ! * F" $/ "+! # * + #
/#"# # + # $ " + ! " E" $ !
*$ # $ $ +$ # *$ # # 5 * !! 6
/ / # "#" " + & +!
#! /# &$! Questions and negatives
# 7$ # ; $ ! ; % , ; ++ +! +0! &
$8
- (
C' (
C1 (
* +! & * den )G 1 &+ # ! &
!* # 7$ 8
C $
C' (
C1 $
Time, tense and aspect
- #
+" +" )+! /# exv
# ; $ + J 01
/$$
! 3
+" # * +! #*# ! " # ! +" +" $ #
* *$ #
' # +" !"# % #
"!!$ 8
C1 $
% % $ (
C% $
= #/ $*
# & ** ! 8
C% % $
C1 $
> I* $ + # *$ # +" ! $ ! $8
C+ $
-=>
B
. "" # #
# + *
& #/ # /# *$ #
+
* &8
C1 $
, + # ! +" + 8
C1 " $
- # # *$ * + !8
C1 $
' # $ " + * " ! 8
' ( 1 I $
C*
0 0
C% % $
= # * # & + !8
C $
C+ $
I # # # !! " $ # ! $
8
C' $
C+ ?$
- *$ # + " " ; ++$ # ; $ + # +8
C% $
C $
' $ ! ! $ + +
8
C% $
= I # # # &$! " & # *$ # + #
& "$ +* # +8
C% $
Conditionals and `unreal' forms
- " $ " ! # # ! & $ " &# "$ # + &* 6 *$ #8
C% % $
C% $
-=.
B
' : " $ +0"$8
C% # $
= # +0"$ /# " + % 8
C& $ % , % $
The passive voice
- # + #
*#$ ; $ *$ # "!! ! ! +! #
" $ # 7$ 8
C $
C ' ! # +0"$ /# "! $7
! ! $8
C $
Modal verbs
# *$ # ! $ !3! $ " # 33 ; $ &$ # ++" /#"# $ ! ! "!! &$! 8
- * J 0 + ! $ 8
C% $
' : ! $ " " &$! + ! * # ! $
&
! ! $ /#
! &8
C% $
C' $
= # ++" &/ " ! ! Complementation
- *$ # +! + " 0 9 +
7 ! $ + 8
C $
' 0 + + +!
"! $! +
& F" 8
C% $ % $
C9 # $
C+ $
-=,
B
= $ + J 0 " /# *$ # # 0 /# 9 + 7 ! $ + # & " "
" " " " 8
C+ $
C% $
Infinitive of purpose
- *$ # * 0 + * $$ " &
# ! & 8
C1 $
' ! $ " # 0 + &
+! ) * $ + +! 18
C% B $
= 0 + ! & $ " & ! "$ 8
C% % $
> 0 + ! & " & 8
CB * ?$
The causative structure
# 7 $ " /# #
; $ +! /#"# *$ # $ "+ &
/# /# + /#!8
C+ $
Word order
2 + /#"# " $ ! +;
! - " ! &* /# # " # " &F" "! $!8
C & % + $
C' $
' & ! & $ +! &F"
&F" "! $!8
C% $
C ? $
C $
= & + $ " ! " & + ! " /# *$ #
/$ # 8
-=?
B
C $
> # ; $ + ! " 7 + !8
C% $
Articles
- # 0 "$ ! ""! /#"# * $ # $ ! ! /#
" &$ $ $ *$ #8
C # $
C $
C' $
C $
' 0 "$ /# ! 8
C+ A $
C 9 $
= # 0 "$ &+
&F" "! $3
!8
C+ $
C) # $
C1 9 $
Gender
! "$ +! :
""*$ * + / "# #*
8
C& $ @ (
C $ 1 $
Number
- ! " &$ *$ # # " &$ ; $ 8
C@ (
C% $
C% $
' *$ $ $ $ &$!8
C $
-=@
B
Adjectives and adverbs
- F" E" # "+! # !& )
/$$ # * " 1 + # /#"# # + # $ " + ! + &* 8
C $
' & + ! + !&$ F" +! 8
C) $
= Q + F" "# & 8
C+ $
Pronouns and determiners
- : $ + !8
C% $
C' " $
C' $
C% $
' I # # # &F" + &F" ! & "
& 8
C& $
C& # # $
C % $
+ 0 "! $! &F" ! & " $8
C $
" ! $ & $ "$ 8 # " &$/
= % ! & + " 0 &F" 8
C% # $
> I# ! $ "+ & $ 8
O O O O O O O O -=A
B
Reflexive pronouns
- # + "+ &/ &F" E7<
! # " 8
C% C2 $
' E7 !! + & $ /#"#
; !3
C $
Relative clauses
- $ $ "$ /#"# !+
# ! "$ +! $ "$ /#"# !+ # * $ +
! *
C $
' ! # +0"$ * "* $ "$ /# K $ $8
= $ &F" &F" ! & " 3
$
C 9 $
C % $
C 2 " % $
Conjunctions
$ " " ; 8
C%
$
Comparisons
- * + + +! + "! *$ #8
C& 2 $
C& 2 $
' # ! / ! " &# " "7 # $ " + "+ 8
C+ $
C%" " $
->(
B
Prepositions
- $ # " &$ +0"$ /# *$ # 3
# *# *$ # ; $ &
&$! " ) ! $ 1 /# *$ # 7 3
; # 5 !6 8
C+ $
C1 $
C $
' :&$! $ "" /#
# ! # *$ # ; $ * # "7 ! 7 ! $ 8
9 meÂxri G C' $
C # $
9 se G 8
C1 $
C+ $
9 se G + !8
C' + $
C% $
9 apo G 8
C+ + $
C1 $
= : ! & ""$ ! + " & #
E" + 8
C1 $
C1 # $
C $
> # " + &
* # E" + 8
C ? A )+ ? 1
C1 $
. # +0"$ /# 5 3 *6 "
/#
$ " # + "$ "!! ! # 8
C' (
C % $
, + $ " /# /# 8
C& $
C% 5==M$
->-
B
Phrasal verbs
- # $7" $ ! ; $ *$ # # $
& $ # +0"$ /# #! * #! +* 3/ & /#"# " *
# +! $ & # ! 8
1 + )+ 1 + 1
% )+ % 1
)+ 1
' )+ ' 1
' 2# /3 # $ & # &F" + $ " +
# "$ + &+
C% $
Vocabulary
- ! *$ # / $ +! )* 1 I# # & &/ )* 1 # + "$ $ * " " & # $ ! 5+ $ + 6 /#"# ! $ "+ 4 7 ! $ ! ! 8
! ! " ! ! ! ! ! ;
! ! " ! ! ' ! # +0"$ " /# / #
$ *$ # ; $ /# $ + *$ # /
# 7 " " 7 ! $ 8
, ,, , ,
, ,
, , , ->'
B
, , , , ,
,
?# , + , , , , = :#" $$ ! "+ ! 8
, , ,
$
&$ " +
A sample of written Greek with a transliteration and a
word-for-word translation
"
Htane toÂso dynato to xtyÂphma, poy den brhÂke
Itane
2
toso dinato to htipima,
# O
O
na
# + # # " * noÂhma
Wa eiÂxe mia opoiadhÂpote diamartyriÂa;
Ti
to kourajio
# &$/
diamartyrhWeiÂ. Ti
diamartirithi.
to koyraÂgio na
pou den vrike
noima
tha ihe mia opiadipote
2# ! * /$$ # aÂlloq
/# diamartiria?
H
th doyleia toy: eÂkobe syneÂxeia
allos,
ti
doulia
# # L"M # /
to kreÂaq.
to kreas
# 8 " # " $ # ! tou: ekove sinehia
Kai to maxaiÂri, ayto to katakaiÂnoyrio, to astraftero maxaiÂri,
Ke
to maheri, afto to
# +
eiÂxe giÂnei
ihe
katakenourjio,
# # $$ /
agnwristo.
jini
agnoristo.
maheri
+
Pagomeno lipos ihe
+ kolisi
stin
# " #
labhÂ, mikra kommaÂtia kreÂaq.
mikra komatia
kreas
# # $ ! $$ " L+M ! L*M
lepida tou ke stin
&$ # #
PagvmeÂno liÂpoq eiÂxe kollhÂsei sthn
# &"! "* &$ B$
lepiÂda toy kai sthn
to astraftero
lavi,
Den mporoyÂse na dei kalaÂ, to fvq
Den borouse
"$ #
na di kala, to
fos
ligostoÂ, h
ligosto,
/$$ # $*# L/ M $$
i
#
kardiaÂ
kardia
# ->=
B
toy
tou
anastatvmeÂnh. Pwq na to piaÂsei sta xeÂria toy to
anastatomeni.
# L/ M Pos na to pjiasi
sta herjia tou to
/ # # # #
ejaWlivmeÂno maxaiÂri, pwq na to karfwsei sto sthÂWoq
exathliomeno maheri, pos na to karfosi
! &$
+
#/ $3#
thq . . .
tis # & # sto stithos
)4! 9 & ! 1
An example of the written English of an elementary
Greek learner
!
# + / # $ /#
#* # + ! # ! ! # /#"# ! !
# $ # 6$$ * $$/ /# !
* !#N + ! * + #6 # $ # / !
/# #N 0 # *! /# ! + # & # # N
6! #
& ** $$/ 6$$ 6$$ * + ! $ " N I+ " 6!
$$ #
&" 6$$ !
+ ! + !$ + $* ! 6! #
# #
6$$ EN
2# $
4
->>
Russian speakers
"
$7 Distribution
4I ! K& F $ *
O K # O*K # $
F ! K& Introduction
&$* # $ " & "# + # 3 + !$ +
$ * * "$ $ $ $ % #
# $ " $ * * :$ # BK"# $ $ & B $* " # ! # ! F
+ # ->@ !$$ $ # $ * * ! @( !$$ $ # +! &$" + #
$ # # 0 $ * * /# # >(
!$$ $ # /$ " * " $ * * Phonology
General
# / ! F + /#"# * # # !
+! *$ # # & " + # #9$* /$ ++ # & " + ##* *$ # ##! $ # + ! ->.
< Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @ e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ # +! # + $ + "!& + " "$ /# +0"$ $#*# !
"+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- # <z:< /#"# + " $ + *$ # # * +0"$ # + & #
<z< <o< )# <z< !$ #
"$ + # *$ # ##* # *$ # /$ 1 : "$ $ &$ ! / &** /# "#
' <A:< & $ " & # ! + $ <a<
= <{< & $ " &
! "$ !&$* <e<
$ * "+ &/ "# > # " + ##*
# " # +
##* & 5 "6
. # <O:< + $ " & # ! + $ <o< ##* <oU< "+ + &/ / $
, * $ $* /$ " +0"$ 5 6 /#"#
! #! !$ # /$ A ! & "
$ + 7 ! $ $ ? # ++" $*# + $* /$ * # 0 $
" )"! 1 $ +0"$ ! @ ##*
" ! *$ #
/$
*$ * <¡< + " $! $ <w¡< <O:<
<e@< " # ! & # +0"$ <@U< <z:<
# /# ++ * # " &/ $* ) 1
# )$ 71 *$ # # &** + )$*1
& " $ 7 / /# * / # !$ + # "$ % #
& ##* # $*# $*#*
->,
< Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ " "$ /# +0"$ $#*# !
"+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
I+ # '> *$ # " # <T< <D< <ê< <w< /#"#
+ +0"$
- <T< <D< ! F +0"$ + $ " & <s<
<z< " $ ! 8 + % + % +
' <ê< $$ $ " & # <g< $ <n< +
7 ! $ !*# & " = # ++" &/ <w< <v< + "$ $ +$ $ *
"+ &/ + " > # <t< <d< <l< <n< + ! /# # * "#*
# # /#"# * #! +* . 4 $ " " "# <b< <d< <g< " " * $ " "# /
+
"
, # <p< <k< <t< /#"#
" $ ! " #! # &** + / *$ # + 7 ! $ ! # $ $
$ ? ! $ " <h< & *# )$ " #
1 ! +" " # " + "$ @ $ 5 +6 ) $ $ 1 ! *$ # "3
&+ + /$ "#
<i:< <I< <e< <eI< <I@< /
)/#
$ )/# # <t< &* !&$ <ts<1
)/# + ** # <d< &* !&$ <dz<1
+ # <j<
+ <k< $ $ 1 "
A 5 6 <l< ) 1 + $ " 5"$ 6 <l< ) I1
-( # <S< $/ # 5 6 ->?
< --
-'
-=
->
$ + *$ # ! <S< &+ /$ # +
/ # )5 61 # # "" *$ # /#"# $*#$ $ $ # <tS< $/ $*#$ + )5 $ $ 61 $ $ " # # )5 6 $ $ 1 *$ #
/# $ $ <tS<
# <dZ< $#*# # <d<
<Z< # <dZ< $ "" &/ /
+! *$ # * 2
" ! # $ * * $ $ + *$ # " # *$ #
/ /# +0" + + <dZ<
"! # " + # *$ # <j< "
/# $ ! +" # $ / $
!! " <r< &
/# 0 $ * *$ # $ + # !* # " Consonant clusters
- # "!& <T< J <s< <D< J <z< <s< J <D< ) #1 * $$ ! F "# $$* + ; * $ /# + & <ts< <z<
' 3 &$! "* <t< <d< <s< <z< +$$/ & <j<
" " (" " "
/# $ + *$ # * # #" #!
+ ""!! < !$ + F " = "!& + / $ " ) "#
<p< <b< <t< <d<
<k< <g<1 # 0 $ $$ 7 $ # " # " + "# /
" "
"
> # $ <@< # "!& <tl<
<dl< <tn< <dn< $ * " "#
<lIt@l< ,m¡d@n<
<bÃt@n< . # $ "$ <tw< <tr< <pr< <dr< <br< $ +0"$ $ *
&$! /# / $ $ + *$ # " # "! $ # "$ $ !! * $ /$ &/ #
/ + + * #! *# " &$
$ <tr< /# # $ *$ # "$ !$ # $ <dr< /# # $
*$ # "$ # $ <dZ< "
->@
< Rhythm and stress
&$
*$ # /
$ " $* *$ # / 8
"
<k@mpI tISn<
"
<Int@l@dZ@ bIlItI<
"
<k@mp@t@ bIlItI<
"
<Imp@t@b@ bIlItI<
" ##! &$! 4 " $ + 3
" # $/ 5 *6 +! + / $ + # + 5/ 6 +! Intonation
# $/ + $$ *# # $/ &*
$/ *# 5 #6 / & $ I# &$! 8
- 0 # # , ; /# + $$ /#"# " ! #! ! $8
(
' * ; ! $ " "+ 8
% " (
= $ ; + /# 8
(
Influence of spelling on pronunciation
+0"$ + + + # $ +! #
$ " + " " &/ /# / # / # " " $ ! 8
<knaIf<
<k¡mb<
<bri:k<
<raIzn<
<sIêgIêg<
<mInd<
<TraU< <TroUg< "
Writing and punctuation
Writing
$#*# # B$$" $ # & ! *$ # $ !$ +! $ 8 " " " " " " " " " #" " &" " 1
->A
< )" + #! " ++$1 ! 7 "
+0"$ /* " " " " " " " " " %" B" X" / /#"# ""
B$$"
Punctuation
" ! # $ + # & " $$
!$ *$ # # ! ++" # + "!! ! ++ $ $$ & "$ # $ & +"
# +$$/* " $ ! 8
C% " $
C% " $
"!!
$$ / $ # 8 66
Grammar
General
# * !! " $ ! + *$ # + ! $$
++ *$ # $" $ * * /#"# * !! " $
! * $ *$ 7 #*# # + $ / &
"# * / # # # #"
$ * * /#"# # ! F + * !! " $ +! " #*# "# * # " + / & ! + $ ! + 07
+07 E" $ * /#"# " "$ "F* !& * #+ # + $ "! $" ! + F" "$3
& "F* & # " # $ 07
/ # *$ # & ! 7 # ++ + ! * # $ # 8
+ #
& ! ! $ &$ # +
" # # " &/ " /#"# "! $ )! +"
"1 # /#"# "! $ ) +"
"1 # " " #*# +07 :+" * +! + &
3
*$ # 7 "$ * # 7$ & $ " $#*# # & bit' ) 1 +
" +!
7 ! $ - &$ + +! !
"$ & " + 7$ & * V dva chasa ya budu
1 Rabota bila
rabotat' doma )I'll be working -
" +! B$$"
# $ $ -.(
# +
$ )
bit'1 " # < zdelana v srok ) was done , 1 # ! #
& $ "$ pust ) !$ ! * # *$ # 1 &$ ! ! ! +! "$ $ & ""
+ 7$ * Pust on pridyot zavtra )Let come 1
5:# $6 & 7 # + + ! $! # *$ #
# * !! " $ *
# "$ 2# "# & " ++" &/ # * !! " $ ! + #
/ $ * * &$ # # /$$ & " ! F +0"$
+ $ * *$ #
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries
- # 7$ # ; $ " $ ! ! ; 8
C% $
C' (
C1 (
(6 C5- " % 6
' + "+ /#
" 8
C+
= * ; +! ! & /*$ 8
C ( )+ H1
> # * 7$ & $ " ; * # * +0"$ +!* # + ! ! /#
* #! # $ ! $ #! + $ +;$ # 8
C- "
(
C% " (
C " (
C- " (
. $ 0 # + # / $ ; +0"$8
@ ( CD - $ )+ - " $1
) ( C/ " $ )+ 5/ " % $1
$ CD/ 6 )+ % $1
% $ CD- $ )+ - " $,- "
(1
% $ C/ ( % # $ )+ ( %
# $1
, # +0"$ /# # + * ! 8
-.-
< C* $
C* $
Time, tense and aspect
# +" * I ! $
+!
+ " & +" * *$ # " $ ! 8
C% $
C1 $
C% $
- # +" * +! # $ ! $ # $ ! $8
C' (
C- $ 9 C1 , ( )+ (1
' "# + & #
;" + $8
C1 $
C% CD $
= # # *$ + ! # +07 3) 18
C1 )+ 1 1
- ! $ ! & + # +8
C% % ' # + +" + * 8
C+ C % = & "$ + ! # + /#
/$ & *$ #8
C' " % >
! /# ;" + 8
C+ C C1 C $
-.'
< !! ! * *$ # * $$ "" &" # & ! # $ /
" ) +" ! +"3
1 7 ! $ #*# +07 /# # *$ # & / +! # " /#"# " & "!& 7 3
* 5 ! $6 " +" " & " $$
# # " & " * /# *$ # # -, + "
+33#3 +! " # +0"$ $ 7 " * #! The passive voice
$ $$ 0 # & " +! + #
&$! " # "! $7 +! # " " " # ! +0"$8
C CD $
C $
+"
Conditionals
- & "$ + " # + /# # /$ & *$ #8
C% " % '
&$! &$ "! $7 " $ +! 8
C% C D % $
Modal verbs
- # ! + ! $ & ! $ # *$ #
+" ! #+ " ! "# # +$$/*
# " " "$ " 8
C% $
C- $
C- $
C% $
C+ $
' / ; /# " +0"$8
& % (6 C5/ " , 6 )! * 59 61
& %
( / " 6 )! * 5/ " $1
-.=
< To be
- # $ & $ # 8
C1 C $
' $$ 7 " +0"$ # + # " "8
C% (
C& " (
= 2# # " " # & $ ! $$
"+ /# # + !! &F"8
C " (
C% $
To have
- $ " 7 " +0"$ ! * #
" &/ # *$ # & ; $ #
`u menya est' " " )$ $$ 5 ! 61
' &* $$ ! !! ! # + ,
$
C1 $
Non-finite forms
- # ! "! $7 3 +! 0 ) * +"
1 " +0"$8
C% )+ % 1
C% )+ % 1
C+ $
C+ $
' # 50 + 6 +0"$ ! 8
C% $
C% $
Verbal complements
- 5I&F" J 06 " " &$! + $ C% $
-.>
< C% C $
' B " $ +0"$8
C% )+ % 1
C% )+ % 1
Word order
- " 7 & " * !! " $ $ #*# E"3
/ # " # ! + # *$ # "!! + " &* /#
& $ # + ! $ " # $ " " $
! 8
C- ' B$ 30 $ " &$! + $8
C) (
C' % (
Articles
# "$ # ! $ + *$ # ! # + # *$ # "$ ! $ # # * $ "+ # * + # & " ++" &/
, # K "$
- I + # $ &$! + $ $ * #/ # "$ * $8
C/ $
C1 (
' # # # &$! + "#" &/ # 0 0 "$ 8
C1 (
C% (
Quantifiers
2 + $* & ; ! $$ " " 3
&$ +0"$ # "!!$ ! "+ ; 0 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1 C 1 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1
! # 8
C% $
-..
< C% % ) # 8 % % 1
$ +0!3
" 8
C D
% )+ % 1
C D
% )+ % 1
C D
% )+ % 1
Gender
! ! ' ' ! "$ +! # $ $ /# $ 8
(6 C5+ 6
( C51 6
Number
- # " * + !& 7 / # " &$<
" &$ " " &$!
" ! *$ # 3
" &$ # " &$ ; $ 8
C1 C% C% C' (6 5 6
' " $ " $ /# , , 8
C% $
Noun compounds
"! + # 2 &$! &* $$ 3 # )* C 1 /# ! < # !
Numerals
# $ $ * + # E" + # $ * *8
C C -.,
< Adjectives and adverbs
- # * +0"$ + # +! + #
* + "! + # F" 8
C1 % C C% ' F" " $ & "+ /# & + " ,
, 8
C1 ? C+ Relative pronouns
- $$ "+ /# &" #
" & + &#8
C % $
' "+ /# 8
C% ! /
Interrogative pronouns
"" # + 8
C' , ?(
C' (
Indefinite pronouns
? +
" /# # $ $ !&
&" # " * $ $ 8
C? ,? Negative pronouns
/ , + + # ; 0 3
" $8
C/ , -.?
< Prepositions and adverb particles
- # ! + $ 8
C% C% # C% )+ 1
C1 C@ (
C' (
' # ; $ + *$ # & "$ % 3
7 :# $ & #+ " +0"$ " $$
/# # "$ +$$/ # &F"
% $
Vocabulary
False friends
# ; +/ / # !$ *$ # & # # ++ ! * # + ! * 7 ! $ 8
aktual'niy )G 1
simpatichniy )G 1
biskvit )G 1
manifestatsiya )G 1
salyut )G 1
perspektiva )G 1
perspektivniy )G 1
dekada )G 1
miting )G 1
kharakteristika )G C D 1
pretendovat6 )G 1
operativniy )G ;
1
moment )G 1
ekonomniy )G 1
! "! $ $ + 3*$ # + $ + & + # " & Q Q $ *$3 3*$ $ 6 5K## K :"# 6 )*$ #3 3*$ # " + 5 $ 6 4 $ 4 61 "/8
""$ :&$ #* -A,A
-.@
< Other confusions
!& + /$3 / # ++ $ + * +! #
"$ ; $ - < 8
C1 ( )! * 1 (1
/$ 0 +0"$ &* $$ ++ &/ 1 ( /# * $
$*! ; 1 ( # '( + (
1 (
' < 8
C1 C% = < 8
C1 C > 9 8
1 6 5 6 C59 $
8
B " 6 C59 $ ) + 1 1
. # 8
' (6 C5 " 6
C' " " % @ " , 4 $ 5" $ 0$$ 6 # ! ! ! $ /# + " # ! & 8
' (6 C5/ " % 6 )+ 5' " %
% 61
C )+ ?# " " H1
? # 7 & $ ! 8
@ A (6 C5- " 6 )+ 5- " % 61
Attitudes to language learning
$$ "#$ " "#$ $ +* $ * * #
! F + $ $ *$ # ) # *$ # &* # !
/# !" *$ # $/$ * * *1 $#*# 4"#
! # !& + # $ * * $ *#
B!!" !# /$ /# ! # $
$$ "K #+ &$ 7 " $ * *
$ # * $$ # " & $ * * $ & &" # $ !$"$ $ !$$* $ " -.A
< + / * "3"!" "# * # $$/ " *
" " " /# # *$ #3 * /$
Samples of written Russian with transliterations and
word-for-word idiomatic translations
Pyftnt kb
ds^ xnj dpzd
Znayete li
vi,
shto . . . vzyav
j,sryjdtyysq heccrbq
obiknovenniy
O/ L* M # * fkafdbn b
alfavit
hfcgjkj;bd ,erds jghtltk/yysv j,hfpjv^
i
raspolozhiv
bukvi opredelyonnim obrazom,
$ # & *
$ 0
/ vj;yj gjkexbnm yt njkmrj rfylblfncre.^ yj b
mozhno poluchit' ne tol'ko
" russkiy
"
kandidatskuyu, no i
$
" ljrnjhcre.
doktorskuyu
& "
lbccthnfwb.?
dissertatsiyu?
H
/ # & * # $ # & $ "*
# $ " / " & $ # &
" $ H
)4! * B ? !& -A@>1
Gjckt ltcznbvtczxyjuj
jncencndbz dthyekcz r ;tyt b
Posle desyatimesyachnovo* otsutstviya vernulsa k zhene i
+ !#
ltnzv
exfcnybr
detyam uchastnik
"#$
& "
"
/+
ghjikjujlyb[ cjhtdyjdfybq gj
proshlogodnikh sorevnovaniy
$ cgjhnbdyjve jhbtynbhjdfyb. A& Erkjyztd&
sportivnomu
orientirovaniyu
*
gjckt djpdhfotybz
po
"! F. Uklonyaev.
Chfpe ;t
Srazu zhe
4 $ "
cgjhncvty yfxfk ecbktyye.
posle vozvrashcheniya sportsmen nachal usilennuyu
+ gjlujnjdre r
podgotovku k
! &* *#
yjdsv dtctyybv cnfhnfv&
novim vesennim startam.
+ /
*
C # * / 3* & " 3
-,(
< 4 $ )G # *1 /# " $ 6
* "# ! # # # /+ "#$ +
3!# & " !! $ # # #$ * # +#"!* * )4! * B -' -A@.1
-,-
Polish speakers
K*K Z / ) #$*1 " _`&/ Distribution
:I% :$ # "!! # ! K$ B $ /#
Introduction
:$ # 3 $ * * !!& + # )2 1 $ "
& "# "# ! "$ $ $ BK"# $ ! $ $ $* " &3B $
" # "# * + $" $ ! -A@A /# :$ &* *# $ /# # 2 # $ + *$ # $/ $ $ * * # ! " $$ " *$ # / " $ + * " /$ *# +
"#$ ! $ * 3 " 4 " " *$ # $ :$ # 3 $ * * &" 3 !
"$ F #*# *
:$ # " $$ # * 0 "$ $ +0"$
Phonology
General
:$ # $ + *$ # + + #
$ " + " 3
" &/ $$* " $! $$
7 " "# $ & " * :$ # $ "#
$ # !$ + *$ # $ $ :$ * # *$ $! 3 $$ &$ + #
!# * # $ ! + *$ # " # 5#* *#6 # # *$ # 5 # / 6
4 + # :$ # " + *$ # # "& :$ # "" *$ # "$8 # + +$$ + "
/$ $$ &$ ** # ! + 5 "*
-,'
9 !"#6% " " %
! $$ <r< 9
" $$ /30 $$% 0 $ "* ) " $$ <s< $ " + <z<1% ! " + <ê< &$ 4 $ &$/
Rhythm and stress
:$ # # ! F &$! ! * # 3! ##!
+ *$ # # + " "* / +! ! " $$ # / /# $ ; $ !" /#"# ++"
# ##! "$ 8
- 4$$ /$ " $ " + <@< / $ ' !! " $ ! "#
" " " * #
5 *6 " $$ "7 = !& + / ! 3 # E" + # $! 3 $$ &$ :$ # $ $ + #$ "/# #
"
" + / + !$ /# 3 #+ )* "
"
" 1 $ /# / $ " "
/# # /*$ " <eI< ) &$ & $* /# 1 ! * "# /
+0"$ > :$ # $ + + $" " " " " $* / * " " Juncture
- :$ # # $* <j< <w< ;" $ "
" $
' / :$ # $ $ " /$ ;" $8 " = 2# / $ +$$/ "# # ) " @ " 1 :$ " $$ " &# $ " $$ 3
"* # 0 + "
> ;" + <d< <t< <s< <z< +$$/ & <j< # $ "
" " "
/#
!$ )* <wUdju:< + <wUdZ@<1
-,=
9 Vowels
Q/$ + * +0"$ $ "+ #
+ # # :$ # # @ /$ $ ), $ ' $1
"! # '' /$ + *$ # :$ # # $*# "
##* ##* $ *$ # /$ " ! F &$! :$ &#
* " "$ # &$ &$/ $$ ! + # &$! 8
i: I U u:
i 3i u
e @ z: O:
Eo
{ Ã A: ¡
a
# !&$ " + # *$ # /$ #
7 "
; $ :$ # 2# ! :$ # # $ /$
"! ! + *$ # B ;$ /$ # *$ ! +0"$ + :$ # &# * # *
# ++" &/ #! "* "" /$ # +$$/* /# *
- # / /$ :$ #8 "#/ <I< *$ $
$ " & +$$ /$ ' # <e< <{< " $$ " <E<% #" # &$! /# $ 9 " O " O $
<i< # # # ! !$ & " $ = <I< "
:$ # <a<
i $ * "+ &/
"#
O O > <A:< ! & "+ /# <{< $ * ! " + /
$ " " # "#" &/ # !" + / $ . <ow< # :$ #
7! + # ##* <@U< +
$ $ # +$$/* " $ " + <O:< + "+ 8 O " O " O $
, #*# <z:< $ $ /$ $ :$ *$ $
"# ) " "
$ " /# <o< /# # /
1
? # " $! + # "$ * ##* <eI< <aI< <OI< <@U< <aU<
"
<j< <w< "$ )! * :$ # 3
;" $8 <a< J <j< <u< J <w< /#"# ##* 1
@ # $*# + $* /$ ""* /# +$$/ )
1 +0"$ ! -,>
9 Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
*$ # " " ! F "! # &$! +
:$ # $ # ! +0"$ $ # "" " "* # $ +! $$* # #! # ;3
$ ; $ :$ # "$ /# +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #!
! " " &$ " &$! 4 $ "!!
&$/
- <T< <D< *$ $ $ " & + # +$$/*8 <f< <v< <s<
*#! +
<z< <t< <d< <ts< <dz< $ $! $ $ + ""
' " " $ + ! " <S< <Z6< <tS
6<
dZ
<
$
"*
#!
/#
#
#
#
3
$
$
:$
#
<
s
<
<
z
<
<
6
6
<ts< <dz< "$
= # :$ # ; $ + *$ # <h< "$ /$ &
+" !$ # 0 $ ! $ " *$ # <h< # / :$ # $ 7 "
& " /# # / ! ;" $ " > # <r< #
" $$ ; $ :$ # + ! *$ # " $$ $! $$ )*# /# #
$$ $ " + "$ 1 + # *$ # $ & *# " <r< /30 $ &+ " " " " " )!3
" *$ # + :$ # "1
. :$ # " ! 0 $ " " /#"# $ "3
+ &/ $8 O " O "
O
#
&$! "$ $ " /# / +! + / $8 " "
/#"# $$ " /# &$ 0 $ <s< I
/ $ /# # &$! ++ $ + "" $*
0 $ " +$$/* $ /$
" " $
, I # # # <l< <r< + " " /
-,.
9 ?
@
A
-(
--
$ " " " ""$ " /# +$$
"*
# <l< :$ # /#"# " +0"$ /#
/ $ " " " $
:$ # $ " $$ ! " <êg< )&+ /$1
<êk< ) 0 $ 1 + ! & " <sIêgIêk< <rIêk hIm<% $ % " $
:$ # $ "
+ <p< <t< <k< /#"# ++" # +
&# # " # +$$/* /$ / $ $ " " +$ )/# $ $ 1
&+ + /$ * 8 " " Q +/ $ / # # $ " + "$ + <t<
<d< <n< $ :$ # & $$ ) # *! *1 *$ #
Intonation
# ! F + :$ # *$ # 7 **3
++" /#"# " " &$ " ! * *$ # " + + + * + :$ " $$
! " 3; "* + $$3 + + $$*
I # # # # ! + $$* +0"$ ! ** # ! + * E Influence of spelling on pronunciation
+! # "+ * +! # " " &/
$$* " :$ # # +0"$ /# /
# / /# $ $ $$ &$ 8 * " " Orthography and punctuation
Spelling
$$ :$ # $ 7 " ! +0"$ /# *$ # $$*
# $ +! # + " # :$ # $$* $ *$ #" 2#
! #/ # # / !
# + # / !# " $ :$ #
-,,
9 # $ & " $ * F" # $ ! $8
C I # # # $
* + " $$ :$ # ; $
+ " $ % #" ! $8
C% - $ $ $
Punctuation
:" " *#$ # ! :$ # *$ #
# ! ++" # "!!
! ++ & "$ 8
C% " .!$
C% " , $
"!!
/ ++$8 66
Grammar
General
:$ # $ *$ # #*#$ E" $ * * #+ #
!"# + / + 7 ! $ # * !! " $ !&
* )! "$ +! 1 " #/ & "# *
+! F" "+! # * !& " + # /#"# # + "# & )/# /#
1 *
"$ " # * !! " $ +" + / " &
# ! # # & # " *$ #
Q& $$ # ! +" +"% # ! +"
+! # ) +1 # +" / ) +1 ! * $$ " + " &#
! # # ! :$ # ; $8 czas
:$ # #
!"# $ # *$ # # # $ &
! ! $ 7$ ) *$ #1 +"
* & +! # "$ :$ #
$$ $$ # ++" "+ :$ # $ + *$ #
Questions and negatives
:$ # * ! $ ! & * $ ; / ! $ & * ; * ! &
-,?
9 "* # & /# nie )G 1 # /#$ + 7$ #+ $ " " &$ &$! " $ ! ) " $$ &* 6 $$1 "$8
C+ CD C D $
C , (
C% $
C' (
CC'D - (
C1 " (
$ 8
C (
C1
C D $
I* $ # # # + $ "# 8
C (
:$ # , ; ;
; / )czy1 $
$ +;$ " &" # # # " !!& *$ # ; $ # #* $$ " +
7 ! $8
C%
( )+ (1
I ! "" :$ # ; !$ $ * /#"# $
! $8
C/ $
C+ $
$ 8
C+
)+ +
1
Question tags, short answers and reply questions
:$ # # / ! $ - / $ ; ; * ; $ - ( < ( +/ # # $ # $ 3 & "# 8
@ ( CD/ $ )+ / " 1
( CD- $ )+ - " % 1
C C D " , (
/# * # ; * # / $ ; +; :$ #
# *$ # :$ #! $*# # ! ! ! $ /# + " # ! & $ 8
1 $ - $ )+ / $1
-,@
9 It and there as subjects
- 2# *$ # " # ! $ &F" :$ # +
# &F" # $ ! $8
C
$
C1 ; $
C) )+ % 1
C% $
$ 8
<,+ ) +" % , 1
C , )+ % ,1
' * !! " $ &F" "* 0 # & " $$ +0"$ + :$ # $ 8
C% , )+ 1
C% (
C , , $
C )+ & 1
Time, tense and aspect
# " &$ "+ # + $$ *$ # ! +
$$ +" * # # :$ # ; $ - :$ # /# *$ # ;
+"8
C+ $
C' @( )+ 1 @(1
C% )+ % 1
C+ % $ (
C+ )+ + $1
I # # # :$ # $ /$$ 8
C% $
C' (
' " + * :$ # $ ! $8
C% 8 $
= B $ #
* !! 8
C& 5J C' $
C1 $
> #
+" !! + ;" +
8
-,A
9 C% % $
+
# " 8
C $
- *$ :$ # 7 /#"# *$ # ;
+" # $ 8
C $
C' 8 $
C% $
C1 , ?( )+ 1 $ $ $1
' # ! $ # *$ * + !8
C+ $
= I# " $ ! "$8
C% $
C) ( )+ @ $ $ $(1
- # "#" &/ $$ ! !8
C )+ $ $ $ 1
' # ! $ # # # * ! & +
# + " $8
C' (
= #*# # + + ! :$ # & !&$ #
* " :$ # $ ! $ # 8
C% ? + $
> $$ +" &$! ! + $$ # + +"8
C1 & )+ 1 & 1
. 4 + ! +" :$ # # + & "$ + !8
C' % " % $
C% $
Sequence of tenses
"# +
* & :$ # # +
# * $ "# #"8
C1 $
-?(
9 $ 8
C% $
C1 $
C% $
I* $ $ ! $8
C% , )+ %
1
, The passive voice
B! /# *$ # :$ # #
!"# $ #*# ! " # 7 " ; $ /# # # $$ 0 # * " $$
+0"$8
C% , )+ % 1
" $ ! "$8
C+ & $
C $
$ 8
C% $
Conditionals
4 + ! +" :$ # # + & "$ + "8
C% % " % )+ % % " % 1
# & "$ # 5 "6 5#6 " $ " $ :$ # # *# /# # $! !& + :$ #
$ * "+ $$ "!& +
*$ # &$ " $$8
C% " % )+ % " % 1
C% " , % " % ) $$ +
% " 1
Modal auxiliaries
*$ # ! $ 7$ # *# :$ # ; $ #
:$ # & #/ +$$/ " $ $ + ; * 4#! :$ # # $ + 0
-?-
9 # "#" &/ 0 /# /# $ " &$! ! +" * 0 +! $$
# $ * $ + "+ - I* $ + $ ""* # +! + * * $ 8
C , " " C D (
$ 8
C1 )+ 1 1
' # + " &$! 8
C% C D C $
= # ++" &/ - - + $ # &/ - $ $ $ - $ $ $
> # / + ""$8
& % ( - " $ )+ 9 1
. + % $ $ $( ++ +
" * $$ ** / @,& % ( $ $ $( %
$ $ $(
, @ # # $ & " &$8
C+ $
? :+" * 0 & $$8
C+
)+ +
1
C1 )+ 1 $1
" $ # & ! $ /$$ & $ $ $ %
$ $ $ * ! $ $*#
Infinitives and - ing forms
- *$ # +! $$ " :$ # 0 8
C% $
C- $
' :$ # & "$ /# *$ # 5&F" J
06 " #"8
C1 % )+ 1 1
C' % (
= :$ # $ & "$ /# *$ # 5&F" J
" $6 "8
C% , )+ % 1
-?'
9 Reflexive verbs
E7 & ! "!! :$ # # *$ #
" $$ $ 8
C% " % " % %
$
C )+ 1
C )+ 1
Word order
2 $ $ + :$ # #*# # " ! &$!
!*# 7 "
- I + +0"$ # + & 8
C% ?$
C% ?$
C% $
C% $
C% , $
C. % $
' 4 $ :$ # $ # $$ 8
C) (
CA (
C'
(
C $
= # & + !! $ +$$/ # $ :$ #
#"8
C C ,D $
CC ,)D X C D $
> 2 :$ # " ; # !
"
; )# 1% , ; ; ; / /## # " /# # ! *$ # " ; ! #+ 8
C $
C $
C+ $
$ 8
C1 ) 5;" + 61
C% -?=
9 Articles
# "$ :$ # $ ! $ #! $$ ! #! ! $$ # #! # ! & " " &/ 506 506 " * "+ 8
C% C D $
C1 C D
$
C% , $
CC)D A % )+ % 1
Possessive determiners and pronouns, personal pronouns
- : ! # ! :$ # #"8
C $
' : ! + :$ # /# "$ +! # "7 /# # 8
C% $
C? )+ ? 1
= * $ # " &$ &$! /# &F" &F"
$ /$$
! 8
C% )+ % 1
Other determiners
:$ # $ # &$! "! * &/ , , " " #"8
C1 (
C% $
# + ) " + # $1 $ " "+ 8
C% C D )+ % 1
Relative pronouns
" # ! $ ktoÂry )G 1 + #! ! $ ! &F" # +$$/* + ! &$8
CC ,)D + C D C D
$
$ 8
C % $
-?>
9 Countability, number and concord
- # " &$ :$ #8
C% $
' # :$ # / + )drzwi1 7 $ # $ $% $+ )zÇycie1
7 $ # *$ 8
C CD )+ 1
C9 $ $ $
=
:$ # "$$" # !&* $ *$ $ $ ) & ! & ""*$1 #+
" $ $ $ $ :$ # $ # !"# ! $$ $ $ $ " $
! "$8
CC D 9 $
$ # wszyscy )G &<1 ;
$ $
&8
C? $
> # :$ # ; $ + ;
*$ & # ; $ + /# # + $ $ " &$ 8
C1 (
C1 $
Gender
:$ # *$ ! "$ +! :
""*$ #" ! $8
*
, $ + $
' ( 1 $
Adjectives and adverbs
- & !! :$ # /# *$ # ; F"3
#"8
C% , $
C% $
' :$ # & F" " & $ + # ) # /#"# # :$ # ; $18
CB C, D )+ B 1
C $
-?.
9 Prepositions
- :$ # $ # " &$ +0"$ /# *$ # $#*# ! # *# :$ # ; $ # #/
++" * #"8
C , )+ , 1
C C C @
C , C )+ 1
C 8, C C )+ 1
C C , " C C C C )+ 1
C # C
, C )+ 1
C )+ 1
' :&$! $ /# :$ # ;
8
C ,
C # , $ $ $
C , $ $ $
= : + ""$ # E" +
:$ #8
C C C C )+ 1
C
C C C #, Phrasal verbs
# # $ & :$ # :$ # $ !
$$ # # # -?,
9 # "
# # Vocabulary
- # " &$ !& + / # " $ :$ #
*$ # ) 9 radio1 !$ ) 9 alfabet1 + # # + * # $ !
$ +! *$ # ) 9 sweter1 $$ # + "$ $ * $ $ ! "#
# " + ):$ # parking G 1 )camping kemping G 1 )sleeping sliping G 1
4 $ + ! 5+ $ + 6 # @ % ?
' $ "" # + " # / ! :$ # / # *$ # ; $ *$
+ 7 ! $ # szklanka ! $ + * kieliszek + $"#$ )" # " &$ ++" K &/ # /
"6 "!3
! / *$ + / $ " &
! &$ # "& !1
= # # " ! "+ #/ #
+$$/*
+ / $$
" /# :$ #
; $8 , , ,
, ,
, , , , , , , , , , , , ,
, , ) 7 !1 ?# ,+ > # *$ # / + & # 7 "
; $ + # :$ # proszeÎ + " proszeÎ #
!"# /
* + *8 $ / )*#$
/ 1 " ! 1 9 @ " A " C& % ( )+ @ ,A 1
. # 7 & ! 8
( - " $
, # :$ # ; $ + $ & * 8
C1 )+ 1 1
Forms of address
:$ # ! " * + +! $ #+ $
$ 0 +0"$ # "# & # # 0 !
-??
9 9 ! +0"$ + ! :$ $
$ /$$
"; # # * pan )&1 pani )&1 !! panna )&1 # $ !& + ! 8
C& ) " % (
C9 ,&$ )+ ?# 1
$ 8
C) ,& $
A sample of written Polish with a word-for-word
translation
Nie ma pisarza, ktoÂry
#
o
LE7
nie mysÂlaø
"$M #*# L! "$M
tylko w sÂredniowieczu spotyka
søawie. MozÇe
& + !
sieÎ
by
/ /#"# L" $
& $ !$ *
! L! $M
bezimienne ksiaÎzÇki, ktoÂrych
autorzy, ukrywajaÎc
"$M ! & )+1 /#"# # #*
swoje
nazwisko, zwracajaÎ sieÎ
przy
!<<# <#<<# ! LE7
konÂcu dzieøa z
prosÂbaÎ do czytelnika, by
modlitwaÎ do Boga albo z
/ /# o
nich pamieÎtaø
"$M /# ; w kosÂciele
& #! !!& L! "$M "#"#
An idiomatic translation
# / /# /$ # & + ! $ #
$ *
#
# "! " ! & /# # # # ! $ # + # / #
/#
)1 # /#
$ !!& #! "#"#
)+! ) Y & : / 1
-?@
Farsi speakers
$ 2$ Distribution
+*# : # Introduction
4 3 $ * * /#"# # & * $ E"
& &" # $ # & + ! 4 " + =' "# "
/ &" " +! *# $+ # /
+ #
& "; # # " /#"# ! * $ +
&" " &$ /
$ " ! * 4 $ &$
+ / ++ *
E" 4 # +0"$ $ * *$ # " $$ * # $ * $ *$
&" + # + !$ " Phonology
General
# 4 *$ # #$*" $ ! ++ # * +
/$$ # 4 # $
$ /$ ##* =' " /#$ *$ # # ''
/$ ##* '> " 4 #+
# * +0"$ "* "$ * # +$$ * +
*$ # /$ ##* # 0 *$ #
" #! # # ; $ 4 -?A
A Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ 4 #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
# ! "!! /$ $$ &8
- <I< + " <i:<8 + ' <Ã< + " <A:<8 + = <{< + " <e<8 + > <U< + " <u:<8 + . <@< + "
/$ $ #3
* #" +!
, <O:< + " # $ <¡<8 + ? <z:< + &"! <e< J <r<
2# ##* # &$! "" +$$/* $$ " " $ +0"$8
"#* <A:<
@ <aU< + "
A <e@< + " <e< J <r<
-( <@U< + " "$ <¡<
-- <U@< + " <u:<
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
-@(
D
j
w h
"$ #
A # #! # ; $ ; $ 4 #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- <D< <T< & "+ "
<t<8 + %
+ / #! <n< <g<
' <ê< ! & "
&" + #* #" +!
= <w< <v<8 $#*# <v< #
; $ 4 # /
#! & "+ / $$ 4 ! $ # * > <r< +0"$ "* # *$ # <r<
# 5"$ 6 <l< ) 1 & # . <l< 7 4 ; $ + # 5 6 <l< ) 1 $ $$ # &$! /# # Consonant clusters
B "$ "" /# *$ $$ &$ 4 4 #+ # /$ # &+ # !$ + # *$ # "$ 7 ! $ + $ /3
*! "$ # " +0"$ " I" " " " " " " "
6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + # /$ $ $$
7! #
#! <e< &"! 5 6
2# $ #3 *! "$ # &$! &"! * #
"$ $ "!! &+ "$ &** /# <s<
<e< B$ "#
" " " $ " "3
"# 8
+ + + 4 $ " "$ $ $$ " &$! /# $ * * <e<8
+ + -@-
A Influence of spelling on pronunciation
# " $ &/ 4 *$ # $$* )
+! +/ $ "# 1 # 4 #
$ / #* #" /#"# $$ +
/# # # " / $$* 4 ! $
#" 7" + # ! + # /$ $ 4 " "$ $ /# "$ #
" " &$! /# * $ /# / $$
" $ # / +! "$ 4 $$ # +0"$ /# #! /#"# # / +
#* #" 4 7 ! $ # #! <i:< /#"# #
*$ #* #" +! 4 " # + # +$$/* +!
*$ #8 " " " " " " ) ;1
"$ $ # + 4 "* # # 3
" $" " # *$ # & $$
" $*#* + # /$ Stress
4 #*#$ " &$ * $$ + $$ # 0 $
$$ &$ + / # $ # * +0"$ ! * #
" &$ + *$ # : "$ &$! ""
/# $ ! *
' ' 2 +! $ " " &$ &$! # ; $ + / +! 4 /$ $$ &$ $ # ; ; $ $ $$ # +$$ $ + # +$$/ # # /$$ $ # &$! "* / +! "#
Intonation
4 " + *
/# "# * " * ! $$ &$ /#"# ! "# *
+ " * " & 5 6
)/# ! +$$/1 50 $6 # & " 0 $ !$ # *$ # /# + $$ " $ + "! $ ! + , ; + $$ /# * / 4
# * # #*# # $$ &$ /#"# ! # + # * 2# " *$ # ! + # " " $ #*#3 "# 5/#*6 ++" /#"# ""*
-@'
A * $ 4 3 * # ! F +0"$ /#
# ! $#*# ! + # ! $
/#"# ! $ " ! * +03
"$ ! /$$ "# * /# *
$ /# $ " + "$ $ " $$ $
Juncture
4 + # !$ &$! /# *$ # F" # # # /# " "$ #+ /#
/
& "#
# # /$$ + 7 <e< $ $ " " !#* $ 4 / /#
!$ ) #" "# *1 F" /# # "" *$ #
' <wUdZ@<
$$ " +0"$ Orthography and punctuation
& 4 / &" " # "! $$
++ +! # " + *$ # / +! *# $+
/# # $ F* "# # ""* 0 $ 4 + *$ # $$ # $ "! $$ / $ # & / / + /* ! # /$ $+ ! $ 4 #* # # " $ ! *$ # # " $ $ 4 # *$ # +0"$ + $ ! * $ $$ # &$! # +$$/*
8
- /# ! ! * * ;
' B!& + $ # "$ & "+ + +! *# $+ * % % $$* &$ #" 4 6 / *$ #
& # !
4 !&
$#*# &" ++ +! # *$ # # #/ / +! $+ *# ! $$
" $ $ +/ &$! Punctuation
$ # $ # " " / $$ 4 & * # $ # ! !$ # -@=
A *$ # # & # #/
* * +
+! # + "!!
; ! # ; ! ù # "!! 5 4$$ 7! $
*$ # & ; ! $ # / $$ # $
" 4 4 / # " F " *# ! /# "F" "# : * #* " " $$ $ "" /
Grammar
General
4 3 $ * * !$ ! / *$ # # #/ ! # ++ +!
*$ # # " " " &$ +" + # 4 $ * *$ #
2 4 + ! $$ ++ +! *$ # /$$
" +0"$ # $ * F" $/ +$$/ #
% & $$ $ " # + "
C- C%D Questions
# 7$ # ; $ 4 - , ; +! $
4 * $$ &
" $ ; / aya & + *
4 #+ ; ! $
& ! $ ! # 7$ /# &$* 8
C' ? (
Negatives
4 &# *$ *$ & "F* "# / # # 0 < "<# & * &"! + # &
#+ &$ ! ! * !$ & 07*
# & )&#
1 /# na / ! /$$ & # ! / 8
C+ )+ +
+ 1
-@>
A Auxiliaries
4 # ; $ + # 7$ !! +07 + &* +$$ +! #+ 4 /$$ !! ! *$ #8
C+ CD )+ + 1
$#*# 7 7$ & 4 $ " ; $ # *$ # * /# # *$ #
+" ! ; * ! " ! +0"$ % $ $ $$
4 ! % Special confusion ^ Chera (= Why not?)
4 #
" $ * ; # " $ $ & $ ' ( 2# # *$ #
+ & 4 $$ ** 8
) ( ' (
$ 7 $ # # "" &$ $ *$ #
Question tags
4 / * + ; * Na )G / 1 # $ $$ #+ 0 $$ ; *
7!$ "! $78
C1 " ( )+ 1 " (1
C- " ( )+ - " (1
Time, tense, and aspect
- + 4 # ! $
; $ &# +" ! $
*$ # #+ 4 ! !!
# /* 8
C% )+ % 1
C% + ' )+ % + '1
C% $ (
-@.
A ' 9 #
* # $ 4 C' % " 4 +! /# # ; $ + "8
)+ ' % "
1
4 "# $$ "$ # +! /#"# /
# "! $7 $ + "# ** *$ # " #+ " "+ # ! $ # 4 "8
C1 % )+ 1 1
D ; $ "$ # 4 !*# "8
C1 )+ 1 % 1
; ! $ 4 /# * "
"# *$ # # 4 $ !*# "8
C1 % )+ 1 : % $1
# 4 + + +" 8
- # ! / # *$ # * + " * $ " # # !*# $ # 4 "8
C1 )+ 1 1
' + " &** #
$$ "*
/#"# !*# $ # 4 "8
C% )+ % 1
= + # + /#"# ! " "+ + # +
! $ *$ # $ # 4 3
"*8
C1
# )+ 1 # 1
# +" + # 4 # $ /* *$ # "+ # + # * +" ! 7 + # $ * +! /# # ; $
+ /#"# #
! * !$ # *$ # * % # !*# $ # 4 "8
C1 )+ 1 1
# * $ /#"# !$ # *$ # ! $ -@,
A "& * $ # % # #+ $$ $ "+ # $ + 4 +! /# 7$ ; $ # +! $ 9 "#
$ $ ! /* 9 & ! $ # 4 $ "8
C% )+ % 1
Modal verbs
$ & / # ! / 4 *$ # 4 &# # ; $ + #
" ! & E" # ! & " *$ #
C% $#*# # ; $ + 4 E" / &# + # ! $ # 4 /* *$ # "8
- % )+ - % 1
#/ # + ! $ # # $ +0"$ 4 # # * + ! * 7 #*# ! $ *$ # ! + #! /$$ " &$! 4 7 ! $ # *
+ ++ ! * 7 & " " " *$ # 7 & ! $ & 4 /# #
++" # ! * &* " & $ # # & 4 ! # &$! /# # ++"
&/ # *$ # ! $
"$ $ &/ Non-finite forms
# * +! 4 # 0 +! ! $$
$ " 2# " ; *$ # 4 0 +0"$ 8
C% " Word order
4 / " $$ +$$/ # 8 &F"
&F" & # ! $ "+ F" ! $$
+$$/ # # !+ /#"# ! $ 4 "8
C% )+ % 1
-@?
A 4#! 4 & + ! $$ $ " &/
&F" &F" /#"# "$ $ "+ /# /* *$ #8
C% )+ - % 1
The active and passive voices
4 # +! + $$ & # /$ # *$ # : " 4 ! $ +! &
# !* # $ # # $ $ ) 4 & E" " # *1 & * # 4 ; $ + #
" $ + #
& #
4 ! "8
C% )+ % 1
Articles
# 0 0 "$ # ; $ 4 +07
" /## # 0 0
# ! ; ++ +! *$ # 4 # " &$ +0"$ /# $$ + "$ I # # 4 ! "$ &+ /# " 8
C1 $
C1 $
C $
C? $
C% $
C+ (
C% C1 )+ 1 1
I # # # 4 ! "$ /# #
#$ & !8
C% )+ % 1
C& $ $ $ )+ & $ $ $1
C I $
C@ $
C% Adjectives and adverbs
F" & $$ !$ / 4 # + +!* & +! F" ! -@@
A " # ! / &#
F" & 2#
/ " $ & F" )$ # 4 / +
1 # " # ) 1
& $ ; $ #+ 4 $$ "+ F" & &# +! ! * #
// & $ # Comparatives and superlatives
B! $ $/ +! & # +
+07 # / ++ !# *$ # "+ *
# 4 # 4 $ /# /* *$ # ! "8
C1 )+ 1 1
C # /# "! 4 # ; $ +
# 4 ! "8
C1 )+ 1 1
# 0 "$ &+ # $ ! $ & ! $ *
4 "8
C. )+ . $ $ $1
Gender and number
4 # , * "
*$ &*
+ &# # $$ $ *$ ;
" $$ 8
C& $ 1 * :$ $ * $ " 4 ! F +0"$ / 4 $ $ +! /# /#
!& # $$ " *$ #8
C% C Prepositions
4 +;$ + & & + # ++ +! # *$ # 4 $ # "$ *$ #8
C1 )+ 1 1
-@A
A C+ C% Phrasal verbs
:# $ & 7 4 $ 0 #! "+ * / +0"$ 8
- # +0"$ + "" * # # +
"$ " $$
"# * # ! * + &
run up ) ! ;"$1
' # + " # # & " & +! #
"$ & &F" I # +;$ $ # ! + #
"$8
C1 C% Subordinate clauses
# $ $ 4 # + #! ! $ ! &F" $ /# # #
&F" # &F" + # & /#
; #
$" + # "" $ *$ # #+ " &$! C $ $ $
# &F" $ "$ /#"# ! *$ # "$ 4 8
C " % $ $ $
C " % $ $ $
4 # 0 +07 /# # # "! &+ #
$ /#"# !*# $ 4 "8
C) % $ $ $ )+ % $ $ $1
4 $/ # &** + # $ "$ # ! * " $ ' ( +0"$ +
/# +! $ " # !
+! $ "8 A (
B $ " +* # + +!
$$ # ! / 4 *$ # # 7 + #
-A(
A ) =1 " $ ++ 4 #
# ! "$ ** 8
C% % " % )+ % % " % 1
4 # ; $ + " & #
" # +;$ " *$ #8
C) " ) !
! BF" !"# ! +;$ 4 # *$ #
"$ $ # &** + " # ! "!!$ "F" 4 # " F ! "$ *# $$ /# * + Vocabulary
$#*# 4 3 $ * * # +/ !$ &/ *$ # 4 " &$ /# $ +/ #*#3+;"
/ "#
# ; $ + #/* #
"!! 3 * I # # # 4 " ! " &$ ! /# &" # $ $$ # $
: : #$ # + ! "#$* # &*# !& +
"0" "#" $ / + * "#
! + /#"# $$% &
# " #
& 4 #
" # / + +" &$! * "
# -A?( # /
! & # *! 5: 6 $$ +* "#" $ / & # ! /# $ $!
"" + # $ !" $ #/
! "" +$
! / ! $ $$ # 2 ! 4 ";* *$ # " &$ #+ !"# ! +0"$ +
4 # + 7 ! $ "# ! 7 " # ! + * " &
! # # $ * ! + " &$ /$$ & & & $$ #*# *
" "$ 4 $ $ * ; + " &$ & # #*# $ + ! &
0 # ! # + " + #
$ * * "" $
-A-
A B! 4 +;$ $ "$ *$ # ** * 8
C )kar khane 9 $ 1 G C )ketab khane 9 $ 1 G False friends
# +/ !$ &/ 4 *$ # " &$ # $ $ +/ + $ + &$! +! /
/#"# # & &/ & 4 / # ++ ! * 2# "# / " *$ # # ! # # ! ! * 4 8
lastik G machin G nylon G chips G ) *$ #1 estanless G Culture
$! $$ 4 3 * $ + *$ # /$$ & #
" ! 7!$ +! $ $ * ! # # $ + +! $ $ $ * * $ * $ + +0"$ "" # ! "
+ ! * "$$; $ +! + /* ! $ "$ $
7 " # "# & # 0* # 7 " & 5;KK6 *$ $ 7 ! $ # * ! " " /#
* " #/ $ "!!" " $ " * ! " # + " "
/# " "!!" !#$* /$$ $ $ 3
! + $< $ $$
"$ $ /# * $ #$
* + 6 /$$* "" +! $ !#
"#
"# $ $$* $ * *$ * # # $$ "!!" "# 7"$ $ "!!" !#$* ! " +$ # " $$ 5 6
! $ "$ $ /$$
" $ #"
&*# 3 $ !" $ ! /$$ 0 #
"# * +0"$ "" # ! /$$ "! /# 3
2 + /#
* + $ !" + ! $ !
-A'
A # "* * 2 ! ! #/ * + # $ ! 4 ! $ /# # ! # &<*$ $ #
+ # # " ! + $"#$" & * $ /! "# #/ $$
A sample of written Farsi
A direct transliteration
#
$
!# $ $*#& 5 +K6 & & #! # ! ! 4 K & # ! +K K $KK !& * * & *# KK * ! ! #! # $ * # * $&
!# *#*# * &
# ! $ *## $& * # !* # !
A word-for-word translation
# $ 4 $ * * $/ #$* +K
+! # F # # * " + $$ $
" 5 +K6 # # $ # # ! ! * &*
+ + $ / $ "" " # $ $ * $ &$" $ -A=
A An idiomatic translation
4 # + 4 # F * +K6
#$* "* $* # " # * + # 5+
$$6 +K # # $ # # ! ! # * + $ / $ "" " # $ /# $ & # * $ &$"
)4! 1 ) & *#1
Handwriting difficulties: a sample written by a
Farsi-speaking student
-A>
Arabic speakers
!#
Distribution
P: D I O2
I P
IIBBI I : D
P P :B
&" " ! F $ * * B# $
F& *$ #% $ K& F K& ! F O K # O*K B#"# &" &* # $ * * + # O # #$ / +
$ ! $$ $! + /# $ ! 7 + !$ /# &" " " 7 $ #+ E" &
# + #/ $ * * / $ ! #
*0" +$$/*
* $
$ * * ! $ &$" O +*# : $ # :#$ # B#
*$
7! $ >(( ((( (((
$ $$ " *
Introduction
&" !" $ * * # * * !! " $ ! !$ ! " &/ # # $ 5 3
&"6 $ * * /#"# *# "#$ & # !
! $$ & "
+ $$ "!!" + +0" $ 2# "# " + ; ! $$ / +
"$$; $ $" # $ ++* +! # $
" & $ "!! $7" $ ! ! 7
" # ++" +! " " ! ! # ++" &/ O $ *$ #
Phonology
General
# &" *$ # #$*" $ ! ++ $ # * + & # ! # $ " /$
-A.
) " 7 * ! * 2#$ *$ # # '' /$
##* '> " &" # $ *# /$ ##* )# # # $* / ##* 1 =' "3
# # # /$ &" # $$ *0" "8 # $! $$ #" # / # " #
" $* /$ ##* /#"# * ! *
&" #+ *$ "+ *$ # #
/$ /#$ $ ! # * " * $ # +! !* # + + &" /#"# * 5 &" ""6 *$ # 8
9
*" "$ # *$ # /# ! $3
$ &$ & +/ "$ $ "$ /$ ** $$ "" 5F &&6 ++"
9 # + *$ $ &+ $ /$
"!! + +
&" # & * # $ " + *$ #
9 * $ $" " ! " " # / +! / * <klaImbed< + Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ &" #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
2#$ $$ $$ /$ ! " &$! # +$$/* #
! "!! "+ 8
- <I< <e< + "+ 8 + ' <¡< <O:< + "+ 8 + = ##* <eI< <@U< $$ " # # "+ /# <e< <¡<8 + % + -A,
) Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ &" #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- &" # $ $ # <g<9<dZ< /#"# "
<dZ< # &"
<g< ! * &$ * #+ " *$ # !!
$$ ""* # $" $ $" #! + $ +/ $" & # ' <tS<
"" $$ $$ $" F" + <t< <S<
= # /
7! # *$ # <h< &" #
"!! + #! " # #
% &" #+ " *$ # <h< # # #$
$ # : <r< &" "!!$
> <r< " E
" # 3" $" $
. <p< <b< $$ #" & # !$8
% 9 9 , <v< <f< $$ #" $$ &# " <f<
% $
? <g< <k< + "+ " $$ & # & /# $" "$ # #! <g< : $ , ,
" +0"$
@ $#*# <T< <D< "" $ &" ! $" 3
" #! <t< <d< "$ # ! #
6 *$ #
% $
A # #! <ê< $$ " <n< <ng< <nk<
Consonant clusters
# * + " "$ ""* *$ # !"# / # &" $ /3 *! "$ ""* &" "$8
-A?
) " " " " " " $ #3 *! "$ "" &" $$ *8 " " " $$ + # & " # " !* &"
# /$ 5 6
" 8
+ + # * + 0 $ "$ $ !"# ! $$ &" I+ # ?@
#3 *! "$ + +3 *! "$ ""*
0 $$ *$ # "" &" &" * # /$ + + + #
"# /$$ ! ! &$ 7 ! $ + "# " /#"# $ " # $$* + "# / & 6
/ *$ #
/ : 4
$ "! $ + *$ # &"
" "$ ) !"# # +$ +! 1 ? ) + & F )*! -A,=1
Influence of English spelling on pronunciation
2#$ # !$ &/ # &" *$ # /*
! &" $$* /# / ! ! $ $$
#" &" #+ ! "
*$ # / #" $$ # # " + " * " &$! " & # E" +
# / +!8
+ + Rhythm and stress
&" 3! $ * * / "$ " &$ *$ &"
#+ # &$!
* * # " &$ + *$ # / # # " $ ! *
' ' ' )&1 ' )1 "! $$ *
:# " ##! !$ # / $ * *
#$ " +/ &$! :! "" ! +;$ &" $$ &$ " ! "$ $ /#
$ /$ & 5 / $$/6 *$ # & * *$ #
-A@
) $ /$$ + " " +!
# # "" ##!
$ /#
Intonation
&" !$ # + *$ # "
! * D ** ++ ! !"# !
+;$ & * # & " $ ! # " *$ #
2# * $ #/
" * # &"
"# "* $/ + $$ #
+ # " Juncture
# *$ $ "!! #! &" +/ /
&* /# /$ # " * *$ # $*
0 $ " /# +$$/* $ /$
"
"* " "$ /$$ " &$!
"& # " 5B "$ 6 F" "#
# " !& + 7 /$ # ! " + #" "# * *$ # #*# #
F" + " #! * <t< J <j<
<w¡tSu:
( <dIdZu: si: hIm< ni:d< <d< <j<
*$ & &" /# $ + "# * " " # "!!" Orthography and punctuation
&" #* # " ! * +! *# $+ I$
" $* /$ / # $/
" " " # $ +! + $ ! $$ &
F7 +! / &" ! #+ $ $ / $ # & +
*$ # "$* " $ $ !% # ! #
" $ $$* $$
" + /* *$ # " ! F &$! + &" # #$ & 7 " " /# * /* # ! $$ "
/# !$ $$ + 0"" $ *$ #
" $ &$! 8
9 * $ /# 5!6 # * ;%
-AA
) 9
* $ /# / & *# $+ !! *
+ % 5 6 + # "" # /* +
& + " 9
$+! + $ $ /* +0" $
* # $ ! + " " /* ! #
! $$ /# " $ $ )+ !1 /# #
$ " " " " # " $* + $! $ $ & " *$ # # # ! " " # ! $ & " ++ +! # 5 &"6
! $ #*# # / +! $+ *#
* "* !& ! F &$!
Punctuation
&" " / !$ / $ " #*#
! + # !&$ * ù + H 5 + # + +$$ "!! !"# + # *$ # "!! &* "# / " /# # ; $ + ) + B" /* *$ # #+ " $* $ " $ & "!!
Grammar
General
&" !" $ * * * !! " $ " ++ +! # + 3 $ * * # #+
+ +/ + + "$ + * + +" #
! & & ! /# &" !7 /#
# & + # &" $ * * # #3" "#
& #
" "$ $$ & +! F"
" $ " # +! & * # # " 07 !0 !! & ! $ 07 +07 /# # + $*
: " $
: '((
<k/ /t/ /b/
"# writing$
kattaab
maktoob
yaktubuh
)G 1
)G 1
)G 1
) /# # + $*
: " $
/dZ/ /r/ /h/
%# wounding cutting$
\G 1
majrooh
: yajruhuh
\G 1
\G , 1
djarraah
# .( & ! $$ +! + +
"# & # # " $ & + # $ * *
+$$/ # &" # * +0"$ * * #
"+ * * + + $$ / *$ #8 # &
F" +$$/ *$ * # +! #
! # # ! #* #" +! "# *$ +
! #$*
*$ # #
"$ $ # + +07 /$$ &
$ * & &" * " " "
Word order
" $ # &" " $ " # & 0 +$$/ & #
&F" # " +$$/ ! /* # "#
" $$ # & $ + /* ! " *$ #
/*8
C $
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries
# 7$ # ; $ &" 2# "0" ; / ; ! $ & * 8
C' * (
- (
# # &" + ( wayn? /#"# &$ "+ /# ( * +! & *
"$ \laa maa1
&+ # &8
C1 $
To be
# & &" # # " $ \" "
1 7 #+ "!!$ ! *$ # &
&" "$ $ # * & +! 8
'(-
) C1 $
C $
C1 $
Pronouns
&" & +! " # $ &F" &F"
07 +07 "!! # #! *$ #
+ # &8
C2 $
Time, tense, and aspect
- &" #
+" /#"# *0
"
"! $ # ! + * # #+ "$$; $
&" " / &/ /# *$ # /$ &
! $
+" &8
C% $ (
' # +" 7! $
*$ #
+! & #
+ # & +$$/ & #
& ) G 18
C1 % )+ 1 % 1
= # * +! & #
+ # &
+$$/ & # & ) Q 1
C1 % )+ 1 % 1
> "# &" # + # * $
"# #
" + *$ #
C1 CD * $
# + " "# ! "!! ** "# 8
C1 % C+ D * $
C1 $
- &" #
! $ +! /#"# *0 "
0 # # ! + * " # + # *$ #
'('
) ! $ * "$* # + + ! # $ " +
+ # & " $
/# # *$ " / * + *$ #8
C1 , $
C1 , $
C1 , $
C' (
C' , (
' # $ + + ! # ! +
* 7 *$ # & # +"8
C% , % ? $
= #
$ &F" + +
& "$ "!! &" /#"# $
"" $$ $
/# *$ # *8
C1 $
C% $
C D
% > 2# +/ & + !!
" $ )$ $$
" "1 )/# " $ 1 7 !!
#
* # ! +
* # + #
7! $! / * &" $ #*# !* # " $ C' (
C% * $
- # + +! &" + #
*$ #
+! + # +
' Q +3" * "$ "$$; $ 3
&" " +" # + # $ " &+
# & #
7! # *$ # +
Modal verbs
# ! $ & &" # +" +! &
! $ & + ! $ +$$/ &
&3
F" ) 1 8
% : % % $
A % $
% : A % $
'(=
) . % $
% : A % $
&" #+ # &$! * * * #
+! +" + ! $ & /$$ *$ & * #! 7$ /# #!
C ( - " $
# $ * " "$ &# /# ! $
# & * &F" J 0 " " *$ #
) 530 +! 6 &$/1
C% CD % (
C% % $
C1 $
Non-finite forms
# * 7 &" +" +! &
& $ + & *$ & +! + # &" ; $ + # & $ + ; +! + # & # &" ; $ + % /$ & % % $
% # &" ; $ " "
/$ & % CD % CD % $
!$ $ # 0 +! &"% * # 0 7 " ! $ & /# /# C% CD % $
C D
% % $
+$$/ # & $ /$$ # $ # $ &$! +
! * # "" "#" &/ * 0 & $ & "
&$! + +! "" + &#
The active and passive voices
# " +! + $$ &" & # $$ " $ # " +! ++* $ # " + # )/1 # /$$* & 7 #+
$ "* &$
"# +! "7 + $ +;$
&" /* # *$ # # $ $$ "#
# /#$ # "" + " #$ $ & 3
# +! + #
/$$ " &$! # + # * &" bi /#"# + "$ # + *$ #
'(>
) # + ** 8
C1 $
C $
B!! +! # + " & +! +
C1 $
C $
# "!! ""!$" ! $ ! #
"8
C " $
8
&
Articles
# 0 "$ &" # 0 "$ #
* + ++ +! *$ # # 0 "$ " #
! & &$!
"!!$ ! /# *$ $ $ " &$ 8
C I )+ 1
C1 $
2# # *$ # 0 "$ # & &
/# # 0 "$ 8
C $
C% $
# 0 "$ +! &" #*# # +! +
07 )al-1 *$ # + & " 0 $ ! $ + ; +" ) " I "1
# ! "!! &$! /# # 0 "$ +!
+" +! # &" * " "8
2 ) 2 1
2 ) ) $1
' $
) $1 @ $
+ / + "$ * " "
+" + # 8
C $
C $
+$$/ # &" # * +0"$ /# # *$ # * " "
# " /#"# *$ # ! # "$ * " " " " $$ # 0 "$ &"8
C) $
C' + (
$$ + # / ! !# # $! " $ ! '(.
) ! + / " " "$ # 0
&" /#"# + $ $ 8
C' % $
C' I ! $
' - $
"$ Adjectives and adverbs
F" +$$/ # &" * * !& # ! " &* ! ! 8
C1 CD )+ 1 1
& $ "!!$ &" # *$ # 7" + & + ! # 07 & + ! + 7 # 8 ; 7 # +; "+ &/
# F" & +! *$ # # F" +! $$ 8
C1 $
Gender and number
&" # / * ! "$ +! /#"# $$
+! / * / ! * :$ $ + +* #! &* " +! *$ 8
' ( + $ % $
:$ $ + &" + +! & $ "# * ) /# O *$ #1 # + +07
+ # $ $ ! $! + &" +
!8
C% $
4 +$$/* !& & # $ &" +! # + +8
C% # $
Prepositions and particles
&" #
/ $# + 07 "$ /# &#
& F" + # "" /# # "
*$ # $ 8
'(,
) )+ 1
)+ 1
# ! # & $ +"
9 # ; $ + " 7 &$* 8
C% % $
9 # ; $ + " 7 8
C , )+ 1
9 # ; $ + " 7 8
C' )+ % , 1
9 # ; $ + " 7 8
C% C%D )+ % 1
# # $ & &" # /#$ + * +0"$ + &" +" !"# ! ! $ 3
$"* $ & *$ & * # $ &
$*# # ! ! + # "$
C% $
C% $
C% $
C% C D$
&" $/ +$$/ & $ 3 * *$ # )' ( % $1 /$$ $$ & + + # &" /#"# + !$ ! +! $
*$ # 4 7 ! $8 A ( A ( % I !
+ % )# + #
" &" 7 9 $ 5& "$ 6 &$/1
Confusion of it and there
# 7 , 7 ! "$$; $ &"
$" & # fee )1 & # "!!$ " *$ # ! +! $ &" # "" 7 &
+ # & ! * #8
C% # $
C) $
" # & # / $
$ # $$ $ " & # & 8
'(?
) C% $
# / /# " $$ 3
$ ! /$ & !
. C D $
+$$/ # # " &/ # + "#
7 " +$ **
Question tags
# ; * "!! $$ &" $" $$
! "# ** +! $* # $ + 5% (6
# &$! #+ /# ; * "" $ &
"" & $ $ ! #
&/$ & #
!$ + "# ** +! *$ # ; * Subordinate clauses
B$ " & " &" &
"F" $ $ $ +$$/ & # &F"
) 1 8
C% C%D $
# $ ) " " 1 ! " &"
""* * & #! 3#! # #3
+ "+ # "#" + &" "$ # &F" + & $ "$ /#"# *$ # ! & !8
C % $
C " % " $
&" # / / + /#"# " # * + $$# +
# " " $ " /#"# *$ # " $
& +! &" # ! $
&# ! " $
"$ 8
C% +" + )+ % +"
+ % +" +1
'(@
) Vocabulary
# "; + " &$ "$ $ +0"$ + & $ # # $$ +8 $ !! $ !& +
/ *$ # &/ +! &" ! $$ * + ! $
"#" $ /
"#
" # &
&" & # "!! ! $ * * &"
# +/ * $ * "! # &
+ # 0 $ * * # #$ & 7 " ";
*$ # #* $ # ! " $ # +$$/* *$ # / !$ $* / &" "# #$ #! + &$8 " "
" " " " " ; Culture
" #*#$ * # & /$ # "# $$
" 0* #
"# $ * * $ &/
" & * $ "$ & # "#* !"# !
$ $ * # "* + +! # #
/ /$ ! + "#* /#"# / $" " ! & F"
" + #
"# / ! $$ /$* 7 ! +;$ ; $ # " + 3$ ;* * $ #*# # 7 + $ ! & " + # / $ * * * / ! B$$3
; $ $ * * # $$ $ *$ # $ ""3
* 5 "$$; $ *$ #6 ! & $ # # +0"$ /#"# $ & $ # " *
/# +! $ "#*
"# /#"# # "# 0 ! "
; $ # # )#*# 4
!#$* & "#$ &* 3 $1 # /#"# $ " !#$* "# ! &
F"
$ + & "# #$ # +
+! $ $/ & 7 $ /# # "+ "# ! $ +! $ #$ $/ " +$$ ! $* &$ " 2# # 7 # # & "# # ! 8 # "# #
! #$ & !!& # ! & "
"#$ "$ ** $$ $$ ! /! ! !7 " $$ $$ # !! + !$ ""$ #
" $ !7* + # 7 " $ O $ * * "#$ " "
'(A
) ! $ !$ & $$ "# )+ # 71 #$ ! 0!$ + $ $ # /# & $ I"
+! $
"# # "# * /#"# & / # # ! 5!#6
! * # # # 5 6 ! * # /$$ # +/ &$! # "$ $ "# * ! & " &*# & &
" " /# # / ) * "# ! # $ + /!
! * " ! 1 ! & /** & " ! " / $ !" #7 # *
E" + $ ! ! & "" # ! + # &
/$ / $ $" E" $ #
$* # + ! & + # # "$ "# #$ &
/ + # $ !" "$ ! ++ ++
/*$
Written samples of Arabic
Type-written Arabic
A direct transliteration
fee qalbi lundun taqa' saaHa waasi'a tusummee traafulghaar skweer aw, idha
aradnaa an nasta'mil lahaa ismhaa al-'arabee al-aSlee, saaHat aT-Taraf alagharr. haadhi-s-saaHa al-maqSood minhaa iHyaa' dhikra tilka l-ma'raka
intaSar feehaa al-loord nilsoon 'ala naabulyoon gharbee shibh jazeerat
eebeeryaa. wa-yatawassaT haadhi-s-saaHa 'amood murta®' ya'taleeh
timthaal il-loord nilsoon. wa-bijaanib haadhi-s-saaHa al-ma'raD al-waTanee
li-S-Suwar az-zeeteeya al-mashhoora wa-kaneesat il-qadees maartin.
'-(
) A word-for-word translation
# #3 ; & #3 3" $$ + $* ; + /3/ # /3 3# !3# #3 &" #3* $
; #3# $ #3& +$ # #3 ; #3 +!3#
"!!! !! # #3& $ /#"# #3/ 3" 3#
#3$ $ $ / / !&$ " $ & 3
#3" # #3 ; "$! #*# #3 ! 3 #3$
$ 3& # #3 ; #3* $$ #3 $ +3#3
" #3$ #3+ ! "#"# #3 An idiomatic translation
# # + # & ; " $$ + $* ; + / / * $ &" ! # ; + +
$3*# )# +$ $ 1 # ; / * 3
# !! + # & $ /#"# $ / "
$ / + # & : $ * # " +
# ; $$ "$! + /#"# + $ # ; # $ $$ + + ! $ * 6 B#"#
Printed Arabic
)# 7 " +! # " $* + # D $
*$ # $ +! # ! " & 1
! #
& ' # $ + # D $
/ !* # 0 & !& " $ ! #
# + # * " #
"$ # */# + # $
/#"# D $ "$ $ ! $
# " + # ! $ "& # !*" *
# -A# " + # $3# + !$6 $ # + # # ! &$ ! /# # # $ '--
) A direct transliteration
qatar fee-l-'ahd il-islaamee
kaan sukkaan shibh jazeerat qatar min awwal il-aqwaam allatee a'tanaqat
ad-deen al-islaamee. wa-taareekh il-minTaqa mundhu dhaalik al-Heen
yashmal numoow w-izdihaar tijaarat il-lu'lu' allatee la'ibat qatar feehaa
dawran 'ala ghaaya min al-ahamiyya. wa-yaSif haadha al-qism min al-matHaf
aiDan DHuhoor usrat Al-Thaanee fee-l-qarn at-taasi' 'ashar li-tatabbu'
za'aamat ad-dawla wa-rijaalhaa al-afdhaadh alladheen khadamoo al-bilaad
ka-Hukkaam li-d-dawla.
A word-for-word translation
3/ # & !&$ " $ ; +! 0 #3 $ /#"#
#3!& " #3$* #3 $ !" 3# #3 " # #3! #3"$ */# 3E #* #3 $ /#"# #3
$ ; 3# $ 7! #3! " 3#3 "&
# #3 +! #3! ! $ " + !$ $ # #3
" #3# +3 #3"" $ # #3 3!3#
#3; /# #3 #3" 3$ +3#3 Handwriting difficulties: samples written by two
Arabic-speaking beginners
'-'
) '-=
Turkish speakers
#! Distribution
OP I BP: $* # K $ * * +
#/ $ *$ "3$$*&$ /# #
Introduction
# " $ * * " / +! / #/ B# & # * #!* /# # + !$ /#"# $ # # 3
* # !" # #+ + ! $$
++ +! &# 4 &" #*# # #
&/
# $ +! &#
/$$ +! 4"# " -A'@ # # &
/ !0 + # ! " # + " & 7 ! $ + # **$ + $ * * /# ! * " ! $
4 " kuÈcËuÈmsenmemeliydiler )G 1 " & $ +$$/ 8
kuÈcËuÈk G )0 $ #1
mse- G <E7
n- G
me- G * meli- G ydi- G
ler G # # /# O / & /
" $ 8 ) 1 !0 &+ !0 F" &+
& &+ &% )&1 # 0 & # + #
" 7 ! $ +!
$ "" ! * K8
Yeraltl
suyundan
duÈsËuÈk dereceli
B cËlkartan
lsl
pompalarlndan
lsl
banliyoÈlerdeki
'->
bahcËelerde kaÃrll
bir bicËimde yararlanllabilir.
$
! +$8
1 # $
$ "# #/ / /$ + ##!
! # * " E/% # " +07
/ ! "$ /# /# /#! * $ + /
# #+ 0 *$ # / $
$ # *$ " #
* !*# ** & #$
! F
!&$* &$" $* "! $7 " Phonology
Vowels
- <i:<
+ " $ # ##* <I@< "$ $$ &$
<I< 9 # $ 8 <kI@< + % *
7! +
# # / giy " *$ # <i:<
+ + &+ "#* <{<8 ' <e<
+ = <{<
$ * #3 * $ $*
&/ # <e< <{< # + & <e<8 + > <O:< + " <oU< $ * "+ &/ "#
# " " <O:< "" 3
+$$ + # $*# # <o<
. <u:< &"! <U@< /# 0 $ <U< "$ $$ &$ 8 <dU@<
+ % + &# # &$ " # "" +$$ + <j<
# ; $ # l /#"# #/ #*#
, <@< 0
# E" + $$* # +
* /$ # $8 <InkonwInient< +
% <eddISonal< + ? 2# # ##* <eI< <aI< <OI< "" 0 $ <I<
! & " " /# +" ) # $ ! ich # # + 4"# oui # 8
<boIC< + % <deIC< + 1
@ <e@< $$ &"! <eI<
A <@U< + # <oU< /# +$$ & " 0 $! # * $$ ! "" &$ *$ #
# # 5 #6
+ <@U< <bU< /#"# ! # !
'-.
-( / " <I< <@< ! &"! " $*#8 <stI@< + % + <beIsk< +
Consonants
- <T< <D< "" # # * * $ +
+0"$ + $ " #! & 3 <t< <d<
# + 7 ! $ &"! <thru@< + <Tru:<
' # <b< <d< <dZ< $ " /# 0 $ <g< ""
0 $$8 + % + = # <v< !"# ! $*#$ "$ # # *$ #
; $ /# & " /$ "$ *$ # <w< # #
$ # & 6 " # $ $ / " * / /# #+ 0 # / "+ *8 + % + > <ê< $ "" &+ <g< <k< #8 + . # # # + <r< + #! $
# <r< < " /# /
, # # &# 5"$ 6 <l< ) 1 5 6 <l< ) 1
/ # & # !
*$ # ! " & 7 " &+ /$ )5 6 <l< + 5"$ 6 <l<
! " 1 &+ " )5"$ 6 <l< + 5 6 <l<
! " 1
? 2# <p< <b< <m< <f< <v< +$$/ & <{< <A< *$ )$
<w<1 8 <bwAI< + % <fwAn< + @ 4 $ <m< <n< <l< & " # "
# ! #! +0"$ " ! $ $$*&$
&$! Consonant clusters
# # " ! $$/ $ "$ /
"$ + ! # # " $ $#*# ! $ / # $ * /$ )*
istasyon G 1 # " /# * *$ # #
/$ + # 0 " 8 + % + I Rhythm, stress and intonation
# ##!" + *$ # /# "#3 $$ &$
# $$ &$ /# # " /$ $ '-,
+0"$ + # " $ /# $ +$$ !"# ""
2 7 # / # 0 $
$$ &$ & ! &3+! 9 "$ $ * 9 # $ & ! $ & 0 $$
$ ' , ' , ' ;
" &$ &$ !
! &$ + *$ # # * /#"# / " # ! " & ; / ) "# kim
G ne G nicËin G 1 $$ # /#
# $ *$ # + " $ ! # /# *
$ # #+ 'Where ( +
' 'going?
"$ 7 + $$ "# #
$$ &$ *# /# $*# $*#* " $ 9 !"#
*$ # *$ # "# " " +
# # * "# +#*# #/ " ! $ # ! 8
$
. O % $
+0 1 $
$ + !$ # + $$9 /# " + / *
"! $
$ "*" + +! 8
@ (
' " % $
$ $
# 9 "$ $ ! 9 0 #
!& 3
* 4 $$*9 *
"" # & ! $ *
# * + "$ # 0 $ "$ * + $$ #
+ " *$ # # $ " + "F" 8
%Z " %Z " %Z "
%Z $
Punctuation
# ! + ! + # " ! $ &$ 3
" $ * * & / / 8
- "!! $$ / + # " + " /#"# +
#
& # &F"8
C& " ' & "$ $$ ! ++ /# "!! 8
' '-?
=
>
.
,
" * /# # ; $ + 1 % %
!$ 7 "!! # "$ ki )G
1 /#"# * 8
C1 " "!! + / "3 "$ 8
+ " " * /# CËuÈnkuÈ )G 7 $ * /# # *
&+1 ! $$ + +$$ + $ I#/ # + # +$$ * #* " !"# *$ #
B$ *$ # & $$ +$$/ & " $
$ !3"$ $$ D "# + &/ *$ #3 $ "!!
&/ X Y ! I+
; *$ / # "$ # ) 1% #" ! $ ! &
+ &/ X Y ! # 9 /# *$ # !*# 3
$ &$ 9 #/ & " $ $ "!! Grammar
Word order
# 5 &F"9&F"9&6 $ * * /# ; $0 "
; $0 " " "!! & " ! &
+! # $ "!! "# $$ /* $$
F" $ #/ $* " # & # ; $ +
*$ # +$$/ # # ; $ + & 3
* "F" +$$/ # "$ $ & +$$/ $7" $ & ;"$ $ # + ! $ + *$ # / $ ! $ " & " # +0"$ !
"! $7 " # + &F" /# # $ &
&$!8
C% " % $
" /# 5 3 *6 $ " &$8 $ # &$ * "* " $8
1 (
% '-@
Verbs: general
# # & #/ !& " " !
! $ $ /$$ #+ & + # "" & 7 #*# "# * & +! #*# #
*$ # +! #! $ " * +0"$ # &F" 7 /# # &% *
To be
# & # # ! $ " $ $$ * 7 C& $
# # ; $ + " & )$ # *$ #
"1 /# 0 &F" 8
C )+ 1
C- % " )+ - % " 1
To have
# " # ; $ )4 " # # + % $ $ $$
@
1 # & &* /# ! $ *
&$! Questions and negatives
- , * * " " # &
* "$ "$ # & 0 &# # +
+0"$8
C- (
C% # # ; $ + *$ # ; * ! $ &$
7 8
C- " (
Time, tense and aspect
++" # " * + # *$ # & +! $ # +$$/* +0"$ 8
'-A
- ! # * $ /# & "#
+ # & $ " 8
C% $ % ' # #/ $* #* # &
** # # ; $ + 8
C% ? = # " &$ +0"$ /# # !$ $" + "
# 7 *$ # + +* # + 4 " #
! $ ! & + # + " $$ ; ++ ! /# +* " &$ "! 8
' ( - " % $
C O 0
C) BG> > #
* # " " ! & "+ 8
C% % . #
+" & * + #
! $
" /#
&* +! # & $* ! $ $ * 8
C K44 $
C% " % Modal verbs
# #
"! # + ! $ & /#"# 7 !$ ! * # *$ # ! $ "$* +! " *
" "# % , % ' , ' #+ & $ + !$ /# # ! * 7 & # *$ # ! $ )#*# # ++3
" &/ " +0"$1
# # !"# " + # *$ # +! #/ /# # " "3
$ /$ " * $ + &$
Conditionals
$$ # & + " $ /# # "! $" # # # $ +! + $ + # $$
+$0$$ &$8
C% % ? % )+ % % ? % 1
''(
The passive voice
:
"" $ +0"$ & " $$ # *$ #
# "$! # $ $ + * 7$ +! ! $ " + +0"$
$ * "+ "# "
C& 5=34$
B! $7 +! $ # * +"
" "$ +0"$8
C/ $
C& # + ! "0" # *$ # "8
C $
C% I$
* # "9
# + *$ #
#
!& + & /#"# " & &# $ )/# #
*
&F"1 $ )/# # &F"1
%
, % + , % % , " $ # # & % ! #+ 0 "+ * # ! & &# " "!! ! 8
C' (
Participles and subordinate clauses
*$ # " $ "$ " * ++$
+! # # ; $ $ * &$!
"# + # +$$/* 7 " *$ "! $7
" $ & +! #8
$ $ $
, , , , , " # # +! #/ ! # +0"$
** *# *$ # & "$ )* " "#
" " 1
''-
C% % % % Relative clauses
# ! "!! # ; $ + *$ # $ "$ " $ " " $ " &+ # # $ $ * "F"
CËalõsËtõgÏõmõz guÈnler . . . $ $ $
CËalõsËtõgÏõmõz mesele . . . $ $ $
CËalõsËtõgÏõmõz yer . . . $ $ $
*$ # $ " #+ +0"$ + # $ # ! * #! $*# ! +
! 8
C % (
C% 9
Nominalised clauses
*$ # #
+ / + ! $ * "$ #!
&F" &F" "! $! # 0 # +
" "# # +$$/* +0"$ " &$% # # " "# " 8
% to go$
% she went$
Her going $
% she went$
The fact that she went $
% for her to go$
% her going$
Nouns
# *$ & # #/ !& " # $ $ $ # *$ # 9 "$ $ /# 0 *" + !&3/ $*
+! # $* ! " 8
C% " $
C% $
C' $
C '''
4! + +! #
+ "# #*#$ *$ # # " &$ &$ /# *$ # /
+! Pronouns
: $ !"# $ # *$ #8 # &F"
7 $ + ! # " " #
&F"
" /#"# ! $$ * # *$ # &
"# * I&F" $ : $ ! $$ " " # 5 6 +! +
# ! # $ # "$ 8
C' " $
C " % $
C2 $
# # $ #3 "!!$ "+ # 8
C& $
Articles
# #
0 "$ /#"# /"# &/ F"
! $ * * + + * 7 $ 8
C% $
C $
# "#" &/ , +0"$ + # " # $ &/ " &$ " &$ $ # $ /
# *$ # 8
C% " $
# # 0 "$ & " &F" ++ +!
""* /## # 0 ! * #
" * $ /# $$ 0 " &F" $ * ! "# 8
C* $
C% @ $
Adjectives
B!
$/ ! #8
C+ $
''=
Quantifiers
# 5* < 6 " , , & # /# # " &$<" &$ " , C% # ++" &/ % %
+0"$ + #3 *
+ # $ "!!$ "+ 8
C " $
Adverbs
& # !+ & $$ " $ +! F" #8
C1 $
1 " & #8
C1 $
C (
""* 0 &$! 8 cËok sogÏuk "7 " * "+ #
*$ # +! Conjunctions
!* # "F" # " " $ +0"$ + #
$ $ $ I+ # !
# / " &# "F" *$ # $ * "+ &/ + " % % % #
$ $ $ I# * + / /#"# ! # *$ # ; $
)" * "+ " "7 *$ #1 8 %
% B3 "$ + F7 /# "F" # $ * $ 8
C D
' " $
C D
% " % $
''>
Prepositions
: # " "+ "$ ,, % , % ,%
, % , , , , % , , C + ? C% & $
C% $
!! $ # $*# #/ * ! $$
C1 $
C+ / $
Vocabulary
# $ $7" $ "!! * &/ *$ # # en¯asyon )G I 1 kalite
& + &/* +! 4"# "#
)G ;1 ! + # / + $ + 9 + " sempatik
)G "1 kontrol )G 1 $ &$ " * +! &! &$
* # $ " ; $ + ! *$ # & "
* + 3;3 ! *$ # /
"#
+ # # " !
" $$ "!! "+ 8
, , , ,
, # , , , , , , , , , , , , , , C #D
# &$ #* # % " % )+ $1 7 !% /$ "! %
" / % ) ! 1 ! # % $$ F" ''.
The language classroom
" # $$ & + $ # ! "#* ! /# # 7& #
"# 7 " & *# $ 7 " "#* &
" # # " # + * $ + $ * !! /# +0" ! * $$
! # ! & $ " # $ * $ & ! !
#*# # # *
/ + $ * * $$ # + "+$ 7 * $ /# $$ $ * * B!!" "#
$ * * "#* ! "!
& $$ # " $$ /# # &"!
#
" # $ "# $$ ! "
"! ! I"" $$ # ! "" " + # #!3
$ $" & # "# #$ F # "" ! +
# # ! $ #*#$ #
/$6 + #! # / ! !! $ /# #/
# $ * *
# * ++" &/ # / $ * * ! $ *$ # *$ # ! &$
/$$ * ! $ /# !"# & " " &$ +03
"$ 2 "! + " # ! "! $7 " " # " & +$ "# &" "! ! # & 5 6 #!
'',
Speakers of South Asian languagesB# # # "$
Distribution
:O Q & : $ +"
:
O
Introduction
! 7 ! F $ * * # " + # &" # + $ * * + # ) !$
$ $ !
O $*1 !!& + # + !$
# # $$ 3 $ * * !!& + # & "# + #
3 + !$ /#"# +! # "$ #
$ $ * * + )1 : )1 *$ #
)* $1 $ ) $1 )# $ 1 #
$
)#1 & ! ! * $ $ * * + : )F # I
! O #! #
: F &1 $ + # $ * * # & & !* #
+ # /$ # O*! / # $ *
"!! + + * $ F : F & )! + # $ E 1 !$
$ + # $* + # $ *$ # # &"! 0!$ &$ # # # /# " "!! +
*$ # /$$ # & 7 " E" #*# # ! $ / /#"# # $$ # $ * * # # + # "! *$ # " & $
!! + 7 & # /# # #*# $$ + " +
/#! # ! * + # $ * * ! # *$ # /# 5" " 6 &/ # / *
$ # /# # * * + "!! 5 *$ #6 B#E * # & # " + + /
+! # $ * * # # *$ # " /#
! &$ * + +! #*# # &" -
# +" # "# # 3 $ * * + # #
+$$/* "# + # &$! + + $ * * ''?
+ + ) !* !!* )#*# &$ /# ! * $
" $$ + ""1 " +! #
"#
# + /# !" $ *$ #
+ # " + + # *$ # "!! ! $$ + # 3 $ * * ! $ + # ! "$ "& & +*
# " $ 7 ! $ + /#"# # "$ #
"$$; $ # # ! /$ + #
&" & +0" $$ + $ # *#
+ # + : # $*3 &$ # + *$ # # "#$ + #
&" # &$! " & $ $$ &
! $ ! & # " $ # # #
"$ $ * * & "* # "# $ " $$ /# # * $
&$! # + # $ * * )/## #
&" 1 ! " + # "# # *$ #
* !$ )# $ *0" + /#"# ! " &$! + + $ "$ #
$ * *
"#* # + *$ # " $ &
$ /# "# + # $! K1 +" " $
$ 6 ! #$ & # + !/ ! $ # # *$ # ! / # *$ #8 ! " +! # "" ! & +"$ "" # #
+! # # : $ * * /#"# /
+ # &" " $! # $ * * #
/ " / +! $+ *# " &# " /$ $#*# # ! $ # & ! $$ / ! F # $ * * # *$ # /* ! * $ &$! + ! # $ Phonology
General
# #$*" $ ! + # $ * * *$ # ++
! " &$ # ++ !" * " &/ /$
" &/ " 2#$ *$ # # '' /$ ##* '> " # $ /$ #! & * # =( " +
" " +$$ * # $ " + # *$ # $$ <t< <d< # &#
+ $ " /# # &$ + # * &# # #
''@
+ + ) <t< <th< <d< <dh< # " $$ # E7 "
/# # + # * "$ & " &# # $$ * <`< <`h<
<¦< <¦h<
!* # + + # $ * * /#"# * 5# ""6 *$ # 8
9 "$ # *$ # /# /$
" +#
+/ $ * # $ + ! " &/ ++
/$ 9 # " + # "$ " <p< <t< <tS< <k< /#
$$ 9 # " + # *$ # $$ " <t< <d<
# # E7 " <`< <¦<
9 ++ ! +! *$ # ) &$/1
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ 3; $ ! #
$ * *
#$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- <e< <{< + "+ 8 ' <¡< <O:< * $$ "+ /# <A:< # ! /$ <A:<
" $$ # " + "# + /
= # ##* <eI< $$ "
# "$ ! ##*
<e:<8 <me:d< + # ##* <aI< <OI< &# $ &$ & $ <a:I<8 + > # ##* <@U< $$ " # "$ ! ##*
<O:<8 <kO:`< + ''A
+ + ) Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ 3; $ ! #
$ * *
#$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- # "$ " <p< <t< <tS< <k< " /#
$$ % # <p< # * # ! $ # ' # +" " <T< <D< $ " & #
$ <th< # <d< "$8 <dem< + <f< + $ " & #
<ph<8 # <phI`< + <pIt< + = # $$ " <t< <d< *$ $ $ " & #
E7 " <`< <¦<8 # <¦en< + <dem< + ) &1
> # $ # #! # + <v< </<
# " &/ # / ! F +0"$ +
$ 8 . ! # $ * * <z< $$ # + <dZ< /
$ ! & *3/ + ! $ ,
# $ * * $ " # #! <Z< /#"# ! &
$ $ <z< <S< <dZ< <j< "# /
? # 5 6 * $$ $ " & # 5"$ 6 +" $$ /# @ <r< "
/ ) &$/1 /# ++"* # ; $ + # "*
/$
A ! # $ * * # $ #! # +
<s< <S< ! + + 7 ! $ * $ F 0 +0"$ * # &/ # / "+ *
+ / $ '=(
+ + ) Influence of spelling on pronunciation
# " + # ! #" # $$* $ *$ "" * " 6 " +
*$ # / " ;$ 3+ #+$ # / +! 8
- <r< " /# / "$* /# "! &+ " $"
#
; $ + # "* /$ ++"
: !
"!! + $ #! " &$ <di:@r< + #!*
/# ' / ! & " * + # # "
" "
"# / $
= # / + # *$ + "
/ + ! * "$ " <¦evel@pe¦< + <A:ske¦< + > # / + # $ $ ! & "
<s< +
" " $* /$
/# #$ & " <z<
Consonant clusters
# * + " "$ ""* # &** +
*$ # / !"# / # # $ * * "#
"$ ! $08
- $ /3 *! "$ &** /# <s< ! & 07 & <I<8
+ + "
' $ "$ + ! $ &$ & & & #
+ # # /$ <@< # " 8 +
+ "
= 4 $ "$ ! & !$ $ & ! $0 & #
! + " 8 + + "
" > 0 $ <l< <n< +$$/* " "
"! $ $$ &$ /# "$ /$ <@< &+ #
<l< <n<
Rhythm and stress
" +! *$ # /#"# 3! $ * * /#"#
/ &# # $ ! $/ " &$ #
$ * * $$ &$3! " #
'=-
+ + ) ##! /#"# & ! $ # *! + $* # $$ &$ 2 #! ""*$ & / $
$ $/ " &$
#
* + $$ &$ *$ # / "!3
#+ + * +0"$ + + #
$ * * - # + $ " / ! & " $
$ "* + 7 ! $ +$$/* ""
" * + # $ $$ &$ "$ $ "!!
"
' # * !! " $ " &/ /# # 0 $$ &$ & /# " $$ &$ $ + +
/" /$$
&
" # " $$ &$ + !$ "+ &/ 9
# "!&
+ "!& + F"
/# # "
"
* # +! = 4$$ /$ & $$ &$ # &# # + "" # " + .# # $
"!! / ! $$ "
" 5/ +! 6 *$ # $ !$ $ # +$$ 5 * +!6 $ $$ " $ $ * Intonation
# $$ * $ $ # "# "
& # # $ * * # ! &$ ++" +! *$ #
$ # + & $$ "# /# # "$ " ! # # ! " /# # ! $ *$ #
"& +# # 5 *3 *6 ! + # *$ # # ! $ +! # $$ &$3! "# " + #
$ * * + # *
# " $ * + ; *$ # +
7 + ! # $ * * # "# "3
" * /#"# # + ; ! &
3+ $$ # ; $ # *$ # ! " $ " ! * : "$ $ $ ; 3
+ ! + ! $ &$ & " ##! $$
"$ $ $$ " &$! +
+ # $ * * " $$ #
" + / +! # " "* +
" ! # "$ $! /# "
'='
+ + ) Juncture
# +" + * # + $ / +! #
* $ + # " ! $+ "! $7
" # + + *$ # $$ $+ " " $ &$! Orthography and punctuation
# " E" $ + *$ # +! # #
++ $ # &" $ ! " # $ * * !3 #" $$* " /# # $ +;" # !! ! " # + " $ $ /#"#
* # # " # " $ # ; $ + # +$$ &+ # " + *$ # * # # /#$ & +
"!!
"$ ; ! # $ / +$ /* # " $#*# $/ ! " $$ !$ " + " ! & " # $ +
*$ # /# # "$ &$! # + "!! " "# " " "# " " + ! # $ * * ; "!! 0 " + #
8
C+ < $
Grammar
General
# +$$/* " # & "! $ # & + # " &/ *$ # # ! ! + #
3 $ * * 4 # "" /# + # #
$ * * ! !$ # O*!
! & & # /# & $ ; $$ #
$$ " $ $! /# 7" # "$ $ $ : F & "# /$$ $ #$ + F #*#
# $ + * $ /#"# # $ ! #$ & # # $ * * + # # ; ++ * !! ) # +$$/* "# 1
# 5 + "#6 + *$ # & $ !$ #/ !"# ! #*#$ E" $ * * /#"# ! ! & "! /# # #
*$ $ $ '==
+ + ) +! % F" $ " &+ % * $$ *$ ! +
& "F* /#"# "$ ! $ * " +! % 7$ ! $ & % +
)! $ " *$ # & # " "! $* # + 7$ & 1
$ *$ # * # ! "$ +! # "!! )*3 $1 +! + $$ $ " ! +
# "! $ +! + F" # / "$
" * # *$ # "$
+ $ " +
#
! $ / /#"# # & $ " 0 $$ " ! + # ++"
/$$
! + #
!$ +;$
" &$! + # $ + *$ #
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries
- # ; $ + # 7$ 2# "0"
* / ; ! $ & 3
9 +
++
+! *$ # 9 / $8
C' % (
- % (
' * +! & * * ! )/#"# " 3
&# 1 &+ # &8
C- CD (
# ! / , ; & * $$*
* * ; # +0! " " "+ 8
- ( - $ )G % 1
= # "!! ; * +" + $$ ; " + # &F" $ ! nicht wahr?8
C- & " (
# $ "! # *$ # (
> # " $ 7$ & # ; $ + # & " * + & $ + *$ #8
C- )+ 1 1
'=>
+ + ) Time, tense and aspect
! $
$ * # #
# & $
* +" #*# * "! $$
" $ *$ #
- 2# # ! $$ * + "!! & "$* /#"# $ * +! # *$ #
* ! & $ &
$* /# # # & $ +! /# # " $ 7$ 8
C' ? ' # ! $
! & /# *$ # /$ + # +"8
C+
)+ + 1
= #
+" + ! * +! # /# # +" & " +! + ! # ! $ *$ #8
C )+ $ $ $1
> # "# /#"# $$ # * $ +
* & 8
C1 )+ 1 1
! $ $ * #
+" / "!! +
/* + # * *$ #
- 2# & $ *
* ! & $ &
! $ +! /# # 7$ 8
C' 1
' # * + ++ # & ** 8
C1 ? (
C+ ? # # * "+ "" #
+! # $* /# # " $ )+ '
#/ $*
'=.
+ + ) # +$$ + + # !"#
! +$ # *$ # 7 # + & &$8
C- )+ - 1
Conditionals
" $$ + + # #
" $ "$ & + $ $* /# # + &F"8
C% " )+ % $ $ $1
! " ! & + # ! $
# " $ "$ /$$ # ! "$ 8
C% " )+ % $ $ $1
Modal verbs
# # " ; $ ! *$ # ! $ & ;
"$ $ $* " " & # +; ! ! "# # *$ # "$ #*# 7 # * +
#
" !8
C'
)+ ' 1
# +; "#" + +" * & $* + * $ # # +! $*
# + &F"8
C* )+ $ $ $1
!$ $ + 8
C' )+ ' 1
B $ +;$ ! & # + $ " + 8
C1 )+ 1 $ $ $1
+ " 7 + & ; ! & "3
/# + ; ! & * / 8
C- )+ ' (1
B! 8
C% )+ & % (1
'=,
+ + ) Q& + / #* &$ &$! ! # $ /# + # *$ # 0 + & # + & "$ " # &F" &
+ 8
C% % )+ % $1
C% )+ % $1
Non-finite forms
*$ # # &# 7 # + & $ /# # $
*$ 0 B+ &/ # /
*$ # +!
"$ $ "!! 7 * # +
/# # !$ 9 + # 0 +$$/ &
; $ 9 ! & ! 8
C1 ? )+ $ $ $ ?1
B $ # *$ # 0 +;$ $ " + +!8
C+ )+ $ $ $ 1
C' )+ $ $ $ 1
Reflexive verbs
! E7 " /# # # !#3* " 8
C9 $ ." " $
Word order
$#*# ! # $ * * ++ +! *$ # # *
# # $ " # & # +
# " # + " $$ "+ 7" " ; ) &1
Articles
# + # *$ # "$ + # ! +0"$ +
$ * # # $ * * # ; $ + # 0 "$ $ # !& 56 "
'=?
+ + ) ! + # 0 B+ " ;$ +;
*$ # /# $ + ! # "$ " $$ & + # 0 "$
Gender, number and case
* !! " $$ # ! "$ +!% 7" /# $ 7 "" # "$ 0" # $$ $ ! * # +! + + #/ * F" & ! $ ++ +! )5 *!61 ""* # * +
# ** # # * +!
$! & #/ # "" $ ) &F"
&F" "1 " : * # + *
# # 9 # ; $ + 9 & ! $ ! * $$ * # * " &$! *$ # + # $ +0"$ * #*
* # # *$ ! & $ &
"! + # ! "$8
C% )+ $ $ $ 1
# *$ # " "$ $ $* # +
&$; " +$$/ & # ! &$! +
# $ $ * * $ # " /# *$ # + /# + "! $7 $! 8
C )+ 1
:$ $ + +! & # $ + # 0 $ /$ &
# + * $ * * + ! "$ ! "# * # ! $ +! + # $ $ # ! "" + #
"" $ * + +! *$ # $ $ # $ ! ++" &/ *$ # #
+ /# " $ $ # ! " "+ *$ # 2 $ *$ /#
! # " &$ *$ # $ $8
C $
C1 $
:$ $ + + *$ 2# " $ $ $ # ; $ + + #!8
C' )+ ' 1
'=@
+ + ) Adjectives and adverbs
F" " # # ; $+ *$ # # / $ * * # "! &$ + ! $ & +/
"!! + "+ #/ 8
- # " $ +! + # "! $ +
& * ! $ " " + # 8
C # " ;$ ! "+ # + # *$ #
"! $ +!
&$ +!
"!!8
C1 ' ! # ! " &/ +*
&
/ & # *$ # 8
C% )+ $ $ $ 1
= # F" & +;$ * + & ! # &#8
C1 " )+ $ $ $ 1
C9 " )+ $ $ $ $ $ $ 1
Prepositions and particles
B &$ +0"$ " + ! + # $ * * & $$ +! + * "$* # 3
" /# $ ) % 1 /#
# $ & C1 1
+ # ! "!! "" # ! $ $$ +
* # /* & $* /# # # /$ & $ * * $ "! &$ 7 I$ +/ + # ! "!! "+ " & " #8
C% )+ $ $ $ 1
C )+ $ $ $ 1
C+ ? # )+ $ $ $ # 1
& # *
" &F" *$ # $ /#
8
C' $
C $
C% $
# 0 $ $! + # $ & $ $ &$ "+ 8
C1 )+ 1 $ $ $1
'=A
+ + ) C1 )+ 1 1
Subordinate clauses
# $ * * * $$ $ + + "! $7 & "$ # *$ # +* ! $
$$$ " " +03
"$ #+ $$ 7 " & $ + *$ # # $* # ! "! $7 + & "$* $
" "# # # " " $$ & & $ $ "$ /# + # " "8
C' " )+ 1
C) " )+ ' 1
Vocabulary
*$ # $ / $ * !& $$ # $ * * " $$ "" /# ! "#$* # $$ * #$ $ + *$ # /#
/$$ &$ / * $ + " &$ /#
$$ "# $ / #/ !! $ + &$ & "
*$ # # &" # " # & *0" $
"# * &" # / & $ # *$ # &" # "$ $" $ 7 + ! * + #
" * +/ 7 ! $ /$$ ! # + +0"$ /#"#
! # ! + # !# $$ &/ +! *$ # &
# " # + & *0" $ $8 ' +
A % ' + )% ' + )% ' + . "
!$ $ hotal # ! $ ; $ + # *$ # &
$ "$ " +Z furlong / " # "
" ! & " # " /# +
" / # # 7 crossing # roof +
! # & " * + # /# * & 6 # /# # / 5/ /$$ #/ !
& " 6N
'>(
+ + ) Culture
+ "# * " !
# E" + # "$ +
# * " "!! + + # $ * * $ # &" # $ " + # "# + # / / $$
!
"# " " + $ +! # *#&* " ! # +! $ " $ / / # & " $"$ ! "" /#"# ! 0 # " /# # " ! # "$$; $ *
"# ! 0 # $" +! +! $ $ $
# $$3+! $ "$ Samples of Hindi and Urdu
A passage of Hindi printed in the Nagari script
A direct transliteration and word-for-word translation
ek
din begam saÅhabaÅ ke sir
menÇ dard hone lagaÅ
I * ! #& 36 # 3& &* unhonÇne launÇdõÅ se
Ç
mirzaÅ saÅhib ko
3& ! +!
bulaÅ laÅ.
kisõÅ
kahaÅ ± jaÅ-kar
5# *3*
hakõÅm ke yahaÅnÇ se
K #& davaÅ
" $$ &* ! " 36 # +! !"
laÅenÇ.
daur , jaldõÅ kar.
)#1 ! 3&* Ç # ! 6
mirzaÅjõÅ
ne kahaÅ ± cal
K F &
abhõÅ
launÇdõÅ gayõÅ to
Ç
/ #
aÅte hainÇ.
begam
5 F 3/ )/1 "!6 * !
'>-
+ + ) saÅhabaÅ kaÅ mizaÅj
garm thaÅ. itnõÅ
#& 36 ! # / 3!"#
ki
unke sir
rahe.
shatranj
& # & "#
cehraÅ surkh ho gayaÅ. launÇdõÅ se
Ç
$ * ! 4 " &" !
kahaÅ ± jaÅ-kar
5 *3*
vah ap hõÅ
kahaÅnÇ
" /#
menÇ dard ho aur pati
# # # kheltaÅ
taÅb
kah, abhõÅ
+!
calie,
nahõÅnÇ to
55 3/ $3#!3* #
hakõÅm ke yahaÅnÇ jaÅenÇgõÅ.
# # " 36 # /$$ *666
An idiomatic translation
I * ! #& # # "# 5 " $$ K
#& 6 # $ # ! 5 #! * ! ! !" +!
"6 $* #N6 2# # ! / #! K F 5I++ * 6! F "!*6 * ! #& / + / "$
# /# # * # "# /#$ # # & / $ *
"# H + " E # # $ # ! * $$ #! $ *# / #/ #6 * # "6 # $+
)4! @ 9 & :! B# 1
A passage of Urdu in Perso-Arabic calligraphy
A direct transliteration and word-for-word translation
ab
savaÅl
ye uthtaÅ hai ki agar vo sab kuch
thõÅk hai jo
Ç * # +
Ç
# $$ !#* *#
/#"#
/ ; #
urduÅ vaÅle
hindõÅ ke muta'alliq aur hindõÅ vaÅle
/ $$ # 36
socte
hainÇ, aur agar in
#* '>'
&
+
urduÅ ke muta'alliq
/ $$ # 36
dononÇ zubaÅnonÇ
kõÅ bunyaÅd
# &# $ * * 36 + &
masnuÅ õÅ
0" $
+ + ) aur ghair-®trõÅ
hai, to
$ zubaÅnonÇ
phir is
kaÅ kyaÅ
sabab hai ki
# # 36 /# kõÅ din ba-din taraqqõÅ
ho
$ * * 36 &3 $ ! #
in
dononÇ
# # &#
rahõÅ hai aur in
3* kõÅ
# 36
maqbuÅliyat avaÅm men barh rahõÅ hai?
Ç
Ç
$ $ */ 3* H
An idiomatic translation
# ; / # + $$ # # # &
# & "" # & +
&# # $ * * 0" $ $ # /# # # &# $ * * $ * & # # $ !* $ */*H
)4! 1 N 5J44 B # "$ $$1
'>=
Speakers of Dravidian languages:
Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu
!# Distribution
I O :I
$ # +"
! Q ! # B && %
# !$3 * "!! ! # + # /$
Introduction
+ # &$! + " & + $ * * /#
# $ *$ # # /#
+ # # $ * * 4 $ + # * ''?9'>= / $ * * **$ $ * * $ #% # ++ " $$
# #$* ! #$* 7 +! # 3 $ * * + # &" # " *$ $ "!! /# *$ # # # $ * * + $ * * #+ " !& + $ &$! /#
$ * *$ # # "# $ /# # *$ # + !$3 *
$ & # ! * $$ $ + + #
$ * * Phonology
Vowels
# !$ /$ ! " + 0 + # $* /$ 8
<Ã< <A<% <I< <I:<% <e< <e:<% <o< <o:<% <u< <u:<
$$ # /$ ##* #*# $/ "7 # / /$ <o< ) "$ # /$1 <o:<
)# $* ; $1 # "$ " #
*$ # #*# !$ /$ "" " # # #
* $ # / ##* 8 <aI< )$ # /$ 1 <aU< )$
# /$ 1
'>>
+ B!! &$! 8
- *$ # ##* & "" $ " ! $ "
/ # /$ /# $ *$
<pe(y)int< <pÃ(w)Und<
' Q/$ ! & # $*# "" " /#
" $ "# 3 " $$
54/$6 " <phU¦vÃr;¦<% "!!$
" <UedZI``e8bu;<
= 0 " $$ +0"$ * # " #
/$ /#"# # "$ !$ ; $3
% # /$ ! $ & "+ /# # Consonants
- !$ " " $$ & " /# E7 9 # /# # + + # * "$ & " "# # + # # $ # +3! + + 5 ""6 & "$ $ * !$ ' $ * * # " # ! # *$ # $ <p< <t< <k< /#"# ! $$
# + $ " ""$% # " $$ & E7 " ! # <b< <d< <g<
"$ # * + 7 ! $
= # + ! $ *$ # " &/ " " )* <b d g z<1 # " ; $ )* <p t k s<1 #
" !$ /# $$ " " & " " # $ " &$ "+ > !$ " 5*! 6 &$ " # 5 *$6 " ! & +$$ " /" ) +
/ " $ 1 B *$ # # " #$ ! $ # . <T< <D<
" * +0"$ " #
7! !$ ; $ $ # # $
6 " ! "! "$ <t< <d<
, # <z< !$% ! $ ? # <f< !$% $ ! " *$ # <f<
<p< $ * "+ &/ + 7 ! $ @ <Z< 7 !$ <S< & / "#
A 4 $ $ " # $ " 4 $
<ê< *! <êg<8 56
'>.
+ -( # ! " *$ # " &/ $ 5"$ 6 <l<
+0"$ + !$ %
0 $ 5 6 <l<
!$ #
+ ++ " # & # * # # / Syllable structure; consonant clusters
!$ # + ! " "$ # + " !$3 * $ # &$ /# #
" + *$ # / !$ / $$ " $ ! / <U< # + !
*$ # / + "$ " Stress and rhythm
# &$! $ *$ !$ # +
$ * * #/8
+ # #
- !$ #
" /#"# * $ $$ &$
/# $* /$ "$ $$ &$ * *! " 3
& # ' /# # $ *$ # $ *$ +! * / 7
! " "# /
# " ##! !* Morphology and syntax
General
!$ ! #$* 5 **$ *6 5"" *6 # * !! " $ ! " $!
5 " 6 ;"
+07 / !8
[azhitta:rgal.]
9
+07 9 $ $ +07
Q $
# + 5/6 #+ # # ! !$
*$ #8 !$ / ! " $! # *$ # /$
& 7 & $ ++ / &$** ++ +
"# # & &/
+ "# #! $ !/# E !$ ! # " &$ +0"$ '>,
+ * * "" " # "!! $ " #
* !! + 3 $ * * "#
" ! $ 73
$ F" & % * # / /#"# *$ # / " "$ " Word order and sentence structure
0 " !0 $! )& 5$ 6 &$/1 Q&
"! # + !$ " ! & " 7$ /#"# " $ &* ! ! !$ " " & +! /# 0 & /# 7 &F" &F" # ! "$ $ +" +
! $ "
+ * "+* *" /# 3
* " ) # 7 # + # "# + 7 ! $ 1
$$ + # + ! & E" $ 6 *$ #
Complex sentences
B! $! "$ " ! "$ !$ $ #
"#
"3 " " /#"# & 7 &
"F" *$ # ! & " # / !$
7 ! #+ $/ ! # $ #
7 $" B $ " " "$ &$! " &/ 0 30 +! $/ "$ 3
" !$ " #/ "! $7 $ # 0 & ! % $$ # & /$$
" $3$ +! ! " # *$ # * +! + 0 & & "$ Indirect speech
*$ # " "# " ++ +! # !$
; $ $ ! 0 #! +0"$ * Relatives
!$ # $ # !$ ; $ + *$ # $ " $ * "$ &+ # )
# $ + 5 #
6 5 6 + 5
#
6 5 61
'>?
+ #+ 0 *$ # $ " +0"$
* #!
! Interrogatives and negatives
0 # *$ # + 7$ + ; * / + ; # $ )D ! !$ & * "$1 D * ! & $ " & *$ * ! 8 - " (
Tenses
!$ #
"! $7 ! + /# ! * # $/ " "$ $ # + # *$ # ; $ 4 7 ! $ # 5+ 6 " 7 # & $ "F" / # !* # #* C% % $ )+ ' % % 1
C/ # $ )+ / # $1
C % $ )+ % % 1
Articles
!$ $ " /# / " $$ "$ #*# ! / " * ! + # + *$ # "$ :" &$
$ 0 # "$ ! +0"$ " $ ! $ *
+ , $ * 7" ! ! # " "7 Emphatic and reflexive pronouns
!$ # ! # " E7 ! $ * $ # *$ # ; $ C' $
C % $
C% $
C $
C+ " $
'>@
+ Adjectives and adverbs
# ! & "+ /# "# # /# & ) ! & + "#1
!$ 7 "! $ ! * & " $
"$ & "# * # F"
F" & " $$ + ! # Hierarchy and honorifics
!$ # $* " " + " * # $ +
# ! +$ /* #/ # *$ # ! ! # # ! * !#*
Speech and writing
# *
&/ #
/ * $$
$ * * # ! $ $ + 3$ & 3+! $ $ / *$ #
A literal translation of a Tamil text, with a normal
English gloss
This one man-of one day-of (adj.) living.
# + ! 6 $*
You (hon.) having-dared-being-if having-done-being-able small-nesses,
# # !*# # "!! + # compel-being-forced-being-if having-shown-being-able daring,
# * !*# # $ + # & +" having-wished-being-if having-received-being-able diseases,
# !*# # * + # having-touched/taken-being-if attained-being-possible disrepute/shame,
# # ! !*# # "# + # $$/ $+ &
"#
these-indeed that-man life.
# # ! 6 $+
'>A
+ That-man-that next day (acc.) about we knowing taking need-not.
# + 0 & # 7 Why-asked-if that-man-to-also ± us-among many-to like-indeed ±
" + # ! 9
+ ! !* 9
tomorrow different-one day-indeed!
!/ # ) * F 1
Reference
#!
'.(
#! ) B &
:"# -A@A
Speakers of West African languages
:#$ **
Introduction
# $ * * + 2 +" ! + $
* $ $ * 2# "# ! ++ !# * + $ # ! $$ ; $$3
*&$ # /#"# # "# ! /# * # ! # $" /
$ /$$ & + " *
$ * * $
/# ! $$ ! # & / / $$
4! *$ # $ * * "#* + / ! +$ "$ + # + 2 +"
""* # +0" $ "
$ * * )*$ # 4"#1 # " $ * * # $ * * +
*! $ * 7 + " &F" $" $ $"
$ # !! + */* +" $ " 4"# "$ $ *$ # "!! * * + / ! # + # !# * 4 # # "#" + *$ #
4"#
+0" $ " $ * * # *
E" *$ # "#* ! $ !# # # !#
* + $ "#
$ * + # $ + $! " $ +/ / + *$ # $$ # /# # # $! " ! *$ # $ "" $$ /# $ $! "! " # #*#$ " $ " $ # #! ! $! 7" #
/
# + * *$ # " $ "# *$ #
" # / $" + * ! 7
$ * * $ "* " * " !" $$ * *$ # *$ & ! 2 +" $$" $
# $$ +0" $ "* /$$ &
" # #*# /$$ & E" ! + # + +
" * !! & + ) # !"# + #
* + / * +! $$* /#"# # " 1
# *$ # + 2 +" "$ * # !& ) $$ +! # "$ 1 $ &
'.-
+ ' ) /#"# # # " $ $ / /# # B !
*$ # #
# ; $ /# 4"# & "" $
/ + 0 " ) & '. " + # $ 1 *$ #
# + " # )
+! B !1 "! $ * B# * $ # B 4 * # " ! #/
* 4"#
E" *$ # $ & !
# $ * * &
/#
4"# "" # *$ # + " #
" " # /#$ + 2 +" 7" + 3 &" $ 7" ! 7 + $* !*
$ !" $ "#E # &3 # # ! ! + # !# * *$ # 2 +" )
+! *$ # & 1 +$$/ 8
. / 8 4$ # # P& # #/ &
# # & &$ # ! ! #*#$
$ + $$ 2 +" $ * * # & *$ E3
" & &" #
$* $ & #/ /# # "& ! ! * $ *$ #
. B8 # * + $ * * )! $ / 4 1 # # # # + "" / ) $$
" 1 # # *& # # #
. + * 8 $$ *$ # 4/ & ! $ O # / ! # # # )G
*1 # #
. B8 2$+ # . * 8 $$ *$ # & ! $ + #
$ * * $#*# # E" + # ! 0 " $ * * &$ $ & " $ 2 +" &$!
+ $ /# # *$ #
* !$ # &$! ! & $ # +" + " & + # "!! ! 2 +" $ * * "# $ "! $ ! $ /$ !
$ $ # $ ! +
+" + *$ #
$ "!!
"$ $ + # * $ $
"$ $ *
# /#"# ) " $$ # +!1 ! # # "$ +
2 +" *$ # "#*
'.'
+ ' ) Phonology
General
2 +" $ * * # +/ /$ # *$ # +/ 0 $ " " "$ # ! *$ #
/$ ++ & 2 +" ! ! 0 $
" " ! 2 +" $ * *
&# $ $$ &$3! # + * 2 +" *$ # F
&# !* )/# $$ *$ $$ &$ !"# + ! # 1 )/#
/ & !"# $$ 1
Vowels
- <i:< <I< + " $ &# &* " # !! +# "+ /# <eI<8 + !!
# <z:< #!
' <e< and <z:< + " $8 " "$ &$!
! & +# "+ /# <A:<8
= <{< <A:< <Ã< "+ 8 ! <{< <Ã< "+ /# <e<8 /# > <O< <O:< <@U< "+ 8 . <U< "+ /# <u:<8 , <@< $ <z:< " * +0"$ $ $+ & $ )!
" $$1 &" 2 +" * $$ / #
/$ + $$ &$ $ # "
*$ # /
# $ ! *
"$ ++" +
7 ! $ &/ "
# 0 0 "$ "
7! $
<A:< <de< * " <A:<
? " ! /$ $*# $$ /$ &
" # # " # "+ &/ " "$ " Consonants
- <T< <D< $$ pronounced <d< <t<8 + % +
% + "
' <ê< "!!$ " <n< <êg<8 ê + = ! <l< <r< "+ 8 + # ! '.=
+ ' ) & / "+ &/ + 7 ! $ % "
> Q" 0 $ " & " # "* /$
#8 + % + % + % + "
. B "$ " +0"$ " $$ /# 0 $ /#
! " & !8 + #% + %
+ "
, 4 $ "$ "#
" " " $
&$!
# ! + +0"$ "" F"
4 # # + * $ "3
# " + "
"# /#"# # "! 3
# ! # "" /$ " Influence of spelling on pronunciation
#
$ & ! /$ # #$ & "
/ "!!$ * # +$$ +! ! $ & # $$* ! $ & # E" + $$* # " "# /
& " /#
<¡< <O:< + <Ã< :" + $ $ ++" $$* +
" " $$ +$$/* # "" +$ + " !# "#*
! "#$ 8 % % "
Rhythm and stress
2 +" $ * * " $$ $$ &$3! /#"# *$
++" # ##! + 2 +" *$ # 3!
"# $$ + !$ B % did I green red ( $ " $ Intonation
2 +" $ * * " $$ $ "# $7" $ ! +
*$ $$ &$ /$$ # 07 ;" + "
+ "7 # # "" +
"$ $* /#$
" &* "
&$ + + # + ! # ; * # + 2 +" *$ # $ *$ $! + , ; + /# #
" 0 $ + $$ + !
3; I#
'.>
+ ' ) $ # 7" !* # #*#$ " +#
+0"$ /# +" ! /# 07 # & 0 *$ # " " $! ! &$ * # # *$ # # " +
# !
Punctuation
# # # # # /$$ +
"+ ! "!! + ""$ &+
"#8
C1 " I# "!! ! * + " $ "!! &/
"! $ " )+ ""$ $ /# "1
+ " "0 2 +" Grammar
General
/$ & +0"$ +
" $ ! $ +$
* $ & # * !! + 2 +" $ * * & "# + *$ # 2 +" ;"$ " # "" +
" + ! # +$$/* $" / #*# #
$ & !# * +" $/ "$ * $ " $ +
Verbs
- # *$ * # + 7$ # ! $ " +; &$! 8
C+ ?" $
C1
$
C1 '
"!! /# & # " + "F"3
8
C% $
C1 $
? , ; " !$ 8
C " (
= # 0 +! + " &$! 8
'..
+ ' ) >
.
,
?
C1 $
C1 $
C% B#" + +! " ! &$! :3
* +! ! & /*$ $" /# " +
* 8
C% $
C% $
C% # +" +;$ ! 8
C% $
C% 5=J4
#
+" * $$ &
$ " + 8
C% $
N $+ + # + # & $ "8
C )+ 1
% % ) * % * % 1 & /# # " " +! % /$ & ! Modal verbs
$ & $ +! + $ /$$ # /#$
#*# !" )* ,, 1 /$$
8
& & # 7 + 8
C% % #$
C/ $
/ + +$$/ & 8
C- Nouns, articles and determiners
- # ++" &/ " &$ " &$ /$$
! " &$ /*$ "$ 08
C' $
C1 !$ ! "" /# # 8 * ; ' I# ! /# "$ ! ! & $ "3
&$8
'.,
+ ' ) =
>
.
,
C ) ! + ! $ "$ & 1
C $
C1 + + "" + * 8
C% # 0 "$ + /*$ ! /# ! $ 8
C & (
C1 < @ $
C + ) 1 7 + ; + ! * 8
C $
C- " % $
C% * $ "+ # * ++" + !*
8
C $
CB $
C ; " Intensification and comparison
-
! & "+ /# 8
C 0
C1 ' ? + 8
C " = + + $ +! $ 3! # " $ ! 8
C% > B! ! & + +! 8
C )+ ;
1
Pronouns
- 1
+ + #! +! $ + ! $ 8
C% ' E7 + + 8
C = " /* # " ) '.?
+ ' ) # #" " 1 ++ / "! $
"$ # $ + / Subordinate clauses
+! " $ " " &$! 8
C% % " C% " $
( # # !$ +! &$!
"!!$ ""$ + +* # +8
C% ' ;" + $ " "# /$$ 8
C2 $
C% $
C% " ; * # +! " 8
C% $
C1 " "$ & +$$/ & # ! "$ % "$ " / +0"$ 8
C) " % $
C1 " % $
$ "$ "!!$ " &$! " $$ # +
8
C % $
'.@
+ ' ) Vocabulary and culture
2# *$ # " $ * * +* $ * * &"! ! 7 # + # 3 % # # / E" # # / "$
+" #! $ # + # " $$ #
" + # "# "$ ! / $ #
*$ # # + " ! # 2 +" " *$ # #
$ & " "# " " / % " " &$ * $ 7 " ! * $ +
* !! % ! "# /$$ 0 +0"$ "* #/ + * 5""*6 " + ! #! "+! #
# ! #$ + 7 ! $ "" % 1 )+ 1 1% ' % " $$ + /#"# "!!$ 2 +" *$ #H
#$ " # * + +! $ $ /* ** /#"# * 2 +" "$H "# ; ! #*#$ & &$
2 +" $ * * "# & "$+$ * +" " ;" & $ " *$ # &
*
! #! + ! & +
&$
# * + 0" &* # + $ "! $
* + " $ $+3! ! 3
$/ " /# 7" + # " "# & "" B#" + &$ 0"
+" + $$ + !$ /# &F"
/ "
+! #
+ / /# " 0" + $
&$ # " # 7 " # -A.( + *$ +" $ *$ # ** &$ $ & # $ * * +
!"# + +0"$ F " $$ # " !! " $
'.A
Swahili speakers
$$ Distribution
U
OP
IU D
B! ! $ / I! U !& U
Introduction
/ #$ # ! ! $ * * +" /# $ ,(
!$$ I$ ! / #$ # !# *8
! " # +# $ * * / #$ #
$ $ * * + K + # + +" $
$ * * + U # +0" $ $ * * + O $ ! $
! 7 B $
+" /# /$ &# $" $ $
& " * !& + /
#
*/*
$ " "# " # / #$ / !**
$ * *
$
# # " # & &$ * +! # O $ # $ * * &# / # +" " # # ! / #$ "! +! # &" / sawaÅh il
! * # $ * * " !& + / + &"
* / # $ * * $$ +" / #$ &$* # + !$ + $ * * /#"# & ! +" # +
$ / *#$ +! $ B ! # / / # # + Q" % +! # + Q" " ! $ / #$ "! $$ " $ + $ * * ) &$/1 & # ! /$ $ * * &$ " +"
# /# # #
$ * * $$ # ! * " $ ! #$3
*" $ "# " " " + # ! + ! + # & 3
! & / #$ # "# ! &
$ # $ * * $ * * # # +$$/* "# " " 8
',(
+ - / $ * * $! $$ +!
" +
07 $ ! # 07 /$$ "
! " * /# "$
# 8
mtu G watu G kiko G viko G # !& + "$ $*#$ +! $ * *
# / #$ #
! 0+ "$ # +/ # ! # $ * * ' @ $ * * # ! # " #
# / # " &*# "" $ $ #
/# # & ! + +07 " $$ / 7 ! $ +
/ #$ /$$ +0"8
Kisu kile kikubwa kimevunjika )$ O O O 1 G
$
Visu vile vikubwa vimevunjika )$ O O O 1 G $
= ) $$ $ * * # **$ * ! #3
$*" $ " )/ ! " * !! " $ "$ 1
/ #$ 7 ! $8
wameshindwa
wa G me G <
" ! shinda G ! + # & kushinda wG
! ; )! * ; 1
> + $ * * # !$ !8
9 $ * * $8 #/ $ $$
& +! ! $" + / #$
9 :#!" $$ # $ * * $ ! &$ !$ + #! # # ! 0 /$ #! ) &$/1 ##* # " !
$ !$ 7" # ! + # # $ * * # &/
! O# 5"$"6 / #$ # &/ !
&" + / + &" *
# # ! + # $ 0* "# " " + $ * * /$$ & # # ! ++" &/ / #$ # # $ * * $ # +/ / + &" * #
&/ *# /# ! " $ " + $ # ! $$ !& + "$ # " $$ # "
/ #$ ! & * " $ $ * * # "!!
# +$$/ & / #$ 6 +0"$ $ * *$ # /$$
#+ &
$" &$ $ * 7 + # $ * *
/$$
',-
+ Phonology
General
# ! ++" &/ / #$ *$ # +$$/ 8
9 / #$ # $ 0 /$ " # '' + *$ #
9 *$ # # '> " % / #$ # '@
9 / #$
"# $ /$ /# " " $$ " "$ 9 / #$ $$ " $$ &$ /$ 9 # / $ * * # ++ ! + / 9 # !/# ++
Vowels
# /$ # &** *$ &$! + / #$
$ * *$ # # 0 /$ + / #$ +$$/ 8
)
,i<
# $*#$ #*# # # ; $ ,e<
*$
#
<u<
,a< # # #*# +# +/ # *$ # ; $
,o< # !/# &/ # *$ # <¡< <@U<
Q $$ $$ *$ # /$ ##* ! #+ " &$! # " + / #$ $ # / #$
# # "
&* # * *$ # # &$! "! & # $ ! $ * #3
* # + *$ # # &$! ! & !! "$ &
# * !8
','
+ / #$ #!
<i<
<e<
<a<
<o<
<u<
*$ # #! ):1
<i:<
<I <
<I@<
<eI<
<e<
<e@<
<Ã<
<{ <
<z: <
<A:<
<aU<
<aI<
<¡<
<O:<
<@U<
<OI<
<U<
<U@<
<u:<
# # & 4 +
# )+ * $ !" 1
O /
+ # * ! &
:$!Z )-A,?1
# *$ # #! <@< ! +! # * !
# ; $ / #$ ;
" $ "" / #$
* # $ ! *$ ! $ &
# #* #" !&$ # * !*# & 3
" <{geIn<
"0" " " * +0"$ "$8
,i:< <I<
,{< <e<
,{< <Ã<
,{< <A:<
,A:< <Ã<
,I< <e<
,z:< <Ã<
,e< <z:<
,¡< <O:< <@U<
,e< <eI<
,U< <u:<
,{< <z:<
',=
+ Consonants
$$ # *$ # " # # *# ; $ / #$
7" <r< /#"# / #$ $$ $$ $
$$
" # <r<. # " ! + $"" $ / #$ /#"# " " &$! # $ " &$
# ! $ & E" # 6 *$ # +! # #
0 $ * * + # / #$ :" &$ &$! "$8
- <l< <r< + "+ & # /# / #$
"
# $ * *8 + $
'. <h< !! 8 + = <T< <D< "" / #$ / +! &" & # $ * * "# / !
$" 8 # <t< <s< ! & + <T< <d< <z< + <D<8
+ % + "
> # +$$/* " ! ! $" +
/ #$ # $ * * "+ " 8
,g< <k<8 ,b< <p<8 ,dZ< <tS<8 <t< <d<8 . <s< $ " <S< ! $" + / #$ /#"# " " *$ #8 + , U / #$ # $ * * <g< " + + $
<k< <z< <s<8 ? $ U / #$ <d< <l< ! & + ! <l< <r<% !! <b< <w<
Syllabic intrusion and addition
B "$ !"# / #$ # *$ # / #$ #+ # " "$ /# 5 6 /$ / #$ 7 /$ " * " 8
,ekIsplaneISon< + # ,sItIrenITI< + Influence of spelling on pronunciation
" # *$ " " &/ #* #"
!&$ / #$ # / $ $ ! $ & # *3
$ + *$ # $$* # &$! + $ " &$8
',>
+ - $ $ ! & " * $
' "" $ /$$ &
* / # $
* + + "
$
Rhythm and stress
/ #$ $$ &$3! $ * * /# *$ # 3!
$ * * " ;" / #$ * $$ &$ *$ # $! ; $ 2 +! *$ # & ! & *
# * " / #$ "!! /# $$ # $ * *
#
$! $$ &$ + / B *$ # # " $ / $ '" '" ' "
Intonation
/ #$ # " $ $/ + $$ /#"# " *$ # /# *$ # $ $/ "$ + / #$ + 7 ! $
* ; *$ #
Grammar
General
4! # " + $ * * & /$$ $ &
# # " $ ++" &/ # * !! " $
! + *$ # / #$ # "$
! !3
" **$ # $ & + / #$ $ #
!& + 7!$ "!" $ E" $ " + * $$*
* + * !! " $ ! * Aliweka kalamu mezani. )G 1 C D 1
A
#
*
! li
weka
kalamu
meza
! $
&8 8 8 ! ni
$" ! ',.
+ / #$ # #* ; $ # *$ # 7$ &
! + * ; " * ! $ " / #$ # "$
# * ! * *$ #
# 7 " ; $ / #$ /#"# $" +! "# # # 7 ! $ & )mezani1 "$
""
+ !$3 $ E"
"$ 2 9 3Q3I 3Q3I3I 9 ! $ # ! )
! & ; 1 & / #$
$$ $ * *
" $ ! # $ / + "+ * & *$ #
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries
- # 7$ # ; $ / #$ #+ & ! !8
C1 $
C1 (
C' (
' !!
" $8
C? %
%
$
= - , ; ! $ & "# * + #* #" $$ & # ; ! 8
C (
> D /# ; / +$$/ # # 5 !
J * 6 # 5* J !68
C1 (
C' (
. / & "# * &$8
C1 ; $
C $
) $ # " 5"$ ! 61
Time and tense
! " & # +$$/* ! )07 18
- 3na38 : !
Watoto wanasoma )G
$ , 1
/ #$ & $ ++ &/ * ! $ # / # "+ *$ #8
C $
',,
+ $ ++" & + " 3""$ & "#
" " 8
C% $
C% $
# "!! # ! + # 3 # #
*$ +! + # ! $ 8
C $
& "$ -na- " $ & ! " # ! # "7 2# " *$ # #
$ ! " "#8
C $
C. $
' -li-8 : !
Nilikwenda mjini jana )G % 1
/$$ & & # # ! + # & 9 # " kwenda 9
! "# * # $ /# " *$ #8
C% $
!! # 7$ ; $ # ! -li- " 7$ 8
C% $
I# &$! * # ! $
*$ # "$8
9 + # *$ +07 + *$ & 8
C + C
+ "
9 E"* ; * +! 8
C (
C $
9 * # ! $
+ # +"8
C' # )+ ' # 1
9 * # ! $
+ #
+" /#"# 7 / #$8
C D
1 / $
9 * # + #
+ # 5 $
68
C- $
C% $
:&$! $ +! # + & " -ka-8
Nilikwenda mjini nikamwona Moyo )G % " % & 1
# 07 -ka- " # " +$$/ # +
;" + " ! + # " *$ # $ +# /$$ # # ! +
# "F" $ $ # + $ "!!" /
',?
+ " 2# ! & "
" +
! $ #
! & # / ! / #$ 7 *$ #8
C% % $
= -ta38 4 ) $ # ! + +"1
Nitakwenda mjini kesho )G % 1
# , + +! & *$ #
"
; $ + # 07 -ta- "$* "" /# # +
+! *$ #8
C $
CN " $
# -ta- 07 $ / #$ "7 # *$ #
; 8
C% $
C& # $
# # # ! # ! "# #$ & # / #$ " * "#
$ # *$ # 8
C1 " % )+ 1 # 1
# # "!!
/$$
# "# * +! $$ $ + " $ +! / #$
Aspect
* &$
" $ ! & +! !
# " $ !& + &$! # $ * *
/ #$ ++ ! " # / " 3
$ !* # ! 8
- -me- # 07 " " # # & "! $ #
$ + /#"# $$ $ # ! & $$$ + # +" *$ #8
Wanangu wame®ka )G & 1
/ " 7 "$ /# # *$ # *8
Chumba kimechafuka )G 1
Tumesikia )G ' $ , ' 1
# ! "" + / #$ "" $$ * # +" + # ! $ "# "7 B $ / #$ +;$ + $ # +" " $ 1 5=J4 #
/ #$ " # -na- 078
C1 5=J4$
',@
+ # "!! # "+ + 8
C1 # 1 # $
' -ki- " /# # -me- 07 # -ki- 07 " "
#
* !$ $ /# # " & "! $8
Tuliwaona watoto wakisoma )$ ' 1
! ! $$$ " " *$ # $ "# 8
C $
C1 $
C1 )/# ! & ! " # + # -ki- 071
-ki- $ " $ ! 8
Mungu akipenda )G % B
1
" # ; $ *$ # / #$ ! + ++ " $ "$ " $ ! "$8
C% % % &$
C% % " % &$
C% % " % &$
Modal verbs
$ $$ 7 & ! + & E" + ! "$*8
9 # + + 8
C) $
9 4 $ " "8
C% $
!&
Other verb forms
- # & $ +! / #$ # !
# 0 +!
# $ ! &$! 8
C $
C )+ 1
C $
' Q& # *$ # ! & / #$8
C) $
C+ " $
',A
+ = Q& + #& $ / #$ ! &
+$$/ & & /# * E"8
C1 $
C1
$
> / #$ & ! & + #
& ! +
E"8
kupiga G kupigwa G # / #$ " ++ +! *$ # # ! &$! 8
C) $
C. $
C $
. D * "!!$ ! / #$ #
! $ *
sivyo? )G (18
C- " (
, / * ; " $ $ "! $ & 3
/ "!!" # / #$ / ndiyo siyo +
*#$ $ "" $ # * $
8 % C D # / * ; !*# & ! $ *8
+ ( - $ )G - " %
1
Non-verb sentences
# "!! / #$ * $" ! ! & ! $ " 8
Kikapu kiko jikoni )$ O O O O ,1 Q $
I+ # /# J 0 " $ " 8
C $ $
C $ ? $
Miscellaneous
$$ # +$$/* C% C% C@ C% '?(
& &$ / #$ +"8
$
% $
)+ 1
$ ' $
+ Articles and determiners
# 0 0 "$ $ * *
! &$!
$8
- # ! + "$ 8
C' % (
' # + # /* "$8
C9 $
= B+ + 8
C $
>
+ # 0 "$ /# 8
C 9 / C< $
#
B!! /# # ! "$8
- B+ + , , 8
C " $
' + + 8
C) & $
= B+ + , , 8
C+ $
C $
> B+ + 8
C , $
. B+ + 8
C1 ( 1 $
Nouns
$ * * "$
! ++ +! *$ # # ! &$! "$*8
9 + " &$ 8
C " ; " " " "
9 *
$ $ & +! /# *$ 8
C $
9 * $ $ # *$ 8
C " "
9 4 $ ! + # 3 * /#"# 7 / #$8
C
9 B+ + F" )+ #*# + $ #$*18
, " , "
'?-
+ Pronouns
# &** *$ &$! # + $ * # &/ ! "3
$ +! +! /#"# ! / #$ #
$ * * 8
C+ $
# ! F &$! # + + +
/ #$8
C! $
C1 (
# $ # ; !! ! # &F" 07
$ * "# 8
C% $
! # " +! !! $8
C& % $
C& & $
Adjectives and adverbs
F" " +$$/ # / #$ # +
F" *$ # " " &$! # ! &$! "! $7 F" $ $* "! 8
Mtoto wangu ni mrefu sawa na wako )G & 1
# E" + "! $ +! /#"# * $$ & / $ kuliko kupita # $ ! 8
C )# 0 sana # ; $ + 1
C $
C1 % $
C $
+! # +0"$ /# &
"$ &$/ #
&$! /# & "$8
- I! + & 8
) ( % $ ) !1
C% % $
' 4 $ "! " "
/# F" 8
C $
C% = 4 $ & +! 8
C $
I# !$ "$ " )+ 1 ;
; 1 &* "# * &$
'?'
)+
+ Prepositions and particles
# ! / #$ ++ +! *$ # #3
+ " * &$! - I! 8
C+ # # $
C1 $
C+ ' + " 8
C ; $
C' (
= + "" I ! F &$! # / #$ #
$" +07 )ni1 # ! * + /#"# ""* #
"7 $ *$ # + $" $$ &
"+ 8
mezani )G " " " " 1
nyumbani )G " " " " 1
mwituni )G " " " " " " 1
# # &$! + # ! *0" &* # !$3
katika /#"# " ! " " " "
" $ # # ! " # !$3 kwa /#"# " ! " "
" " " 8
kwa miguu )G 1
kwa kisu )G 1
!* # ! "!! 8
C C C C * C C C C C $$ *$ # # $ & $$ " &$! # ; $ $ * * # 5 $ & 6 /#"# &
E" 7 / &$ + $ # # ! / "! &$ & "" /# # $
& $ "$ *$ #
$8
C $
I# & * " "$ 8
C $
C' $
'?=
+ Subordinate clauses
# ; $ + # *$ # $ / #$ #
"" amba /#"# E" #/ "" $ *!8
Hiki ni kikapu ambacho nilikinunua )G 1 %
1
I + + # " # # & "$ "$ #
&F" 07 -ki- # # $ $ $ + # " % # "$ + # &F" &F" " ;$ "!! 8
C % $
C * P$
C % $
) # ! "F" / #$ na )G 1 /#"# ! $
"" # $ "!! "3 * "F"
juu ya hayo )G 1 kwa hivyo )G 1 #
"#
; $ *$ # " "" # # "F"
# $ " $8
C+ $
C # $
C+ # $ ? $
C1 $
: + & " $ " &$! # $$3 0 sana $ "$ *$ # " "
$8
C % $
C % $
# ; $ + )ingawa1 )lakini1 &# "" "8
C) $
C " $
Vocabulary
# +$$/* & "+ ! # &" # "#
# $ ; $ / #$ &" + ! " $
+ # 8
'?>
+ , , , , , , , , , , C D
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, ,
,
,
, , ,
, , , # +$$/* 7 ! $ + +" ! " *$ # "!! #*# ! + * &$ "" &$8
$ $ $ )G 1
$ $ $ )G $ $ $1
)G 1
)&1 * % & )G 1
)G 1
)G 1
)G 1
)G 1
)G 1
)G 1
Culture
/# # *# +" /$$ * # # $ "# # / $ + # "# ! ! ! $ # # 0 # ! ! # "# +" "! $$ /* +" & $* 8 # ! /$$ # / $ +" $ * * ) $$ + #!
1 &+ # $ *$ # # "" $ * *$ #
'?.
+ * # ! +0"$ ; ! &$ # * "#
/# # "# +" /$ /$$ !!& # +$$/*
8
- # * "# $ * $ + &# # "$ + #
# " + $ * * + +$$/
!!& + ++ +! # ! # 7 $ # /$$ & # !"# ! /$"!* + * $+
$* $ /# # ! $" $ $ * *
F &$ #$ "# ! ++"$ &
$$ #$ +! /#/#$ $ # /# $ +!
# # "
' 4 ;"$
&$ & $" $ ; "3
$ $ #/ $ * "# # $ + "# # " !$ / /$ +$ # &
+ "" /# # F& # &# & & "
$ + " 4 7 ! $ # /$ &
" $ " 8 5$$ & # ! &$ 2# H6 "# # ! +" + # ! &$ # &* ! + #
/$ "$* +" # $ "# & "#
/$ & ! ++ "#
" /# ; & # 6 # $# + !$ "
! # #/ $$ =
* ! ! "" &$ " " ! +" " 4 7 ! $ ! +" " **
/#
* # # * K ! & #*# ++ I # # # # *
# !"# ! "!! # /# !
/#! + $ + 0* * #$ & "$ $ # " $ 5"! #6 &"* /# # +0*
> /# / #/* ! $ " + !$ 7 " #$ $/ & /$"!
! #/ * 6 * *! # ! $
7 $ /# * + $ $#*# #$ &
# ! +" " * 7 " !
. 4 & $" $ I # " $!
* " #$ & " * ++" 4
7 ! $ /! #$ " +$$ ! $* #$ &
&$ " 7" ! " # "!! &$+ !* * ! $ # " $ " +! $ #+ +$ I+ #/ # # ++" 7" +! $ "" # $$ " +$ & # # 0$
'?,
+ "" &$ " $$ +&
+/ "
&$ K #
A sample of written Swahili with a word-for-word
translation
Hapo kale
paka hakukaa
katika nyumba za watu; alikaa
+!$ " $ " # + !% # mwituni au maguguni tu.
+ & #
wakatembea
Paka mmoja alikuwa ra®ki
$ B pamoja, na
yake; lakini siku moja funo
ya sungura
+ + # paka akastaajabia
# / *# " ra®ki
# /
werevu
# ! "$
akagombana
wa
+
na
+ # % & # * *# /#
sungura akamwua
# yake amekufa
#
kwa pembe zake. Sasa kwa kuwa ra®ki
# #! $$ /# # # # +
paka akafuatana
# " # ""!
& +
na yule
funo
/# # )#1 An idiomatic translation
$* ! * # " $ !6 # 8 # $ $ #
+ # & # " " / # + +
# / & /# #!% # " ! # "$ + # +
& ; $$ /# # # $$ #! /#
# + # # " # + / # " &* *
"! /# # )4! ) %
* * ) &
: $7 1
Acknowledgement
# # /$ $ # $3## + # B + +" * * * + # "!! $ + + #
'??
+ Bibliography
$7 : )-A?'1 ) % * * ) $ & 4 #/ :
! " $ # I )-A>> -=# ! -A,,1 + B 8
*! &* )-A,, ' 1 * ) # *8
"# )-A@-1 + * $ & B ! &$$
8 $* O* : $
$$ Q : )-AA,1
- + 8
*#
2#$ 2$+ )-A,A1 + C D 8
#
'?@
Malay/Indonesian speakers
P P*
Distribution
:B I4 I 4I I4
P :B I4 :I I4 % # / " + #! " + # $ * "# $ * + ! $ 3& "$ + $ !* # * $$ B# 3
* # & + # $ $! + +! #
$ & $ + B# !
$ # B" $ # I" Introduction
#
$ $ < ) <1 $ * * &$* # / * + $ * * +
$ +0" $
$ * * + # " 8 $ * 3
! + +! $
$ 7 &* $ & +0" $ & # " $ $ ! + "!!" +
! $" $ * ! + $
# / " % + " !" #$ #" $
+ $ "!!" /$$
$ /* "!!$
$ < " " #
*$
$ * * $ / "$ $ $ $ * * !
! ++" &/ # / $7" " * !! " $ "#" + + " * # 3
+! ! $$ $$*&$ $ "#$ $ &# " # $* "
&$! # ! " $ * * # *$ # $ * *
; !$ '?A
&,%
Phonology
General
#
$ < *$ # #$*" $ !
++ *$ # # '' /$ ##* '> " # $ 7 /$ <i e a @ o u< # ##*
/#$
$ #
$ # /$ <E O z< + " < # -A " ) &" *$ # $ !$ # <f v T D S z x [< # &
! + ! < * * !$ 7 *
# $ * *1 ! + # + + < /#"# * 5
$ < ""6 *$ # " &$/
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@
aU@
$$ /$ ! " &$! ! 7 / # #! # ; $ ; $ < #$
#+ & " "$ /# * +0"$ 3
# #! ! " ! &$! # +$$/* # ! "!! "+ 8
- $$ /$ /# # 7" + <@< " /# ! $ "! &$ $*#8 , " , " , " , $
' BE + <{< <e< <e<8 ! ,het<% ! ,enk@l<%
! ,grem@)r1<.
= :" + <¡< )
1 /# " &$ $ 3
*
> *$ # ##* ! & $ /$ !3
! $* !! # /# " &$ *$
'@(
&,%
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ < #$ & " "$ /# * +0"$ $#*#
! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " !
&$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- # *$ $ <?< )$ # "" " + 1 " #! < ! "" $ 6 " ' # ! + #
$ $ $ <á< )$ # 1
*$ # <nj< ! & $ <n< <á<
= <p t k< $/ /#"# " ! #! "$ <b d g< *$ # % $ # " $ "+ &/ + " 3" $" 0 $ # $ ! $* " "#
56 )1 56
) 1 56 <as?< ) 1 9 ! $" 0 $ <k< "
*$ $ # + "$ $$ &$
> < / " " <b d g< # +" <v z S<
# ++" <tS dZ< $$ # # + *$ # / " $$ + # " 8 56
)1 5 6 ) 1 56 ) 1 "
0"
. <f< +;$ $ " & <p< & $
8 5 6 ) 1 5 6<5 6 ) 1 5@6 )1
, <v< <% /# "" &+ /$ $
$$ $ " <v< & <f< <p< " $$ # + / ? * $$ " <T< <t<8 + + <d<8 5 6 + % 5 6 +
5 6 + <D< $ $$ +" 8
@ # ++" <tS dZ< !! $ + + <S< ! & " <s<8 +
A " 3" $" <r< ) 1 $ * $$ $$ /#
" $$
'@-
&,%
$ * $$ <r< # + / & $*#
# "* /$8 5 6 + <peIp@:< + -( "* <h< # *$ #$ / ** # # ++ ; $ +! *$ # <h< ! <h<% ! <?< -- $ $ +/ " "$ ! < /3
$ /30 $ % # ! +;$ ""* $3
$ &$ " ! $ < / " 3/$3" $$ ! $+ "$ *$ # / 8 56 +
+ "#/ /$
#
! $ / 8 5s@k@rip6 + 5fil@m6 + 5p@rojek6 +
5k@linik6 + "
Spelling and pronunciation
$ < / $$ $ # / # "%
# *$ # / /# # $$* ! "# # " " " &$! *$ # / " * $ / <
+;$ ! $8
) 1 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1 "
Rhythm and stress
2 + $! /#$ # +
$ 0 $% < + # #
" + *$ # / + < # $$ &$3
! ##! # ++" &/ * + & ! $$% /# " *$ # # " ! + ! E 4" / $! " # * *$ # 7$ &
3
" # +$$ 5/6 " < $ *
*$ # $ /$$ + " " +! $ /# $/ "" ##!
Intonation
D ** ++ ! & * $ *
/#$ # ! #/ $$ #*# $ $/ 0 $
"# # ; $ + *$ # #$ &$! '@'
&,%
Orthography and punctuation
$ < / # )! 1 " # 3
/* &$! + + *$ # < / + *$ #
$* "! $7 " " " % /# # #! " " & 37 "
Grammar
Word order
$ < / !$ # + *$ #8 &F"9
&9&F" " $ "# #/ # &F" ! & # / # ! & E" 6 ! *$ #
Number
< E" + !& # " & ! $ $ &
+
$" )kucing-kucing = 1 #*# # #
! $ < # &$! &# /# *$ # $ $ *
/# #3 & *!% $ $ * "$ $
$$ & + !& $ $ ; 0 8
C+ $
C C C $" & " "8
C1 $
*$ $ $ +! + ; 0 ! $/ ""$ 8
C $
C C C Countability
0" $ ! $ $ *$ # !
8
C I C '@=
&,%
& " /#"# " & !
" " $8
C # C Gender
7 * !! " $$ < I / dia ) , ,
1 + #3 *$ &F" &F" !!
8
C2 # $ + $ 1 $
Personal pronouns
< + # /# *$ # /$
$! #" 8
C& $ & $ % ?
$
Genitive and possessive pronouns
: $ < " & #/ & & 3nya &
# + $ dia ) , ,1 mereka ) , , 1
# +0"$ /# # ++ *$ # ! " $
8
C C 2 .
C C C C Relative pronouns
$ < # $ $ / yang /#"# " # *$ # 3 K "#
# "!!8
C9 $
C I '@>
&,%
$ ! & $" & $ 8
C % Reflexive pronouns
# $ $ $ + # E7 diri *$ # ! "! $" " $ ! 8
C) $
C $
C' $
C& " $
<% $ 0 #
Topicalisation structures
<
+ *$ # +;$ ! # )5 " $ 61 " " & $ "* #! # &** + "
" $$
#
<8
$
$
@ % ; $
CA % ?$
& % $
$ + " * /# # &F" &F" + #
" # # " ! $ +!8
+ ? " $
& " $
& " $
It and there
*$ # " /# # !! &F" +0"$
+ $ # ; $ < " # / ada ) ,,
18
Ada
sebatang
pen di atas meja.
B ,1,% )"$ 01 $
"# # "!!8
C' # $
C) $
C% $
'@.
&,%
Articles/determiners
# "! $7 + # *$ # "$ ! / ! +
$ $ -
< # "$ $#*# # ! ini )1 itu )1 " $
+" ! # ! * + 5#6
# + $ $ " ;$ #
0 "$ *$ #8
C1 #(
' ! /# < $" $ $ /#"# ! $ $ "$ /# *$ # $ $8
C% $
= # 0 "$ "$ $ &+ $ * "" + !
; # & " 8
C C > $ $ $ ! # 0 "$8
C& % . # 0 "$ ! & + # 0 "
8
)! * 1
C $
Verbs
< & ! + !&% 7$ $! " " # ! 0"
$ # +0"$ ! * # "!3
$7 + # *$ # & # Time, tense and aspect
Sudah/telah/pernah " " "! $ # ! +
* & < # #* " * # *$ # "
&/ ! $
+" # " &$
+0"$ /# *$ #
+" & +! " $ 8
C% $
C% $
C% $
'@,
&,%
C* % $
C% $
C% < # ! $ & sekarang ) " 1 &+ + & *+ " 0 # # ! + *8
C/ $
C1 $
C1 #
" $ "$ akan < " + ! # &$! * * #* # *$ # +! 8
C $
C $
C + $
* $ < 7 " )53#3 " 3+61 &
* sedang<semasa/sewaktu/sementara /# & "& 3
** " # *$ # +!
; $ & # 7$ 8
C $
C $
C 3 $
C $
To be
Berada adalah ialah " # *$ # " $ % # +;$ $
Adiknya
(berada) di rumah
- , , , Fatimah (adalah/ialah) guru
sekolah
A ,
# " $ " # 7 " + 7 "8
Yusoff sangat gembira
- $ )- , $1
'@?
&,%
#3* +" "+ /#"# +! ""
$ +;$ # ! + +! + #
8
C1 $ , 1 $
C $ , $
C $ , $
Non-finite forms
0 7 < # +!
+ "+ & $ 8
C $
C& $
C' " % $
C& $
C% $
Modal auxiliary verbs
$ < # &$! * # " $
+! ) "1 # "! $7 ! $
7$ ! + *$ # " $$ " < /
! ! $
/# "$ * /
* + ! + /#"# ! & * $ < *$ # ! " $ " 8
- $
9 ! - " (
9 &$
@ ( 9 /$$*
+ $
9 *!
1 ( @ $
9 !$
$
- " (
9 +0! 1 $ 9 ! & &$
@ $
9 ! &$
& $
9 " - $
9 " - $
9 &$* <"! $ ! $ ! $ $*# * & & 7 # ! $ ! * 8
C& ) $ , % ) $ $ $
) ) $1
C% + $ , & + $ ) + $1
'@@
&,%
C+ A$ , C%D A$ ) A$1
C& # $ , % $ ) % # $1
C& $ , % $ ) & $1
Active and passive
I$
$ $ /* +! !
+;$ # # ! $ * * /#"# #
* +" +
" +! $ #
+! * $$ 4 # &" +! ++$ # / $ * *
< 0 *$ #
+0"$8
C )$
C $
CA + $
Question forms and question tags
! $ 3; < $$/ # ++ + " 8 ; +$$3! ; +" ; B!!
$ " $ +! < *$ #8
C) (
C' ) (
C' (
C' (
C' ) (
D * *$ # & " $ / +! (
(8
C+ " (
C " (
Negatives
$ < # * "$ " " " "! $8
C% $
C+ $
C $
'@A
&,%
C% % $
C1 $
Complex sentences
$ < / "! $7 " 2#
$ #! # ! " #! /$$ ! + $ ++ &/ "$ BF"
$* 7 ! & $" ! " $ 8
C? # $
C% # % $
C% % ; %
$
" /# ! & & $ "8
C' % % 8 $
Prepositions
"" # + # "" + & F"
7 $ " " " "
" $ $ # +0"$ "# * # *#
07 7 $ " " " " $
*$ # # ; $ $ # +" +! &
# + / ! " $ ! 8
C1
& $
% $
C1 $
C1 $
!$ &$! ! /# & $ "$ 8
C9 $
Adjectives and adverbs
! & & + F" " # E" + # !# *8
C- ; $
C) $
C% $
$
'A(
+
&,%
B+ /# # + "# $ "" 8
1 $
# $ $ $ B!! /# F" "&* * + "! " $ +!
$ < 8
C& $
C1 $
C1 $
C% " 9
Vocabulary and style
Range and choice of vocabulary
"
< $ ! $ $ " * +
" &$ * ! " $ "!! 7 + +
! & " +! + 7 8 )+ 1% , )+ I 1% )+ , # 1 " # "& " $*3/ 8 % )+ %
1% % )+ % 1%
)+ 1
$* "!!$ #/ ! # < # ! & E" 6 + *$ #8
- $
C Transfer
7" $ + &/* " $$ + "#" $ ! $ "
+! *$ # < * * $* $ / &$
& ! & ! $ & # < $$* + /
$ talipon, bankrup, ekonomi, industri, psikologia
'A-
&,%
Confusions
< $ # " &$ &$! * #* + *$ #
/ # # *$ < ; $ 7 ! $ 8
,
% % $
, ,
C D $
C $
,
& $
, , + C D $
C+ $
, ' $
, ' % (
,
' $
, $
,
% $
, % $
, - (
Culture and language
$ *$ # ! &" /3
$* + *$ # * *
/$$
! + $
"! # + $ " !" 0$ # # *$ #
"# " 0* # "$ ! "#
7 " ! 0!$ + $ +! $ $ # /#
$ 4! $ "# #$ $/ " +$$ !
$* &$ "
4* "# /$$ 0 #
$ $ * * ! 8 #$*" $ ! ! $ # * !! # E7 ! " * !& # $" + /$
$; # / # +;" + # # "!& +
" " # / "#! $" ! $ !# /3 * $ * *
4* ! * $ 7" $ *$ 3
# #*# " * +
$ <*$ # &$* $ $ $ *$ # # / ! $ * * "#$
+ 3#" "!!" / /#$
$ < "#$
"; 7&
$ *$ # # $ * !
$" $ +
*$ # #!3
$ 4*3" +*3 "# /# *$ # 3$ " ++" / 'A'
&,%
" $ # &"! # $ $ * * + " $ # " ! /$$ "! /# #
"$* " $ /$$ & !$ # + /# $ # $ $ * *
# ! ! + "!3
!" # +0" $ $ * * $" + &# " $
$ $$/ & !* *!
+" / *$ # $ $$/ $ "+3
" /"#* &/ *$ # < "!!
$"
/"#* /# <
A sample of Malay with a word-for-word translation
# "$ +! $" $ / $ *$ # $ +! # ! " * &$/
Internet telah mengubah wajah
# "# *
$& /
perpustakaan dan bagaimana
" $& pustakawan bertugas hari ini.
$ #
#/
Perpustakaan tidaklagi
# & terbendung
! "0
oleh empat dinding. Ia telah berkembang ke ruang siber
& +
/ $$
# 7
" "&
Ramai pustakawan telahpun masuk ke dalam ruang siber untuk
$& # *
mendapatkan sumber dalam talian.
*
" Sesetengah pustakawan
$ $+ +
pula telah membantu menyusun sumber
$ # #$
" "& +
$& melalui home page
* " #*# #!
*
masing-masing. Pengguna perpustakaan kini dapat melawat
! ! $& / " terkenal
di seluruh dunia
/#"# + ! /#$ /$
ke perpustakaan yang
$& Mereka boleh membuat carian pengarang, tajuk ataupun
#
" "# #
subjek dalam internet. Semuanya ini
&F" $$
dari
$ dapat dibuat dengan selesa
# " & ! /#
"!+
rumah atau pejabat dengan mengklik butang tetikus
+! # +0" /#
"$" & ! 'A=
&,%
ataupun menaip pada papan kekunci komputer
& "! Apakah antara perpustakaan dalam talian?
2# yang
!* $& Apakah antara buku
$H 2# !* &
terdapat di dalam Internet? Apakah pustakawan akan menjadi
/#"# 0 H 2# $& pustakawan siber? Ini
$& /$$ &"!
adalah antara perbincangan artikel di bawah
"&H # !* " "$ &$/
# # "# * #
" + $& #/ $& / # $& $* "0 # + / $$ +
&$* #
7 "& "
$& # * "& " $" 3$ " ! $& # $ #$ * # ! $ # #! * & / + $ &$ + ! $& #
/$ # " $ ! # "# $ "# &F"
"# # $$ # " & # "!+ + # #!
+0" # "$" + ! * # & 2# ! + # 3$ $& H 2# ! + # & $ &$
# H $& &"!* "& H # !*
# #*#$*# + # "$ &$/
'A>
&,%
A sample of student's writing
'A.
Japanese speakers
#! Distribution
: O
/ Introduction
& &$ $ O &$ "# *$ # $ B# !
& " 7! #
$ * * #*# / $" $ 7 *$ # 0 "# #6 $ * * # $ I + # # # & " + "
" ++$ # / $ * * #
+$$/* + *! +!
! * K $ / +
/ *$ # $$ # $ 6 &$!8
* " # C D $
$ 7" $$8
% $
# +0"$ & * * !! " $ $7" $ #" 6 $ * * * $
# $ "$ &
" + # / $ * * 4 $ 5 "
$ * *6 0$ * # 3+3"7 + *! + $*
" $$ # * $ & # * 7 $ #
$ + &# 8 " &+ + "#
" $ "$
" ; $ "$ $
"#" +
" &$ * !! # " + *$ # #3
+ 7 & /## # &* +0"$ ) 7" $1
$ ! " &* #! $ * " $$ # "# & ! "$ # ! !& +
/ /#"# " # ! & / ++$ 9 !3
! / * 9 # # &+
/# * $ # $; E "# #*#$
'A,
2 % + +
# " !!! & /# 50 #6 "
# # ! K* &$ # # / "# * ! # #! $ # # * ++" &/ *$ # 3
$ * * # * /#$ & # " /# $ * *
$ * 9 #*# /! 0 $ 7 # $ * * "$
# !
Phonology
General
#
# $! #" &# !& +
# & # $ 0 /$ #*#
# ! & "$ $* # $$ &$ " ! $
)* $$ /$ J " /$ $1 # +/ " "$ $ #+ 0 # ! "! $7 "
"!& + *$ # # " # ! # * +0"$ "* "" $ /# I+
" ; "! $" " /# + $$ * !! "#" + / /$ & &$ # !
" + /
#! # !& #
$ + *$ /# # " "$ /
"# $ F / !! & !! ! " $ ! +
"#
07
" /# / #
* + ! # + ! & " *$ #
Vowels
! + # ! " &$ &$! + $ 8
$* <o:< " *
- <O:< <@U< &# "
"+ $ <a< " * "+ ' <{< <Ã< &# "
$ = <z:< &"! <A:<8 + > <@< &"! <A:< $ $ " & # # /$ ** &
# $$*8 <k¡mpo:zA:< + 'A?
2 . ##* * <@< " /# <A:< 8 <DeA:foA:<
+ , <I< <U< " )/# 1 ! "7 ! * #!
+0"$ + *$ # $ # ? <u:< : "" ! & / $ Consonants
! + # ! " &$ &$! 8
- <l< <r< &# "
<r< ) E
$! $
$ # <d<1 " * "+ &$ & $ + <F< &+ <u:<8 + ' <h< ! & "
+ <i:< <h< ! $! $ <S< ) # "+ *$ !$ 1
= B $ <f< ! & " $! $ <h< &+ <O:<8 + # ! & " <s<
> <T< <D< "" <z< <S< <dZ<8 + % + . <v< ! & " <b<8 + , <g< ! & " <êg< &/ /$ 8 + ? <n< + /$ ! )/# $ + # /$1 ! &"! <m< <ê< * "78 + @ <t< <d< <s< <z< + "# * &+ <I< <i:< +$$/ 8
,t< &"! <tS<8 + ,d< &"! <dZ<8 +
,s< &"! <S<8 + ,z< &"! <dZ<8 + A <t< <d< + "# * &+ <U< <u:< +$$/ 8
,t< &"! <ts<8 + ,d< &"! <dZ< <z<8 + Syllable structure and word-linking
*$ # " "$ +0"$ + $ #
+ & #! & * # /$ /#"# $ 5 ++6 0 $ " + " ! & "
<teburu< <matSi< 0 # # # 5*3
++6 /$ $ /# /$ &* # +$$/* /8 # "$ $ " &$ /# # 0 $ " <n< $* <r< * $ + "" ! & ; # 'A@
2 Rhythm, stress and intonation
# * # * * 3
& # $ $! $$$ &/ # "
! + # / $ * * # # ; $ +
5/ 6 +! + / $ $ ! + $ " # # $$ &$ : " 3 $ "!! &# $ * * "$8
9 * # /#$ "#3 * + # " /# !& * /
" + " $/* * $ "!* %
9 & * # "#3 * #/ $!
; &# , $$ # #
"30 $ ; "$ ka% # ; 3 * "$ ne #/ " + $$ #/ "0! *!
+ # $ "$
& *$ # 0 7 & & $ "$ # # *$ # + #*#$*#
+! " )+ " * # +! /#"#
$ # +! +! /#"# / #
$ 1
*$ # "3 #+ # &
" " $ $ " & "$ $
" "$ 7 $ + #/ # + / #
;"$ $ / #*# &$! ! "" /# "! /# / &/ /# "" "
# "E" /# # *$ # "# rekoodo ) 1
Summary
# +$$/* " /$$ * ! + # E + # /$
" $$ &$ " /3$* + + ""8
$ $
L<<za tSi:mu Fõ: jõ:dZõari 1wi~ habu rosto dZisu 1jia:<<zeiru habu
tsu: meiku a biêA: eho:to i~ Cõ:tSA:<<M
Orthography and writing
$ * $$ # * +0"$ /# *$ #
$$* # /* #
&" + # * $ ! * # /* ! )/#"# "!& B# 3
'AA
2 * ! /# $$ &" "# " 1 2 " + !$ ! # /# # $ *$ # +!
+; 5roÅmaji' $ /#"# "!! +
" ! # * Grammar
Word order
5 &F"9&F"9&6 $ * * D $0 " ; $3
0 " " "!! & " ! 2# " *$ # +$$/ # "$
! * & * "F" +$$/
# "$ % "
"$ #/* * +0! +$$/ # " $ & +$$/ $7" $
& $$ F" $ #/ $* " # & !
$$ 8
kore wa
L "
)G ' (1
watashi wa
nan
desu ka?
"$M ; kakimashita1
kore o
%
)G % 1
ano hito
wa
se
ga
takai desu
)G 1
Tookyoo wa
)G
Nippon no
2 21
shuto
desu
$ ;"$ * # & " / + *$ #
" : /#"# " " +0"$ "$ &F" /# # $ & 8
C+ " $
" /# 5 3 *68 $ # &$ 3
* "* " $8
' (
% -
# # / +$$/* 7 ! $ ; +! * B ! &$$6 @ )$* -AA-1
=((
2 Topicalisation
"!! + # " + " )/#"# ! &
# &F"1 & " $ # &** 9 #
#
*$ # " $ O # " $ ! " $$ / *$ # " $$ +
&F" /$$8
C ) * %
1
! " $ & " $ + "3
8
C% $
Verbs
# & $+3" 8 7" + # " $
da )G 1 & " " / ;*
# &F" &F" & 7 Wasureta. )G % 1
# " $ $ &F" &F" *$ #
( - $ ' $
# " $ + ) 5F" & 6 &$/18
C% ?
*$ # 7 " # ! *
#*# "# * # +! + # & / # 3
/ & +! /# 7$ & # 0 *$ #
& # +0"$ " " B+ # + " $ 7$ $8
C% $
C' ?
# & "# * + !& $ +* # *$ # #3 *$ C+ # +
; * " &$! )
; + $$ ! & "$ 30 $ ka /# "# * +
/ % * #/ & "# * # & +!1
C- (
C $
0 ; * "! $" ! $ + 3
&$ +!8
=(-
2 C- " (
C " (
: $ & + "! $" # +
8
C% $ / % ! # " $ +0"$ /# !& ; "# %
$ $ $ % ; $ $ $
Tenses
$ * # # ! +0"$
#
$ /# # "! $7 *$ # < " ! "3
* & * !! "$ # + # + # +8
C% $
"" $ "+ &/ * +" +! " "# ! # + # * $ $ * ! *$ #8
C+ Conditionals
$ " $ )* % % $ $ $1 +! $$ "
+! $ " $ # $
! F &$! +
+ /# # # ! # !"# " + +!*
$ " $ / # $$ # "! $7 # &$! +
"" ! 8 # * # * $ /$$ " +$ 7 $ + # ! * $ "
"# # " $ ! 8
C% % " % $
C' Passives
#
+07
& * + ++ +! *$ #
+0"$ " "* *$ #
$ "# 8
CN 2 C% % $
C% 5= $
C& $
C # =('
2 ! &F" & $ $ ! 0 +0"$ " " " $ . 344 I # #
# " & ! " /# &$ *$ # )+ " #
&F" " + /# ++" & # " & /# /$ & # " " &F" + # ; $ " "1
C1 )+ 1 1
C+ )+ 1 1
+ # +! #
+ *$ #
$ &8
C% ++" # / $* " 7 *$ # $ ! /# # 7 8
C% $
C $
#
$ /#$$ " #/ " 8
C' 2(
Complementation
Q& "$ ! $ ! $ / &
$
$ "* + #! + # "$ koto no # # # $ 0 "+ * # "#" 7! $0 8
% you to go$
% your going
% the fact that you're going.
% for you to go$
Relatives
$ 7 ) 1 ! & !0 & "! $7 # /#"# "! &+ # # # +$$/* $ 8
)G 1
)G %
D
% )G %" " $ $ $1
# ! # $ # +0"$ * *$ # $ " "* $ "$ # + ! $ =(=
2 * #! * + $ $ $ &*
* $3 ""8
C % $
C/ % $
Nouns
$ * "$
+ + B# * " $ +"
F" & ) * # +$$/* "$1 # " $ ! *$ #8
C
$
C' "! +$ $ "* # $! !"# # ! *$ #8 # " + ! "3$ * * $ $ ) 1 # & #
# *$ # $ " & * * #$ 8
C& $
Number and the use of articles
+* $ ! + !& + $ $
+07 ) * * + "1 & + # "7 ! $ $ "$ # * ! $$ $$ +* $ #+
$! # "
*$ $ #/ $ $ " # " &/ " !
)" &$ " &$1 "* !& " &$ ! F &$! $ "#
$$ " &$ 0"" $$
" + / *$ # 7" +
"$ # !&3" &$ &$!8
C% 2" $ $ # $ 2 $
*$ $$ ! $ 7 + "#* $ $ "$ +0"$ #
& ! +$
#& * &" # # & ! " "#" + "$ !& " $ "$ $! $$ 8
=(>
2 C' A $ ) $
C% + > # $
Pronouns
*$ # $ # ; $ 4
" anata kimi omae kisama # 6 ! $
# ! !* # +! + "# / " " ! $" + * $ #
#
$ " + "#" *$ # + !& # " $ + "#" *$ # "$ * &
+ # ! * !&
& # ! $ #3 & 7 ! $ + # &$! 8
1
( - " % $
C " % $ $ $
( - " % $
: $ ! # " " * 73
8
C+ $
*$ # 0 $ # ! +0"$ ) "$ # "#" &/ 1 + # $ C' $
Adjectives and adverbs
#
"$
+ 5 F" 6 /#"# &# $ *$ $ & 8 #
" & E" #/ "8
yokatta )G 1
yokattara )G > 1
# " $ *$ # F" $ &
$ # 7 + !* # " $ 8
C C' + # F" 5 &F"6 +* #
6 # 6 +$* $ ! % 2 ( ! * 2 ( # 7 ! $ # F" kowai ! %, ,
- % /# #3 &F" /$$ ! , & %, , , # $$
$ "+ 6 + $$$ *$ # F" =(.
2 # * !! + " $ # ! + *$ #
F"
! &8
C $
!& + *$ # & " & +$$/ & F" $ "! $!
)+ " 1 # ; $ # 3
& $ "! $! 8
C% $
C% $
C% $
* # &/ * &$ 3* &$
F"
! & + * ! # $8
C% $
C% $
B! $ E" 7 "!! ! 8
C% $
2
/* # ; ' ( ' ( % # ! /% mae ! 8
C% $
C+ $
#
! + " + F"* *
" /#"# * +
Determiners
&$ ! + ; 0 "$ , , ,
, , , , , ; , +$" "$$" " $ 8
C% ; ? $
& , , " & " 8
C& $ + $
Conjunctions and complex sentences
*$ # "F" $/ # ! $ 33
; $ ) + " " $ $
++ +! * /## # "" F" & "$ * "!! ; $
!$ to * & " *$ # / 0 =(,
2 ; ! # " $ / mo " $ $ $ $ CD $ $ $ CD $ $ $ " ! # " #+ & 7 " # ! &$ # ! * # ! * +
*$ # "F" "$ 3"F" + &$
3
"$ :#
&" + # $/ " # "$ 3"!&* $ + *$ # "F" #
* " #! /# 3"$ " 8
C% $ % #$
% % $ + % $
Vocabulary
# + " # $ * # " &$ + *$ #
- $+ #
! $7" !"# + #" $$
; # # ! * + "7 $ / &"!
"$ $ /# # / 9
!* # # $ /
# B# "# " # " # #+
"" ! $$ $ * " &$ ' # +/ & 9*$ # < *$ #9
"3
# ! 7"$$ = * !& + *$ # / 9 #*# + & $ "* &$ +! 9 "# " $$ #
&$ #! + $ "!!" $ $ ! * K I # ! #$ $ # " # $$
9 sake "# " miso 9 # ! 52 6 * " ; 3*$ # ! 8 Lion # Pocari Sweat +37" # +/ + $ +
1 $ " * $ ensuto )G
$ konsento )G 1 masukomi )G 1 /#"#
# "
! # # " I+ # $7" $ + $$ # / &+ # ! $ #
& &/ " &$ * !! * # ++3
$ +! *$ # &/ " & # + "
okiru ! kiru ! #
; $ + "3"" /# ! & /# *$ # F" 8
C% 2" % $
#*# # ; $ + I + CD /# "#* 6 =(?
2 # ! @ $/ +! # / ) ( - " % $
#
!
$ /#"# # # "! $" +
" * # +! ""* /## ! ; 9 + # & + < " & "+ + # # + $ # & yameru " ! $ $ $ % #" "# & ! 8
C9 $
C% $
Itadakimasu 9 &+ * 9 $ * !& + " $$ 7 # *$ # ; $ /#"# # " +
!"# !& ! $7
&$ + %
$ $ $ # $ # *$ # !& & ** "* "! $! Hiroi semai ! $ & $ ? )! * # *$ + $
E " $* / 1
$ &$! ! $ "+ #
$ * !& + *$ # / % #/
# " # + & !0 # # $*
"* &$ *$ # 7 ! $ 8
C D> C
D> C D>
C D> C D
! + # 5*$ #6 / 7 #!3
*/ / 8
C D> C D
Style
&$! /# # / / + # #*#
$$* * * !! ! & + $$
3 +
& " # * + + !$ ! * ! $ "! # &$ # *$ # & " " # * + # ! $ ""
" &$ $+ #* " + & " $ *$ "! + /3 #3"# " "! ! + # =(@
2 # "! &* * # $ # ; $ / " 2 $ * * % ! + #! / &
+ "$ $ ! +! # + # 2 The language classroom
$$ / # A(^ 7 &
.(^ $ *# + *$ # "#$ "$$* & $ * !& * "#$ # * + 9 # *$ 9 & # &F" # /$$ &* #! "" #
" 7 ! /# *$ # $! $ * : + # # "#$ #$ " *$ # $$ &
+$$/ # ! "#$ # $ * " $ $ $ * * * !
$ # $ " *$ #3$ * * & " /
& /$ $ &$ # 3 +$ "
++ +! " " /# *$ # & ** & #$ 0 3
$ * * *$ #3 * " 7 9 * # #
$ #$ 9 ! "" &$ + ! $
# $ * + # +! $ /# "#3! $ /# !"# # # 5""6
/ $ * + * !! $
!3&3! ) # # "7 $ 1 " &$ # + +! " $$ +$$/ 8 /* * * $ *% /# $ * # & * /# # " ++ #
/ !$ $3"#" Chokuyaku )/3+3/ $ + $
*$ # &K 1 !"# + $ !$ #*# "#$ "* # *3 * /$ *# # +**
$$ $ % & ! $ * * "#$ /
!# *$ 9 #*# ! " $
! !
# " & 5 # 6 &$"% ** /* " & " + $ # ! " $$ + + "$ ! /# * " $$ + ) # 1 3
/ % $* #*# "$ /# "+"
/# "! $$ " # 6 # # &$" /#"# ! # 52# # + H6 " + " " & +$$ + $* +$
$" # 3
"# $ ! !& !
&$ # #& ** " !$3 $ " & ! ! ++ # + # /$$ + &$ # +
/ ** / # + =(A
Chinese speakers
* B# *
Distribution
:I:6 :B I4 B 2 :I
$ %
# $ $ * "!! + B# #*# #3
I" # # !" & 0+# +
# /$6 $ + B# Introduction
# B# $ * * # Han $ * *
# B# " $$ "$$" + ! $" /#"# ! & "$ 0 *#
$" * ) !! + ++ $ * * 18 #
B# ) $ /
1 2 * O #
#
P# ) B 1 2#$ # $ +
$" # !# * + ! B# B#
# B# # $" + ?( " + # B# $ $ * # & + ! B# /#"#
# "" / $ * * + $$ B# # & !
# $ $ * *
# B# $" # $
/ $ * * & $ ! & " + $$ " $ $$ # &$! " # "# & $ * "!! + $$ $" B# *$ # &$* / ++ $ * * + !$ )3
& 3 1 # ! " $ ++" +0"$ $$ * + *$ # $ * * $ *
! & 7 "
Phonology
General
# #$*" $ ! + B# ++ +! # +
*$ # ! *$ # #! # B# " # $ I# !&$ B# #! & =-(
@ " $ #! " # " "+ F" $$ + +0"$ * $ B# 0 *$ # # " # &$ $ * # $ * *
Vowels
- # ! /$ " *$ # # B# *$ # /$ "$ "# # ! + +
"$ # B# /$ # ! # ! ++ ; * # #!
' # " &/ <i:< <I< # ; $ B# "+ "#
= # !
$ <u:< <U< $ * "+ + "
&/ *
> <{< "" B# $ ! $ & "+ /# <A:< <Ã< <e< # / "#
!*# & " <k{] p< . <¡< # ; $ B# !! ! $ <O:< <aU< <U< + /$ + " !*# &
" <SUt<
7! , <Ã< !! $ " & <a< /#"# "$ B# #!
? B# ##*
$$ " /# ;" ! $$ * $ !! # # *$ # " #+ ! # # /# *#
" &/ # / "! /$ Consonants
- # # + <p< <b< <t< <d< <k< <g< #
* <b< <d< <g< " *$ # & # /#$ "$ B# B# $ #
" + * *$ #
' <v< & +! ! B# $" $ !!
$ <w< <f<8 ! & " % " * # =
B# $" # <n< $" 0 +0"$ * # + " +! > <T< <D< "" B# <T< $$ & $ " & <t<
<f< <s< <D< & <d< <z< + 7 ! $ ! &
" % ! & " =--
@ . <h< & "
# $
$ +" )
" # 1 /#"#
7! B# " , B# $" # <z< # $ & <s<8 ! & " ? <dZ< <tS< <S< $ !$ * + # ++
B# " $ 6 " + # #3
+ # $ "$ +*
@ ! # B# 0 <l< <r< +0"$ * #
$ * # + ! " " F & 5E $"6
"
A 4 $ " * $ " &$! # +/ 0 $ " B# $ # 7
/$ # # " "
$*#
*$ $ $ 8 + " ! & "
<dÃk@< <dÃ?<% ! & " <waIfu:< <waI?<
-( <l< 0 $ "$ $ +0"$8 ! & $ " & <r<
+$$/ & <@< ! $ 8 + " ! &
" <bIl@< <bI?<
Consonant clusters
- $ " "$ $ "* B# " &$! # "!! $*# /$ &/ #
" "* + "
' 4 $ "$ ! &$ ! $$ ! $ $$ &$ ! $+ # "$ )+ " &
* # $ " 1 ! & " <d¡g@z< <d¡g<% ! & " <krisipu:si:< <krisipu:<
Rhythm and stress
" $$ &$ + $ +; B# # *$ #
# $$ &$ B# $$ " !
!$ # *$ # * +/ #" "# * #
$ ! *$ # $$ &$ * # / $$ &$ +$$ # # " " 8
' ' ' )/# " <{nd<1
' ' ' '? ' '* )/# &# ! # 1
2# " # "" # *$ # / +! #
!! 0 #! # " # # ! #!8 '
' =-'
@ Intonation
:"# "# * B# )# 5 61 ! $ * #
/ /# " #/ # !% " #/ $$ # *$ # + ++"
# ! * + /#$ " #+ +0"$ + B# * + !$ /# # B# $ 0
#! * + ! " $ )+ #*# + $$*
1 $ $$ &$ # # "# ! E F 5 *3 *6 *$ # Juncture
# ! $$ &" + & " B# *$ # / # # F* #!
"#6 # "& # "" " &$ "" #
$ $ 6 *
!#$ 5 ! +
++" + B# ""
Orthography; reading and writing
Spelling
# /* ! + B# 3 $ # &" B# $ #+ # * +0"$ $ * *$ # $$* $$ + B!! ! "$8
- 4 $ $ $$* " 8
$ $ ' :&$! * +! # $ " + # + $$* $ *$ #8
C
' =
* +! $ 6 "" " 8
$ $ $ $ > I! + $$ &$ 8
C Reading and writing
$ # &" " B# $ /# ; / &$! +
$ "* # / # +! 5 6 "# /
! "!& ! +
# "! " * ! +
=-=
@ B# $ / ! $ $ $* ! +
) " / !
" # B# 1 # " !"# 7 ! B# $ #+ $$
# $/ * *$ # $ # $$ $$ +
0""
$ # &" # /* # # # &$! + B# $ Grammar
General
# " !$ &/ # "" " + *$ #
B# # *" &$ * #*
5& "6 /#"# 5*# /6
Parts of speech
: + "# B# $/ +! $$ * # #
&$ # "! # * !! " $ "$ 0" #
! / ! + ++ " $ +" $
$ # # !!& # "$ + *$ # /
# +" " # ! + $ * # $ / "#
! + # + "# " # + " # " +" " " $ &
+$0$$ & / +! " "$ 8
C+ $
C% $
C1 $
C% $
Sentence structure
B# " + /# 5 " $ 6 &F" &F" /#"#
* !! " $$ "# +! # + # " ) *$ #
O % 1 # $/ + "" +$$ *$ # " " "+ " $$ +
" $ &F" +$$/ &
&F"
)/#"# ! # " $ $ +"
1
C. )! * . O 1
=->
@ Verb forms
B# 3E" $ * * 2# *$ # "# & "# **
& +! B# 7 & ! + & $ / "7 *$ # E" ! * $$ "+ * " +3
; 8
- &F"9& ""8
C? $
C $
' *$ & +! 8
C
I
= " + "! $7 & +! 8
C $
Time, tense and aspect
- B# 7 # "" + ! ++$ +! *$ #
"F* # & 7 ! $ # +0"$ # $* *$ # " $ # "!!8
C% $
C% $
C& $
C+ $
' ! # # + $ ! # # ! + # " ! 4 7 ! $ # # # # 5 6
" 5 !6 # #+ 0 KK$* " $8
$
$
= :* " " +0"$8
C'
( )+ ' (1
C% $
> B " * " & 7 $ ! 3
" $$ /#"# " &$! & $ "$ " * +
! + 7 ! $ $ " $
" /# #
5 6 ;8
C' $
C+ $
=-.
@ Verb complementation
- I+ & " 8
C1 $
C+ $
' : + "! $! " +0"$ + "
$ 8
C% $
C $
C& $
C+ $
= "$ $ +0"$ + # B# ++ &/ #
+ 0 )/# /# 1
" $
" $ * I +;$ # ! $8
C% # )+ # 1
C% % $
C- $
C+ $
> F" & +;$ " $ B# # # &
& /# +$$/ & " F" C% $
C+ $
Auxiliaries; questions and negatives
B# 7$ +! ; * #
+ , " &$! 8
C1 (
C% $
D * ! * % ( % ( "!!$ B# # + " $$3 (,
( *$ #8
C1 " (
C- " (
Modals
B ! * + *$ # ! $ # " ; $ B# ! $ " & $ # ! * /#"# # B# " &$! " 4 " %
" B# ! $ yõnggai. ! +0"$ # " &$/ "
# *#+/ B# $ 8
=-,
@ % $
' $
I # /#$ *$ # ! $ " / * + ! * +$* # # B# " B# $ #+ #! +;$ # #$ ! + $ 7 #
" # *$ # ! $ "% # /$ + 7 ! $ & $$
+" % # # % I "$ ! # B!!" *$ #
;
$ +! + " ; ** /#"# ! $ $ " $ $ &* &$ ! $ ) " 1 ; $ B# +
+ $ "! $ /# # *$ # "
! & 4 7 ! $ # ! "# #*
8
- 9 $
' - " $
= @ (
/# /$ ! $$ & ! $ 8
- - $
' ' " (
= @ (
Subjunctives
B# ++ &F" +! " !
#+ $$ $ " *$ # &F" 5 $
6 & ! $ 8
C% % " % $
C% #
$
C% $
C% $
Relatives
*$ # $ " +0"$ + B# $ /# +
! $ * #! " /# K )* # 1 " " "! # &$! " $ ! /# $ " "$ # ! + +0"$ * 8
C $
C % $
C% =-?
@ Passives
B# $ + # &$ ! * *$ #
" 8
C $
C' $
:* +"
"$ $ +0"$8
C) $
C Articles
# "$ B# 0 # #!
" $ ""$ # ! ! " "$ 8
C* $
C% $
" 8
C1 $
C1 $
"+ # + 0 0 "$ 8
C[ - $
C1 $
Gender
# * " #
+! + # B# 8 + 7 ! $ # # ! B# $ + + $ ++ #! *$ #8
C% " $
C $ 1 (
C2 $ 1 $
Number
:$ $ $ 7 B# & C% - $
C% $
# "$ $ "# /# # $ # " + 0 $ " "$ =-@
8
&$! /#
@ The countable/uncountable distinction
B# !! 0 # *$ # "" + " &$
# * 4 7 ! $ ; "
" $$ & " # B# ! " "# 8
C* $
C+ $
Pronouns
*$ # !"# ! # B# /#"# #! /# # ! & C% $
C $
2# $ B# ! " &/
# &F" " )* %1 # &F" " )* 1 2#
* # ! )* 1 +! 3
! )* 1 !! "# # /* " *
+ *$ #8
C% $
C $
Word order
& B# / " $ &# ! ; *$ # * " ! & * ! &
$ /*$8
C- (
C' (
C' (
C' (
' + B# !& " ; " ; #
!! $ "# 8
C1 $
C+ =-A
@ ' $ * & $ # " /# /
3 8
C. $
C1 " % $
Postmodifiers
!0 B# ! /## # /
# "$ "! &+ # # !+ *$ # !0
+ # "! # " $ # !*8
C $
C $
C $
Position of adverbials
B# & $ $$ "! &+ &
F" " $ $$ + "8
C D
%
)+ %
1
C D
)+ '
$1
Conjunctions and compound sentences
"!! ! $" "F" + "" " # B# ; $ $$
8
C) " $
C % " % $
Prepositions
# + *$ # #*#$ ! " +0"$ +
$ + $$ "!!8
C' (
C% - &$
C1 $
C # $
='(
@ Vocabulary
False equivalents
*$ # B# / $
* $ ! * /
+! ! # $ " 7 " ; $ #
*# B# " * $ #+ $ *
7 + $ ; $ /#"# + $ 5B#*$ #6 " $ 4 7 ! $ # + $ ; $ + zhidao
$ # "8
C1 $
/# # " 8
1 $
Phrasal and prepositional verbs
# & # ; $ B# +0"$ # $ * #! 4 "
B# $ $$ 8
9 # # 9 $
1 # # 1 $
" + "!! + "# ! $ 8
C )+ 1
C )+ 1
Idiomatic expressions
! +0"$ + # B# + # $ * * $ I # " $ # + " $ " /#
B# *$ # " $$ ! $ ++ 7 +$0$ #
! +" 4 " # "!! B# ** $ "$ 8
1 (
' (
- $
) B# +;$ # # 7 3
** *$ # $N1
I# 7 ! $ "$8
C ( )+ (1
C )+ & 1
C9 )+ ' (1
='-
@ Culture
$ B# "$ $ "
#*# $ $ * *$ # $ * * "# " 7 " 0 # # $ ! &$
+ + +! /* # $ / ! B# 6 ! # $ * * ++ " /#"# 5 $ &$6 5+6 # "
&* "" $ *
"# /# # "# $* 5$ * /#$
# * +6 #$ & #/ $
"# #*#$ " B# "$ " $$
* &* /$* &$ # I + "
B# $$ * " "$
* * !# + $ *
$ + + B# " !! I + # # $$ # & " /
+ B# # "# " # & $ & # 3
$$ # !# $ *0" # / *$ # $ B#
! ! B# " 3
&$ ! !! # 7 + ""
Sample of written Chinese
Transliteration of Chinese text with a word-for-word
translation
lirong:
$*8
lai
xin
shou dao le, xiexie ni de wen hou. meiyou zaoxie
hui
xin,
qing
"! $ "
# * $
yuanliang!
$ $ +*N
ni
jinlai
shenti zenmeyang? xuexi shunli
"$ & #/H
yiding
" $
=''
ma?
!# L* MH
xiang wangchang yiyang guo de hen yukuai
$
! $
#
@ ba?
L
"$ * "0! MH
wo hen hao, zuijin
you le
/$$ "$ # L
"$ " * "# * + M
nuÈpengyou, jiao shizhu, hen mei
*$3+ " $$ #K# & +$
zuotian
shi chuxi,
wo qu ta
& / 6 he
ta quanjia
yikuair
/# # /#$ + !$ *#
keting
guo
daochu
gua zhe
zhihua,
lipin,
/# # * L
E/
M
li
nian.
ta
jia
/ # #!
de tianhuaban, jiaju
*3! + "$*
jia
* # #! he qiang shang
+ / $$3 ge zhong
"$ " * M $$ hai
zhuang shang le
$ $$3 caise dengpao. shizhu jianyi
L
"$ " * "# * +
zuo youxi
"$ &$& #K# ** $ * !
ba
L
yanjing meng qilai
"$ "* + &F"M mo liwu.
wo mo dao de hen hao,
+$ +$3*
"
shizhu didi de
* #K# &#
ye
bucuo.
wo wanr de hen kaixin, zhidao tian kuai liang
cai
zou. lin
zou
$ & $ shi
#
dajia yue hao xinnian
$ * $ ! $$
wo jia.
zhen xiwang ni
xiexie ni
qing
! # $$ / #
wo he
$
*
ye
/
ye
lai.
huilai le,
lai
neng lai!
$ " "!N
didi
xiatian
dao
ni
jia
zuoke
#! wo zai guowai xuexi de jiejie neishihou
0$ "! ! & $ L
diertian
/ " "!
# ! &# !! women yiding
$*#
# !
wo xiang
"$ " * "# * + M #
='=
@ wenwen, ta nengbuneng gen women yikuair
bu duo
# " 33" /# xie le, qing
! /
daiwen
quanjia
$ ! &# $+
hao. pan
lai?
*# "!H
$$ + !$
zaori huixin!
/$$ $ +/ $ $N
zhu ni
xinnian
kuaile!
/ # / #
cimin
"!
N
yijiubasi nian yuandan
-A@>
/ 6 An idiomatic translation
/ P 6 -A@>
*
# + $ # + # * 6! # 6 / $ :$ +* !N
/ # & "$H #* ** /$$ /# H F* $+ $H
6! /$$ 6 * *$3+ / ! #K# #6
& +$ P / / P 6 / # $ " # * /# # + !$ # *3! + # # /
" /# $$ +
E/
"$ $*#
# ** +! # "$* # + # / $$ #K# ** # / $ * ! 2 / / /# " # 0 / * # * / *
/ # #K#6 &# * # $$ ! 6 $ $ $ / + $+ / $$ * ! ! # #
" + # / P $$ / # "$ & #N
# + * ! &# ! /# #
!! 2 /$ $ "! /# * & /$$
& & " & # / /## # "$ "! /# H
6$$ # + / :$ * ! * + !$ 6!
$* +/ !"# # * +! / P B!
='>
Korean speakers
*3 Distribution
OI B# O K # K& % *0" !*3
* # O # )"$* / 1 B $ / U $ Introduction
# O $ * * * & ! "#$ &$** $
# # $3$ " $ * * + !$ # $ !
!$ &/ O # # 7 !$ &# O $$ ! B# "# "
$#*# # " B# / ! ! # # # O $ * * $* /# ! O " ! / + 7 "* # /$ ; $ # $ $ * * O / & $ ?' !$$ $ ,A !$$ $*
# O $ $ # ! * # !$$
& # +0" $ $ * * + &# # O )!" "
: $6 &$" + O 1 # O ) &$" + O 1 &
# + # / " # $ ! ++" $$* " &$ "#" # O # $"
"$* # # " $ $ /#"# + O # ++" + " +! $" # /#"# " ! #! ! $$ "! # &$
# $ ! # + $" ! # * +03
"$ * *$ # # + # # !
$" # # ! "$ $
7! # + *$ #
# # + O 9 # " "& #
"# 9 # $*# * + # $" ='.
! Phonology
General
# O $ # & " + '> $ 8 /$ -> "3
*$ "!& # # >( "
& " + # O $ * * 9 *# ! $ /$ -=
##* -A " Q/$ "" $$ O $#*# ! O / &* /# /$ $ ) $ " ! "# "#
$ + 7 ! $1 &* /# /$ "# /
" $$ " O /#
"* " !$ # *$ # <ê< # # *## " # O / # 5! 6 5K6 " # $*< # /$ " Q" "
" " ++ Vowels
O $ " $$ 7 " # +$$/* &$! 8
<o<
- <O:< <@U< &# "
!$ # O <A< )/#"# $*#1 # ' <Ã< # /$ + $$ !/# &/ <kÃp< <kA:p< ) 1
!$ <e<
= <{< )1 +
!$ > # O ; $ + <z:< /#"# ! &
"$ $ &$! " # "
<O:< <@< <wz:< # +0"$ * #* &/ I# " + <z:< +! # O # /# # $ * # /$ /# # #* #" " )"+ " " " " 1
. + $*< # /$ " O * + $$* # # $ "+ /# /$3
$*# " *$ # + 7 ! $ # &/ <I< ) 1 <i:< ) 1
Consonants
# +$$/* " $$ " &$! 8
- " ! & " " * # # "! &+ + " " #+
"
*$ #
++ +! "
=',
! ; $ " $ # &/ ! & +0"$ + $ * ' <r< <l< & # ! "# " O 9 /#
/$$3/ " ;" + O + $ "$ $ +0"$ 9 <belI belI
*$ # :" + <r< dIpIk@lt<
O $ !*# !$ <b< + &"! <b@<
= " <v< !$ <p< # $ * & " $$ $
> <f< & # I &"! + 7 ! $ + &"! <dZu:<
. <z< + !$ <dZ< P
, <S<8 $#*# # + O O # +0"$
"* ! *$ # ! "#
<Si:< ) #1
+
!$ <s< 2# + # + /
O " $$ $ /$ # &"! <pISI<
? <tS< + O & 0 $ /# <S< <dZ<
<z< <t< # " "! $* <I< <@< /$ * &"! <dZodZI< " $$ &"! <tSztSI<
&"! "# * &$ # &"! <mIkst@<
@ <T< is assimilated <s< <D< <d< O *
*$ # $ + ! $ * # 0 "$ )&" +
# * !! " $ 7 " 1 & /# " #
!$ &
# " + ! A <s< <z< 0 $ $ $ # # *$ +
&
+ " 9 & + /#"# # /# O * !! # # &" # 7 O L 5 6 &$/M & <mÃnTs< <kl@UDz< + " * 3
" +0"$ + # & 7#& # +! + *$ # /
# # & O + $* ! " $$ # # &" !
+ # $ * * * # + "" Speech style, stress and intonation
7!$ ! # # *$ # "# #$ / # O ! $ # $$ &$ / $! $$
$ $$ &" *$ # / $$ &$ ! # /# O / E *$ 4#!
"$ / O " $ # / #
" )! # "# & * ! # 3! * +07
& "# ** # + # / # " 5"
"6 &$/1 # ++" # * / " ! ='?
! # ! * + " "! $$ +* # O $ ; "" & " "
# O # *$ # * # # /
$ * * # " B $ # O $ *
*$ # + ! & #+ &* #
*$ # # " ! O *$ # +0"$ O # ! "# " " /# *$ #
#/ # " & * !! /# + $$*
&* "# " " $$ + ! ; # # , ; * + , ; ; " $ ! $ ! 9 #*# + $ + # *$ #
Orthography and writing
O $ #" !&$ * ! # $
$ #
+! #" $ /#"# / " /# # $ /## &$ / ! $ / *#
$$ &$
& +!* "$ # # / # *
O $ # $ # & & ! + # 3
" $$ "B3 "# ! # O &$" 3
)7" # / + +* 1 & $$ #
O * * &$$& # $ # & + !$ O # # $$ +0"$ &"!*
"" ! *$ # I& $ "#$ & *#
*$ # # /* & # "! $ $ $ #! #*#
# $ # $$ # O *# !*# $$
"! # +0"$ 9
+ /#"# "# #$ &
/ Punctuation
# O "# " " & " $ # + ; ! 7"$ ! ! +$$ ; ! ! $ # !
*$ # # + #
"!!
!3"$ "$ " +0"$ #/8
$#*# # "!! 7 O $ $$ #
" &/ / +$0$ $$ + # +" O # # O # ; $ &* +07
+ /* # O / " * # ! # / " " $ + "# " # / +
='@
! & * 7 ! & ! + * #* /#"# $
+! $ "! " $ O Grammar
Sentence structure
$ # &F"9&9&F" / + ! $ * *
"$* *$ # O / ) $* /# #
: # 1 &F"9&F"9& / # #$
& "$
" + # **$ " + # $ * * # ! 0* * !! " $ " + "$ "! # + O #
" / O Verbs
# 7$ & O # O & $/ 7 & / ) 5D / 6 &$/1 4#3
! # & ! # *$ # &" + # "! $7 ! + +07 &
7" + # & # " & " $+
O & /#"# $$ # ; $ *$ # & ! " $ /#"#
"& # "# " " + #*
!! #
6 $ 6 +$*
# *$ # ; $ 4
7 ! $8
, " ) ) $
"#$
% *$ #
"#$ $
*$ # ! , # E/ #
# $
O H
E/ # $
O 3 H
='A
! /$$ & & # O $ + ! # & /#
* F" *$ # # &" # " $ +" + #
& 7 O # F" $ & ++" F" /# # + " 4 # ! &$ +! & +! F" O # +! 3
+ # *$ # & + 7 ! $ *
+ O ) 5+07 61
To be; there is and it is
# # + *$ # 9 # 9 + O &
# +! " * , # ! &F"
% # # O $ /$$ "
" "#
C& # + $
C $
# #* " * # " #
*$ # % # O ; $
+ # " !#* $ ' # # ; $ + * !" & &*
$ " /# ! # 3! * +07 # # # + # " *$ #
# & " * # *$ # & # $ +! #
+" + 8
C% # )+ % 1
Complex verbs
B! $7 & +! & "!&* / & # 5 ! 3
6 & /#"# ! & " F" $ !! 7 ! * /#"# *$ # /$ ; $ / + 7 ! $ %
$ $ $ *$ # 7 "# & O $
Conjugation of verbs
O & $ *$ *$
5& *6 # ! # / $$ + +! $ $ & ++ +! +
==(
# & " + 5& !6 # ! /#$ # * "F* $ O * #
)"! &$ ! 4"# + ! 1 & $ & ++ $7" $ &
++ & * O ! & $ $ &
# "! ! $" + # *$ # & !
# +07 ! $ # + *$ # & " "
#/ /## # &F" *$ $ $ & "F* ""* $* +; O ! *$ # + # # " #/ ! $ # &
+$0$$* "! &$ +" & ! J " " *$ #
Tense and aspect
# # * " " & ! + +07 # +"
" O O $ # #
+0"$ # $ 7 " $ * # +!
# /#$ # + #
! $ *$ # " $$
/#
! " ) " 5==71 &$!
+ O +0"$ * #* &/ # + #
+" +" &/ # +" ! $
+! # * " " O & "!& + #
* +07 )/#"# ++ # + 1
/# # / + # " $ & /# " ) F" $1 & ) &1 O # +! $ #
" " # & 9 /# # ! $ *$ # " # + # * +! *$ # " + 7 ! $ # " ! # # ! ) "!& /# + ! +"1 + # $ + $ O % , $
A $
( O # #
7 < " +! 8 + ! $ * ! $ * ! $ * & #
" $ # ! / *$ #
+ /# &
" /#
+ ! +" #
==-
! +! O + " + +! ! $ & 1
% 9 $
$
+ ) $#*# #
, E%F 9 $
#$
# &# + # & " $ /# $$ $ *$ # # + "$ * O $ 6 * + # +
& +! + # $$ # # +! + #
+ *$ # 7 O & # + # ! +
+07 # "# /$$ 0 # O $ # $
# +0"$ * #* # + # " # *$ # $ + # + #! "! $
Conditionals
# $ / " $ +! O 7 * $
&$ "$ O # # " ! &$! "! * !* # *$ # " $$ / + #
! " + # +" +! ) % 1 /#"# 37 O Direct and indirect speech
23+3/ * + /# !& " O & ; ! & + * ) " " "1 " "# *
" + # * $
&$ *$ #% & ** # * + " # " +! " # * $ &$ $ *$ # " "# # &F" + #
; " ! $ " +" "# * +! #
* $ # " 6 + / # "# * +
#/ + 7 ! $ ' % " $$ $ $ $ & O $ Modal verbs
O # $ # ! $ 7$ & 8 # ; $ + /#"# $ # /#$ * + *$ #
=='
! ! $ & ! &
!$ O $ # # /# ! # $ # &$! + * #* !* # +$$ *
+ *$ # ! $ & Passives
#
O 7 &
+07 # # & 7$ & J
" $
*$ # * * #
" $ O $ # $$ +0"$ /# ! $
$#*# # "$ # # + 7 ! $
C% # +$$/* " &$! #/
- # +! 7 O $ *
"# 8
C1 ( )+ 1 (1
' & J "! /# & +
+0"$ ! * "* "# 8
C $
= $ " # +"
" 7 O * # ! $* # +! * +0"$ # " /# #
$ &$ * !! " $ +! "! &$ # * # # ! +! /$$ & # ! "7 O /$$
# +0"$ $ * # " $ " %
)/# ++
" # 1 ! $ &" $#*# #
! # * " O ! $ # " > 4 $$ & /# / &F" $ " $$ &$! "
#
/$$ & + &$
Questions and answers
# 7$ & O ; +!
*$ # # #/ ; / " * # *$ # " " " " # * & +07 I" # & " ; +! *$ # ! "# !& ; +!
% 2 % , &$
$$ + +0"$
# $ # $ +
*$ # O / * ; /# 5- 6 /# # *
/# # 5/ 6 /# # * $ * "# 8
===
! (6
C- $ 9 /# # 6 $ ! #! C/ $ 9 /# # $ ! #! # &$ + ! * !! $
N
Tag questions and reply questions
O # / &$ +! /#"# ! *!
/# +0! * ! "$ &# # * ; $ ; "7 # ( &#
% " ( % 0 % 0 /$ &
$ & # ! / O /$ ( (" ( !$ $ # O 7 " * (" ("
( #
$ O #+ &/$ & # *
; *$ #
* !! " $ +! # $$ ! & "* /# &$ $ &" +
+! $ "! $7 & $ &" # O ; $ ** $ " + "0" # ) + & "# "#"*
# ! $$ "#$ !#* + 7 ! $N1
Short answers
# $ + +0"$ # $! * +
&$
&$ O )B! % 0 ! & 0 4"# 2
\0 / # watasimo $ + # *$ # 7 +
%0 + %0 + % + % "1
Phrasal verbs
:# $ & 7 O " $ +0"$
+ O $ /# $ # + # $ 0 # * # &/ $ & $ 1 N # $ & $ 1 # $ "# + !$ 8
% % " % $
/ # O + !$ /# $ * ! & 7 $ ! $ &$ $ *! # /$$ ! # $ & ! "" &$8
"#8 52# + 6 / /H6
: $ 8 5 N6
==>
! "#8 52# + ! F : $ 8 5 #! N6
$*H6
Relative clauses
# *$ #3 * $ + O /$$ $ O * !! + # # * # +$$/* $ $ $ /$$ *
! + #/ # +" +$0$$ O # #
!0 " /# !0
, # * /#"# / "# & /# # $& /$$ "$
&
B# 3 * & & 33 3 J $ $ +07
"$ 33 J $ $ +07 & / + # ! F ++" /$$ #$ # "# *
#
F ! # O $ # ! &"!* "" !
# 5*#3& "#*6 " + *$ # 2#$ O $ ! ! # +! # "7 + "$ $ +" * !! 3
" $ 7" # + !$ " $$ #& # + #! &# "# /*
Nouns
O " & "$ # * !! " $ *
! $$ # $ $ +! $#*# " & ! $ $ & * # +07 duÆl # ! & ! /# # ! *
+ $ $ & # # / yunpil + 7 ! $ ! ! # + #
5$ "6 + # $ $ * $ * # O $ + *$ # $ ! # $ $ 3 # / "# /* & $ +;$ + $ " /# * $
! "# /#"# # & " O /# # 3 & O O # /# ! # $ +0"$ /# #
*$ # " + # "" + " &$ * " "
" / ! +;$ "!& O +!
"! 8 a-chim-bab G !* J ! $ G %
chaek-sang G & J &$ G
% mul-gae G / J * G
O ! & " * " # "# "! ==.
! $ + *$ # ) $+ &* 7 ! $
$& + & J "!& 1 # *$ # " &/ $$ &$!
O/* /# # # # "! # * # "# C + # + # ) $$
& $$ *$ 1 "!!
Suffixes after nouns
O # 07 9 $ +07 # ! + # &
# +" $$ ++ +! # + *$ # +07 # $ +" # *$ # O +07 # "!!
# + ! * # *$ $ $ + " * !" $
7! )+ 7 ! $ 1 ( % # :
61 # $ +" +! $ &# "# /* O #/
# &$! /# *$ # +07 /#"# # ; $ O 8 &$ # + * ) ,
+ 7 ! $1 + +!* F" & #
"" + # 5/ + !$6 ; $ O & "
* + #$ +$
/ + * * # "; +
*$ # " &$ Pronouns
: O + 8 $ )+! & # +
+07 # $ 1 !3
* : $ O # #
++ $$ + #0" +! 9 $+3++ "* $ #0"
# E" # + # $ $ # * +
" & #/ # !"# ! $ *$ # ! +/ +0"$ O $ $#*# # /$$ !* #! "7 /#"# # & $ /$ & +0" O # *$ # / ) 0 + 7 ! $ # & " ! O "! $ /# +07 7 *! 9 & /# &F" # O /# # &F" +
# " ! "$ /#! !#* &$* # $ *$ # " "# 8
C% C1 $
==,
! 4 # + ! # )!!&* # O ! $ *$ # 1
! #/ & O /#"# *$ # $* " "# 8
C8 " # ! $ " * 8 !3
O ! ! " $ & $ # & " + " $ # *$ # & $
# "# #$ $ & / # *$ # $ +;$ O 4 7 ! $ "# ! 0 #! $ &* # # 8
C1 (
Adjectives
O F" # "
# F"
*$ # # +$$/ # &F" &# $ & ) 5Q& 6
&1 # " # # " &/ * &$ 3
* &$ F" # & *$ # # O $$ & + * ! # $ + 7 ! $8
C% # $
C% $
Adverbials
# ++" &/ O *$ # & $ /#"# " #
O $ ! +0"$ # + " # O & )$
! *$ # 1 +! # & + F" I#/ O & $ #/ ! !$ /# *$ # # #
O "#$"#$ $ "$ + # & $ O & + ! +;" ! $ " *
& $
$$ !! $ &+ # /
)/# #
+ "#1 "$ " # !0
$ +! O *$ # " #+ $ ""
* + & $ *$ # + 7 ! $8
C% ?
#$ & #/ # O #
!#* !$ # *$ # & J F" " 9 7" # /# !0
# " + O ! & $ F"
8
?# I $
& $ F" $ & + 7 ! $8
CA # CD$
==?
! # O & " * " " " &$ +$$/ & & F" $ * "#
8
C + $
C $
C $
Vocabulary
O #
$ * " &$ ! + /#"# 0 ; $ *$ # $#*# + /# + "# *$ # /$$ &
# O )4 7 ! $ # * + / "&* #/
/ " I " 7 & & J # F" $ & O 1 # + ! " &$ $ * +0"$ + O /# #$ & $ +! # # ! " + "*
/ " &$ /# 7 ! $ #/* #/ +" * !! 3
" $$ )"#$ " &$ $ * "$ O $ # +
! # " # "73+ O <*$ # / $ 1
O 9*$ # " !! $ &$ #$ & " * $! #! /# *$ # $ 6
" #
$$
O #
& " + ! " 7"$ ! /
! O $ "* "! &$
/ *$ #
# "# &** $ /$$ & $ $ 0 # # $ * !& + *$ # / O ! +
/#"# /#
"* &$ *$ # " $$/* + # & " + $$ &" # " +
# / &"!* ! 3 3$ /# "# * ! O $ *$ # ! 7 7 *$ # $ * * ! / + # ! * !! " $ #3
$*" $ ++" &/ # / $ * * O $ 0 * & ! #/ !"# *$ # # $ /
/
/$$
*$ # / # # & ! O # ! / # # # " + $ + 8 # /# ++ ! * O &
$$ " "* &$ *$ # / # +$$/* # $ @ % ?:
)7"$$1
) O 1
)+ # "3++ &$/ /#"# " "" + !#*1
==@
! )+ 1
) $ ! 1
)+ $ 1
) ++" ! 1
CD ) + "! 1
)+ 1
) + # $# + ! 0 "1
)# O 1
) + # $* + " & + # * !1
)+ $*3$** #3$** 1
) + $$ + "#
" "/ " 3 1
)!1
)+ $" 1
)+ # " 1
) "#1
) + * 1
)+ $ $1
)+ + /!!* E 1
Honorific vocabulary
O "# " &$ " " # # $+3++ "! # # O $ /$$ 0 &
!& "+ # 0 ; $ +! *$ #
# " $$ +" $
"# " $ " ; + * *$ # # "#
$$ O ! & # $ # &/ # # $ # &F" &* " & # * !! " $
" ;" O + 7" # *$ # # *$ #
$ + O # $ ! "# / +07 "#
" " + 7 # O $ + *$ # # &"! / + # &$ + " " + * *$ #
Body language and gesture
! # * "$ $ O # / /# + " $ !&$ * ) "# + O " !" & $ /$$ 0 #!
7!$ $" * + /# **
3
* &$"1 O ! ! ! !$ #* ! 7 * "" &$ 2# ! ==A
! & / !
& + *$ # * " + "! & O !$
/#"#
$ ! + " 7 *!
!& ! # "$ * 9 & ! $ & +$
" "+$ ) O !$ ! & !&* ! & ; 1 " + # $ " + " $ "! " $! + ! *$ # "#6 "" $$ 7 **3
7 ! $$ & ! * $" 9 #*# " /$$ "! " # ! * 7 *$ # & # / " ! $ 7 O & + "
&/ # $ + !#* $ % * * * $ $$ $ % C D !$ $ * O & ! / # " & 7 $" *$ # # "7
) $ 5 "# $6 & 5# $ * * "$ !61
The language classroom
O $ *$ # /#
* ! # * !! # * + # ! " #*# #*# "#$ # " $ "$
K ,( $ # * "$ +
" "#$ # $ * * $ & # +* $ * *
# $ 6 " $$ # + 3+* +$$/
& $ * & # # $$ $$ $ ! + # /
*!
# /* + $ +!
+
$ * * " 9 + # &F" 9 " # "# /$
# ! "" #! " ;" O # $$ 7 " + "# 7" !! * " 3
*
$ *! ) $ "$ # * $*" $ *!
"0" &F" # & " # "#$ ""$! ! "! + "$ $
" * ! $ # # $ $ 1
# ! $! ! &$ $ +* $ * *
/$$ ! * ! +! + " *$ # + # "#$ * &$ $ + $$ &0
+! # " # "#; & ! # + #
$ "#$! # ! "! $ &F" # # & + # "! *
$ " * $ +
$ $ # # ! &
# # # 7& F +* $ * * $ # $ " "$ $ & "* #
++" #
=>(
! "! # + *$ # 7 + + # &$ 0 #
! +* 0$! /$$ & && # &$! /$$
/ & # / + # + "# * $ #" $
# & $ " $ ! !
O "#$ # "#6 # & $ + "#
#$ ! ! $ /$$ / # # # 4 # O $ + /# * 7!$ $" /# &* " # /# # /$$ & "" " ! $ & &# 7 $ /# " & $+
# "! $ " $
# $ &$ ++" # O 6
" "$ +! + 7" # " *
* /$$ ! **
& # "# $$ 0 # ) " $$
&* 1 ! "!+ &$ /# $3 $ 7" ) "*
/# 1 # /# $+3$ " $$ # $*
" /# # "# $ & "" &
"# + + 6 O +$$/ #!$ *
/ ! $ ! + /#"# "#* /# +" # /# ! #
! 7 " $ )! $" "" + "1 $ /#"# # O +$ # # # "! /# +$$/ # $$
$#*# $ 7 " $$ "" #
7 " #/ # # * & $* # "# I # " 8 " " * )B! 5 * * 6 /#"# !# $ " & &** * "#$ 2 " 1
# "# ! +$ # O #$ # !
+ *$ #3 * " 9 & # " # " &
# # E" + # $ * * "# + ! 3 + *$ # /$$ & + 3
/#$!* 0 O $ # " 9 &#
&" * #! ! ! " /# # # # &" # ! #" # / "$ /#"# ! $ + "# /# ! * + #*#+$
+
" + # $" 2# ! *$ # 7 "$ " ++ & # O "$ $ "7
/#$ # ! & * # * + ** $ # "# ! 0 #$ +$ ! "#
" 7 $" "$ $$ #* "$
# $ /# "E"* "# $ ! ! / +
+ $ + # ++" # ++" # *
=>-
! !" + # $ * * "$
$ E" " #
"$ ! # "!!" $ /$ #
$ &"! / + #
! " + 3"$ $ * /$ /#"# *$ #
+ ! "!!" /$$ & !"# !
++" + $" ! 9 #
!
" + # $ + 9 #6 "# $ A sample of written Korean
Transliteration and word-for-word translation
se-jong dae wangi namgin upjuk
3* *
$+
gutun
hunminjongum
jung
tukhi jungyohan
"#! !* ! ! ida. kuttae kkaji hanguk enun hanguk
""! $ #! #!F*! $ # malun
ttaro
$ * * itsut jiman guljaga
bilusu
upsutgi ttaemune
$ # & /* ! oledongan hanja
&" ssutta.
$* ! "# "# " &/ An idiomatic translation
!* # "#! $+ &# & # O* F* & + # ! ! # !F*! # $#*#
# O # # / $ * * # &/ B# "# " &" # # /* ! + # /
=>'
Thai speakers
!#
Distribution
Introduction
# )+!$ " $$ 5 ! 61 !!& + # + !$ +
$ * * /#"# / + +! #
Q ! # # # $ $ * * + # $ "# & 0+ !$$ $ " * $
$" + # # # # # + #
" & # $ * * + # B $ * * #
&# "#$
+ +0" $ #*# # "
# $ B# $ $ * * /# # ! * + "#
$$ &$ &* ! & # "# /#"# "
# # 0 9 ! $/ #*# * + $$* 3E" $ * * !"# + * $ $7" ! $$ &"%
#*# " * + $ $$ &" / +* &/*
"3
$ $ +! # "$ " $ $ * * : $
# / $ # &" " # / * $$ +! " / " #
* +! $+ *#%
/ ! $ * *
/#
" "" # + " ! +! + "3
*$ # "#
+$$ "!! Phonology
General
# *0" ++" &/ # #$*" $ ! +
# *$ # # # '- " #! '/$ #! # # " ! #
"$
=>=
<p}< <t}< <k}< " #! ! $ $$ #
# *$ # *$ # # !
) 1 + <p< <t< <k<
+" # # # # +0"$ "* # )* <T< <D< <v< <z< <S< <Z<1 Q/$ $*# *0" # /#
& " " ! &/ $* # /$ # *$ # /# 5# ""6 &" # 0 *$ # / # # #$*" $ ! 2#$ # !
7 + +* "" # &
"$ $" " !* ! # # # "" # $ # " & 7 $ #
& * / *
#/ ++ & ++ # "$ ! ! ! *$ # $ / )"$* & ! + # +
" ! * 1 # # #
$ &"!
+"$ ! $ $*! * " *$ # / # / % " #! # / &* 3
* # " +" & "#
*$ #9# " * $ + *$ #
/ # " ! "$ + " $
*$ # " /$ /$ "
# # ; $ ! + # ! "!! + + 5# ""6 *$ # 8
9 # 0 $ $$ &$ + / 9 :&$! "$ * " 0 $ " " "$ 9 "" ++" * +!8
1 " * $$ &$ %
&1 " * ; $ /*# !* "# $$ &$%
"1 *$ $ &+ $ /$ %
1 + # /$ <@< &/ " $ " "$ %
1 " + " "$ # + / *$
" Vowels
i:
e
{
A: ¡
O:
U aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
=>>
I
eI aI OI
e@ U@
aU@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ # #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
- <{< +;$ "
$* /$ <{:<
' ##* <eI< <@U< <e@< +;$ " $* /$ <e:< <o:< <{:< "$
= *$ # / * /$ +;$ # # 0 $ /$
$*# ""!! # $ " # 0 $ $$ &$
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
D
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ # #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
# #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
# '
7! 8
<v<
<T<
g
*$ #8
g
- "* *$ # $ " + /#"# # *# ; $ # # $$ ! #
+$$/* & 8
<D<
< S< < z <
<w<
<t< <s<
<d< <t< <s<
<tS< <s<
+ # # " /$$ " * &$! +
"$ + # /# # ""
# # $ *# 0 $ " #! 0 $ "$ $ *$ # 0 $ " " "$ $ &$ *
" $ "# * " "# 3
+! ! #/% ! " $ "# * 3
* & *$ 0 $ " 8
<d< <T< <D< <s< <z< <S< <Z< <tS< <dZ<
*$ #8
7! 8
<t<
g
g
# <v< <f<
<p<
<l<
<n<
=>.
= <g< <dZ< + "
" " & # /# # "" # &** + /
&$! ! # > $#*# <r< 7 # # / $ * * /# # ! + & <l< # * # " /# * *$ #
. # *$ $ #! # # /$$ +
# &** + *$ # / # # $
/$ % # " "" ++" "$
F"
Consonant clusters
*$ # #
!"# / * + " "$ # # %
" "$ "" # + / # !* #
$ /3 *! "$ /#"# "" # 8 <dr< <fr< <fl<
<fj< <tw< <sl< <sw< <sm< <sp< <sk< and <st< "* *$ #
/ /# "# "$ "" # # /$
!! " * # +$$3 $$ &$8
&"! &"! !$ " /# *$ # #3 *! $ "$ 8
&"! &"! # #/ # ; $ $ <gr< <gl< <kr< <kl<
<kw< <pr< <pl<
"!! " $$ * + # # " *! + /3 *! " "$ # &**
+ # / # / $ khray )G (1 plaa )G 1 +;$ " khay paa # /# 5"6 / $ #
# / $ * * ! " # " *$ # 5 6
+ 5 6 + % 5 6 + "
5
6
*$ # 0 $ "$ # # /#
&$! $$ ! / + 5"*6 #! *$ ! * &$ 0 $
" *# $$ # 0 *! + # "$ # &"! 56
&"! 5 6
=>,
Rhythm and stress
$$ &$ # " " 07 # *
; $ /*# !* "# $$ &$ # *# /# # + "
# $ "# $" *$ $$ &$ ) + * +
$$ &$
*$ #1 "
# "" ++" /#
+ *$ # # *$ ! "!! ! + # # 0 $ $$ &$ + $ $$ &" *$ # /
' '
' "! $7 + +
7 ! $ $ ! * " $ ! * $$ &$! " $ Intonation
# ++ +! # + *$ #
* & " $$ ! $$ &" $ * * # #
# 3 3/
"# " $#*# ; # +;$ ! &
5; / 6 # + " /#"# # # *
# ! " $$ + "$ # " + *$ #
; " : "$ #$ & # + $ ; % # /#$ + $ &$ / 5 "$ 6 # + " +! ! + # +"
+$0$$ & *$ # 2# $ * +! # *$ # # $ "$ ; $ * #
& ; ! + # # & $ $
Juncture
# ! &$ " / " "$ +! #
F" + 0 $ $ " % # *$ $ &+ $
/$ $ "$ $ &/ 0 $ " $
/$ # $$ & / + # #" "# *
# $ " *$ # #*# F" )* <wUdZ@<% <ge)p1b{k<1 $ # "0" $$ Influence of spelling on pronunciation
# $ * *$ # & $ ! ! ! 3
"* / / &" + # " &$ ! ! "# &/ $$*
" *$ # " $ &$! /#"# !* + $ " $ 8
=>?
- " /# " <T< /# <D< ) !*
+ " # # " "$ ++ &/ #
/ 1
' " /# " <s< /# <z<
= 4 $ ! " " + # /$ / "#
" > # $ " / "#
/#
# * 5/6 " + * / +! . # # $$* + "!! *$ # $ / +"
3
*$ # " /#"# #
!
$*! " /#"#
$ !! 0 # + /# $* /# # / *$ # "7
Orthography and punctuation
Spelling and writing
# / /# $ # &" ! /#"# " # *
+! $+ *# # " &/ $/ " # + # /$ !&$ /# ! / & #
" ! &$/ ! # $+ ! +$$/* #
*# 9 ! * # " # # /
&
" % #
" # "" "" $$ # /* * $$ " " ! *$ #
# 7 # ! $ # & $ * " &$ ! + ! # $ * " * $ / % # /# $$ /$* + *$ # ! & +0"$ + !$ /# # ! $ # & " # / $ Punctuation
$$ # " ! # $#*#
"
&/ * + / " #
#
# & ! 7 ! /# / " ! ; ! 7"$ ! ! "!! " + &
+ $ & % # #/ $ "!!
/ :" ;
&$! # $ %
+ ! +; /#$ # "" + /# " " ! & "$
=>@
Grammar
General
# * !! " $ " + # ++ +! # + *$ #
:$ $ + & ! $$ ! % /# " * # &/ *$ $ $ # ! " $ " # & # + " $ /
# # & E" # F" & " $ +"
& /#$ # # ! $ ! ! "! $7 /#
++ + E"* ++ * + ! " # "# I + # +/ & + !$ # + /
" !$ 5 &F" J & J &F"6% #/ # &F" "!!$ ! # /# "$ $ /# /# + Auxiliaries; questions and negatives
# 7$ & # - # " +! ; & # +
; / /#"# $ " # + # " " #
; / # ; $ *$ # # /$$ +
! $ & * #/ $ $ $ 3
8
C1 ( ) $ # E" &1
' * ; 9 / 9 +;$ " "+ # " $$ /* 5 6 /# *$ # ; 56
- " ( - C% D6
=
"0" ; "# ' ( '( 1 ( # "
; $ # & " # 0 / " "" # #
&** # + # " # $ ! "
" $8
C' (
C1 (
1 ( +;$ # 7"$ + 1 ( # & + ! $ 8
C1 (
> * # +! & * # * / maÃy + + # & B+ !! /## #
/ #$ & $ $* " $8
C1 $
C1 $
=>A
Time, tense and aspect
# # & # E" +! %
*$ / pay )G 1 "
! $ & $ $$ "7 "$ !&* & /# # &$ + ! * *
" $ / $$ !! $ + + # & "$ + # !3+" ! $ $$ ; *#
# & /# 3& !0
Q& E" "! $7 & # +! &$
& "$ # $ ! + # ! & +! + # *$ # & # # ! ! +0"$ +!
/#"# # +$ /$$ ! # $$ & ""
C- * $
C+ $
C% $
#/ # # /#
& * # & +! +
& "# ! " $$ & # * &$! /# " # # * !! # ! & * + "
& + $* " # # + #
"$ # & $ ! F /#"# # * "! /# $ + *$ # #
#$ & & ! /# "#* "$ + !7 $ Articles
# "$ # 0 "$
/$$
C1 $
C' C + "+ &/ 0
/# ! "$ "" +;$8
(
$
Adjectives and adverbs
F" & # "" + # & /#"# #
!+ # $ +" & ! * )# # ; $
+ " $ /# F" 1 # # 7 roÂt dii )G 1 " & " #
# ) 1 " ) 1 $ # & + ! *$ # " 8
C $
C $
=.(
# # " &/ F"< & *$ # )* , , 1 # $ # F" $ +! *$ #8
C- $
# "! $ * + F" # +! & # + # ; $ + C D "$ !! $ + # & / *$ # +07 +;$ * & #
C $
C% $
# & $ #
$ 8
Nouns
# # # * " # "
&/ *$ $ $ +! B7 * $$ +0" " /##
#
*$ $ $ +" & " /# ! & ! " # ! $
5 $ $ / 6 /#"# "" 07 $ # 7 " !" $ " # $ ! +; * # *$ +! + *$ # )# ! +!1 /#
$ $ #$ & 8
C% $
* #/ ! & & ! # # # !
# 0 $ 0 $ " "$ % ! $ ! # &$! $ " " "" / +! !" $ 7 # ! "! $7 # *$ #
$ # +
" $ 5 "$ 06 /$ & 7 # 8
)1 J )!&1 J )"$ 01
# # $! " +" & + $ $ $ + !& "!!8
C% $
Pronouns
# ! + # " &$ ! "! $7 # # +
! $ * * /#
/ * + / " $ # + &# # "# ! " O ! $
! /$ 0 " * $
! " *$ # &$! + # # $ =.-
&" # / $ * * ! ++ " &# *
!& # # ! "$ +! 0 3 # /#$ # ! "!!$ #3 ! " &/ * /# # $ # # $ +;$ "# * &$ *$ #8
C& " $
C $
) $ # $" + /#"# "" "!3
!$ # 1
#
! #3 $ ++ * 9 * # !& # $* "+ *
! $8
C& ) $ 1 $
C& $ 1 $
# # +! " &F" &F"
+" % #
# : # 7 # ! 5 J J < 6 $#*# # # / + $ +;$ ! # " $ ! $8
C "!! # ! # &F" +!
" + +"$ "$ /# /# &* $ & # ! # +;$ " # "
!3
! " *$ #8
C& $
Prepositions
*$ # # # ; $ $ $
+ # $ * +0"$ *$ # 5& J
6 5 F" J 6 "!& /#"# # *$3/ # & ; $ # $ "# 8
C% $
C' , $
C1 , $
Subordinate clauses
# $ &$ 7 " +0"$ "* # ""
& "! $7 " /# & "$ % * #
! "!! * + # ! +! $ "$ =.'
+# &$! # # # $ $ "$ +;$ "+ 8
C& % $ $ $
B $ "$ # +;$ ! # / + # !! " *$ # I# " $ " " "3
* +! $ $ $ +! # "$8
C) $ $ $ $ $ $
C $ $ $ $ $ $
Vocabulary
$$ : $ # & + "* / /
# % #/ # E7 + / "#$* " ! *
# $ " &$ !& + *$ # $ / &*
# # $7" "# &/* *
# " /#"# ! # $ 0 +0"$ # /#
* # / *$ # + 7 ! $8
paÂt-tãÁk
sa3taa
sa3traZ fuZ t3bOOn
paZ m
?En3kO3hOO
+! # $ / # !$ &/ # # *$ # $7" # # $ # + # * + #
2 $ /# " / ! + !$ /# ! " * " &$ # + " # ! # /#
$! "!!" "! " *$ # #$ ! # 7 *$ # " &$ $ *$ $ !# +
" /#"# * ! # $ * # 7 +
$ * "!!" $$ Culture
$$ * # # / $ *
*$ # B! " # $ * * &#
! +
# " ! $+ F&
;
/$* + # $ * * + # +
! " &$ 0 " $ "0" "# # #
++ * " ! +! # " # &* " +! # &*
" * & + "$ # $ * * #
& " " $ * "# ! $ *
=.=
*$ # "$ + ! $ /# $$ + *$ # $$
$ & /$$* /# " &$ ! +
! * + " +! /#"# # /$$ * $$ &0 /#"# # +$ $ "!!!
*$ # # & * $ + $ $ ! # #+ &
"! $ $! # " "#$
""$! + ! / # ; $ + $ * * " ! $% * 7 "#$
+ *$ # # ! $$ /# "! "# !! # ++ # $ " & E & # ! # $ "#$ B#$ +!
$ & "* + "
# " & "! + # & "# # $$ * / # " $ /# #
"
&% # # ! + #
+* / * "# *$ # # $ & +
# "# $$ #*#$ " " &$ 0*
"$
# $ $$ # 0 & /# /# 5 "# &# 6 #* ! +
"!! $#*# # # $ 3& "# /$ & /$$3
0 !#* & "$ $ # +! #
! "$ ; * / $ &$ I /#
2 !! ++ # ! + 8
" ! # " + $ # ) #
"$ $ $ 1 " $ ! # ++" + # "#
" $ # $ 2# "! " $ "#*
* ** $ 6 " " " &
&$! "* /$*
$ # ! +$ # &
!
" "!!" 3
"#% $ $ # ! +$
# # $ * #* " # &$ "& 7 ! $ +
* !! $ * / $ "# " " "$ #
2 "# #$ $ & ! # # " # "#" $ % $ $ #$ & /# " $$
! 54 "6 $ ! ! #!$ )* & $ * $* + ; /#"# # $ " / & #*
" ; ;"$ "1 ! & # "# /# # "$
/# /* " ! # /# # "! !$ $ #/* * ! " ! #/ F 0 ! ! "$ $$ "3 " # "$ !
/# # $ /$$
&$ $ "$ =.>
A sample of written Thai
Type-written Thai
A direct transliteration
prachaakOOn thaaê phaà ak taà ay mii la ksanaÁ tEÁ EktaÁ aê caÁ ak prachaakOOn
Á õn baà aê nay thaaê phãÆwphan lE ? ruÃupraà aê naà ataa kaÁ p
thaaê phaà ak õ
Á an khwaam pen yu
Á u lE ? aachãÂip na n su
Á an yaÁ y kOÃ khõõ
saÆmniaê phaasaÆa su
kaan kasikam tEÁ E mii khaà aw nO Oy kwaÁ a phaà ak klaaê mii phoÏnlama ay
maà ak sõà ê phOO ca pen raaydaà ay dii thaà a kaan khoÆn soÁê saduÁak haÆa talaÁ at
daà ay klay klay phalãÁtphoÆn thãÁi pen raaydaà ay khõà n naà a khõà n taa kwaÁ a
à ê pluÁuk kan maà ak nay caêwaÁ t tOOn
phoÆnlama ay khõõ yaaê phaaraa sõ
taà ay lE ? muÆaêrEà E diibuÁk nay baaê thO OêthKÃi
A word-for-word translation
/ * # # "# " " ++ +! / * # !/# / + "! $7 # + " /#
$ * *
+ $* + &* *"$ &
# " +/ # * !$ # + !"# /#"# +0" /$$
& "! * + " " 0 ! " + + " /#"# "! + " ! # + && /#"# */ *# !"# " # ! !
An idiomatic translation
# $ + # # ++ !/# +! # $ + #
* # "! $7 # " $
" #
$ * * + # / + $* "" ""
# ! $ $ *"$ # $ " # #
=..
B $ * # $ + + +0" &* *
"! + " ! " & + / " /#"# &* ! " &$ "! # + # && /#"# */ # # "
# ! ! =.,
The cassette and CD
I # ""! * " B
$ * * + # & / "8
+ # - * # " # #/ # " &$/%
' "* # # / / %
= * $ # # * $ /#"# +$$/ %
> ** &+ $ + # $ $ " + &# 0 $ * *
# / # " ! $ + "$$ !3"$$
"# /#"# "!! "# " " #$*" $ ""
+0"$ ! & 7! $0 # * 7 &E " + +0"$ ! ! # # / # + # "# & + # &0 +
# /# F "# $$* # $ 0 $ * *
+ # $ $ # "$ * ! The introduction to the picture story
& " 2 +" $ 1 "
" $ " $ % ; # $ * " # " * " $ % # $ % " " $ )" # " " * 9 .
$
A " # $ 1 $ ; $
# * $ ##! # * +
# * # " $ ! $$ "0" &$! =.?
@
$ $ $ $ /# <j< ) $ " "
9 . 1
2 $ $ $ $ <dZ< ) $ 1
2 $ $ $ 0 $ <n< + /$ ) $ * " " " 1
+ $ $ $ $ "$ ) $ " " " 1
$ $ $ 0 $ " " ) 1 ) $ " " 1
$ $ $ " + <l< <r< ) $ " " " " " * 9 " 1
$ $ $ " + <D< <T< ) $ +" "
#" " " " " " 1
# $ $ $ " $ "$ <kstr<
$ $ $ " + <z:< ) $ " 1
$ $ $ " + $ "$ <aeks<
# $ $ $ $* # $ $ $ "$ <ksTt<
$ $ $ " + <ci< c <S<
$ $ $ / +! + $ $ $ " + 0 $ "$ ) $ " " "
" " 1
$ $ $ " + ! $ <ê*<
$ $ $ " + <O8< ) $ " # " "
1
$ $ $ $ <j<
$ $ $ ##! F" / +! + $ $ $ $ /# <w<
$ $ $ 0 $ $ $ $ " + <tu< c <tS< ) $ 1 $$ &$
# $ $ $ "$ + 7 " " " #! " /#
$ $ $ /#$ # <h< ! & $ #$ & ; $ $ $ " + <w< =.@
@
The conclusion of the story to be told in the speaker's
own words
At the Lost Property Office
-
'
=
>
.
/ & #
"/ =.A
@
The Shopping List reading passage
# $ " 7 ! $ + # >> *$ # #! % # $$ ##! # / # #! F" $ ! " "!! - +" # / " " "
/$ ! $$ # # / " )<s@m< <@v< <f@< <@n< <t@<1
#!
% " 2 "
"
(
"
# "
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
I "
"
" "
"
# "
"
2 $
<j< <g< <ê< <S< <dZ<
<D< <z<
<i:< <T< <b<
<I< <f< <S<
<e< <r< <j< <p<
<{< <b< <g<
<a:< <h< <f< <k< <dZ<
<¡< <f< <p< <t<
<O:< <b< <p<
<U< <k< <b<
<n< <b< <t<
<u:< <g<
<z:< <D< <T< <i<
<eI< <p<
<@U< <d< <v< <s<
<aI< <l< <w< <n<
<aU< <m< <n< <aU@<
<U@< <OI< <v<
<I@< <b< <d<
<e@< <dZ< <w<
<s< <p< <k<
<v< <Z< <g< <z<
<¡< <dZ< <u:<
<tS< <d< <z<
<T< <k< <n<
"$ F"
êS êdZ
d3j )<dZ<1 êz pl
Tr nz
ks ts
plz
dZt
ndb kp
nt vb
bz gl
zd
pl ts
tw
mbr fl
mpj
mb t3t
nzt
ksp ts kr sps
nm
ndZ dZ3dZ
tS3tS
tT
<T< <v< <tS< <h< <dZ< êksv lpdZ
/ 8 # "! " #$ # / ; $ /#$ "
" #$ # # ! # 0 $!
=,(
@
Contents of the cassette
+
5:
-
'
=
>
.
,
?
@
A
-(
--
-'
-=
->
-.
"# / # /* ! +! ! ! +! /K$ 4"# +! 4 "
4"# +! /K$ $ # +! # +! 7"
B $ :* +! :* $
:* +! K$
+
3:
-,
-?
-@
-A
'(
'-
''
'=
'>
'.
',
'?
'@
:$ # 4 &" # !$ P&
+! *
/ #$ +! K B# O # =,-
@
Learner English
-8 "#
'8 :$ #
>> !
7
# >( !
7
Contents of the CD
-
'
=
>
.
,
?
@
A
-(
--
-'
-=
->
-.
-,
-?
-@
-A
'(
'-
''
'=
'>
'.
',
'?
"
"# / # /* ! +! ! 4"# +! 4 "
$ # +! # +! 7"
B $ :* +! :* $
:* +! K$
:$ # 4 &" # !$ P&
+! *
/ #$ +! K B# O # ?- ! =( "
=,'
7